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A Numerical Analysis of the Working Machine Tyre Inflation Process to Ensure

Operator Safety

Article  in  Energies · August 2019

DOI: 10.3390/en12152971

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 energies
Article
A Numerical Analysis of the Working Machine Tyre
Inflation Process to Ensure Operator Safety
Jacek Karliński 1 , Mariusz Ptak 1, * and Leszek Chybowski 2, *
1 Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Machine Design and Research,
Lukasiewicza 7/9, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland
2 Maritime University of Szczecin, Faculty of Marine Engineering, Waly Chrobrego 1-2,
70-500 Szczecin, Poland
* Correspondence: mariusz.ptak@pwr.edu.pl (M.P.); l.chybowski@am.szczecin.pl (L.C.);
Tel.: +48-71-320-2946 (M.P.); +48-91-480-9412 (L.C.)




Received: 3 June 2019; Accepted: 31 July 2019; Published: 1 August 2019


Abstract: Tyre replacement and inflation is a common occurrence in the transportation, construction
and mining industries, but in commercial, off-highway, or earth-moving vehicles, the rupture of
an inflated tyre can cause serious or even fatal injuries to an operator. This paper highlights the
consequences of a burst tyre based on a real case. The presented analytical approach is based upon an
assumed adiabatic process and continuum mechanics using Bernoulli’s flow equations. A numerical
analysis of a tyre burst was performed using multibody and finite element methods to reconstruct
the fatal accident. It was shown that tyre-blast injuries may lead to lethal head trauma and bodily
injuries, since the potential energy stored in large, over-pressured tyres can exceed 1 MJ.

Keywords: tyre; explosion; pneumatic energy; safety cage; blast injuries; human-machine interface;
finite element analysis; numerical simulation

1. Introduction
Unlike in conventional passenger vehicle tyres, the sudden release of pressurized gas in large
tyres installed on trucks, tractor-trailers and earth-moving or off-highway vehicles may cause the
separation of tyre parts, which will be projected away with considerable speed and force. An explosion
is a rapid increase in volume and an energy release, and is usually accompanied by the generation of
high temperatures, pressure, radiation emission (e.g., sparks) and acoustic waves. Explosions occur
due to rapid exothermic chemical reactions (e.g., combustion), runaway chain reactions and rapid
physical phenomena (e.g., steam boiler and gas pressure vessel explosions) [1,2].
Threats of mechanical origin may arise due to emergency situations, i.e., tyre damage incurred
during inflation, or an unpredicted sliding of the tyre securing ring. Improper handling and assembly
of the tyre, rim, or wheel can cause the tyre components to explode [3,4]. According to the literature [4],
four mechanical incidents may cause a tyre to burst: Over-inflation, zipper failure, tyre removal and
poor tyre condition or structural defects. These observations are supported by several studies [3,5,6].
Explosive hazards are also present if an operator attempts to install a tyre on an incorrect diameter
rim, or to inflate or service a tyre that is already mounted on an incorrect rim. Such explosions may
result in severe injuries or even death [6]. To avoid all risks of accidents and injuries during tyre
inflation, the following precautions must be taken [4]:

• Place the wheel in a safety cage.

• Always use a clip-on air chuck with an air hose extension, equipped with a control valve and a
pressure gauge.

Energies 2019, 12, 2971; doi:10.3390/en12152971 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 2971 2 of 14

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14

• Maintain a safe distance (approximately 2 m) between the worker and the tyre to be
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
inflated.
2 of 14
The •operator
Maintain a safe distance (approximately 2 m) between the worker and the tyre to be inflated.tread
should never stand facing the wheel, but instead stand to the side, facing the
• Maintain
(Figure 1). operator
The a safeshould
distance (approximately
never stand facing2 the
m) between theinstead
wheel, but workerstand
and the
to tyre to be facing
the side, inflated.the
The
tread (Figureshould
operator 1). never stand facing the wheel, but instead stand to the side, facing the
tread (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The projected danger zone during tyre inflation (adopted from [4]).
Figure 1. The
Figure projected
1. The projecteddanger
dangerzone
zone during tyreinflation
during tyre inflation (adopted
(adopted from
from [4]).[4]).
In order to visualize the operator risk, Figure 2 shows the sequence of events which occurred
In order to visualize
In order thethe
to visualize operator
operatorrisk,
risk,Figure
Figure 22 shows
showsthe
thesequence
sequence of of events
events which
which occurred
occurred
during a controlled tyre explosion that was tested in one of the largest available safety cages.
during a controlled
during tyretyre
a controlled explosion that
explosion thatwas
wastested
tested in
in one ofthe
one of thelargest
largestavailable
available safety
safety cages.
cages.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Controlled tyre explosion [7]; (a) the sequence of events during a controlled tyre explosion,
Figure
Figure 2.cage
(b)2.the Controlled
Controlled tyre
after the
tyre explosion
explosion [7]; (a)
(courtesy
explosion [7]; the
(a)of sequence
Mr.
the of of
events
Ben Graham
sequence andduring a controlled
Ken-Tool,
events during USA). tyre explosion,
a controlled tyre explosion,
(b) the cage after the explosion (courtesy of Mr. Ben Graham and Ken-Tool,
(b) the cage after the explosion (courtesy of Mr. Ben Graham and Ken-Tool, USA). USA).
The safety cage was manufactured by Ken-Tool and was 1.22 m (48”) wide, 1.83 m (72”) long,
The safety cage wasTesting
manufactured by Ken-Tool and was 1.22 m (48”) wide, 1.83 m
and 2.29
The safety m cage
(90”) high.
was manufacturedwas performed
by on a 29.5R25
Ken-Tool and wasL-3 Earthmover
1.22 m tyre with
(48”) wide, m(72”)
(72”)long,
1.83dimensions of and
long,
and
0.842.29 m (90”)
m (33”) high.
width andTesting
1.78 mwas (70”)performed
height. Theonweight
a 29.5R25
of theL-3tyre
Earthmover tyre with steel
and the three-piece dimensions
wheel was of
2.29 m (90”) high. Testing was performed on a 29.5R25 L-3 Earthmover tyre with dimensions of 0.84 m
0.84
703m kg(33”)
(1550 width
lbs), and 1.78 m (70”)
the burst height.was
pressure The1.034
weight
MPaof the
(150tyre and the three-piece steel wheel was
PSI).
(33”)703
width andlbs),
kgA(1550
1.78andm (70”) height.
the burstin
The weight
pressure
ofMPa
was 1.034
the tyre
(150
and
PSI).
the three-piece steel wheel was 703 kg
similar blast resulted an operator’s death. To reconstruct the fatal accident, a numerical
(1550analysis
lbs), and
A similar the burst
of a blast pressure
resulted
tyre burst was
wasinperformed1.034
an operator’sMPa (150
death.
using PSI).
To reconstruct
multibody and finitetheelement
fatal accident,
methods. a numerical
The finite
A similar
analysis
element ablast
of(FE) tyre
modelresulted
burst
usedwasininthe
ansimulations
operator’s
performed death.
usingwas Toupon
multibody
based reconstruct
andthefinite the
element
actual fatal accident,
methods.
geometry The
of tyres a finite
numerical
found in
analysis
elementof (FE)
a tyre
the literature, burst
model
mainlyusedwas performed
forinsafety
the simulations using
assessment was multibody
based
[8–11] andupon and finitegeometry
theproperties
traction actual element methods.
[12,13].of tyres found
Furthermore, The thefinite
in
the
element literature,
(FE)multibody
virtual model mainly
used for
insafety
dummy themodel assessment
simulations [8–11]
was
was coupled and traction
based
with upon properties
the [12,13].
actual geometry
previously-published Furthermore,
FE codesof tyres found
to verify the
thein the
virtual
sustainedmultibody
injury dummy
levels model
[14,15]. was coupled with previously-published FE
literature, mainly for safety assessment [8–11] and traction properties [12,13]. Furthermore, the virtual codes to verify the
sustained
multibody injury 3,
Indummy
Figure levels
the [14,15].
model example
was coupledsafety cage
withmanufactured by RLM Distributing
previously-published FE codes to is verify
shownthe beside a
sustained
In Figure 3, the
computer-aided 3D example
model safetybycage
created the manufactured
authors for the by RLM
LENA Distributing
Wilkow company. is shown beside a
injury levels [14,15].
computer-aided 3D model created by the authors for the LENA Wilkow company.
In Figure 3, the example safety cage manufactured by RLM Distributing is shown beside a
computer-aided 3D model created by the authors for the LENA Wilkow company.
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 3 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

(a) (b)

Figure Figure
3. Safety3. Safety
cages:cages:
(a) A(a)physical
A physical cage
cage manufacturedby
manufactured byRLM
RLM Distributing,
Distributing, adopted
adoptedfrom [16],
from [16],
and (b) a computational 3D model created for
and (b) a computational 3D model created for LENA Wilkow.LENA Wilkow.

This publication
This publication focuses
focuses on a on a case
case in which
in which a safety
a safety cage
cage wasnot
was notused,
used,and
and the
the overinflation
overinflationofof a
a large tyre to 1.1 MPa can lead to fatal head injuries [17,18].
large tyre to 1.1 MPa can lead to fatal head injuries [17,18].
2. Methods
2. Methods
The goal of testing was to determine the possible trajectories and velocities for failures occurring
The goal of testing was to determine the possible trajectories and velocities for failures occurring
at different tyre pressures.
at different The
tyrescope
pressures.
of the work included:
The scope of the work included:
1. Developing a geometric model of the wheel’s rim and tyre (simplified models with mass
1. Developing a geometric
parameters model to
corresponding of an
the wheel’s
actual rimrim).
tyre and and tyre (simplified models with mass
2. Development
parameters of a tyre-specific
corresponding to an actual calculation
tyre and model.
rim).
2. 3. Analysis
Development of aoftyre-specific
the motion ofcalculation
a damaged model.
tyre for pressures between 0.6 and 1.1 MPa.
4. Analysis of the results and the formulation of conclusions.
3. Analysis of the motion of a damaged tyre for pressures between 0.6 and 1.1 MPa.
4. Theof
Analysis authors simulated
the results a situation
and the using two
formulation numerical simulation packages coupled together:
of conclusions.
LS-DYNA (Livermore Software Technology Corporation, Livermore, CA, USA) and MADYMO
The authors
(TASS simulated
International a situation
Software using two
and Services, numerical
Helmond, simulation These
the Netherlands). packages
were coupled together:
used to provide
LS-DYNA (Livermore Software Technology Corporation, Livermore, CA, USA) and MADYMO The
evidence for the use of safety cages to protect operators during an uncontrolled tyre blast [19]. (TASS
analysis
International results may
Software be used to
and Services, guide the
Helmond, theselection of strong
Netherlands). andwere
These relatively
used tolight replacement
provide evidence
for the materials for safety
use of safety cagescages [20–24]. operators during an uncontrolled tyre blast [19]. The analysis
to protect
results may be used to guide the selection of strong and relatively light replacement materials for safety
2.1. Visual Inspection of the Tyre
cages [20–24].
Prior to the construction of the numerical model, the tyre was visually inspected in order to
2.1. Visual Inspection
quantify of the Tyre
its geometric parameters. Additionally, both the size and nature of the damage were
assessed to determine the size of the surface over which there was an uncontrolled outflow of air.
Prior
The to the construction
examined of the
tyre model was 29.5numerical model,section
R25 (the nominal the tyre was
width visually
of the inspected
tyre was 29.5”, andinthe
order
rim to
quantify its geometric parameters. Additionally, both the size and nature of the damage
diameter was 25”; radial construction) with some reinforcements for mining purposes. The tyre was were assessed
to determine
removed thefrom
size an
of underground
the surface over which there was
machine—similar anone
to the uncontrolled
depicted inoutflow of air.inflation.
Figure 4—for The examined
The
tyre model waswas
outflow 29.5identified
R25 (thebetween
nominalthe section width
ring and the of thetangential
tyre tyre wasto29.5”, and the
the tyre’s siderim diameter
surface from awas
rupture
25”; radial that was approximately
construction) 92 cm (36.22”) infor
with some reinforcements length. Hence,
mining taking into
purposes. Theaccount
tyre wasthe length
removed of the
from
side of the main outflow surface, the tangent to the tyre flow was located
an underground machine—similar to the one depicted in Figure 4—for inflation. The outflow was along the edges with a
length of about 72 cm (28.35”). Figure 5 depicts the examination of the tyre, and
identified between the ring and the tyre tangential to the tyre’s side surface from a rupture that was shows the "streak"
resulting from condensation due to air expansion. The main area of flow is marked with a blue arrow,
approximately 92 cm (36.22”) in length. Hence, taking into account the length of the side of the main
and the red dashed arrow shows where the flow was tangential to the tyre surface.
outflow surface, the tangent to the tyre flow was located along the edges with a length of about
72 cm (28.35”). Figure 5 depicts the examination of the tyre, and shows the “streak” resulting from
condensation due to air expansion. The main area of flow is marked with a blue arrow, and the red
dashed arrow shows where the flow was tangential to the tyre surface.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 4 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

Figure 4. Underground
Figure machine
4. Underground machinefrom
from which
which the tyre was
the tyre was removed—total
removed—total weight
weight ~30,000
~30,000 kg kg
Figure 4. Underground machine from which the tyre was removed—total weight ~30,000 kg
(66,138.68 lbs). lbs).
(66,138.68
Figure 4. lbs).
(66,138.68 Underground machine from which the tyre was removed—total weight ~30,000 kg
(66,138.68 lbs).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Damaged
5. Damaged (a)tyre;
tyre; (a)
(a)(a) a part of thetyre
a part tyre that slipped
slipped out from (b) (b)(b)
the ring; the measurement of of
Figure
Figure 5. Damaged tyre; a partofofthe
the tyre that outfrom
that slipped out from
thethe ring;
ring; (b) the the measurement
measurement of
the
the main main rupture
rupture surface.
surface.
Figure
the main5. Damaged
rupture tyre; (a) a part of the tyre that slipped out from the ring; (b) the measurement of
surface.
the main rupture surface.
The main
The The
main outflow areahad
outflow had a trapezoidal
trapezoidal shape whose dimensions are depicted in Figure 6.Figure
The
main outflowarea
area had a trapezoidal shape
shape whose
whose dimensions
dimensions are depicted
are depicted in Figurein
6. The 6.
area of the outflow is important for further analytical and numerical calculations.
area The
The area main
of the
the outflow
outflow
outflow area had afor
isisimportant
important trapezoidal
for further
further shape whose
analytical
analytical dimensions
and are depicted
numerical
and numerical in Figure 6. The
calculations.
calculations.
area of the outflow is important for further analytical and numerical calculations.

Figure 6. The geometric shape and dimensions of the rupture surface.

Figure 6. The geometric shape and dimensions of the rupture surface.
Figure
Figure 6. 6.
TheThegeometric
geometric shape
shape and
anddimensions
dimensionsof of
thethe
rupture surface.
rupture surface.
Moreover, air was released between the ring and the tyre tangentially to the tyre surface, and
Moreover, air was released between the ring and the tyre tangentially to the tyre surface, and
the total length of the burst was about 920 mm (36.22”). Hence, taking into account the length of the
Moreover,
the total
Moreover, length air
air was was
of the released
burst
released was between
about
between 920 the
themm ring
ring andthe
(36.22”).
and the tyre tangentially
Hence,
tyre tangentially to
to the
taking into account thetyre surface,
the length
tyre ofand
surface, the
and the
side of the main outflow area, the outflow that was tangential to the tyre occurred along an edge with
the
sidetotal
total lengthof length
the main of the burst
outflow
of the burst was was
area, about
the 920
outflow mm
that (36.22”).
was Hence,
tangential to taking
the into
tyre account
occurred the
along length
an edgeof the
with
an approximate length of about
720 mm 920 mm (36.22”). Hence, taking into account the length of the side
(28.35”).
side
of the of the
anmain
approximatemain outflow
outflow length ofarea,
area, the 720 the
mmoutflow
outflow that that
(28.35”).waswas tangential
tangential totothethetyre
tyreoccurred
occurred along
alongan anedge
edge withwith an
an approximate length of 720 mm (28.35”).
approximate length of 720 mm
2.2. Finite Element Model of Tyre (28.35”).
2.2. Finite Element Model of Tyre
2.2. Finite Element
A finite Model
element of Tyre
(FE) model was developed based on a simplified geometric model of the wheel
2.2. FiniteAElement Model (FE)
finite element of Tyre
model was developed based on a simplified geometric model of the wheel
and the tyre [25,26]. A geometric model of the tyre was created using professional 3D design software
A finite
and the elementA(FE)
tyre [25,26]. model was
geometric modeldeveloped
of the tyre based on a simplified
was created geometric model
using professional of the
3D design wheel
software
ACatia V5element
finite (Dassault(FE)
Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay,
modelVélizy-Villacoublay,
was developed France) aand is shown geometric
in Figures 7–10.
and
Catiathe
V5tyre [25,26].Systèmes,
(Dassault A geometric model of the tyrebased
was onand
created
France)
simplified
using
is shownprofessional
in Figures
modelsoftware
3D7–10.
design of the wheel
and the
Catiatyre
V5 [25,26].
(DassaultASystèmes,
geometric model of the tyre France)
Vélizy-Villacoublay, was created
and isusing
shownprofessional
in Figures 7–10.3D design software
Catia V5 (Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) and is shown in Figures 7–10.
 EnergiesThe
2019,parameters of REVIEW
12, x FOR PEER the constructed model listed in Table 1 include geometric parameters, 5mass,
of 14
moments
Energies 2019,of12,
inertia aboutREVIEW
x FOR PEER the centre of gravity parallel to the global Cartesian coordinate system,5 of
and14
The parameters
selected of the constructed
principal moments, model
in accordance listed
with in Table
Figure 1 include
5. The mass of geometric
the tyre parameters,
model was 840mass,
kg
moments
(1851.88 of inertia about
The lbs—with
parameters rubberthe
of the centre of gravity
reinforcements),
constructed parallel
whereas
model toTable
listed the
in the
massglobal Cartesian
1ofinclude
the andcoordinate
rimgeometric
securing system,
rings
parameters,was and
262
mass,
selected
kg (577.6principal
moments of inertiamoments,
lbs). about the in accordance
centre with
of gravity Figure
parallel to 5.
theThe mass
global of the tyre
Cartesian model was
coordinate 840and
system, kg
(1851.88
selected lbs—with
principal rubber
moments,reinforcements),
in accordancewhereas the mass
with Figure 5. Theof mass
the rim
of and
the securing rings
tyre model waswas
840262
kg
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 5 of 14
kg (577.6 lbs—with
(1851.88 lbs). rubber reinforcements), whereas the mass of the rim and securing rings was 262
kg (577.6 lbs).

Figure 7. Tyre with a wheel rim—geometric model.

Figure 7. Tyre with a wheel rim—geometric model.

Figure 7. Tyre
Figure with
7. Tyre withaawheel rim—geometric
wheel rim—geometric model.
model.

Figure 8. Wheel rim with rings—back view: The two blue arrows indicate the internal securing
Figure 8. Wheel rim with rings—back view: Therings.
two blue arrows indicate the internal securing rings.
Figure 8. Wheel rim with rings—back view: The two blue arrows indicate the internal securing
Figure 8. Wheel rim with rings—back view: rings.
The two blue arrows indicate the internal securing
rings.

Energies
Figure2019, 12, x FORrim—front
9. Wheel PEER REVIEW
view: 6 of 14
The blue arrows indicate the three external securing rings.
Figure 9. Wheel rim—front view: The blue arrows indicate the three external securing rings.

Figure 9. Wheel rim—front view: The blue arrows indicate the three external securing rings.
Figure 9. Wheel rim—front view: The blue arrows indicate the three external securing rings.

Figure
Figure 10.10. Cross-section of
Cross-section of aawheel
wheelwith
witha tyre.
a tyre.

Table 1. Parameters of the constructed model.

Parameter Value Unit

The volume of material (with air) 1.783 (m )
Total mass 1102 (kg)
Moments of inertia about the centre of gravity (kg · m )
Ixx 514.8
Iyy 337.5
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 6 of 14

The parameters of the constructed model listed in Table 1 include geometric parameters, mass,
moments of inertia about the centre of gravity parallel to the global Cartesian coordinate system,
and selected principal moments, in accordance with Figure 5. The mass of the tyre model was 840 kg
(1851.88 lbs—with rubber reinforcements), whereas the mass of the rim and securing rings was 262 kg
(577.6 lbs).

Table 1. Parameters of the constructed model.

Figure 10. Cross-section of a wheel with a tyre.
Parameter Value Unit
The volume of material
Table (with air)
1. Parameters 1.783
of the constructed model. (m3 )
Total mass 1102 (kg)
Parameter Value Unit
Moments of inertia aboutofthe centre(with
of gravity 2
The volume material air) 1.783 (m ) (kg·m )
Ixx
Total mass 514.8
1102 (kg)
Iyy about the centre of gravity
Moments of inertia 337.5 (kg · m )
Izz Ixx 337.5
514.8
Ixy Iyy 1.890 × 10−6
337.5
Iyz Izz 1.534 × 10−5
337.5
Izx Ixy −1.118 × −610−5
1.890 × 10
Iyz 1.534 × 10−5
Principal moments (kg·m2 )
I11 Izx −1.118 × 10−5
337.5
Principal moments (kg · m )
I22 337.5
I33 I11 337.5
514.8
I22 337.5
I33 514.8
The finite element (FE) model is presented in Figure 11.
The finite element (FE) model is presented in Figure 11.

Figure Numerical
11. 11.
Figure Numericalmodel
modelof
of the
the tyre withaarim,
tyre with rim,marked
marked with
with thethe
axesaxes of inertia.
of inertia.

To model the wheel and tyre, solid finite elements with three degrees of freedom in the node were
used. The entire model contained 62,560 hexa-elements supported on 65,840 nodes.

2.3. Analytical Calculations

In the case of gas outflow from the tank through a hole or short nozzle from an area of high
pressure to an area of lower pressure (the atmosphere), this process was assumed to be adiabatic
(Figure 12).
 To model the wheel and tyre, solid finite elements with three degrees of freedom in the node
were used. The entire model contained 62,560 hexa-elements supported on 65,840 nodes.

2.3. Analytical Calculations

In the case of gas outflow from the tank through a hole or short nozzle from an area of high
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 7 of 14
pressure to an area of lower pressure (the atmosphere), this process was assumed to be adiabatic
(Figure 12).

Figure 12. The model of the release of gas from a tank.

Figure 12. The model of the release of gas from a tank.

In this
In case, the the
this case, flow speed
flow can
speed bebecalculated
can calculated from Bernoulli’sequation
from Bernoulli’s equation [27,28],
[27,28], assuming
assuming 0 =0
V1 =V1
(gas velocity in a tank), hence:
(gas velocity in a tank), hence:
κ p1 v2 κ p2
κ =p1 2 v+22 κ p, (1)
κ − 1 ρ1 2= κ+ − 1 ρ2 2 , (1)
κ − 1 ρ1 2 κ − 1 ρ2
where κ is the adiabatic exponent (1.41 for 20 ◦ C air), p is the pressure (before p1 ; after p2 ), ρ is the
where
density κ is ρthe
(before 1 ; after ρ2 ), exponent
adiabatic (1.41
and v is the for 20 °C
velocity (before = 0;pressure
air), p vis1 the (before p1; after p2), ρ is the
after v2 ).
density (before
After some ρ 1; after ρ2), and v is the velocity (before v1 = 0; after v2).
that F2 is the section of the gap (outlet) in the tyre,
 p  formula transformations,  p  knowing p
κ = 1.41, After
so p21some formula = 0.528 transformations,
thus p21 knowing
< p21 ≤ that
1. F2 is the section of the gap (outlet) in the tyre,
critical critical
Thus, the outlet  p velocity
 v2 and mass flow
p  rate of pgas Qm can be calculated as follows:
κ = 1.41 , so  2  = 0.528 thus  2  < 2 ≤1 .
 p1 critical tp1  critical  p1
v
u
! κ−1 
κ
2κ p1  p2 
Thus, the outlet velocity v2 and = flow rate of
v2 mass  − Qm can be
1 gas , calculated as follows: (2)
κ − 1 ρ1 p1
 
κ −1
2κ p1  ! 2p2  κ ! κ+1 
1p−2  κ  p2 , κ 
v
v2 =
u
u
t (2)
Qm = F2 κ −p11ρ
2κ
ρ11   p− 1  , (3)
p1
 
κ−1  p1 

Loads acting upon the tyre during air flow due to cracks 2 were analytically calculated. The sudden
 κ +1


2κ an adiabatic p   p 
κ transformation,
κ
p1 ρ1  2  −  2  
outflow of gas from the tyre can be considered because no heat transfer
Qm = F2 (3)
occurs between the air in the tyre (the tank)κand−1 the  p1   p1 
environment.
 
Therefore, all of the stored energy in
the tyre is used to perform the work needed to lift and move the tyre. Inaccordance , with the Clapeyron
Gas Law the energy stored in the pressurized tyre was calculated to be 1.1033 MJ.
Loads acting upon the tyre during air flow due to cracks were analytically calculated. The
Assuming the volume of air in the tyre did not change with pressure, and based upon the
sudden outflow of gas from the tyre can be considered an adiabatic transformation, because no heat
constructed
transfer geometric model
occurs between the of
airthe tyre
in the and
tyre rim,
(the tank)theandvolume of air in the
the environment. tyre wasalldetermined
Therefore, of the storedto be
m3 [29].
1.003energy However, according to the data available from the tyre manufacturer,
in the tyre is used to perform the work needed to lift and move the tyre. In accordance the tyrewith
volume
was 0.988 3
m , but Gas
the manufacturer
the Clapeyron Law the energy didstorednotinspecify the influence
the pressurized tyre wasofcalculated
the shapetoofbethe wheel
1.1033 MJ. rims on
Assuming
the air volume. theitvolume
Thus, of airthat
is possible in the
the tyre did not
volume change in
measured with
thepressure,
tyre wasand based upon
measured, and the
that the
constructed
modelled volume geometric modelthe
agreed with of the tyre and rim, the
manufacturer’s data.volume of air in the tyre was determined to be
1.003 m3 [29]. However, according to the data available from the tyre manufacturer, the tyre volume
was 0.988 Calculations
2.4. Numerical m3, but the manufacturer
of the Damageddid Tyre
not specify the influence of the shape of the wheel rims on
the air volume. Thus, it is possible that the volume measured in the tyre was measured, and that the
The mathematical
modelled model
volume agreed withpresented in the previous
the manufacturer’s data. section was then applied to the analysed
wheel, and calculations were performed for pressures ranging from 0.6 MPa to 1.1 MPa in 0.05 MPa
increments. Figure 13 shows the relationship between the total air release time from the tyre and the
initial tyre pressure.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
2.4. Numerical Calculations of the Damaged Tyre
2.4. Numerical Calculations of the Damaged Tyre
The mathematical model presented in the previous section was then applied to the analysed
wheel,Theandmathematical
calculations were performed
model presentedforinpressures ranging
the previous fromwas
section 0.6 MPa
then to 1.1 MPa
applied to in
the0.05 MPa
analysed
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 8 of 14
increments. Figure 13 shows the relationship between the total air release time from the tyre
wheel, and calculations were performed for pressures ranging from 0.6 MPa to 1.1 MPa in 0.05 MPa and the
initial tyre pressure.
increments. Figure 13 shows the relationship between the total air release time from the tyre and the
initial tyre pressure.

Figure The
13.13.
Figure Therelationship
relationship between therelease
between the releasetime
time and
and thethe initial
initial tyretyre pressure.
pressure.
Figure 13. The relationship between the release time and the initial tyre pressure.
TheTherecorded
recorded timetime was
wasthe thetime
timenecessary
necessary for forthetheair
airoutlet
outlet velocity
velocity to drop
to drop to zero,
to zero, i.e.,
i.e. for thefor the
pressure inside
pressureTheinsidethethe
recorded tyretyretoto
time equalise
equalise
was with
with
the time the atmospheric
the atmospheric
necessary for the air pressure.
pressure. Higher
Higher
outlet velocity initial
initial
to drop pressures
pressures
to zero, forrequired
required
i.e. the
longer times
longer
pressure for
times thethe
for
inside airair
the toto
tyreflow
flow
to out.
out. with the atmospheric pressure. Higher initial pressures required
equalise
Figures
longer
Figures times 14for
14 and and the15
15 show
air
show to thethechanges
flow changes
out. in the
thebasic
basicparameters
parameters characterizing the release
characterizing of air of
the release from
air from
the tyre (the
Figures “lifting”
14 and force
15 showand the
the release
changes velocity)
in the basicfor the main
parameters release surface
characterizing
the tyre (the “lifting” force and the release velocity) for the main release surface at an initial pressure ofat
the an initial
release ofpressure
air from
ofthe
1.1 MPa.1.1tyre
MPa.
The(the The force
waswas
“lifting”
force defined
force
definedandas as
the a curvevelocity)
a release
curve ininthe
the LS-DYNA
LS-DYNA explicit
for the main code,
release
explicit andand
surface
code, the force
at an vector
theinitial
force was was
pressure
vector
normal to theThe
of 1.1 MPa. plane of the
force wasdamaged
defined as part of theintyre
a curve the at all times.explicit code, and the force vector was
LS-DYNA
normal to the plane of the damaged part of the tyre at all times.
normal to the plane of the damaged part of the tyre at all times.

Figure 14. The change in the “tyre-lifting” force at an initial tyre pressure of 1.1 MPa.
Figure 14. The change in the “tyre-lifting” force at an initial tyre pressure of 1.1 MPa.
Figure 14. The change in the “tyre-lifting” force at an initial tyre pressure of 1.1 MPa.
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 9 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

Figure 15. The change in the gas release velocity at an initial tyre pressure of 1.1 MPa.
Figure 15. The change in the gas release velocity at an initial tyre pressure of 1.1 MPa.

The change
The change in force
Figure 15. at an
inThe
force initial
change
at tyregaspressure
in initial
an the release
tyre of 1.1 of
velocity
pressure MPa
at an isMPa
shown
1.1initial tyre in Figure
is pressure
shown 14.MPa.
of 1.1
in FigureThe14.force
The decreased
force
due todecreased
a lower mass due tostream
a lowerin massthestream
outgoing air,outgoing
in the which occurred
air, whichdue to a pressure
occurred drop and
due to a pressure dropa lower
and air
density The change
inside
a lower airthe
densityin force
tyre. So, for
inside atthean initial
a tyre.
given tyre
time
So, pressure
for a(ca.
given700time
msof (ca.
1.1 an
for MPa
700 is for
initial
ms shown in Figure
pressure
an initial of 1.114. The
MPa),
pressure of force
1.1the outflow
MPa),
decreased
occurred at a due
the outflow to a lower
constant
occurred at mass
speed, stream
equal
a constant to in
the
speed,thecritical
outgoing
equal theair,
tospeed which
of the
critical occurred due
simultaneously
speed of the to a pressure
decreasing
simultaneously drop and flow,
mass
decreasing
a mass
lowerflow,
air densitytoinside the tyre. airSo, for a given time (ca.
tyre.700 msaffected
for an initial pressure offorces
1.1 MPa),
due to the dropdue in airthe drop
density in
inside density
the tyre.inside the affected
This This the magnitude the magnitude
forces actingacting upon the
the outflow
upontyre occurred
the unsealed at a constant
tyre (Figure 14). speed, equal to the critical speed of the simultaneously decreasing
unsealed (Figure 14).
mass flow,
During duethe toinitial
the dropphase,in air density inside the
fromtyre.
the This affected the amagnitude forces acting
During
upon the the initial
unsealed phase,
tyre (Figure thethe outflowof
outflow
14).
ofair
airfrom the tyre
tyreoccurred
occurredatat critical speed
a critical equal
speed to theto the
equal
speed of sound in the environment in which the outflow occurred (Figure 15). It was assumed in the
speed ofDuring
soundthe in initial
the environment
phase, the outflowin which the outflow occurredat(Figure 15). It equal
was assumed in
analysis that the speed of sound in air atof 20air
°Cfrom
was the tyre
◦ Cequal
occurred
to 343.8 a critical
m/s (1127.95 speed
feet per second, toorthe
769
the analysis
speed ofThethat
sound the speed of
in the environment sound in air
in which at 20
the outflow was equal to 343.8 m/s (1127.95 feet per second,
mph). trajectory of the damaged tyre was obtainedoccurred
through (Figure 15). It and
calculations, was Figure
assumed 16 in the
depicts
or 769 mph).
analysis The
that the trajectory
speed of of
sound thein damaged
air at
the trace of a point located next to the tyre’s outflow. 20 °C tyre
was was
equal obtained
to 343.8 m/sthrough
(1127.95 calculations,
feet per second, andor Figure
769 16
mph).
depicts theThe trajectory
trace of a pointof the damaged
located next tyre
to was obtained
the tyre’s through calculations, and Figure 16 depicts
outflow.
the trace of a point located next to the tyre’s outflow.

Figure 16. Trajectory of a selected point on the rim near the outflow at an initial pressure of 1.1 MPa.

Figure Trajectory
16.16.
Figure Trajectoryofofaaselected
selected point onthe
point on therim
rimnear
nearthethe outflow
outflow atinitial
at an an initial pressure
pressure of 1.1 of 1.1 MPa.
MPa.

The damaged tyre bounced on the ground, yet did not hit the modelled celling (reconstructed
conditions). The entire tyre motion lasted approximately 4000 ms, and the force magnitude was null
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 10 of 14

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

after 1000 ms, as presented in Figure 14. The tyre motion was caused by the residual kinetic energy
The damaged tyre bounced on the ground, yet did not hit the modelled celling (reconstructed
and elastic properties of the tyre.
conditions). The entire tyre motion lasted approximately 4000 ms, and the force magnitude was null
after 1000
2.5. Analysis ms,Discussion
and as presented in FigureInjury
of Operator 14. The tyre motion was caused by the residual kinetic energy
and elastic properties of the tyre.
The next step in the numerical calculations was to add an operator (a male MADYMO dummy)
to the2.5. Analysis andto
simulations Discussion
reflect aoffatal
Operator Injury during tyre pumping. In a real case, an operator was
accident
determined Thetonext
havestepincurred traumatic
in the numerical brain injury
calculations was (TBI)
to addand internal(ainjuries
an operator [30–32], but
male MADYMO the exact
dummy)
details of the
to the accidenttohave
simulations reflectnot been
a fatal disclosed,
accident duringsince
tyre it is an ongoing
pumping. In a real investigation.
case, an operatorHowever,
was
the authors obtained the standard inflation procedure, and also some information from witnesses,
determined to have incurred traumatic brain injury (TBI) and internal injuries [30–32], but the exact
whichdetails
allowedof the accident
a full haveanalysis
coupling not beentodisclosed, since which
be calculated it is anincluded
ongoing the
investigation.
operator andHowever, the
the exploding
authors
tyre [33]. obtained
Hence, thethe standard inflation
MADYMO multibodyprocedure, and also
code with some information
its validated 50th malefromdummy
witnesses,
waswhich
coupled
allowed a full
with LS-DYNA coupling
explicit codeanalysis to be calculated
to simulate which included
the tyre explosion. the operator
Numerical and thejoints
multibody exploding
were tyre
adjusted
[33]. Hence, the MADYMO multibody code with its validated 50th male dummy was coupled with
to reflect the operator’s leaning position during tyre inflation (Figure 17). A coupling contact was
LS-DYNA explicit code to simulate the tyre explosion. Numerical multibody joints were adjusted to
added between the tyre and operator, and the time step and units were accordingly adjusted to meet
reflect the operator’s leaning position during tyre inflation (Figure 17). A coupling contact was added
the coupling
between requirements.
the tyre and operator, and the time step and units were accordingly adjusted to meet the
coupling requirements.

Figure
Figure 17. 17.Operator
Operator positioned
positionedby by
the tyre
the during the inflation—
tyre during finite element
the inflation— (FE) element
finite and Multibody
(FE) and
coupling.
Multibody coupling.

A graphical
A graphical representation
representation of the
of the results
results ofofselected
selectedtime timeframes frames is is depicted
depicted in
inFigure
Figure18.
18.It It
cancan be
be seen that during 150–250 ms, the operator was struck with the exploding tyre and violently pushed
seen that during 150–250 ms, the operator was struck with the exploding tyre and violently pushed
away. In the real case, post-mortem examination revealed that this resulted in severe head injuries
away. In the real case, post-mortem examination revealed that this resulted in severe head injuries and
and internal injuries.
internal injuries.
To measure the likelihood of a head injury due to an impact, the Head Injury Criterion (HIC)
To
wasmeasure
used: the likelihood of a head injury due to an impact, the Head Injury Criterion (HIC)
was used: 2 .5
 2.5
  1 Ztt22 
 
 

 
HIC = max  1 a ( t ) dt  (t − t ) 

2 − t1 )
(4)

   ,

HIC = max t − t a ( t ) dt ( t 1 , (4)
t1 , t
 2 −2 t1 1 t1  2


2 
 

t

t1 ,t2  

 

 t 1

where a(t) is the resultant acceleration measured in g (standard gravity acceleration), t1 and t2 are the
where a(t) is the resultant acceleration measured in g (standard gravity acceleration), t1 and t2 are the
initial and final times (in seconds) chosen to maximize the HIC value, and the time duration, t2 − t1,
initialwas
and final times
limited (in seconds)
to a maximum valuechosen
of 36 mstofor HIC(36). the HIC value, and the time duration, t2 − t1 ,
maximize
was limited to a maximum value of 36 ms for HIC(36).
HIC includes the effects of head acceleration and the duration of the acceleration. High
HIC includescan
accelerations the effects of head
be tolerated foracceleration and the
very short times, andduration of theof
the severity acceleration. High accelerations
injuries is assessed by the
can be tolerated for
Abbreviated veryScale
Injury short times,
(AIS) [34].and
Thisthe severity
scale assessesofthe
injuries
tissueisdamage
assessedandby the Abbreviated
threat to life on a six-Injury
Scaledivision
(AIS) [34].ordinal
Thisscale,
scalerunning
assessesfrom
theminor
tissue(AIS 1) through
damage moderate
and threat (AIS
to life on2),a serious (AIS 3),
six-division severescale,
ordinal
(AIS 4), critical (AIS 5), to generally unsurvivable/ usually fatal (AIS 6) [35].
running from minor (AIS 1) through moderate (AIS 2), serious (AIS 3), severe (AIS 4), critical (AIS 5),One of the estimated
relationsunsurvivable/
to generally between HIC(36) and the
usually probability
fatal (AIS 6) of skull
[35]. Onefracture
of the is estimated
presented inrelations
Figure 19. between HIC(36)
and the probability of skull fracture is presented in Figure 19.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 11 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

FigureFigure 18. Simulation

18. Simulation of the
of the tyre
tyre burst
burst atat1.1
1.1MPa:
MPa: Contours
Contours of
ofresultant
resultantdisplacement (mm)
displacement of the
(mm) of the
dummy dummy
model.
Figure model.
18. Simulation of the tyre burst at 1.1 MPa: Contours of resultant displacement (mm) of the
dummy model.

Figure
Figure 19. 19. Probability
Probability ofofthe
theskull
skullfracture
fracture for
for given
givenHIC(36)
HIC(36)values [36].
values [36].
Figure 19. Probability of the skull fracture for given HIC(36) values [36].
To verify HIC(36) and evaluate the operator’s fatal head injuries, head acceleration was plotted in
MADYMO code and then used to calculate HIC(36). The acceleration run was filtered with the CFC
1000 filter, and an HIC(36) value near 3000 (Figure 20) was obtained for the tyre strike.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
To verify HIC(36) and evaluate the operator’s fatal head injuries, head acceleration was plotted
Energies
in2019, 12, 2971 code and then used to calculate HIC(36). The acceleration run was filtered with the
MADYMO 12 of 14
CFC 1000 filter, and an HIC(36) value near 3000 (Figure 20) was obtained for the tyre strike.

Figure
Figure 20. 20. Resultant
Resultant acceleration of
acceleration of the dummy’s
dummy’shead
headand thethe
and HIC(36) value.
HIC(36) value.

Due Due
to computational time,time,
to computational the ground hit was
the ground hitnot
wastaken
not into consideration,
taken and such
into consideration, andinformation
such
information
is generally is generallydue
less important lessmany
important
other due many influencing
variables other variables influencing kinematics.
the operator’s the operator’s
Basing
on a kinematics. Basing on
literature review, thea probability
literature review, the was
of death probability of 100%
close to death [37–42].
was closeConsequently,
to 100% [37–42]. it was
Consequently, it was unambiguously shown that improper tyre inflation,
unambiguously shown that improper tyre inflation, especially in larger vehicles, may lead toespecially in larger
vehicles, may lead to fatal injuries.
fatal injuries.
3. Conclusions
3. Conclusions
Inflated tyres of large trucks and off-highway vehicles contain tremendous amounts of energy
Inflated tyres of large trucks and off-highway vehicles contain tremendous amounts of energy due
due to their high pressures. Tyre inflation is an important performance and safety factor, and
to their high pressures. Tyre inflation
although they are relatively is an
rare, tyre important
failures may be performance
very dangerous.and An
safety factor,
example ofand
tyrealthough
failure is they
are relatively rare, tyre failures may be very dangerous. An example of tyre failure
over-pressurization, which may occur during the inflation or separation of the tyre lock ring due tois over-pressurization,
which rimmay occurInduring
damage. the inflation
this paper, an example orwas
separation
presentedofinthe tyrethe
which lock
tyrering
of an due to rim damage.
underground machine In this
paper,burst during inflation.
an example Knowledge
was presented of the boundary
in which the tyre of conditions of the accident
an underground machineand through analytical
burst during inflation.
calculations,
Knowledge it was
of the possibleconditions
boundary to carry out of
simulations
the accidentwhich included
and throughan operator.
analytical calculations, it was
The numerical model represented a damaged
possible to carry out simulations which included an operator. tyre over-inflated to 1.1 MPa, which had a stored
energy of approximately 1.1 MJ. The HIC(36) value was computed to be ~3,000 using LS-DYNA and
The numerical model represented a damaged tyre over-inflated to 1.1 MPa, which had a stored
MADYMO analysis, and confirmed that the operator’s death was caused by head trauma. Therefore,
energy of approximately 1.1 MJ. The HIC(36) value was computed to be ~3,000 using LS-DYNA and
a tyre must be inspected for side-wall cracks, distortions, wrinkles, discoloration and recent repairs
MADYMO analysis, and confirmed that the operator’s death was caused by head trauma. Therefore,
performed prior to inflation. Additionally, the use of a safety cage is highly recommended, since they
a tyrereduce
must the
be likelihood
inspectedoffor any side-wall cracks,
injuries which distortions,
might occur during wrinkles, discoloration
tyre inflation. However, and
therecent repairs
structure
performed prior cage
of the safety to inflation.
should beAdditionally,
examined andthe usebefore
tested of a safety cage is highly
it is commercially recommended, since they
utilised.
reduce the likelihood
Future researchof will
anyfocus
injuries
uponwhich might occurofduring
the development tyree.g.,
new cages, inflation. However,
those using the structure
new composite
of theconstruction
safety cagematerials
should be and designs. and
examined The tested
ultimate ambition
before of the authors utilised.
it is commercially is to contribute to the
development
Future of standards
research will focus regarding
upon the thedevelopment
safe operationof of new
tyres.cages, e.g., those using new composite
construction materials and designs. The ultimate ambition of the authors is to contribute to the
Author Contributions: conceptualization, J.K. and M.P.; methodology, J.K, M.P. and L.C..; software, J.K. and
development of standards
M.P.; validation, J.K., M.P.regarding the safe
and L.C.; formal operation
analysis, of tyres.
J.K., M.P. and L.C.; investigation, J.K, M.P. and L.C..;
resources, J.K, M.P., L.C.; data curation, J.K. and M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, J.K, M.P. and L.C.;
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.K. and M.P.; methodology, J.K., M.P. and L.C.; software, J.K. and
M.P.; validation, J.K., M.P. and L.C.; formal analysis, J.K., M.P. and L.C.; investigation, J.K., M.P. and L.C.;
resources, J.K., M.P., L.C.; data curation, J.K. and M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, J.K., M.P. and L.C.;
writing—review and editing, J.K., M.P. and L.C.; visualization, J.K., M.P. and L.C.; supervision, J.K., M.P. and L.C.;
project administration, J.K., M.P. and L.C.; funding acquisition, L.C.
Funding: The publication was developed as part of project “Analysis of the tyre 29,5 R25 X after its failure” (Wroclaw
University of Science and Technology, report 74/2011) as well as the project LIDER/8/0051/L-8/16/NCBR/2017
funded by the National Centre for Research and Development, Poland, and Grant 1/S/IESO/17 (commenced at the
Maritime University of Szczecin).
Energies 2019, 12, 2971 13 of 14

Acknowledgments: Support given by the National Centre for Research and Development of Poland and Ministry
of Science and Higher Education of Poland.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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