PRACTICAL RESEARCH WITH SECONDARY DATA

RESEARCH - Makes use of data already

collected by someone else
 Refers to gathering available
information so that you make  SYNTHESIZED LITERATURE
informed choices REVIEWS OR REVIEW ESSAYS

 Involves systematic and conscious - Based on bibliographical

processes of gathering information, research without a requirement
careful evaluation of evidence, and a for empirical data collection
methodical synthesis of the
information gathered  THEORETICAL ESSAYS

- Aim to do more than synthesize

 Involves tasks of systematic and
what is known but to extend
careful data analysis and report
theoretical ideas further
writing
PARADIGMS OF PERSPECTIVES
 An iterative and reflexive process
 POSITIVISM
FORMAL RESEARCH
- Observations using tangible and
 Involves questions that are
measurable measures are the
academic in nature and advance a
foundation of knowledge -
scientific understanding of human
“measures” as a way to uncover
society or human behaviour
objective knowledge
 Involves systematic and evaluative
 CONSTRUCTIONISM
screening and collection of
information on a topic - Strives to describe what people
experience from their own
TYPES OF RESEARCH PROJECT
perspectives, while carefully
 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH WITH focusing on the meaning people
ORIGINAL DATA COLLECTION give to their experiences and
observations
- Involves clearly defined topics or
problems, thorough and careful PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
reviews of the literature,
BASIC RESEARCH TERMS
well-planned research methods
to ensure reliability of the data,  VARIABLE
proper applications of analytic
techniques, and careful - Logical groups of attributes. A
interpretation of the results of quality or characteristic that
the analysis varies across different cases

 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PROJECT  HYPOTHESIS

 - Testable expectation, or a
prediction, about a relationship
between two variables.
- The prediction is usually based
on a theory
 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
- Cause in a predicted relationship
between two variables
 DEPENDENT VARIABLE
- Outcome or effect in a predicted
relationship between two
variables
 CONCEPTUALIZATION
- Process whereby vague or
imprecise ideas or notions
develop into specific and precise
concept
 OPERATIONALIZATION
- Identification of observable and
measurable indicators that can
be used in empirical research to
measure abstract concepts
 INDICATORS
- Specific observations that reflect
an abstract concept or questions
to be asked to observe or record
an abstract concept
 VALIDITY
- Extent to which a measure
accurately measures what it is
intended to measure
 RELIABILITY
 Whether or not repeated use of
measure yields consistent
outcomes
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
- Different types of mathematical
qualities of measures.
Depending on measure has only
qualitative or quantitative values
 UNIT OF ANALYSIS
- Units that are the focus of the
research
 DATA ANALYSIS
- Systematic summary and
examination of collected data in
order to draw valid and reliable
conclusions from empirical
research
EMPIRICAL VERSUS NONEMPIRICAL
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
 EMPIRICAL
- indicates that the information,
knowledge, and understanding
are gathered through experience
and direct data collection
 NONEMPIRICAL
- include forms of introspection
vicarious experiences and other
people’s analysis of events
KINDS OF RESEARCH
 BASIC RESEARCH
- Discovers new phenomena or
new ideas of general interest
- Theoretical, to improve general
understanding
 - Shapes social and political
values and goals
- Discovery of new phenomena
and new ideas of general interest
 APPLIED RESEARCH
- Contributes to the solution of
specific practical problems
- Further purposes in terms of
social and medical
improvements, economic
profitability, ideological and
political acclaim, etc.
- Solutions to practical problems
as recognized by politicians,
government bureaucrats,
commercial entrepreneurs
TYPES OF RESEARCH CATEGORIES
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
- Seeks to investigate an
underresearched aspect of
TWO TYPES OF DATA
social life
- To scope out the magnitude or
extent of a particular
phenomenon, problem, or
behavior
- To generate some initial ideas
(or “hunches”) about that
phenomenon
- To test the feasibility of
undertaking a more extensive
study regarding that
phenomenon
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
- Seeks to richly describe an
aspect of social life
- Make careful observations and
detailed documentation of a
phenomenon of interest
- Observations must be based on
the scientific method
- Examines the what, where, and
when of a phenomenon
 EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
- Seeks to explain an aspect of
social life
- Explains observed phenomena,
problems, or behaviors
- Seeks answers to why and how
types of questions
- Connect the dots” in research, by
identifying casual factors and
outcomes of the target
phenomenon
 QUANTITATVE DATA
- Information that can be
measured or written down with
numbers
- involved quantities
 QUALITATIVE DATA
- Information expressed not in
terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language
description
- involved qualities
 in-depth descriptions of
situations/phenomena
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
 Generally non-numerical data
Multiple realities Single reality
Reality is socially  Smaller but focused
constructed Reality is objective
Reality is context  Interpretive, narrative and descriptive
Reality is context free Reductionistic (e.g. case study)
interrelated
Strong theoretical  Reality is subjective and multiple as
Holistic base seen by study participants

Strong philosophical Reasoning is  Researcher interacts with that being

perspective deductive & researched
inductive
Reasoning is  Value-laden and biased
inductive Discovery Cause-and-effect
of meaning is the relationships are the  Personal voice (words such as
basis of knowledge bases of knowledge understanding, discover, meaning)
Tests theory
Develops theory  Inductive process (specific to
Theory developed Theory developed a general)
during study priori
 Process rather than outcomes or
Meaning of Measurement of products
concepts Process variables
oriented Control  Interested in meaning—how people
unimportant Rich Outcome oriented make sense of their lives,
descriptions Control important experiences, and their structures of
Precise the world.
Basic element of measurement of
analysis is words variables  Qualitative researcher is the primary
Uniqueness instrument for data collection and
Trustworthiness of Basic element of analysis
findings analysis is numbers
Generalization  Involves fieldwork

Control of error TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INDIVIDUAL OR IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

 Broad methodological approach  An in-depth conversation on a given

encompassing many research topic between a respondent and an
methods interviewer

 Exploration of social world;  To probe informants’ motivations,

observations of a “natural” setting; feelings, beliefs
 Used to obtain detailed insights and
personal thoughts
 Tendency to have a freer exchange
 Can probe potentially complex
motivations and behavior
 Easier to attach a particular
response to a respondent
 Qualified interviewers are expensive
 Length and expense of interview
often leads to small sample
 Subjectivity and “fuzziness”
 STRUCTURED
- Fixed format or directive
- Questions are asked in
standardized order and the
interviewer will not deviate from
the interview schedule or probe
beyond the answers received
- Non-flexible yet fairly quick to
conduct
 UNSTRUCTURED
- Projective or non-directive
- Interview without any set format
and allows questions based on
the interviewee's responses and
proceeds like a friendly,
non-threatening conversation
- Informal in nature
- More flexible in nature as
questions can be adapted and
changed depending on the
respondents’ answers
(open-ended)
- Time consuming to conduct
- Analysis of qualitative data may
be challenging
FOCUS GROUP OR GROUP DEPTH
INTERVIEW
 A group of interacting individuals
having some common interest or
characteristics, brought together by
a moderator, who uses the group
and its interaction as a way to gain
information about a specific or
focused issue
 Give information on how groups of
people think or feel about a
particular topic Help improve the
planning and design of new
programs
 Provide a means of evaluating
existing programs
 Produce insights for developing
strategies for outreach
 Takes advantage of the fact that
people naturally interact and are
influenced by others (high face
validity)
 One of the few research tools
available for obtaining data from
children or from individuals who are
not particularly literate
 Provides data more quickly and at
lower cost than if individuals
interviewed separately; groups can
be assembled on shorter notice than
for a more systematic survey
 Generally requires less preparation
and is comparatively easy to
 conduct
 Researcher can interact directly with
respondents (allows clarification,
follow-up questions, probing) ; can
gain information from non-verbal
responses to supplement (or even
contradict) verbal responses
 Data uses respondents' own words;
can obtain deeper levels of meaning,
make important connections,
identify subtle nuances
 Very flexible; can be used with wide
range of topics, individuals, and
settings
 Less able to control what
information will be produced making
data analysis more difficult
 Small numbers and convenience
sampling severely limit ability to
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
generalize to larger populations
 Requires carefully trained interviewer
who is knowledgeable about group
dynamics
 Uncertainty about accuracy of what
participants say
 Bias may come from the moderator
and respondents
TECHNOLOGY-MEDIATED INTERVIEWS
 SYNCHRONUS COMMUNICATION
- Requires parties or components
to work simultaneously in real
time (chat, text messaging,
online conferencing and
telephonic conversations)
 ASYNCHRONUS COMMUNICATION
- Does not wait around for a reply
 Saves money (e.g. travel costs or
hiring a location)
 Interviewees and interviewers can be
widely dispersed geographically
 Both interviewee and interviewer can
be more flexible regarding dates and
times of meetings
 Verifying the identities of the
interviewer and interviewee may be
challenging
 Requires significant technological
competence from both the
interviewer and interviewee
 Maintaining the interviewee's
motivation and interest can be more
difficult online than face to face
 A correlational research in which the
researcher observes ongoing
behavior
 Sees exactly what people are doing
when confronted with an array of
choices
 Helps round out research by offering
a real-world aspect to a hypothesis
(less hypothetical than other
methods) Sees how people act
together and separately
 Creates and observes actual
situations instead of using data to
try and predict what will happen
 Improves the quality of an initial
behavioral analysis based on
demographics, therefore increasing
 the validity of research
 Ideal for situations in which
nonverbal communication is
important
 Provides a more reliable
measurement of a person’s actual
behavior, rather than self-report
metrics
 Include a high degree of researcher
bias (observer is human and
subconscious opinions on
demographics can affect the
analysis)
 Doesn’t always return an accurate
demographic sample (much smaller
and relies heavily on chance)
 Only tells one part of the story
(attitudes and opinions cannot be
clearly expressed only through
actions)
 CONTROLLED OR STRUCTURED
OBSERVATION
- Researcher decides where the
observation will take place, at
what time, with which
participants, and in what
circumstances (uses
standardized procedure)
- Usually carried out in the
laboratory
 NATURALISTIC OR UNSTRUCTURED
OBSERVATION
- Involves studying the
spontaneous behavior of
participants in natural
surroundings
- The researcher simply records
what they see in whatever way
they can
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
- Researcher joins in and becomes
part of the group they are
studying to get a deeper insight
into their lives
- COVERT: The researcher's real
identity and purpose are kept
concealed from the group being
studied
- OVERT: The researcher reveals
his or her true identity and
purpose to the group and asks
permission to observe
- CASE STUDY: In-depth
investigation of complex issues
within a specific context, based
on a small geographical area or a
very limited number of
individuals as the subjects of
study
- NARRATIVE ANALYSIS: Focuses
on the narratives (storytelling)
used as sources of
- INDUCTIVE THEMATIC
ANALYSIS: Presents the stories
and experiences voiced by study
participants as accurately and
comprehensively as possible
- ETHNOGRAPHY: Relies on the
collection of data in the natural
environment and studies how the
behavior of individuals is
influenced or mediated by
culture in which they
live/exposed to; focuses on
 studying shared practices and
belief systems of a group of
people; to understand what is
happening naturally in the setting
and to interpret the data
gathered to see what
implications could be formed
from the data)
- PHENOMENOLOGY: Developed
from phenomenological
philosophy; focuses on
individuals’ interpretation of their
experience and the ways in
which they express them (to
describe an experience as it is
actually lived by a person; to
understand the behavioral,
emotive and social meanings of
lived experiences of an
individual)
- DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: Used to
describe the systems we use in
communication with others
(including verbal, non-verbal and
written materials); increases our
understanding of human
behavior through language and
interaction
- GROUNDED THEORY: theory
arises from data; hypotheses
and theories emerge out or are
grounded in data ; involves
formulation, testing and
reformulation of propositions
until a theory is developed
(grounded in the data
themselves; to discover what
problems exist in a given social
environment and how the
persons involved handle them
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Systematic empirical investigation of
observable phenomena via
statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques
 Adheres to strict research design;
generally made using scientific
method.
 To develop and employ
mathematical models, theories
and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena
 Any measurable data in numerical
form
 Uses statistics to analyze data; in
hopes the numbers will yield an
unbiased result
 Reality is objective, “out there” and
singular, apart from the researcher,
and can be measured objectively
 Researcher is independent from that
being researched
 Value-free and unbiased
 Formal/impersonal voice (words
such as relationship, comparison,
and within - group )
 Deductive process; cause and effect;
accurate and reliable through validity
and reliability
BRYMAN’S PREOCCUPATIONS OF
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 MEASUREMENT
- is an important factor in
quantitative research, which is
why reliability and validity are
embedded in its methodology
 - Reliability speaks of consistency
of a measure of a concept
- Stability
- Internal reliability
- Inter-observer consistency
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 VALIDITY
- Refers to the issue of whether an
indicator that is developed to
measure a concept really gauges
that concept
- Face validity
- Concurrent validity
- Predictive validity
- Construct validity
- Convergent validity
 CAUSALITY
- Pertains to the proof of causes
behind the phenomenon. This is
significant since most
quantitative research is
concerned about explanation
 GENERALIZATION
- Refers to the quantitative
research findings or results that
can be generalized beyond the
margins of a certain context in
which the research is undertaken
- This area of concern reveals
itself in social survey research, in
the attention that is often given
to the question of how one can
create a representative sample
 REPLICATION
- Is the extent of the research
design to be repeated in another
context with different samples or
population
 DESCRIPTIVE
- Answers who, what, when,
where, and how
- To describe what exists and to
gather information about the
current status of a certain
phenomenon
 CORRELATIONAL
- Answers who, what, when,
where, and how
- To define the degree of
relationship between two or
more variables using statistical
data
 SURVEY
- Provides a quantitative or
numeric description of some
fraction of the population
(sample) through the data
collection process of asking
questions to people
- Makes use of questionnaire
- Results enables researcher to
generalize the findings from a
sample of responses
- High representativeness:
Provides a high level of general
capability in representing a large
 population
- Low costs as compared to focus
groups or personal interviews
- Convenient data gathering: Can
be administered through e-mail
or fax
- Good statistical significance due
to high representativeness
- Little or no observer subjectivity:
Researcher’s own biases are
eliminated (high reliability)
- Precise results: Questions in the
survey undergo careful scrutiny
and standardization and
therefore provide uniform
definitions to all the subjects
who are to answer the
questionnaires
- Inflexible design: The survey that
was used by the researcher from
the very beginning (including the
method of administering it)
cannot be changed throughout
the process of data gathering
- Not ideal for controversial issues
- Possible inappropriateness of
questions: The researcher is
forced to create questions that
are general enough to
accommodate the general
population that may not be
appropriate for the individual
participants
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
- Provide insight into
cause-and-effect by
demonstrating what outcome
occurs when a particular factor
is manipulated
- EXPERIMENTAL GROUP: Group
that receives the variable being
tested in an experiment
- CONTROL GROUP: A group of
subjects not exposed to any
experimental treatment
- NEGATIVE CONTROL: Uses a
sample that is not expected to
work
- POSITIVE CONTROL: Control
group that is expected to give a
positive result
- PLACEBO EFFECT: A remarkable
phenomenon in which a placebo
(fake treatment) improves a
patient's condition simply
because the person has the
expectation that it will be helpful
- NOCEBO EFFECT: Negative
symptom induced by the
patient’s own negative
expectations
- HAWTHORNE EFFECT: Human
subjects of an experiment
change their behavior, simply
because they are being studied
- TRUE EXPERIMENTS
 Regarded as the most accurate form
of experimental research as it tries
to prove or disprove a hypothesis
mathematically
 Uses a viable control group
 Only one variable is manipulated and
tested (though it is possible to test
 more than one variable, but more
complicated)
 Tested subjects are randomly
assigned to either control or
experimental groups
- QUASI-EXPERIMENTS
 Involves selecting groups, upon
which a variable is tested, without
any random pre-selection processes
 Takes advantage of natural
occurrences (involves on-field
experimentations) Uses matching
instead of randomized testing
 Time and resources needed are
much reduced
 Without proper randomization,
statistical tests are meaningless
RESEACRH ETHICS
ETHICS
 The principles of doing right and
wrong
 Establishes the moral integrity of the
researchers and their relation to the
participants especially to the
information the researchers collect
 Found in the methodology part of
the research
WHAT ETHICAL ISSUES SHOULD YOU PAY
ATTENTION TO?
 VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
- Participation should be voluntary
and based on the decisions by
the participants
- If you are in a position of
authority, you cannot influence
your associates to participate in
your study
 INFORMED CONSENT
- Participants should be informed
of the nature of the project and
the activities in which they are
asked to be involved
- Participants should be capable
of fully understanding the
information about the research
and consenting it based on their
own free will
- If participants are mentally ill or
children, consent from guardians
is required
 ANONYMITY
- The identities of the participants
should be protected and
completely unknown to the
researcher as well as to the
public
 ASSESSMENT OF RISKS TO
PARTICIPANTS
- Asses potential psychological,
physical, or legal risks of the
participants
 BENEFITS OUTGOING RISKS
- Carefully weigh risks against the
potential benefit of your research
to the participants and its
contribution to the field of
knowledge
 DEBRIEFING
 - Explaining how the experiment
worked and address any
participants’ concerns
 PROTECTION OF VULNERABLE
POPULATIONS
- Children, prisoners, mentally
impaired persons, and
socioeconomic hierarchies
- Specific measures and
procedures to protect their rights
and privacy should be built
ETHICS AND YOUR RESEARCH
 BENEFICENCE AND
NONMALEFICENCE
- BENEFICENCE: do good; done to
benefit others
- NONMALEFICENCE: do no harm;
think about potential harms that
could arise and how they may be
avoided
 INTEGRITY
- The expertise the researchers
display in the way in which they
carry out their research and write
about it
- Readers must be able to trust
the researcher actually carried
out the research as they say they
did
 PLAGIARISM
- Presentation of somebody else’s
work as your own should be
voided by proper referencing and
citation
 VALIDITY
- How logical, truthful, robust,
sound, reasonable, meaningful,
and useful the research is
- Evidences gathered must be
valid
ETHICS IN YOU RESEARCH
 HONESTY
- Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misinterpret data
 OBJECTIVITY
- Strive to avoid bias or
self-deception
 INTEGRITY
- Strive for consistency of thought
and action
 CAREFULNESS
- Avoid careless errors and
negligence
 OPENNESS
- Be open to criticism and new
ideas
 RESPECT FOR INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY
- Give proper acknowledgement or
credit for all contributions to the
research
 CONFIDENTIALITY
- Protect confidential
communications and personal
information of the respondents
  SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
- Strive to promote social good
and prevent or mitigate social
harms
 COMPETENCE
- Maintain and improve your own
professional competence and
expertise
 LEGALITY
- Know and obey relevant laws
and institutional and
governmental policies
 ANIMAL CARE
- Do not conduct unnecessary or
poorly designed animal
experiments
 HUMAN SUBJECTS PROTECTION
- ¬minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits
ETHIC PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH
 RESPECT FOR PERSONS
- RESPECT FOR AUTONOMY:
those who are capable of
deliberation about their personal
choices should be treated with
respect
- PROTECTION OF PERSONS
WITH IMPAIRED OR DIMINISHED
AUTHORITY: those who are
dependent/vulnerable be
afforded security against abuse
 BENEFICENCE
- Ethical obligation to maximize
benefits and to minimize harm
 JUSTICE
- Ethical obligation to treat each
person in accordance with what
is morally right and proper
 VULNERABILITY
- Special provision must be made
for the protection, rights, and
welfare of vulnerable persons
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
1. INTRODUCTION
 Establishes the background of the
topic or problem
 Emphasizes the importance or
objectives of the study
 Indicates existing gaps in knowledge
 Research questions and research
impediment
 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- Purpose and reason behind the
conduct of the study
 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
- Research problems or questions
that the research is trying to
solve
- Clearly and precisely articulated
- Clearly states the variables,
population, and research setting
under study
- Variables are expressed in
measurable terms
 - The type of study may also be
included
 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
- Outlines the intention behind the
paper
- Goals that the researcher sets to
obtain from his study or wanted
to achieve through this study
- Expected solution to problems
- Should be clear and specific
- GENERAL OBJECTIVE: overall
statement of the goal of the
study
- SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE: specific
aspects of the topic that the
researcher wants to investigate
within the main framework of his
study
- RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:
declarative statement of how
you expect the research to turn
to; possible answer to your
research question
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- Identifies who will benefit and
how will they benefit from it
- States the contribution of the
study in the society
 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
- Identifies all the things that the
study will cover or discuss and
the things it will not cover
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
 Foundation of the research
 Data are taken from journals and
other reference materials
 Requires skills in summarizing,
paraphrasing, and writing indirect
phrases
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 States the kind of research approach
used by your study
 Answers why the method used is
appropriate for the study
 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT
 RESPONDENTS
- Organisms involved and where
and how they will be procured
 DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
- Narrates the process undergone
by the study that eventually leads
to the findings
 STATISTICAL TREATMENT APPLIED
- Statistical treatment that will be
used including the sampling
method and the formula
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
 States main findings or results, the
argument, or what was
accomplished
 Establishes interconnection between
and among data
 Analyzes, interprets or extend
results, draws inferences, points to
 applications or wider implications
 Checks for indicators whether
hypotheses are supported or not by
findings
 States statistical descriptions in
declarative sentences
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION/S, AND
RECOMMENDATION/S
 SUMMARY
- Summarizes the interpretation of
major data or findings discussed
in the results and discussions
 CONCLUSION/S
- Provides the answers for every
statement of the problem
- Hypotheses and assumptions
are proven
 RECOMMENDATION/S
- Recommended actions that
should be done after conducting
the study
OTHER PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
1. TITLE PAGE
 Title of the research paper, complete
name of the author/s, date of
completion
2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Contains the accurate paging of
each part of the research paper
3. LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES,
APPENDICES
 Contains the accurate paging of the
tables/figures used in the study
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 Personal page where the
researchers are given the
chance/privilege to extend gratitude
to all people who helped in
accomplishing the research
5. ABSTRACT
 Presents a summary of the research
 Aims to provide the reader with the
most important information from the
entire paper
 Fully self-contained, capsule
description of the paper
 300 words or less
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Presents a complete list of sources
used in the paper
7. APPENDICES
 Attachments
 Survey questionnaires, interview
questions
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO EVALUATE
SOURCES OF INFORMATION?
 To deluge information
 Not all listed online and/or
presented on print have produced
reliable results
 Some information are not recent or
have been superseded by latter
findings
  Academic writing requires credible
sources that are valid and useful for
specific purposes
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF A VALID SOURCE
 AUTHOR
- What are his/her credentials?
- Is he/she affiliated with
respected
institutions/organizations?
 DATE OF PUBLICATION
- Is it current or up-to-date?
- Is it published within the 5-year
time frame?
 EDITION OR REVISION
- Were there other editions that
may have revisions or changes
by the author?
- If online, do pages indicate
revision dates?
 PUBLISHER
- Is it published by a university
press or educational institution?
 TITLE OF THE JOURNAL
- Is it from a scholarly or popular
journal?
 INTENDED AUDIENCE
- Who are its intended audience?
Specialized or general?
- Does it use a language suited to
your particular need?
 OBJECTIVE REASONING
- Are the information facts,
opinions or propaganda?
- Are the information valid and
well-researched? Are they
supported by evidence?
- Are the ideas and arguments
advanced or more or less in line
with other works?
WHY DOCUMENT SOURCES?
 It is important to give credit to the
source of the information you used
in your paper. It is one way of
showing respect and gratefulness to
the original author of the text.
 If you do not acknowledge your
source, you commit an academic
crime.
 Putting another person’s words or
ideas in your paper without proper
documentation is like claiming them
as your own. It is called intellectual
dishonesty or PLAGIARISM.
DOCUMENTATION GUIDE
 Documenting sources is an essential
part of doing research. As you
collect information on your subject,
you should:
- Keep track of sources from
which you drew quotes and ideas
- Cite these sources inside your
text and use them to create a
REFERENCES section at the end
of your document
COMMONLY DOCUMENTED MATERIALS
 Quotes or ideas taken from
 someone else’s work publication)

 Materials that support your idea  REFERENCES OR BIBLIOGRAPHIC

ENTRY
 Sources of any data or facts
- An alphabetized list of authors
 Materials that refer to your subject and their work’s title and
publication information. It is
 Historical sources in your subject
located at the last part of any
 Graphics taken from online or print academic paper
sources
LITERATURE REVIEW
EXAMPLES OF OUTSIDE SOURCES
 Literature review according to Wang
 Books & Park (2016) refers to collecting,
analyzing, synthesizing, reflecting,
 Web sites and grouping existing knowledge on
the topic and relating it to the study
 Periodicals at hand.

 Newspapers and magazines  The purpose of the literature review

is to “identify questions or areas in
 Materials from electronic databases
need of more research.”
 Radio or television programs
 The literature review can: “(1) point
 Films, plays and other performances ways to do research; (2) find out
principal theories, major empirical
 Interviews research findings, and research
methods; (3) show potential pitfalls.”
 Speeches
 FUNCTIONS OF REVIEWING THE
 Letters and correspondences, LITERATURE
including their sources
- It shares with the reader the
 Government data results of other studies that are
closely related to the study being
TWO PARTS TO DOCUMENTATION
reported (Fraenkel & Wallen,
 IN-TEXT CITATION 1990)

- Used or incorporated in the text - It relates a study to the larger,

(parenthetical reference) to ongoing dialogue in the literature
guide the reader in its correct about a topic, filling in gaps and
source listing in the References extending prior studies (Marshall
section & Rossman, 1989)

- Format: (Author & year of - It provides a framework or

 establishing the importance of
the study, as well as a
benchmark for comparing the
results of a study with other
findings (Creswell 1994, 20-21)
FORMS OF REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
 THEORETICAL REVIEW
- researcher focuses on surviving
theory that relates to the
problem being studied
- Demonstrates best in journal
articles
 METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW
- An actual critique of the
strengths and weaknesses of the
method sections
- Found in dissertations and
review of related literature
section in journal articles
 INTEGRATIVE REVIEW
- Summaries of past research
Found in dissertation proposals and
dissertations
DOING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Establish the priority for searching
the literature (Journal articles,
Books, and Conference papers)
2. Delimit the scope of your literature
review Introduce the sections to be
found. Provide a summary.
3. Decide on what reference style to
use “ Proper documentation is more
than just good form. It is a powerful
indicator of your own commitment
to scholarship and the sense of
authority that you bring to your
writing.” Scott & Garrison (1998,
p.90)
 THE BIG THREE OR THREE MAIN
SCHOOL OF STYLE
- APA American Psychological
Association
- MLA Modern Language
Association
- CMS Chicago Manual of Style
(Turabian)
4. Organize a visual research map of
the literature
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION (APA)
 Preference of the social sciences –
sociology, psychology, medicine or
social work
 6th edition
MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA)
 Preference of the humanities –
artists, English majors, and theatre
students
 8th edition
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (CMS)
 Turabian
 Predominantly seen in the
humanities among literature
students and those who study
advanced segments of history
and/or the arts
  16th edition
FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK FOR THE REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- Contained in the research
statement of question
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- Contained in the literature review
 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
- Contained in the methodology
review
 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
- Contained in the data analysis
chapter presented in the thesis
or report of the research
STRUCTURE OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
1. INTRODUCTION
 Introduction to the chapter, nothing
else, nothing more; it should
thoroughly and succinctly introduce
the reader the content of the chapter
and to the main argument to be
developed in the literature review. It
is the first sub-section of the
chapter.
2. BODY
 Here, the theoretical framework is
presented. The main sections are
each developed into individual
subheadings, which are derived from
the conceptual framework and the
reading of the literature undertaken
for the review. Each subheading is
carefully conceptualized and
developed to reflect the content of
that sub-section. It should contain a
carefully developed, cogently
expressed and well-laid our
argument. Each section contains 2-5
paragraphs, with substantial amount
of information. Each subsequent
section further develops the main
argument presented in the literature
review.
3. SYNTHESIS
 The synthesis is the summary of the
chapter, nothing else and nothing
more. It should thoroughly and
succinctly summarize the chapter
and the main argument of the
chapter for the reader. Use journal
articles to find brief and succinct
chapter introduction and summaries,
which you may use as models.
 Connect and group relevant research
based on common themes or trends
 Each paragraph should discuss one
specific trend, not one specific
author
 Literature reviews are not annotated
bibliographies: they should not have
one paragraph per source unless
that source is especially formative to
the writer’s study
 Take note of key terms, key
statistics, useful quotes, emphases,
strengths/weaknesses, major
trends/patterns, gaps, relationships
 among studies
 The topic sentences in a literature
review should illustrate the
connection across multiple studies
 PHRASES TO HIGHLIGHT
AGREEMENT
- “One trend in the research is….”
- “Research seems to agree that....”
- “Numerous authors support the
claim that….”
- “There is strong convergent
evidence for....”
 PHRASES TO HIGHLIGHT
DISAGREEMENT
- “The evidence on X is mixed
for....”
- “There is overall debate
regarding....”
- “A lack of consensus exists on
the point of…”
- “There are two conflicting camps
on the issue of….”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 “A good bibliography is a resource
for any scholar interested in the
topic of the research and helps
demonstrate the scholarship of
project and its researcher.” (2016,
Research Methods)
 A bibliography is a list of sources
(books, journals, Web sites,
periodicals, etc.) one has used for
researching a topic.
 Bibliographies are sometimes called
"References" or "Works Cited"
depending on the style format you
are using.
 A bibliography usually just includes
the bibliographic information (i.e.,
the author, title, publisher, etc.)
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
 An ANNOTATION is a summary
and/or evaluation.
 An ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
includes a summary and/or
evaluation of each of the sources.
 The annotation may be one or more
of the following:
- SUMMARIZE: Some annotations
merely summarize the source.
What are the main arguments?
What is the point of this book or
article? What topics are covered?
If someone asked what this
article/book is about, what would
you say?
- ASSESS: After summarizing a
source, it may be helpful to
evaluate it. Is it a useful source?
How does it compare with other
sources in your bibliography? Is
the information reliable? Is this
source biased or objective? What
is the goal of this source?
- REFLECT: Once you've
summarized and assessed a
source, you need to ask how it
fits into your research. Was this
source helpful to you? How does
it help you shape your argument?
 How can you use this source in  Experimental,
your research project? Has it Non-Experimental, or
changed how you think about Quasi-Experiment
your topic?
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 BASED ON NUMBER OF CONTACTS
RESEARCH STUDY DESIGN
- CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
 A plan, structure, and strategy of
investigation so conceived as to • Also known as
obtain answers to research question ONE-SHOT or STATUS
or problems STUDIES

 A blueprint or detailed plan for how a • The most commonly

research study is to be completed: used design in the social
operationalizing variables so they sciences
can be measured, selecting a • Best suited to studies
sample of interest to study, aimed to finding out the
collecting data to be used as a basis prevalence of a
for testing hypotheses, and phenomenon, situation,
analyzing the results problem, attitude, or
issue by taking a
 A RESEARCH STUDY DESIGN
cross-section of the
SHOULD PROVIDE:
population
- TYPE OF RESEARCH APPROACH
- BEFORE-AND-AFTER
 APPLICATION: basic or
• Also known as the
applied
PRE-TEST/POST-TEST
 OBJECTIVES: descriptive, design
explanatory, exploratory,
• Can measure change in a
or correlational
situation, issue, problem,
 INQUIRY: qualitative or or attitude
quantitative
• Most appropriate design
- NAME OF THE STUDY DESIGN for measuring the impact
or the effectiveness of a
 Cross-Sectional, program
Before-and-After, or
Longitudinal - LONGITUDINAL

• To determine the pattern

 Retrospective or
of change in relation to
Prospective
time
 • Useful when you need to time to produce – the
collect factual change
information on a
continuing basis • A relationship is studied
starting from the cause
• Can be seen as a series to establish the effects
of repetitive
cross-sectional studies • TRUE EXPERIMENT

 Regarded as the most

 BASED ON THE REFERENCE PERIOD
accurate form of
- RETROSPECTIVE experimental research

• Investigation of a past  Tries to prove or disprove

phenomenon, situation, a hypothesis
problem, or issue mathematically
(statistical analysis)
• The data available for
that period or the  Only one variable is
respondents’ recall of the manipulated and tested
situation is the basis of
- NON-EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
data collection
• The researcher observing
- PROSPECTIVE
a phenomenon and
• Refer to the likely attempting to establish
prevalence of a what caused it
phenomenon, situation,
• A relationship is studied
problem, attitude, or
from the effect to trace
outcome in the future
the cause
• Aims to establish the
- QUASI-EXERIMENTAL STUDY
outcome of an event or
what is likely to happen • Involves selecting groups,
upon which a variable is
 BASED ON THE NATURE OF
tested, without any
INVESTIGATION
pre-selection processes
- EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
• Takes advantage of
• The researcher natural occurrences
introducing the (involves on-field
intervention that is experimentations)
assumed to be the cause
• Time and resources are
of change, and waiting
much reduced
until it has produced – or
has been given sufficient QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
 • CASE STUDY
- A case could be an individual, a
group, a community, an instance,
an episode, an event, a subgroup
of a population, a tow, or a city
- A very useful design when
exploring an area where little is
known or where you want to
have a holistic understanding of
the situation, phenomenon,
episode, site, group, or
community
• FOCUS-GROUP OR INDIVIDUAL
INTERVIEWS
- A form of strategy in which
attitudes, opinions, or
perceptions towards an issue,
product, service, or program are
explore through a free and open
discussion between the
members of a group and the
researcher
• OBSERVATIONAL
- A research in which the
researcher observes ongoing
behavior
• COMMUNITY DISCUSSION FORUMS
- Designed to find opinions,
attitudes, and/or ideas of a
community with regard to
community issues and problems
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
• SAMPLING
- Statistical process of selecting a
subset (sample) of a population
of interest for purposes of
making observations and
statistical inferences about that
population
• POPULATION
- The group that you want to
generalize to
• STAGES IN THE SAMPLING
PROCESS
1. Defining the target population
2. Choosing a sample frame
3. Choosing a sample from the
sampling frame using a
well-defined sampling technique
a. Probability (random)
Sampling
 A technique in which
every unit in the
population has a chance
of being selected in the
sample which can be
accurately determined
b. Nonprobability Sampling
• PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
- SIMPLE RANDOM
 Random sample from a
whole population
 Highly representative if all
subjects participate
 Not possible without
complete list of
population members
 Potentially uneconomical
 to achieve
 Time-scale may be too
long (data/sample could
change)
- STRATIFIED RANDOM
 Random sample from
identifiable groups
(strata), subgroups, etc.
 Can ensure that specific
groups are represented,
even proportionally, in the
sample/s by selecting
individuals from strata
list
 More complex
 Requires greater effort
than simple random
 Strata must be carefully
defined
- CLUSTER
 Random samples of
successive clusters of
subjects until small
groups are chosen as
units
 Possible to select
randomly when no single
list of population
members exists but local
lists do
 Clusters in a level must
be equivalent but some
natural ones are not for
essential characteristics
- STAGED
 Combination of cluster
and random or stratified
random sampling of
individuals
 Can make up probability
sample by random at
stages and within groups
 Complex and combines
limitations of cluster and
stratified random
sampling
• DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE
- n = N/1 + Ne²
DATA COLLECTION/EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
• DATA COLLECTION METHODS
- PRIMARY SOURCES
 QUESTIONNAIRE
 Mailed Questionnaire
 Collective Questionnaire
 INTERVIEWING
 Structured
 Unstructured
 OBSERVATION
 Participant
 Non-Participant
- SECONDARY SOURCES
 DOCUMENTS
 Government Publications
 Earlier Research
  Census
 Personal Records
 Client Histories
 Service Records
• QUESTIONNAIRE
- Written list of questions, the
answers to which are recorded
by respondents
- It is important that the questions
are clear and easy to understand
- FORMULATING EFFECTIVE
QUESTIONS
 Always use simple and
everyday language
 Do not use ambiguous
questions
 Do not ask
double-barrelled
questions
 Do not ask leading
questions
 Do not ask questions that
are based on
presumptions
DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
• METHODS OF ANALYSIS
- STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
 DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
 Used to describe the data
gathered
 FREQUENCIES
 RANGES
 MEANS
 MODES
 MEDIANS
 STANDARD DEVIATION
 INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS
 The researcher is trying
to reach conclusions that
extend beyond the data
 Used to infer, based on
the study of a sample of
a population, what the
entire population might
think, or do
- THEMATIC ANALYSIS
DATA ANALYSIS
• Process of understanding data or
known facts or assumptions serving
as the basis of any claims or
conclusions you have about
something
• Used to name the table of responses
that consists of the table of cases
and their associated variables
- PROFILE MATRIX
 Shows measurements of
variables or factors for a
set of causes or
respondents
- PROXIMITY MATRIX
 Indicates measurements
 of similarities and
differences between
items
 SIMILARITY MATRIX: if
the measurements show
how alike things are
 DISSIMILARITY MATRIX:
if the measurements
show how different
things are
- Any operation done on the data
such as gathering and managing
it
- Data gathered may be processed
using computer programs and
presented in textual, tabular, and
graphical formats
WAYS TO PRESENT DATA
• TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
- Uses statements with numerals
or numbers to describe data
- Includes reporting key findings
under each main theme or
category
- May use applicable verbatim
quotes to describe those
findings
• TABULAR PRESENTATION
- A TABLE is a systematic
arrangement of related data in
which a row is designated to
each group of numerical data
and a column of each subgroup
- Its purpose is to facilitate the
analysis, the interpretation, and
the making of inferences and
implications of the relationships
of the grouped data
- Provide information about
personal or demographic
information of the research
subjects or settings
- Compares groups under one
theme
• GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
- May represent individual
categories and descriptive
statistics
FOUR STAGES OF ANALYSIS
• Description
• Interpretation
• Conclusion/s
• Theorization
HOW WILL THE RESEARCHER INTERPRET
THE DATA GATHERED?
1. Extend the analysis by asking
questions
2. Link results to personal experiences
3. Ask for advice from colleagues
4. Contextualize findings in the
literature
5. Direct to theory
CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION/S,
AND RECOMMENDATION/S
• SUMMARY
- Recaps the research problems,
 methodology, and findings
• CONCLUSION/S
- Are abstractions generated from
the findings that answer the
specific questions
- Are inferences, implications,
interpretations, general
statements, an/or
generalizations based upon the
results or findings of the study
- Can be addressed to individuals,
agencies, institutions, or offices
to whom or which in a proper
position to implement them
- Should be for further research on
the same topic and can cover
other places to confirm and
validate the study

- Should properly answer the

specific questions presented at
the start of the investigation

- Should be expressed in a
concise statement that conveys
all the important information

- Should be stated in a strong,

clear, and definite manner

- Should pertain only to the

subject or topic of the study

- Should not include repetitions of

the statement in the study

• RECOMMENDATION/S

- Suggestive statements that put

the research findings into
practical utility of the
stakeholders

- Should aim to solve problems

discovered in the study

- Should be based only within the

context of the research problem

- Should be doable, attainable, and

practical as well as logical,
rational, and valid