Accepted Manuscript

Study of solar chimney in Tunisia: Effect of the chimney

configurations on the local flow characteristics

Abdallah Bouabidi , Ahmed Ayadi , Haytham Nasraoui ,

Zied Driss , Mohamed Salah Abid

PII: S0378-7788(17)33707-6
DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.01.049
Reference: ENB 8309

To appear in: Energy & Buildings

Received date: 10 November 2017

Revised date: 7 January 2018
Accepted date: 9 January 2018

Please cite this article as: Abdallah Bouabidi , Ahmed Ayadi , Haytham Nasraoui , Zied Driss ,
Mohamed Salah Abid , Study of solar chimney in Tunisia: Effect of the chimney configurations on
the local flow characteristics, Energy & Buildings (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.01.049

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

 The chimney configuration is an important parameter to enhance the solar chimney

power plant performance.

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 The chimney configuration has a direct effect on the flow characteristics.

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 The static pressure distribution varies with the chimney configuration.

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 Consequently, the velocity value and distribution are significantly affected by the

chimney configuration.

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Study of solar chimney in Tunisia: Effect of the chimney configurations on the local flow

characteristics

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Abdallah Bouabidi*, Ahmed Ayadi, Haytham nasraoui, Zied Driss,
Mohamed Salah Abid

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Laboratory of Electro-Mechanic Systems (LASEM),
National Engineering School of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax (US),

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B.P. 1173, km 3.5 Soukra, 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
bouabidi_abdallah@yahoo.fr

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Abstract- The electric power production using solar chimney power plant is directly related

to the velocity value along the chimney. In this work, the effect of the chimney configuration
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on the solar chimney power plant performance was investigated. A series of numerical

simulations were conducted to simulate the turbulent flow. An experimental setup was
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developed in Tunisia to carry out several measurements. The comparison between the
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numerical and the experimental results showed a good agreement. The study focused on

studying the solar chimney power plants with: standard, divergent, convergent and opposing
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chimney. The velocity fields, the static pressure, the magnitude velocity and the temperature

distribution were presented and discussed. The results revealed that the chimney form affects
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the air velocity behavior. The maximum velocity emerges with divergent configuration.
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However, the others configurations adjust the maximum velocity location, in the chimney

center for the opposing configuration, and in the chimney top for the convergent

configuration. This variation is due to the static pressure distribution affected the chimney

configuration change.

Keywords: Solar chimney, Chimney configurations, CFD, Numerical analysis, Experiments

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1. Introduction

Increasing the use of the renewable energy is the main objective of the world nowadays. The

solar energy is one of the most important sources of sustainable and renewable energy. Thus,

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an understanding on the solar energy exploitation has become a must. The Solar Chimney

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Power Plant (SCPP) is used to convert the solar energy into mechanical energy in a first step

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and into electrical energy in a second step. The optimizing of these systems is very important

to exploit the solar energy in the optimum conditions. In the literature, several works were

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conducted to evaluate the SCPP performances. In fact, the SCPP efficiency depends on

several parameters, essentially the geometrical parameters and the ambient conditions. In
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different regions of the world, the SCPP power plant was tested since the ambient conditions

vary from one region to another. Moreover, the geometrical parameters effect is also a key
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parameter for optimizing the SCPP performances. The first and the famous prototype of the
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SCPP is the constructed on 1970s in Manzanares, Spain. This prototype is tested and a good

results are obtained as a first preliminary test of the SCPP by [1, 2]. A numerical modeling of
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the laminar heat transfer flow in the SCPP is performed by Chergui et al. [3]. They showed

that the maximum velocity value appears in the chimney inlet. Gholamalizadeh et al. [4]
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developed a three-dimensional unsteady simulation to analyze the fluid flow in the SCPP.
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Particularly, they investigated the relation between the greenhouse effect and the heat transfer

characteristics. They found that the greenhouse effect influences the numerical simulation

results. Cao et al. [5] et al. investigated the effects of the meteorological conditions on the

SCPP performances. They showed that the SCPP efficiency significantly depends on the solar

irradiation than on the ambient temperature. Arce et al. [6] analyzed the air flow inside the

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SCPP system. They revealed that the velocity value depends on the temperature gradient

occurred in the collector. Chitsomboon [7] studied the SCPP system by developing a certain

mathematical model. They concluded that the convergent chimney features the same

performances of the standard chimney. Koonsrisuk [8] investigated the SCPP system with a

sloped collector. They found out that the system efficiency slowly depends on the ratio

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between the inlet and the outlet areas of the collector. Koonsrisuk et al. [9] proposed

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numerous simulations using the “ANSYS-CFX” software to investigate the geometrical

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dimensions effect. Through their analysis, it came out that the most important parameters on

the SCPP systems are the collector diameter and the chimney height. Zhou et al. [10] analyzed

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the chimney effect on the power production. They showed that the chimney height is directly
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related to collector dimensions. Ming et al. [11] conducted a series of numerical simulations

to optimize the chimney dimensions. They optimized the ratio defined by the chimney height
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divided by the chimney diameter. Through their analysis, the optimum ratio ranges from 6 to

8. Kirstein et al. [12] developed a numerical model to analyze the fluid flow in the SCPP
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using the commercial software “ANSYS-CFX”. Their numerical results were compared with

experimental data for the case of scaled model and very good agreement was obtained.
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Tingzhen et al. [13] carried out a series of numerical simulation of the Manzanares prototype
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with a three blades turbine. The numerical results were in good agreement with the

experimental data. The SCPP was also studied by Sangi et al. [14]. They developed a
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mathematical model and numerical model using the “FLUENT” code. All developed models

were validated by comparison with the experimental data. The tower area effect was

investigated by Koonsrisuk and Chitsomboon [15] using CFD simulations. Both of the

standard towers with constant area and with divergent tower were studied. From their

simulations, the divergent convergent is the most efficient configuration since it yields an
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increase of the mass flow rate comparing with the constant area. Bernardes et al. [16]

developed a numerical model of a SCPP and compared their results with experimental data

from the pilot plant at Manzanares. Zhou et al. [17] evaluated the optimal chimney height of

Manzanares prototype. The results showed that, the optimal chimney height and the

maximum power output of Manzanares were 615 m and 102.2 kW, respectively. Using

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numerical and experimental way, Kasaeian et al. [18] studied the SCPP based on their

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experimental prototype. They revealed that the geometrical parameters affect significantly the

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SCPP efficiency. Particularly, they found that the geometrical chimney characteristics:

diameter and height are the most important parameters to enhance the SCPP performances.

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Sangi [19] analyzed the relation between the geometrical parameters and the generated power.
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They revealed that the generated capacity increases with the increase of the chimney height

and the collector area. The effect of the geometrical parameters and the ambient conditions on
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the SCPP efficiency was also evaluated by Pasumarthi and Sherif [20, 21] and Padki and

Sherif [22]. These studies confirmed that the SCPP performances depend on the geometrical
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parameters of the different system components. Yan et al. [23] proposed a series of analytical

simulations to study and characterize the flow inside the solar chimney. Patel et al. [24]
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carried out numerous CFD simulations using the software “Ansys CFX” to investigate the
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effect of several geometrical parameters for a small SCPP prototype. In their study, they kept

chimney height and the collector diameter constant. However, both of the collector inlet
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opening, the collector outlet diameter, chimney divergence angle, and chimney inlet opening

are varied. They showed that all these parameters affect the SCPP performance. The best

SCPP configuration was obtained with a divergence angle chimney equal to 2ᵒ, the chimney

diameter equal to 0.25 m, the collector opening equal to 0.05 m and the collector outlet

diameter equal to 1 m. Hu et al. [25] conducted a series of numerical simulations using the
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commercial code “FLUENT” to analyze the SCPP performance with divergent chimney.

Different cases were investigated. Both of the area ratio, the chimney exit over entrance and

the divergent angle of the chimney were varied in order to study and analyze their effects. The

SCPP was also studied for different sizes. The numerical results showed that all the studied

parameters affect the SCPP performance. Ayadi, et al. [26] investigated the collector roof

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angle effect on the fluid flow behavior inside the SCPP system. The turbulent flow

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characteristics such as: The magnitude velocity distribution, the temperature, the static

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pressure for four collector roof angles:-1.5°, -1°, 0° and 1° were presented and discussed. The

numerical results showed that a negative collector-roof can increase the velocity value inside

the chimney. US
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Through the above studies, it has been noted that the performance of the SCPP is affected by

its geometrical parameters such as the chimney height, the chimney diameter, the collector
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diameter, the collector roof height and the collector roof inclination. However, it has been

noted that there is lack on the study of the chimney configuration effect.
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In this paper, we are interested on the study of the turbulent flow characteristics for a SCPP

prototype developed in Tunisia. Particularly, the chimney configuration effect on the local
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characteristics such as the temperature, the velocity, the static pressure and the turbulence
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characteristics is presented and discussed with validation with our experimental results under

the ambient conditions of Tunisia.

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2. Experiment

2.1. SCPP prototype

In the National Engineers School of Sfax (TUNISIA), an experimental prototype of SCPP is

constructed as depicted in figure 1. Tunisia is considered one of the hottest regions of the

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world in which the SCPP can present an important source of renewable energy. The prototype

is composed from the absorber (1), the collector (2), the support of chimney (3) and the

chimney (4). A polycarbonate pipe with a thickness equal to e=4 mm is used for the chimney,

a wood sheets for the absorber and a plastic covering for the collector.

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The prototype dimensions are given in figure 2. The collector is given by the diameter equal

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to D=2.75 m and the height equal to h=5 cm. The slope angle of the collector is equal to θ=0°.

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The chimney is given by the height equal to H=3 m and the diameter equal to d=16 cm.

3. Numerical model

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The numerical simulation is developed using the “Ansys Fluent” code. The mathematical
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model describing the fluid inside the SCPP is given by the Navier-Stokes and the energy

equations shown respectively as follows [35-36]:

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 1 
 (ru)  (w)  0 (1)
t r r z
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 1  dP 1     u
(u)  (ruu)  (uw)    (r (u))  ( (u))  2 2 (2)
t r r z dr r r r z z r
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 1  dP 1    
(t)  (ruw)  (Vw)    (r (w))  ( (w))  (0  )g (3)
t r r z dy r r r z z
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The energy equation is written as follow:

 1  1     
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(T)  (ruT)  (wT)  (r (T))  ( (T)) (4)

t r r y r r cp r y cp y

The turbulence model used in the numerical simulations is the standard k-ε. The equations of

the turbulent kinetic energy k and the dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy ε are

written as follows:

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[( ) ] ε (5)

ε ε ε
ε ε [( ) ] ε ε ε ε (6)
ε

The turbulent viscosity t (Pa.s) is given by:

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k2
μ t ρCμ

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(7)
ε

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The default values of the constants C1ε, C2ε, C , k and ε are presented in table 1.

C1ε C2ε C
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Table 1. Turbulence model constants

ε
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k

1.44 1.92 0.09 1.0 1.3

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Figure 3 presents the boundary conditions in our numerical simulation. Both of the collector

and the absorber are defined as a wall convective condition with the coefficient h= 8 W.m-2.K-
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. In the collector inlet and the chimney outlet, conditions of pressure inlet and pressure outlet

are imposed.
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4. Geometrical system
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In this study, the simulation is carried out to describe the turbulent flow in the SCPP with four

different configurations; standard chimney, convergent chimney, divergent and opposing

chimney. The different geometries are shown in figure 4. The angle θ of convergence or

divergence is equal to 5 ᵒ.

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5. Numerical results

5.1. Velocity fields

The velocity fields inside the SCPP are presented in figure 5 for the different configurations.

Through these results, it is clear that the distribution of the velocity fields inside the system

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varies with the chimney configuration. The location of the maximum velocity fields inside the

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chimney varies from configuration to another. With the standard chimney, the maximum

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velocity emerges in the chimney inlet and continues to reach an important value along the

chimney close the axis. With the convergent chimney, the maximum value appears just in the

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chimney inlet. In the rest of chimney, the velocity is observed very weak for the case of the

divergent chimney. With convergent chimney, the location of the maximum velocity is totally
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different to the standard chimney. In fact, the velocity is observed weak along the chimney
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and reaches its maximum value in the top. With the opposing chimney, the maximum

velocity seems in the chimney center in the level of diameter reduction. The velocity is
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appears with significant value in the inlet. Then, it decreases and it reaches its maximum in

the center. Then, it decreases again.

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On the other hand, the velocity value is also affected by the chimney configuration. The
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results show that the maximum velocity reaches different values with the chimney form

change. In fact, the divergent chimney gives the very important velocity value. However, the
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convergent chimney is characterized by the minimum velocity value. With the standard

chimney, the maximum velocity is slowly upper than one obtained with the convergent

configuration. With the opposing chimney, the maximum velocity is important comparing

with the standard and the convergent chimneys.

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The above analysis reveals that the velocity behavior considerably depends on the chimney

configuration. It is known that the energy production from SCPP is proportional to the

velocity along the chimney. The energy production is obtained with the turbine rotation. Thus,

the turbine position inside the chimney is a key parameter in the SCPP systems. For an

optimal production, the turbine should be installed in the zone of the maximum velocity.

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Therefore, two key parameters are essential for the SCPP systems; the velocity value along

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the chimney and the location of its maximum value. Based on this, the divergent

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configuration is the most efficient one since the maximum velocity value seems with this

configuration. However, the maximum velocity location is the same for the standard

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configuration. In contrary, the convergent chimney is characterized by a maximum velocity
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value slowly lower than the standard one, whereas it provides a velocity distribution very

different to the standard configuration. In fact, the maximum velocity is observed in the inlet
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for the standard configuration, whereas it appears in the outlet for the convergent

configuration. The opposing configuration is characterized by a special distribution of the

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velocity filed comparing with the others configurations. The maximum velocity is located in

the level of the diameter reducing. In addition, this configuration is characterized by velocity
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value upper than the standard and the convergent chimney.

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The maximum velocity for the different configurations is shown in figure 6. According to this

figure, it is clear that the effect of the chimney configuration on enhancing the velocity value
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is significant. The most efficient configuration is the divergent one. With this configuration,

the velocity value increases from 2.4 m/s with the standard chimney to reach 3.5 m/s. Also,

with the opposing chimney the velocity increases to reach 2.7 m/s. However, the maximum

velocity decreases to 2.33 m/s with the convergent chimney.

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5.2. Static pressure and magnitude velocity

The static pressure and the magnitude velocity distributions inside the SCPP are presented in

figure 7 for the different configurations. The results show that the fluid flow inside the SCPP

generates an inhomogeneous distribution of the static pressure. For the different cases, it has

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been noted the apparition of high pressure areas and weak pressure areas. These locations

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change from one configuration to another. For the standard configuration, the static pressure

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emerges important along the collector. In the chimney inlet, it decreases and it returns to

increase along the chimney. For the convergent configuration, the static pressure value is low

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along the collector. It increases in the chimney inlet and it returns to increase in the chimney

outlet. The pressure distribution with the divergent configuration is similar to the standard
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one. As with the standard configuration, the pressure is important along the collector,

decreases in the chimney inlet and increases from the inlet to the outlet. The distribution is
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totally different with the opposing chimney. The pressure is important inside the collector. It
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decreases in the chimney inlet. Then, the pressure returns to increase. Again, a depression

area appears in the level of the constriction. After the constriction, the pressure increases
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again and reaches its maximum value in the outlet.

The above results of the static pressure distribution are useful to understand the velocity value
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variation inside the chimney form change. In fact, the pressure imbalance is the responsible

on the fluid flow and the flow velocity is directly related to the static pressure distribution.
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According to the Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure imbalance products the fluid flow in each

system. The flow occurs from the compression areas to the depression areas. In the depression

area, the acceleration on the fluid flow occurs.

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Therefore, the velocity distribution inside the chimney is explained by the static pressure

distribution. Both location and value of the maximum velocity are related to the static

pressure distribution for each chimney configuration. For the standard chimney, the maximum

velocity is located in the chimney inlet since an important pressure imbalance occurs in this

level. The pressure is important in the collector. Then, it decreases in the chimney inlet. The

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velocity decreases in the rest of the chimney since the pressure returns to increase. For the

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divergent chimney, the same observations are noted. The same static pressure distribution of

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the standard configuration is noted and consequently the same velocity distribution. However,

the pressure imbalance is very important with the divergent chimney. As a result, the system

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with divergent chimney is characterized by the maximum velocity value. For the opposing
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configuration, a significant imbalance on the pressure value is observed in the level of the

chimney inlet. In fact, the pressure is important in the collector and lower in the chimney
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inlet. Thus, the air flow occurs with significant velocity value. In the constriction, a

depression area is presented. Therefore, the fluid flow returns to occur with its maximum
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value in this level.

As a conclusion, the chimney configuration has a direct effect on the static pressure
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distribution and consequently on the velocity behavior.

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5.3. Temperature
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The temperature distribution inside the SCPP is presented in figure 8 for the different

configurations considered in this study. The temperature features an important value in the

collector bottom in contact with the absorber. Close to the collector outlet, the temperature

emerges with significant value. However, the temperature is observed equal to the ambient

temperature in the collector inlet. For all considered configurations, a temperature gradient

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appears. The temperature increases from the collector inlet to the outlet. However, the

temperature distribution in the chimney significantly depends on its form. In fact, it changes

from configuration to another. The significant temperature is due to the hot air flows from the

collector. In fact, the highest value emerges in the chimney inlet. With flowing along the

chimney, the fluid temperature decreases. For all the considered configurations, the difference

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between the maximum and the minimum temperature is around 30 k.

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5.4. Turbulent kinetic energy

The turbulent kinetic energy distributions inside the SCPP are presented in figure 9 for the

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different configurations. Through such results, it has been noted that the turbulent kinetic

energy distribution varies with the change of the chimney configuration. For the standard
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chimney, the turbulent kinetic energy appears with important value in the chimney inlet close
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to the wall. Except that the turbulent kinetic energy is very important for the divergent

chimney than for the standard and the opposing ones, the same observation is noted for the
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case of these configurations. However, the turbulent kinetic energy emerges with weak value

in the whole volume of the SCPP system for the convergent chimney. As a conclusion, the
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turbulent kinetic energy distribution is considerably affected by the chimney configuration.

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5.5. Dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy

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The dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy distributions inside the SCPP are presented

in figure 10 for the different configurations. According to these results, it has been observed

that the distribution of the dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy depends on the

chimney form. For the divergent chimney, the dissipation rate seems very weak in the whole

volume of the SCPP system. However, it appears with important value in the chimney inlet

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close to the corner between the chimney and the collector. For the standard and the opposing

configurations, the dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy seems very weak in the

whole volume of the SCPP but it increases just in the corner between the chimney and the

collector. For the convergent chimney, the dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy

appears very weak in the whole volume of the SCPP system.

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In addition, the difference is illustrated for the maximum value of the dissipation rate of the

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turbulent kinetic energy, which is equal to ε=92 m2.s-3 with the opposing chimney, to ε=130

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m2.s-3 with the convergent chimney, to ε=596 m2.s-3 with the divergent chimney and to ε=368

m2.s-3 with the standard chimney.

5.6. Turbulent viscosity

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The turbulent viscosity distributions inside the SCPP are presented in figure 11 for the
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different configurations. Through such results, it has been noted that the turbulent viscosity

distribution varies with the change of the chimney configuration. For the system with standard
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configuration, the turbulent viscosity reaches its maximum value in the chimney inlet close to

the axis. From the chimney inlet to the outlet, the turbulent viscosity decreases. For the
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convergent chimney, the turbulent viscosity seems very weak in the chimney inlet. Then, it
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increases and becomes more important in the chimney outlet. For the divergent chimney, the

maximum value of the turbulent viscosity appears in the level of the chimney outlet. For the
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opposing chimney, the maximum turbulent viscosity value is observed in the chimney inlet

and the chimney outlet. As a conclusion, the turbulent viscosity distribution is directly related

to the chimney configuration.

6. Numerical model validation

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The numerical model validation is achieved by comparison between the numerical results and

the experimental data in terms of temperature evolution along the collector. Six typical points

are chosen in the collector (L1-L2-L3-L4-L5-L6). The location of these points is chosen in order

to evaluate the temperature gradient along the collector. The distance between two successive

locations is 0.3 m in the east section through middle axis, that the heights of sensors can be

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freely adjusted. The different positions are shown in figure 12. The experimental

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measurements are performed using a thermocouple of type J. The temperature evolution over

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time is performed using the Digital thermometers UT325.

Figure 13 presents the temperature value along the collector for the different considered

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configurations: the standard chimney, the convergent chimney, the divergent and the opposing
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chimney. The comparison between the numerical and experimental results is performed for

the case of standard chimney. According these results, a good agreement is shown which
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confirms the validity of our numerical model.

Such results reveal that the temperature behavior significantly depends on the chimney
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configuration. The temperature profile is similar for the convergent and the opposing

chimneys since the opposing chimney is convergent for its first part. However, the
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temperature profile is similar for the case of the standard chimney and the divergent chimney.
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For the temperature value, the highest value seems for the standard chimney. The exception is

observed close to the collector in which the maximum temperature value appears for the
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convergent chimney. However, the minimum temperature is observed for the opposing

chimney. In addition, it has been noted that the maximum temperature difference between the

chimney configurations is around 10 k. This value is very weak compared with the

temperature value around 310 k globally.

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7. Conclusion

In this paper, the numerical simulation of SCPP is carried out for four chimney

configurations; standard, convergent, divergent and opposing chimney. The numerical results

are validated with our experimental measurements. The simulations showed that the chimney

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configuration has a direct effect on the SCPP performance. The chimney configuration change

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generates the variation of the velocity behavior. The divergent and the opposing chimney

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enhance the SCPP performance with the increase of the velocity value along the chimney.

However, the divergent chimney degrades the system performance with the decrease of the

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velocity value. In addition, the chimney configuration generates the change of the maximum

velocity value comparing with the standard chimney. With the divergent chimney, the
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maximum velocity emerges in the chimney outlet, whereas it appeared in the restriction for

the opposing one. However, the maximum velocity value appears in the chimney inlet for the
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standard and the divergent chimneys. This variation in the velocity distribution is related to
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that the static pressure distribution induced by the chimney geometry change.

In the future, we propose to study the SCPP system with turbine in order to optimize the
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efficiency of the SCPP system use in Tunisia.

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Nomenclature

Cp Specific heat capacity of the air (J.kg-1)

d Chimney diameter (m)

D Collector diameter (m)

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e Thickness (mm)

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g Gravitational acceleration (m.s-2)

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G Global radiation (W.m-2)

h
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Collector height (m)
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H Chimney height (m)

k Turbulent kinetic energy (m2.s-2)

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P Pressure (Pa)
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Pr Prandtl number

r Radial coordinate (m)

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T Temperature (K)
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u Velocity in radial direction

w Velocity in tangential direction

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V Air velocity

z Axial coordinate

β Thermal expansion coefficient

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ε Dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy (m2.s-3)

Gk Generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the mean velocity gradients

Gb Generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to buoyancy

YM The contribution of the fluctuating dilatation

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µ Dynamic viscosity (m2.s-1)

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µt Turbulent viscosity (Pa.s-1)

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Density of the air (Kg.m-3)

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M
ED
PT
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AC

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Figure 1. Solar chimney prototype
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Chimney

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h
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Collector
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Figure 2. System dimensions

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Pressure outlet Axis

Wall and heat flux

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Wall and convection

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Pressure inlet

Element Type US Parameters

h= 8 W.m-2.K-1
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Absorber Wall and convection

Collector roof Wall and convection h = 8 W.m-2.K1

Chimney surface Wall and heat flux q = 0 W.m-2

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Collector Inlet Pressure inlet Pi = 0 Pa, Ta = 306 K

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Chimney outlet Pressure outlet Po = 0 Pa

Figure 3. Boundaries conditions

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θ

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θ US θ
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θ
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(c) Divergent chimney (d) Opposing chimney

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Figure 4. Different chimney configurations

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(d) Standard chimney
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(b) Divergent chimney (d) Standard chimney

Figure 5. Velocity fields for different chimney forms.
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Standard Convergent Divergent Opposing

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Velocity (m/s)

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Figure 6. Variation of the maximum velocity with the chimney configuration
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Static pressure Magnitude velocity
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Static pressure Magnitude velocity

(b) Convergent chimney
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Static pressure Magnitude velocity
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Static pressure Magnitude velocity

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Figure 7. Distribution of static pressure and magnitude velocity for different chimney forms.
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(c) Divergent chimney (d) Opposing chimney

Figure 8. Temperature Distribution
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(b) Divergent chimney (d) Opposing chimney

Figure 9. Distribution of the turbulent kinetic energy

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(b) Divergent chimney (d) Opposing chimney

Figure 10. Distribution of the dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy

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(b) Divergent chimney (d) Opposing chimeny

Figure 11. Distribution of the turbulent viscosity

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L6

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Figure 12. Locations of the experimental measurements
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Standard Opposing Experimental

Temperature (K) Divergent Convergent results

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Collector radius (m)
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Figure 13. Numerical model validation
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