UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Health Sciences Education

Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology/Medical Laboratory Science

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)

Course/Subject: MT 212/L BIOSTATISTICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

Name of Teacher: JUNELLE P. SILGUERA, RMT

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS
INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF
THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE
COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
 Table of Contents

Page No.

Course Outline Policies 2

Course Information 6

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO)

Metalanguage 7
Essential Knowledge 8
Let’s Check 35
Let’s Analyze 35
In a Nutshell 36

Week 4-6: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO)

Metalanguage 39
Essential Knowledge 40
Let’s Check 54
Let’s Analyze 54
In a Nutshell 57

Week 7-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO):

Metalanguage 58
Essential Knowledge 59
Let’s Check 69
Let’s Analyze 70
In a Nutshell 72
 Course Outline: MT 212/L -
Biostatistics and Epidemiology

Course Facilitator : Junelle P. Silguera, RMT

Email : jsilguera@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation : Done by online (LMS) or thru text, emails or calls
Mobile : +63 909 896 4861
Phone : 305-06-45 (117)
Effectivity Date : August 2021
Mode of Delivery : Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame :
Student Workload : Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites : MT 121/L; MT 122/L
Credit : 2.0 Lecture and 1-unit Laboratory (3.0 units)
Attendance Requirements : For online sessions: A minimum of 95% attendance is
required at all scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
On site laboratory activities: 100% attendance

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours
This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual
sessions. The expected number of hours will be 36
hours for the Lecture component and 54 hours for the
laboratory including the face to face or virtual
sessions. The face to face sessions shall include the
skills laboratory and summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for Medical Technologists.

Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th,

7 and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper
th

shall be attached with a cover page indicating the

title of the assessment task (if the task is
performance), the name of the Course Facilitator,
date of submission and name of the student. The
document should be emailed to the Course

Turnitin Submission (if necessary)
Penalties for Late
Assignments/Assessments
Return of Assignments/Assessments
Facilitator. It is also expected that you already paid
your tuition and other fees before the submission of
the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through
the features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the Course Facilitator.
To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed.
This means that if your paper goes beyond 30%,
thestudents will either opt to redo her/his paper or
explainin writing addressed to the Course Facilitator
the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper
has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in
accordance with the University’s OPM on
Intellectual and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as
cheating and commissioning other students or people
to complete the task for you have severe
punishments (reprimand, warning, expulsion).
The score for an assessment item submitted after the
designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper
has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the Course Facilitator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
weeks after the submission. This will be returned by
email or via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the Course Facilitator
will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the
Course Facilitator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on
the student’s failure to comply with the similarity
index and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g. illness, accidents financial constraints.

Re-marking of Assessment Papers You should request in writing addressed to the

and Appeal program coordinator your intention to appeal or
contest the score given to an assessment task. The
letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points to
contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the
students on the approval and disapproval of the
request. If disapproved by the Course Facilitator, you
can elevate your case to the program head or the
dean with the original letter of request. The final
decision will come from the dean of the college.

Grading System A. Lecture Component:

Class Participation 40%
Assignment = 05%
Quizzes = 10%
Recitation = 10%
Research = 15%
Examinations 60%
First Exam = 10%
Second Exam = 10%
Third Exam = 10%
Final Exam = 30%
TOTAL 100% X 40%
B. Laboratory Component:
Class Participation 50%
Quizzes = 10%
Lab Exercises = 40%
Examinations 50%
First Exam = 15%
Second Exam = 15%
Final Exam = 20%
TOTAL 100% X 60%

Final Grade: 100%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.

Preferred Referencing Style APA 6th Edition.

Student Communication
Contact Details of the Dean
Contact Details of the Program Head
Students with Special Needs
Online Tutorial Registration
Instructional Help Desk
You are required to create umindanao email account
which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal. Then, the Course Facilitator shall enrol the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the Course Facilitator in person
through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student
email, please contact the Course Facilitator or
program head.
Ofelia C. Lariego, RN,MAN
Email: ofelia_lariego@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)305-0640/300-0647 Local 117
Roel Nickelson M. Solano
Email: roel_solano@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 117
Students with special needs shall communicate with
the Course Facilitator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
the Course Facilitator with the approval of the
Program Head may provide alternative assessment
tasks or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative
assessment tasks should still be in the service of
achieving the desired course learning outcomes.
TBA
Ofelia C. Lariego
ofelia_lariego@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082)305-0640/300-0647 Local 117
CHSE LMS Administrators:
1. Dennis C. Padernilla, RN MN
dennis_padernilla@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050645 loc. 117
2. Sean Cayco, RPh
sean_cayco@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 117
Library Contact Details
Well-being Welfare Support Help
Desk Contact Details
Brigida E. Bacani (LIC Head)
library@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone. No. 305-06-45 loc. 140
LIC Help Desk: 0951-376-6681
Ronadora E. Deala, RPm, RPsy, LPT, RGC
(GSTC Head)
ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone No. 221-0190 loc 130

Patricia Karyl Ambrocio (CHSE Guidance

Facilitator)
pk.ambrosio1015@gmail.com
Mobile No. 0966-331-7365

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello, future Registered Medical Technologist! Welcome to the course MT
212/L: Biostatistics and Epidemiology. Today, you chose to study the field of Medical
Laboratory Science and that you have visualized yourself learning Biostatistics and
Epidemiology. This will allow them to achieve a high level of administrative and technical
competence in field of Medical Technology/ Medical Laboratory Science, pursue lifelong
learning and participate in community-oriented projects and occupy key positions in the field of
research and other relevant areas of Medical Technology/ Medical Laboratory Science.

CO Biostatistics and Epidemiology for Medical Laboratory Science is intended for the future
Registered Medical Technologists. Biostatistics and Epidemiology deals with the fundamentals
of basic statistics and concepts of epidemiology. This course will help the students understand
the concept of epidemiology and apply basic statistics in their related studies.

Let us begin!

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to:

a. Distinguish the History of Epidemiology; enumerate and define the steps in Scientific
Method; list the components of Epidemiologic Triad and Chain of Infection; and differentiate
Epidemiologist to Clinician.
 b. Define Statistics; define the types of data; Differentiate Descriptive Statistics to Inferential
Statistics; and define Biostatistics; define Demography; discuss the Population Pyramid; and
describe the four stages to the classical demographic transition model.

c. Define Descriptive Statistics; differentiate Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio and Interval; describe all
the terms under Descriptive Statistics; define Inferential Statistics; discuss hypothesis; and
define other terms under Inferential Statistics.

Big Picture in Focus:

ULO 1.

a. Distinguish the History of Epidemiology; enumerate and define the steps in

Scientific Method; list the components of Epidemiologic Triad and Chain of
Infection; and differentiate Epidemiologist to Clinician.

b. Define Statistics; define the types of data; Differentiate Descriptive Statistics to

Inferential Statistics; and define Biostatistics; define Demography; discuss the
Population Pyramid; and describe the four stages to the classical demographic
transition model.

c. Define Descriptive Statistics; differentiate Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio and

Interval; describe all the terms under Descriptive Statistics; define Inferential
Statistics; discuss hypothesis; and define other terms under Inferential Statistics.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the course and to demonstrate
ULO 1 will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the
content of this course. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the
in understanding concepts of Biostatistics and Epidemiology
.
Agent- originally referred to an infectious microorganism or pathogen: a virus, bacterium,
parasite or other microbe
Statistics- branch of Mathematics that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and organization of data that will eventually lead to practical utilization and
translation of data to meaningful and purposive actions or deeper and broader appreciation of
realities

Pattern- occurrence of health-related events by time, place and person

Quantitative data- data that can be measured (quantitated) and can be written down numerically

Inferential statistics- Draws conclusions from data that are subject to random variation

Demography- study of human population dynamics

Essential Knowledge

INTRODUCTION TO EPIDEMIOLOGY

Hippocrates
• First to examine the relationships between the occurrence of disease and environmental
influences
• He coined the terms “endemic” and “epidemic”
John Snow
• Tried to investigate the occurrence of cholera in London
• Began his investigation with noticing the significantly higher death rates in two areas
supplied by the company named Southwark Company
• His identification of water pump in Broad Street as the cause of the epidemic is
considered the classic example of epidemiology
• He used chlorine in an attempt to clean the water and removed the handle; this resulted to
the end of the end of the outbreak
Epidemiology
• The word epidemiology comes from the Greek words epi, meaning on or upon, demos,
meaning people, and logos, meaning the study of.
• Has its roots in the study of what befalls a population
• The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in
specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems
• Involves processes and methodologies particularly anchored on the Scientific Method or
Scientific Inquiry
Principles of Epidemiology
• Distribution
• Epidemiology is concerned with frequency and pattern of health events in a
population
• Frequency
• Number of health events
• Relationship of that number to the size of the population
• To compare disease occurrence across different populations
• Pattern
 • Occurrence of health-related events by time, place and person
• Time patterns- weekly, monthly, annually
• Place patterns- urban/rural differences, and location of work sites or schools
Epidemiology
• Distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations,
and the application of this study to the control of health problems.

• Determinants
• Include factors that influence health: biological, chemical, physical, social,
cultural, economic, genetic and behavioral

Determinant
• Any factor, whether event, characteristic, or other definable entity, that brings about
change in a health condition or other defined characteristic.
• In public health, one type of determinant is given a lot of emphasis and importance: the
social determinants of health (SDOH)
• SDOH are the economic and social conditions and their distribution among the
population that influence individual and group differences in health status
Prevalence
• Measurement of all individuals affected by the disease at a particular time
• Formula:
Prevalence rate = number of cases / total number of population
Example: In a community of 24 individuals, 5 of them have been observed to manifest the
symptoms of Measles while others appear to be healthy. Given this information, what is the
prevalence rate of Measles?

Agent
 • Originally referred to an infectious microorganism or pathogen: a virus, bacterium,
parasite or other microbe
• Must be present for disease to occur
• Variety of factors influence whether exposure to an organism will result disease,
including the organism’s pathogenicity (ability to cause disease) and dose
• Overtime, the concept of agent has been broadened to include chemical and physical
causes of disease or injury
• Chemical contaminants (such as the L-tryptophan contaminant responsible for
eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome)
• Physical forces (such as repetitive mechanical forces associated with carpal tunnel
syndrome)
Host
• Refers to human who can get the disease
• A variety of factors intrinsic to the host, sometimes called risk factors, can influence an
individual’s exposure, susceptibility or response to a causative agent
• Opportunities for exposure are often influenced by behaviour such as sexual practices,
hygiene and other personal choices as well as by age and sex
• Susceptibility and response to an agent are influenced by genetic factors such as: genetic
composition, nutritional and immunological status, anatomic structure, presence of
disease or medications and psychological makeup
Environment
• Refers to extrinsic factors that affect the agent and the opportunity for exposure
• Include physical factors such as geology and climate, biological factors such as insects
that transmit the agent, and socioeconomic factors such as crowding, sanitation and the
availability of health services

• Health-related states or events

• Epidemics of communicable diseases
• Endemic communicable diseases
• Non-communicable diseases
• Specified populations
 • The epidemiologist is concerned about the collective health of the people in a
community
• Application
• Promote
• Protect
• Restore health

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Statistics
• Science of making sense of information and data around us
• Measure of characteristic or attribute of a group of people or a sample of population
• Branch of Mathematics that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation,
and organization of data that will eventually lead to practical utilization and translation of
data to meaningful and purposive actions or deeper and broader appreciation of realities
• The science and art of dealing with variation of data in order to obtain reliable results and
conclusions. It involves data collection, analysis, interpretation and drawing out
conclusions.
2 Major Divisions of Statistics
1. Mathematical Statistics- study and development of statistical theory and methods in the
abstract
2. Applied Statistics- the application of statistical methods to solve real problems involving
randomly generated data and the development of new statistical methodology motivated
by real problems
Logical Presentation of Research Problem
 • Data
• Appropriate collection
• Presentation
• Goal: Understandable
• Analyze and Interpret
• Statistical Analysis
• Interpretation
• Discussion
• Pragmatic Discussion
• Giving meaning
• Answer to the Problem
• Addresses the problem

Data
• Types of Data
• Source
• Primary
• Secondary
• Relationship
• Independent
 • Dependent
• Use
• Nominal- classification, no order
• Ordinal- ranking; no absolute value but only order; discrete
• Interval- score/mark; no absolute zero
• Continuous- has absolute zero, continuous
• Ratio Data- Difference between measurements, true zero exists; Examples: height, age,
weekly food spending
• Interval Data- Differences between measurement but no true zero; Examples: temperature
in Farenheit, standard exam score
• Ordinal Data- Ordered categories (ranking, order or scaling); Examples: service quality
rating, student letter grades
• Nominal Data- Categories (no ordering or direction); Examples: Marital status, type of
car owned

Nominal Data
• Neither measurable or ranked but simply categorized or classified
• Numerical values may be assigned to these data but they don’t hold any mathematical
value
• Nominal type of data would help answer the question: “Is A different from B?”
• Examples: Names, Address or Student’s course
Ordinal Data
• Shown simply in order of magnitude since there is no standard of measurement of
differences.
• While can be ranked, they do not allow for relative degree of difference between them.
• Ordinal data would help answer the question: “How is A bigger than B?”
• Examples: dichotomous data (guilty or not guilty) and non-dichotomous data (completely
agree, mostly agree, mostly disagree and completely disagree)
Internal Data
• Data that belong to a scale according to which the differences between values can be
quantified in absolute but not relative terms and for which any zero is merely arbitrary.
• This allows the degree of difference between item, but not the ratio between them
• Interval data would help answer the question: “By how many units do A and B differ?”
• Example: is Celsius scale
Ratio Data
• Permits the comparison of differences of values
• Ratio data would answer the question: “How many times bigger than B is A?”
• Examples: Distance, Kelvin scale, weight and height
2 Major Types of Data
1. Quantitative data- data that can be measured (quantitated) and can be written down
numerically
2. Qualitative data- are descriptive data, difficult to measure or count and cannot be written
down numerically
2 Classifications of Quantitative Data
1. Discrete
2. Continuous
Discrete Data
• Is a count that can’t be made more precise
• Examples: number of patients admitted in the hospital, number of patients who visited the
OPD
Continuous Data
• Could be divided and reduced to finer and finer levels
• Example: measurements
Variable
• Any entity that can take on different values
• Anything that can vary can be considered variable
• Example: age (can take different values for different people or for the same person at
different times)

Sampling

Sampling Techniques
• Random/Probability
• Simple
• Systemic
• K=N/n
• Population/sample
• Stratified Random
• Cluster
• Multi-stage
Non-random/Non probability
• Quota
• Purposive
• Extreme case
• Heterogenous
 • Homogenous
• Critical case
• Typical case
• Snowball
• Self-selection
• Convenience
Sample Size Estimation
• Slovin’s Formula

STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

Descriptive vs Inferential

• Descriptive
• No testing; not drawing conclusion
• Inferential
• Involves hypothesis testing
• Methods of analysis leading to RED to draw conclusions from the determined
hypothesis
• Measures:
• Relationship
• Effects
• Difference
Relationship of variables in a research framework
• Correlational/Relationship
• Prediction/Effect
 • Comparison/Difference

Relationship
(Variables are scale)

Relationship (Variables are nominal)

Comparison (IV: Nominal- DV: Scale)

Comparison (IV: Nominal – DV: Scale)

Effect (IV: Scale-DV: Scale)

DATA ANALYSIS

Types of Analysis

• Descriptive
• Comparative
• Relational
• Predictive

2 Main Methods in Analyzing Data

1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
• Summarize data from a sample
• Most often concerned with (2) sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population):
1. Central tendency- seeks to characterize the distribution’s central or typical value
2. Dispersion- characterizes the extent to which members of the distribution depart from its
center and each other

Inferential Statistics
• Draws conclusions from data that are subject to random variation
• Deals with the analysis of random phenomena

Census
• Method where data will be collected from each member of the population
• Study of every unit, everyone or everything, in a population
• Aka: complete enumeration, which means a complete count
• But in reality, to do census requires a lot of resources, both human and financial
resources. Is there any alternative way?

Sample
• Subset of population that represents the population
• Implies a smaller size than the population, thus lesser resources to use in order to collect
data from the sample

Biostatistics
• Branch of applied statistics directed toward applications in the health sciences and
biology
• An innovative field that involves the design, analysis and interpretation of data for studies
in public health and medicine
• Experts arrive at conclusions about disease and health risks by evaluating and applying
mathematical and statistical formulas to the factors that impact health

John Arburthnot (1665-1735)

• Examined the London Bills of Mortality from earlier years and estimated that the chance
of dying from naturally-occurring smallpox was 1:10
• He then asserted (without evidence) that the chance of dying from inoculation-induced
smallpox was 1:100

James Lind (1716-1794)

• In 1757, Lind (a ship’s surgeon)had to deal with an outbreak of survy
• He selected 12 of the sailors and divided them into six groups of twos
• For the two sailors who received oranges and limes as supplement, there was one
complete and one near recovery
• None of the other five groups improved much
• Regarded as the (modern) Father of the controlled trial
Ola Rosling
• Son of Hans Rosling a Swedish physician, academic statistician and public speaker
• Built the Trendalyzer software to animate data compiled by the UN and he World Bank
that helped him explain the world with graphics
• Convert international statistics into moving, interactive graphics

(2) Ways to Display Summary Statistics

1. Tables- very common; nearly all published studies in medicine and public health contain
a table of basic summary statistics describing their sample
2. Figures- usually better than tables in terms of distilling clear trends from large amounts of
information

Data
• Are observations made on particular elements of a sample or a population
• They could be quantities or attributes of a population or sample that are either measured
or observed through a process of collection for the purpose of analysis.
• Based on how they are collected,data can be primary data or secondary data

Primary data
• Data that are collected from the original source first hand
• They are original data collected specifically for the purpose in mind
• Researchers who collect primary data are usually referred to as field researchers
• Gathered by people who can focus directly on the purpose of mind- this helps ensure that
questions are meaningful to the purpose but can introduce bias in those same questions
• Those who gather primary data get to write the question

• Ultimate goal of statistics is not to summarize the data but to fully understand their
complex relationships
• A well designed statistical graphic helps us explore, and perhaps understand, these
relationships

Secondary data
• Data are collected for another purpose of mind
• Researchers who collect primary data are usually referred to as desk researchers
• Do not have the privilege of this focus but is only susceptible to bias introduced in the
choice of what data to reuse
• Those who gather secondary data get to pick the question

DEMOGRAPHY
– Study of human population dynamics
– Encompasses the study of the size, structure and distribution of populations, and
how populations change over time due to births, deaths, migration and aging
– Demographic analysis can relate to whole societies or to smaller groups defined
by criteria such as education, religion or ethnicity.
– Focus on specific indicators of change
 – Two of the most important indicators are birth and death rates, which are also
referred to as fertility and mortality
– Demographers are interested in migration trends or the movement of people from
one location to another
– Accurate numerical values are often difficult to achieve and thus demographic
understanding of social structures and patterns are continuously shifting in
relation to the availability of more accurate data and measurement techniques.
– Concerned with this essential “numbering of the people” and with understanding
population dynamics– how populations change in response to the interplay
between fertility, mortality and migration
– Population pyramid
– Also called an age pyramid or age picture
– Graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a
population (typically that of a country or region of the world), which forms the
shape of a pyramid when the population is growing
– Often contains continuous stacked-histogram bars
– The population size is depicted on the x-axis (horizontal), and age-groups on y-
axis (vertical)
– Males are conventionally shown on the left and females on the right, and they
may be measured by raw number or as a percentage of the total population.

• Each country will have different or unique population pyramids. However, most
population pyramids will be defined as the following: Stationary, expansive or
constrictive. These types have been identified by the fertility and mortality rates of a
country.
• Knowing the nature of the population, a public health practitioner can design appropriate
health programs and policies that would cater to the unique health needs of the age
groups in the population
• Demographic transition
• Refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death
rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized
economic system
• The theory was proposed in 1929 by the America demographer Warren
Thompson who observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in
industrialized societies over the previous 200 years
• Most developed countries have completed the demographic transition and have
low birth rates, most developing countries are in the process of this transition
• (4) stages to the classical demographic transition model:
• Stage 1 (Pre-transition)
• characterized by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates.
• Population growth was kept low by Malthusian “preventative” (late age at
marriage) and “positive” (famine, war, pestilence) checks
• Population growth is typically very slow in the stage, because the society
is constrained by the available food supply, thus unless the society
develops new technologies to increase food production, any fluctuations in
birth rates are soon matched by death rates
• Stage 2 (Early transition)
• During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall
• As birth rates remain high, the population starts to grow rapidly
• Death rates drop quickly due to improvements in food supply and
sanitation, which increase life expectancies and reduce disease
• The improvements specific to food supply typically include selective
breeding and crop rotation and farming techniques
 • Stage 3 (Late transition)
• Birth rates start to decline due to various fertility factors such as access to
contraception, increase in wages, urbanization, a reduction in subsistence
agriculture, an increase in the status and education of women, a reduction
in the value of children’s work, an increase in parental investment in the
education of children and other social changes
• Population growth begins to level off
• Stage 4 (Post-transition)
• Post-transitional societies are characterized by low birth and low death
rates
• Population growth is negligible, or even enters a decline
• Population change can also be expressed in terms of the components of demographic
change. The components include:
• Fertility
• Mortality
• Migration

Descriptive Statistics
• Used to describe the basic features of the data in a study
• Provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures
• Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually all quantitative
analysis of data
• You are simply describing what is or what the data shows
• Use to present quantitative descriptions in a manageable form
• Help us to simplify large amounts of data in a sensible way
To further understand Descriptive Statistics, let us recall that there are at least four different
types of data that we deal with in research:
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Ratio
4. Interval
Nominal Scales
• Used for labelling variables without any quantitative value
• Simple be called “labels”
• A good way to remember all of this is that “nominal” sounds a lot like “name” and
nominal scales are kind of like “names” or labels
• A sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories (ex. Male/female) is called
“dichotomous”
Ordinal Scales
• It is the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known
• Are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort,
etc.
• “Ordinal” is easy to remember because is sounds like “order” and that’s the key to
remember with “ordinal scales”- it is the order that matters, but that’s al you really get
from these
Interval Scales
• Numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences
between the values
• The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature because the difference
between each value is the same
Ratio Scales
• Ratio variables, on the other hand, never fall below zero. Height and weight measure
from 0 and above, but never fall below it.
Descriptive Statistics
• Univariate Analysis
• Frequency Distributions
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measure of Variability
Frequency Distributions
• Refers to the way observations of a given variable behave in terms of absolute, relative
and cumulative frequencies
• Used in categorical data
• Expression is count
• Ex. Gender
• Male= 36
• Female= 50

Measure of Location
• A Measure of Location summarizes a data set by giving a “typical value” within the
range of the data values that describes its location relative to entire data set.
• Some common measures:
• Minimum, Maximum
• Central Tendency
• Percentiles, Deciles, Quartiles
Frequency distributions can be depicted in two ways:
1. Table
2. graph
3. Types of descriptive statistics:
1. Organized Data
1. Tables
1. Frequency Distributions
2. Relative Frequency Distributions
 2. Graphs
1. Bar Chart or Histogram
2. Stem and Leaf Plot
3. Frequency Polygon
4. Frequency Distribution
1. Refers to way observations of a given variable behave in terms of absolute,
relative and cumulative frequencies
2. Used in categorical data
3. Expressed in count
4. Ex. Gender
1. Male= 36
2. Female= 50
Descriptive Statistics
 • “Yes” means a good choice with this level of measurement.
• “Ok” means ok to use but not the best choice at this level of measurement.
• “No” means not appropriate at this level of measurement.

1. Tabular
2. Graphical
3. Numbers
a) Location
b) Variation
c) Distribution
d)
Table
• Is a set of data arranged in rows and columns
• Almost any quantitative information can be organized into a table
• Useful for demonstrating patterns, exceptions, differences, and other relationships
• Serve as the basis for preparing additional visual displays of data, such as graphs and
charts, in which some of the details may be lost

Bar chart or Bar graph

 • Chart or graph that presents categorical data with rectangular bars with heights or lengths
proportional to the values that they represent
• Can be plotted vertically or horizontally
• Bar charts arranged from highest to lowest incidence are called Pareto Charts
Discrete data
• Based on counts
• Only a finite number of values is possible and the values cannot be subdivided
meaningfully

Continuous data
• Can take any value
• Variable that has an infinite number of possible values
• Can be measured and broken down into smaller parts and still have meaning
• Example: money, temperature and time

Histogram
• Is a plot that lets you discover, and show, the underlying frequency distribution (shape) of
a set of continuous data
To make a histogram, follow these steps:
1. On the vertical axis, place frequencies. Label this axis “Frequency”
2. On the horizontal axis, place the lower value of each interval. Label this axis with the
type of data
3. Draw a bar extending from the lower value of the next interval. The height of each bar
should be equal to the frequency of its corresponding interval

Inferential Statistics
• Is the mathematics and logic of how this generalization from sample to population can be
made
• The fundamental question is: can we infer the population’s characteristics from the
sample’s characteristics?
• Focuses on making statements about the population
• Involves testing hypotheses

Descriptive vs Inferential
• Descriptive
• No testing; not drawing conclusion
• Inferential
• Involves hypothesis testing
• Methods of analysis leading to RED to draw conclusions from the determined
hypothesis
• Measures:
• R- Relationship
• E- Effects
• D- Difference
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Inferential Statistics

• Provides means for drawing conclusions about a population

• Based on
• Probability theory (P)
• P= no. of outcomes/total possible outcomes
• “Hypothesis testing”
• Statistical inference
• Sampling distribution
Hypothesis Testing

• Hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis- H0
• Alternative Hypothesis- H1
• Testing- If the mean is within or outside the area if rejection
• One-tailed/two-tailed= determines the rejection region/acceptance
• One-tailed- outcome is expected to be in single direction
• Two-tailed- outcome is said to be two-directional
• Confidence Interval
• 90%- p <1.0 (0.5 for two-tailed)
• 95%- p <0.05
• 99%- p <0.01
• Values
• Critical- the set cut-off value from statistical table (e.g. t-test 1.96= 95% CI; z-test
2.58 for two tailed)
• Computed- the value from the data collected
• Errors
• Type 1- false positive
• Type 2- false negative
Hypothesis

• Is an educated guess about something in the world around you

• It should be testable, either by experiment or observation
• The goal is usually to reject the null hypothesis
• Null hypothesis- is the null condition: no difference between means or no relationship
between variables; is a statement of the null condition in the population, not the sample

For example:
Ho: mean of males = mean of females
Or another way of saying it,
Ho: There is no difference between the mean of males and the mean of females
Or
Ho: µM=µf
The Greek alphabet letter µ (mu) refers to the population mean. However, we only have a sample
to work with, so we obtain a sample mean, Ẋ (X- bar)

• Random
• Means there is a pattern that becomes apparent only when we examine a large
number of events
• Means there is a pattern that doesn’t show itself in a single case, or a few cases
• Probability
• Study of the patterns of random processes
• Permutation
• Is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects with regard to the order of the
arrangement.
• Combination
• Focuses on the selection of objects without regard to the order in which they are
selected.
• Normal distribution
• Most important and most widely used distribution in statistics
 • Sometimes called the “bell curve”
• Also called the “Gaussian curve” after the mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss
• Standard deviation
• Measure of dispersion of a set of data from its mean
• It is calculated as the square root of variance by determining the variation
between each data point relative to the mean
• 7 features of normal distribution:
• Normal distributions are symmetric around their mean
• The mean, median and mode of a normal distribution are equal
• There area under the normal curve is equal to 1.0
• Normal distributions are denser in the center and less dense in the tails
• Normal distributions are defined by two parameters, the mean (µ) and the
standard deviation (ẟ)
• 68% of the area of a normal distribution is within one standard deviation of the
mean

• Distribution of sample mean

• One kind of distribution we focus on inferential statistics
• It is the collection of sample means for all the possible random samples of a
particular size (n) that can be obtained from a population

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

a) Nillos, B. (2019). Introduction to Biostatistics and Epidemiology. Giuani Printing

Services 24 Panghulo Road, Malabon, Philippines

b) Asaad, A. (2011). Simplified Biostatistics. 1st Edition. 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr., St.,
Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc (RBSI)
c) Calano, R., Cachuela, D., Lapague, M. (2009). Fundamentals of Biostatistics,
Epidemiology and Statistical Information System Text-Workbook. 1st Edition. United
Nations Avenue Ermita, Manila: Educational Publishing House
d) Mc Pherson, R./Pincus, M. (2017). Henry’s Clinical Diagnosis & Management by
laboratory methods. 23rd Ed. China: Elsevier, Inc.
e) Suba, S, C. & Florida, J, F. (2014). STS: Introduction to Medical Technology with
Science, Technology, and Society. Pasig city: Unit 2105-2106 Raffles Corporate Center.
f) Mahon, C. (2015). Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 5th Ed. Elsevier, Inc.
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofmindanao
ebooks/reader.action?docID=4707742&query=immunohematology
Let’s Check

I. Identification

1. It is an educated guess about something in the world around you.

2. It is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects with regard to the order of the
arrangement.
3. It is the mathematics and logic of how this generalization from sample to population can
be made.
4. It summarizes a data set by giving a “typical value” within the range of the data values
that describes its location relative to entire data set.
5. It is the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known.

Let’s Analyze

I. Essay

1. Compare and contrast Descriptive statistics to inferential statistics.

2. Discuss the importance of biostatistics and epidemiology to the identification of

demographic profiles in a community.
In a Nutshell

I. Answer the following questions using the diagram given as your guide.

FIGURE 1.

a. What kind of Population Pyramid is this? Why you say so?

b. What does a steady upward narrowing means?
c. This type of pyramid indicates a population in which there is a:
i. High or low birth rate? Discuss further your answer.
ii. High or low death rate? Discuss further your answer.
iii. Short or long life expectancy? Discuss further your answer.
FIGURE 2.

a. What kind of Population Pyramid is this? Why you say so?

b. A population pyramid showing an/a:
i. unchanging/changing pattern of fertility? Discuss further your answer.
ii. unchanging/changing pattern of mortality? Discuss further your answer
FIGURE 3.

a. What kind of Population Pyramid is this?

b. Make your own comprehensive interpretation of the figure shown above.