I J. Rook Mach Min Sci & Gromech, Abr. Vo. 20, No, 4 189-200, 1983 14 90628555.00+ 000, Pred in Gest Bain Person Press Lid INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR ROCK MECHANICS COMMISSION ON TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS SEPTEMBER, 1981 189199 ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS INTRODUCTION The Commission on Teaching of Rock Mechanics was established by the International Society for Rock Mechanics in recognition of a need to provide a statement on the status of, and requirement for, rock mechanics education throughout the world. This report contains such a statement, made on the basis of data collected by means of a questionnaire originally circulated to universities and other institutions in 1978 and 1979. Additional data were gathered directly by members of the Commission. On the basis of the data collected and analysed, the Commission reached a number of conclusions and made a number of recommendations for future action that are presented in this report In this report, the term ‘course’ refers toa single topic or individual subject consisting of approximately 40 hours of lectures. The series of courses a student takes towards his degree is termed a ‘programme’. (In some countries, the term ‘course’ or ‘course of study’ has the meaning of a programme). The number of hours (for examples, “greater than 300" or ‘greater than 20°) refer to class hours that a student would normally take throughout his programme of study. This report is supplemented by two appendices, “Appendix A: Summary of Rock Mechanics Programs at Universities and Institutes’ and ‘Appendix B: Survey on the Teaching of Rock Mechanics’, These appendices contain the data on which the present report is based, They also contain information that may be of use to prospective students wishing to compare the rock mechanics programmes offered by different universities, and to teachers ‘wishing to establish rock mechanics programmes in their own institutions. Copies of the appendices may be obtained by applying to the Secretary-General, International Society for Rock Mechanics, Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Avenida do Brasil, P-1799 Lisboa Codex, Portugal. Acknowledgemente—Commission members partisipating in the work leading to the preparation of the repost were E. J. Cording (President) (USA); W.E Bamfore (Ausurala); M. A. Kanji (Brazil), JC. Roegiers (Canada; H. K. Kutter (Germany); Y. Nishimatsu and T, Onodera (Gapan); E. Broch (Norway), M. Romero (Spam; E. T. Brown (United Kingdom), H. R. Hacdy (U.S.A. B. Kajundaic (Yugoslaia) ‘The Commission Wishes to thank the many individuals who took the time to respond to the sorvey.ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS 191 Report on the Teaching of Rock Mechanics 1, SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO SURVEY A total of 104 responses to the initial (1978-1979) Survey on Teaching of Rock Mechanics were received and reviewed by the Commission. Responses were divided almost equally between mining and civil engineering departments or institutes. Engineering geology, petro- Jeum engineering and geology were also represented. (Additional responses to a short form [1980] have been received; however, this form is not detailed enough to provide the data that are presented in Section 1.) The following paragraphs summarize some of the responses. to the initial survey 1.1. Number of Responses on Basis of National Groups (1) Australia 12 (2) Austria 3 @) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Brazil © Canada 1 (7). Federal Republic of Germany (8) Finland (9) France (10) Italy (1) Japan (12). Netherlands (13) New Zealand (14) Norway (15). Poland (16). Portugal (17) Sweden (18) United Kingdom (19) United States 2 (20) Yugoslavia 1.2. Degree Programmes in which Geotechnical Engineering (Rock Mechanics, Engineering Geology ‘andjor Soil Mechanics) is Offered as a Major Area of Concentration in the Bachelors, Diplama Engineer, Masters, or Ph.D. Programme The highest level for which a degree programme in geotechnical engineering is offered was reported as, follows Ph.D. 54 institutions (52%) Masters: IS on (4%) Diploma Engineer: 11, (aly) Bachelors: Ton (%) None: Won» (16%) Total: 104 ym (100%) As discussed in Section 1.3, approximately one half of the 54 institutions offering Ph.D. programmes have a ‘major concentration in rock mechanics. 1.3. Extensive Programmes in Rock Mechanics Twenty-four (42%) of the $4 institutions that had a Ph.D. programme in geotechnical engineering also offered an extensive programme in rock mechanics, with more than 3 rock mechanics Ph.D. theses in the past 8 years, typically graduating more than 4 students per year at the MS. or Diploma Engineer level who have at least 80 hours of rock mechanics classroom instruction (ap- proximately 2 semesters of courses in rock mechanics) Twenty-one of the 24 institutions (87.5%) noted that both soil mechanics and engineering geology courses were a required or recommended part of the rock mechanics curriculum. (A lower percentage (63%] of the other 80 institutions indicated that soil mechanics andor engineering geology was a required or recommended part of the rock mechanics curriculum.) Approximately 25-40% of the 24 institutions that have extensive M.S. and Ph.D. rock mechanics pro- ‘grammes teach very litle rock mechanics at the Bache- lor’s level, even though many have an undergraduate geotechnical programme. 1.4, Amount of Interaction and Need for More Interaction Between Rock Mechanics, Soil Mechanics and Engineering Geology The importance of interaction among the three geo- technical disciplines of rock mechanics, soil mechanics, and engineering geology was noted by most of the respondents: 40% programmes included a significant amount of interaction; more interaction was not needed. 38%: programmes included a significant amount of interaction; more interaction would be prefer- able. 19%: programmes did not include a significant amount of interaction; more interaction would be preferable. 3%: programmes did not include a significant amount of interaction; more interaction was not needed. In reviewing the responses, the commission members noted that responses tended to indicate a higher degree of interaction than might actually be present, perhaps to some extent reflecting the goal rather than the accom- plishment of the respondent. Ina recurring statement, the difficulty in coordinating. the geotechnical programme between a geology de-192 partment and an engineering department was noted; in some cases it was indicated that the geology department had fittle interest in applications to engineering. Coordi- ation problems between rock mechanics in a mining programme and soil mechanics in a civil engineering programme were also noted, On the other hand, many civil engineering departments stated that their soil and rock mechanics programmes were integrated. For example, courses are offered on the stability of rock and soil slopes, or tunnelling in rock and soil. The concepts developed in rock mechanics are being integrated into geotechnical programmes that originally developed as soil mechanics and foundation engineering groups. The demand in many countries is for geotechnical engineers who can handle both rock and soil problems. The situation is somewhat different in some of the Scandinavian countries where the contact between hard rock and soft soil is abrupt, Some of the Scandinavian civil engineering groups concentrate almost exclusively on the rock problems. Many of the mining departments throughout the world, have also concentrated on rock mechanics without developing a soil mechanics pro- gramme, There is a trend for more interaction between mining. and civil engineering in some universities. For example, ‘one major university has rock mechanics programmes in each of the departments of mining engineering, civil engineering and engineering geology, with substantial interaction between the groups; another university has combined civil and mining engineering into one de- partment. Other universities with major programmes in one area are conducting research on certain problems, from the other area. For example, a major civil en- gineering department is carrying out field measurements on subsidence and its effects over old room and pillar coal mines in the region 1.5. Geology Field Course Recommended or Required for Rock Mechanics /Soil Mechanics Studercs Most institutions recommend or require that their students take a geology field course during some period in their studies. Nine of the [04 institutions do not Fequire or recommend 2 geology field course. (Inter- estingly enough, 5 of the 9 institutions were among the 24 institutions that had extensive rock mechanics. pro: ‘brammes at the Ph.D. level. Stated in other terms, 82% of the 24 institutions that had extensive advanced pro- ‘grammes in rock mechanics recommended or required seology field courses, whereas 95% of the remaining 80 institutions recommended or required a geology field course.) 1.6. Cooperation with Industry Responses to the questions regarding cooperation with industry are summarized below. Many respondents noted 2 or 3 areas of cooperation. ‘The cooperation with industry was greatest in areas a, bb and e, with each category having close to 50% of the institutions cooperating substantially or moderately with industry. ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS Table 1 No. of responses Substantial 10 moderate Need for more cooperation (a) Porforsing laboratory research “ure (©) Performing feld studies on engineering projects 49 (4%) (o) Having your students employed parttime by the industty ” (4) Faculty employment with Industry on a parttime basis B (©) Consulting services expert advice 8s om 9 ox nara » 6% (0) Reporting ite” to ‘very bile? cooperation aress 8, b, dy € ca (@) Reporting "No for need for more cooperation Py (6) Reporting "Yes fr need for more cooperation 2 (0%) axe ‘Twenty-one (20%) of the 104 institutions had little to very little direct faculty involvement with industry (al- though some had employment of students in industry). Seven of these were institutions offering Ph.D. pro- grammes. The 54 institutions having Ph.D. programmes had about the same degree of cooperation with industry in each of the five areas as did the non-Ph.D. institu- tions. Twenty-four institutions indicated that no more cooperation with industry was needed. OF the 24 *No’ responses, 14 listed three of more areas in which they had major cooperation with industry. Another 8 listed at least one area in which they had major cooperation. Thus, the ‘No’ answers in at least 2/3 of the cases indicated a sufficient level of cooperation rather than a lack of interest in cooperation with industry, 1.7. Employment of Graduates The following table illustrates the employment of graduates from the geotechnical programmes: ‘able 2 Percentage of graduates employed BS. Levet Mining firms CE. design firms Consicuetion firms Site investigation consultants Research 2 University teaching a Government agencies 16 Non-rgineering and other » Total no. of students 1360 The distribution of geotechnical BS. graduates is very similar. B.S. and M.S, students are concentrated in mining (21-27%) and in the design ‘consulting-construction firms (41-43%). As might be expected, Ph.D. students are concentrated in teaching (34%) and research (17%), with a reduced percentage in ‘mining (9%) and design-consulting-construction (22%). and MS,ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS ‘Table 3. Number of institutions responding No. of BS, studenis graduated per 193 No. of courses offered af the BS, level that contain year that have had atleast 20 hours of rock mechanics leetares ‘more than 20%, rock Total More mechanics content —_insltusons 01-8 488-15 15-30 than 30 Institutions 0 m 7 09 0 0 0 oo 1 2 2 7 1 4 2 nn) 3 M0 Foot os 7 Institution totals 6 om 4 4 8 7 6 Approx. total students having atleast 20 hours Students of rock mechanics lectures ~800_ 01024143 IS 500 Of these 17, 10 had no undergraduate programme in either sol or rook, 7 had a scotechnical programme that didnot include rock mechanis. In 10 ofthe 17 cases, the Schools offered an M.S. oF Ph.D. programme in Rock Mechanics. 1.8. Undergraduate (Bachelor of Science) Programmes that Inclide Rock Mechanies One of the objectives of the survey was to determine the efforts that are being made to include rock mechanics in the education of students at the Bachelor's level, where the emphasis is not on developing rock mechanics specialists, but rather on providing a general back~ ground in rock mechanics that the student can integrate into his chosen area of study. Sixty-five universities and institutes having the Bache- lor of Science-Master of Science system reported. [Euro- ‘ean universities and institutes using the Diploma En- gincer system are not included in this category.] The above results show that a significant number of BSS. students receive some introduction to rock mechan- ies. 1.9. Comparison of Level of Programme in Mining, Civil Engineering and Geology The following table shows that there isa significantly higher percentage of mining departments teaching rock mechanics at the BS. level (33%) than civil engineering. departments (20%). In civil engineering, rock mechanics is usually in- cluded in a geotechnical programme in which soil me- chanics is a major emphasis. In such cases, rock mechan- ics is usually taught following the introductory soil mechanics courses, often beginning with rock mechanics at the graduate level. Specialization in geotechnical engineering often takes place at the Masters level, be- cause of the number of general civil engineering courses that must be taken in the B.S, programme. Similarly, in geology, the engineering geology programme is usually at the graduate level. Only 19% of the schools had courses principally at the BS. level. The mining de- partments have a low percentage of programmes solely at the M.S. level. Most are at a combined M.S. and B.S. level or solely at the B.S level. For example, many of the Australian and U.K. mining schools include one to three courses in rock mechanics for their mining engineers at the Bachelors level 1.10. Ways in Which the ISRM Commission on Teaching of Rock Mechanics can be Assistance Most of the respondents who answered this question suggest that copies of typical course schedules and syllabi be distributed by the ISRM. Some suggested that typical syllabi be prepared for the different disciplines, such as mining engineering and civil engineering. The Commission has responded to these comments by presenting some examples or rock mechanics courses and programmes that have been used at other Univer- sities. 2. EXAMPLES OF COURSES AND TEXTS IN ROCK MECHANICS ‘The Commission on Teaching of Rock Mechanics has compiled examples of course outlines from outlines of actual rock mechanics courses that have been used at several universities. The intent of these examples is to provide a teacher with ideas that may assist him in developing bis own courses. The outlines are not in- tended to represent formal recommendations for course content in rock mechanics Texts used in rock mechanics courses have been summarized from the information submitted on the survey forms. Some of the texts may be available only ‘Table 4, Number and (2) of institutions having the following level of study in rock mechanics Priscpally Principally Both BS. Principally BS level MS. level and MS. levels Dipl Engr. Total Mining B GN 9 Gay) 39 (00%) Givi engineering 8 (2070) 7 (lary 39 (100%) Geoiog 4% 2) 2 (0%) 21 (100%) “Tot inaivsions 8194 ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS locally, others are more widely distributed. Articles in journals and proceedings are also used as references in most rock mechanics courses. 21. BS. Level Course in Applied Geotechnical Engineering, with an Introduction. to Rock Engineering, General Civil Engineering Department Curriculum 40 lecture hours Prerequisite: An introductory course on properties of soil and rock (primary emphasis on soil) a 2 @) (4) 6) 6 [o) Introduction to applied problems in geotechnical engineering and their relation to soil and rock properties of strength, compressibility, perme- ability Indexing the significant soil and rock properties on a project. Qa 22) Soll properties. Rock properties: intact, joint, and rock ‘mass properties: core study; field obser- vation. Design of footings, rafts and piles (portions are review). GB) 62) 63) G4) BS) 36) ‘Types of foundations. Foundations on clay. Foundations on sand. Foundations on other soils. Foundations on rock and compressibility of rock masses. Design of footings. Earth pressures and the design of retaining walls and braced cuts in soil (4.1) (42) (43) (44) (43) Earth pressure theory Retaining walls. Braced excavations. Dewatering, Ground movements and damage. Introduction 10 shear strength of rock and the design (3.1) (52) 53) 6a) 65) of rock cuts: Shear strength along weaknesses in rock. Analysis of stability of a rock cut. Design of support system. Excavation and blasting procedures. Combined rock and soil cuts. Introduction to slope stability problems in soil and rock (6.1) (62) 63) Methods of analysis Factors affecting stability, Methods of control Introduction to tunnels and underground structures in soil ay (12) (73) (7.4) 7s) and rock. Tunnel ground classifications Tunnelling in soil: methods of excavation and support Loadings. Control of movements. Tunnelling in rock: methods of excavation and support (7.6) (7.7) Loa Linings. and initial support. 2.2. MS. Level Course in Rock Engineering, General Geotechnical Engineering Curriculum in a Civil Engineering Department First semester: Emphasis on rock behavior and surface or near-surface construction 40 lecture hours Prequisite: courses in soil mechanics, concurrent regis- tration in engineering geology course (1) Rock engineering in geotechnical practice: over- 2 @) “ Rock properties (a) (©) © (a) © o Properties or rock mass, rock sample, rock discontinuities. Core logging and exploration Laboratory index tests and classifications for hard rock. Compressive and tensile strength, modulus, velocity, hardness. Borehole index tests. Stress-strain-strength properties of rock: failure theories, triaxial properties, three dimensional state of stress Properties of weak rock: (1) creep of salt, clay gouge, weathered rock; (2) slaking, swelling, compressibility of shale and weathered rock Compressibility of rock masses: (@) (b) © @ © 0 Types of problems: dams, structures, pres- sure tunnels, rock-lining interaction Elastic theory: equilibrium, compatibility, stress-strain relations, boundary condi- tions Displacements and stresses due to an inter~ nal pressure in a tunnel Displacements and stresses for a load on an elastic half-space. Determination of in-situ compressibility: (1) Relation of in-situ compressibility to lab modulus, rock quality, seismic moduli, and joint stifiness; In-situ tests; Field problems in exploring for rock foundations. Examples of compressibility problems, hard and soft rock 2 8) Slope stability of rock masses (a) () Introduction to slope stability problems, outline of approach to evaluating and de- signing slopes. Exploration, analysis, selec- tion of design, observations, remedial mea- Shear strength along discontinuities: (i) Residual strength for rock; 2) fluence of irregularities: strength, displacements, peakISRM: ) Joint filings: residual strength, peak strength, influence of irregularities. (©) Slope stability analysis: (1) Two-dimensional limit equilibrium; Q)_ Three-dimensional limit equilibrium; 3) Effect of groundwater, passive reac- tions, support; (4) Selection of strengths and factors of safety. (@) Design of slopes: examples: rock cuts, land slides, open-pit mines, dams (©) Exploration, observations and instrumen- tation for slopes Second semester: Emphasis on underground construe- tion and rock excavation and support 40 lecture hours Prerequisite: first semester course in rock engineering (1) Introduction: Overview of tunnelling and under- ‘ground construction problems. (2) Behavior of rock around underground openings. Q.1) Tunnel ground conditions and their re- lation to rock index properties. (2.2) State of stress in the earth's crust: mea- surement procedures and results. Elastic stresses and displacements: around circular openings, around non-circular openings. (2.4) Rock bursts and stress problems. (2.5) Elasto-plastic stresses and displacements around openings (2.6) Loosening ground conditions and the influence of bedding, joints, and shear zones on stresses, displacements, and sta- bility around openings. (2.7) Squeezing, creep behaviour around open- ings (28) Slaking and swelling around openings. (29) Effect of groundwater on stability of open- ings. (2.10) Gas in openings. (3) Excavation and support procedures for rock cuts and vertical walls. B.1) Types of support, selection of supports. (3.2) Excavation procedures: production blast- ing, controlled perimeter blasting, vi- bration control. (3.3) Sequence of excavation and support near structures, (3.4) Design and performance of rock cuts. (4) Excavation and support of tunnels. (4.1). Selection, design, and performance of sup- port systems: Rock bolts, dowels, and tiebacks, steel ribs, concrete, shoterete: Ground-support interaction, ultimate ca- pacity, and observed performance. (42) Tunnel blasting. (4.3) Support and control of the tunnel head- ing. 2 Q3) TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS 195 (44) Excavation and support sequences. (45) Tunnel boring machines: penetration, ‘muck removal, and support in various round conditions (4.6) Mixed face tunnelling (4.7) Groundwater control (48) Instrumentation (5) Excavation and support of large openings. (5.1) Excavation sequences and methods of construction (5.2) Deep chambers: observed performance and desigo. (5.3) Shallow chambers: observed performance and desigo. (54) Room and pillar facilities: performance and design of roofs and pillars (6) Planning and executing a project. (6.1) Exploration and pre-construction esti mates of tunnelling conditions (62) Specifications and contractural_re- lationships (63) Construction control and observations 23. M.S. Courses in Geotechnical Engineering; ‘Mining and Civil Engineering Departments Rock Strength and Failure: 18 lecture hours (1) Introduction. ‘The range and nature of rock strength problems met in engineering prac- tice. Definitions and concepts—fracture, strength, failure, yield, britle and ductile behaviour. (2) Behaviour of Rock Material. The quasi-static uniaxial compression test-influence of end conditions and sample preparation, size and shape. )_ Influence of testing system stiffness on observed behaviour—soft, stiff and servo-controlled testing machines, (4) Laboratory observations of rock behaviour in uniaxial compression—stress-strain curves, progressive crack formation, influence of rmicro-structure. (5) Multi-axial compression tests—test_ methods, influence of a, and a on peak strength. (6) Mechanisms of deformation in triaxial com- pression, stress-strain behaviour, volu- metric strains. Influence of temperature. (1) Time-dependent behaviour of rock in com- pression—influence of strain rate, creep, long- and short-term stress-strain curves (8) The tensile “strength” of rock—direct and in- direct tension tests (9) Failure and yield criteria for isotropic rock ma- terial. Total and effective stress criteria, Coulomb's and Mobr's criteria. (10) Failure and yield criteria (continued)—yield criteria (von Mises, extended von Mises eic.), empirical strength criteria and their applicability to rocks196 (11) Grifth crack theory—the energy instability concept, application to uniaxial tension and compression. Griffith theory for plane compression. Modified Griffith theories-—Faithurst, McClintock— Walsh, Murrell. Shear behaviour of discontinuities. Behavior of smooth and rough rock surfaces; re- lationships between roughness, dilation and shear force-deformation curves. Influence of scale on roughness and. shear strength; Barton’s shear strength equation Shear testing techniques. Deformability of dis- ‘continuities. Behaviour of infilled joints Behaviour of jointed rock masses. Jaeger’s single plane of weakness theory-application to anisotropic rock and to multiply jointed rock Laboratory and field observations of the strength of jointed rock; observed failure mechanisms. Ladanyi and Archambault's approach. Geotechnical classification of slides as first-time or on pre-existing shears. 2) (13) «ay as) a6) an «sy Slope Stability: 26 lecture hours The nature of slope stability problems in civil and mining engineering. Morphological classification of mass movements on slopes. Morphological classification (continued). Geo- technical classification of landslides. Introduction to methods of stability analysis, including the bound theorems of plasticity. (4) Introduction to two-dimensional limiting equi- librium analyses. The infunite slope. (8)_ Analysis of planar slides in finite slopes. (6.7.8) Analysis of circular slides—method of slices, Bishop’s method, Swedish method, dimensionless methods etc. wo 2 @ (9) Influence of external loads including water loads, (10) Effects of earthquake loading. 3-D stability analysis, (11,12, 13) Analysis of 3-D failures by closed-form, vector and stereographic projection meth- ods. Identification and mechanics of toppling fail- ures. (15,16) Field behaviour of slopes—coliection of field data for analytical ease records in terms of effective stress. (17) Comparison of laboratory and mobilizes Geld shear strengths. (18) Geotechnical classification of slides as first-time oF on pre-existing shears (19,20) Case studies of slides on pre-existing slip surfaces. (21,22) Case studies of first-time slides. (14) ISRM- TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS (23) Approaches to the design of soil and rock slopes. (24) Case studies in the design of rock slopes. (25) Slope development. Remedial measures for landslides. (26) Remedial measures (continued). Laboratory and Field Techniques in Geotechnical ‘Engineering: 26 lecture hours (0) Principles of laboratory measurement of force and stress, (2) Laboratory strain and pore-water pressure mea- surements. (3.4) Principles of measurement with electronic sensors (5) Strain waves and the measurement of dynamic clastie constants. (6.7) Model analysis, (8) Rock drilling (9) Borehole structural logging and core orien tation, (10) Site investigation—general principles. (11) Introduction to site investigation techniques in soils (12) Soil sampling. (13) Soundings, penetration tests. (14) In-situ soil strength measurement. (15,16) In-situ stress field measurement in rock, (17,18) Field-loading (deformability) tests in rock. (19) In-situ stress measurement in soils, (20) Earth pressure cells. 21)_ In-situ strength measurement (22,23) Displacement monitoring. (24) Piezometers. (25) In-situ permeability measurement. 26) Groundwater flow in jointed rock masses. 24, Texts and Major References Used in Rock Mechanics Courses The texts below were used in rock mechanics courses. The number of institutions that reported using a given text is noted in the left margin. (1) Attewell P. B. and Farmer 1. W. Principles of Engineering Geology. \st edn, 1045 pp. Chapman & Hall, London (1976). (1) Calhoun J.C. Fundamentals of Reservoir En- gineering, 417 pp. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Nor- man (1953), (20) Coates D. F. Rock Mechanics Principles, Mining Research Centre, Mines Branch, Dept of Energy, Mines and Resources, Mines Branch Monograph 874, revised (1970). (1) Dally J. W. and Riley W. F. Experimental Stress Analysis, 520 pp. McGraw-Hill, New York (1968). (2) Evans}. and Pomeroy C. D. The Strength, Fracture and Workability of Coal, 277 pp. National Coal Board (1966). Oxford. (1) Golder Associates and MacLeran. Tunnelling Tech- nology, 166 pp. Toronto (1976)ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS (1) Goodman R. E. Inuroduetion to Rock Mechanics, 478 pp. Wiley, New York (1980) (Universities responded before available.) (7) Goodman R. E. Methods of Geological Engineering in Discontinuous Rocks, 472 pp. West, New York (1976), (1) Hanna T. H. Foundation Instrumentation. Trans. Tech. Publications, Cleveland (1973). (13) Hoek E. and Bray J. Rock Slope Engineering, Inst Mining Metalluray, 44 Portland Place, London W1, England, 2nd Rev. edn, 402 pp (1977). (1) Jaeger J.C. Elasticity, Fracture, and Flow, 2né edn, 208 pp. Methuen, London (1962) (28) Jaeger J. C. and Cook N. G. W. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 2nd edn, 585 pp. Chapman & Hall, London (1976) Q) Krynine D. P. and Judd W. R. Principles of En- gineering Geology and Geotechnies, 698 pp. McGraw-Hill, New York (1957). (1) Langefors U. and Kihlstrom B, The Modern Tech- nique of Rock Blasting. Wiley, New York (1963) (1) Morrison R.G. K. 4 Philosophy of Ground Control, 2nd revised edn, 182 pp.. 112 figs. McGill Univ., Dept Mining and Metallurgical Engng, MeCoanel Engng Bldg, 3480 University Street, Montreal, PQ, Canada H3A 2A7 (1976) (14) Obert L, and Duvall W. I Rock Mechanics and the Design of Structures in Rock, 638 pp. Wiley, New York (1978) (1) Panet M. Rock Mechanics Applied to Civil En- ‘gineering, 245 pp. Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, Direction de la Formation Continue, Rue des Saints Peres 28, F-75007, Paris, France (1976) (1) Paterson M. 8. Experimental Rock Deformation — The Brite Field, 1st edn, 245 pp., 56 figs, 5 tabs. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1978). (1) Price N. J. Fault and Joint Development in Brittle and Semi-Briale Rocks. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966) (1) Ramsay J. G. Folding and Fracturing of Rocks, S68 pp. McGraw Hill, New York (1967). (4) Roberts A. Geotechnology—An Introductory Text ‘for Students and Engineers. Pergamon Press, Ox- ford (1977) (4) SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2 vols. Society of Mining Engincers, American Institute of Min- ing, Metallurgical and Petroluem Engineers, New York (1973) (8) Stagg K. G. and Zienkiewicz 0. C. Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Ist edn, 426 pp. Wiley, New York (1968). (1) Szechy R. J. The Art of Tunnelling. Akademiai Kiedo, Budapest (1967). (1) USS. Army Corps of Engineers. Tunnels and Shafts in Rock, 389 pp. (1978). (2) Vutukusi V. S., Lama R. D. and Saluja S. S. Handbook on Mechanica’ Properties of Rocks, No. 1, 300 pp., 200 figs. 30 tabs. Clausthal-Zellereld, this text was 197 Adolf-Ey-Str. 5, Germany: Ser. Rock Soil Mech. Trans. Tech. Publications 2 (1974). 2) Woodruff 8. D. Methods of Working Coal and Metal Mines, Vol. 1, $38 pp. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966). Incomplete references (1) Brannes and Milligan, Stability in Open Pit Mining. (1) Dimitrak. Geotechnics. (1) Gerogowiez. Mining Geotechnics, (1) Jacobi O. Strata Control Practice. (1) Kisiel. Fundamentals of Rheology. (I) Koblska. Rock Mechanics. (1) Kujundiic’ B. Rock Mechanics (1965). (1) Kujundaic’ B. Principles of Rock Mechanics (1973) (1) Li B, Rock Mechanics, 127 pp. () Salustowiez. Rock Mechanics (1) Selmer-Olsen R. and Broch E, Geological En- gineering in Hard Rocks, 291 pp. (1) Stamateio. Tunnelling (2) Yamaguchi and Nishimatsu Introduction to Rock Mechanics: (1) Wolkow. Tumelling. 3. NOTES ON ROCK MECHANICS EDUCATION IN VARIOUS REGIONS The following notes are presented to acquaint the reader with some of the regional characteristics of ‘educational systems in general, and the rock mechanics programmes in particular, in various parts of the world 4.1. Regional Notes for Scandinavia Finland In Scandinavia and Finland the universities are or ganized according to the continental European tradition where engineering is taught in special institutes of tech- nology (‘Technische Hochschulen’), Two degrees are aiven, the Diploma Engineer after 4-5 years, and the Dr. Ing. which is equivalent to Ph.D. ‘The institutes will contain a Department of Civil Engineering and for the larger institutes also a De- partment of Mining, Metallurgy and Geology. Soil mechanics has traditionally been @ subdivision of the civil engineering department whilst geology, including ‘ore geology and engineering geology, has belonged to the mining, metallurgy and geology department, Rock mechanics as a subject has partly developed in con- nection with mining and partly in connection with the extensive tunnelling industry of the region. The region is geologically characterized by very old and generally strong rocks on the one hand and very young and generally soft soils on the other hand— ‘without the materials in between. Soil mechanics and rock mechanics have therefore up until now been fairly separated disciplines. This is also reflected in the teach- ing programmes, As the oldest geotechnical academic discipline, soil mechanics is part of the programme for all civil engineering students. Rock mechanics courses are normally optional and offered among a number of ‘other courses. For mining and geological engineering198 SRM students rock mechanics courses are important parts of the programmes, ‘The rock mechanics courses may in generat be charac: terized as fairly practical. In addition, much of the research work has a practical aspect, and the contacts, between the universities and the mining and tunnelling industry have always been good. 3.2, Regional Notes for the U.K: Inthe U.K., universities are organized on traditional departmental lines, with students taking their degrees principally within one department, Bachelor's degree programmes are 3 years fong, although some universities are now moving to a 4-year degree. At the under graduate level, rock mechanics forms @ major com- ponent of mining engineering programmes, but is offered only as a minor component or option, if at all, in civil engineering departments. In some civil engineering pro- grammes it is possible to specialize in geotechnical engineering, but not in rock mechanics. The Bachelor's degree may be taken with a specialization in engineering geology in a few geology departments ‘The most concentrated rock mechanics teaching takes, place in specialist 1-year Master's degree programmes offered by a small number of universities, Rock mechan- ‘cs may be taught to students specializing in soil mechan: ics or engineering geology or may be offered as a specialization itself. Generally, in these programmes, the level of collaboration between academic staff in’ the various geotechnical disciplines is high. These advanced courses, as they are known, attract students from all parts of the world and so do not have any particular regional bias. However, except for those in the south of the country, most mining schools place an emphasis on coal mining and soft rock applications of Rock Mechan- ies in their teaching and research. In the U.K. the Ph.D. degree is awarded on the basis of research and has no course-work component. Ph.D. level research in rock mechanics is carried out generally in the mining schools. In some universities, rock me~ chanies research programmes reflect a close association with the local coal mining industry, but on a country wide basis, Ph.D, rescarch covers a full range of civil engineering, hard- and soft-rock mining, and energy- related applications. 3.3. Regional Notes for the U.S.A In the U.S.A., rock mechanics is most commonly found in either a civil engineering or mining engineering department within a university. Rock mechanics courses may be found in both the 4-year Bachelors degree programme and the I- and 2-year Master's degree programme In the mining engineering departments, rock mechan- ies courses are often introduced in the Bachelor's degree programme. In civil engineering, because most pro- grammes which specialize in geotechnical engineering. are at the graduate level, rock mechanics is found primarily in the Master’s degree programme. Often, students in civil engineering departments take rock TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS rmechanies courses after they have had some soil me- chanies or general geotechnical courses. Some of the programmes require the student t0 take courses in each of the areas of soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and engineering geology, in order t0 equip the civil engineer to handle the variety of soil and rock conditions he is likely to encounter in practice. The Ph.D. programme, although it usually requires some coursework beyond the Master’s degree, is prin- cipally a research programme at most universities Ph.D. programmes in rock mechanics are found in both civil engineering and mining engineering departments in the USA. At most major universities, much of the research is federally funded and research emphases therefore tend to be responsive to national needs. Some regional em- phases can also be found, because of local and si support for research efforis and because of accessibility of field research locations near a university. The variety ‘of geological and geographic conditions in the U.S.A often leads to an emphasis in the major universities on 2 broad range of geotechnical problems. In most géidu- ate engineering programmes there is a high percentage of students from other countries, which also tends to broaden the perspestive of the programme. 3.4, Regional Notes for the Federal Republic of Germany In the Federal Republic of Germany rock mechanies courses are offered—depending on the local situation either from civil engineering, mining engineering or geology departments. Generally the courses are. ako offered to students of related departments, Frequently these courses are integrated into specialized courses of geotechnical engineering, engineering geology or mining engineering, The diploma programmes include generally 4 years of course-work followed by a Diplomarbeit (thesis). Within these programmes certain specializations can be chosen in addition to the basic programme. Advanced courses in rock mechanics would fall within these specializations. The doctorate degree is awarded on the basi research and it requires no additonal coursework of 4. SUMMARY 4.1, Survey Results In the responses to the survey, both the number of universities reporting and the number of graduates employed were about equally divided between the disci- plines of mining and civil engineering. Approximately one half of the 104 universities report- ing in 1879 had a Ph.D. programme in which geo- technical engineering was offered as a major area of concentration. Approximately one-fourth of the utiver- sities reporting had an extensive rock mechanics pro- gramme, with more than three rock mechanies theses in the past 8 years, and more than 4 students graduating per year who have had at least 80 hours of classroom instruction in rack mechanics.ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS Rock mechanics was also surveyed, not as a specialty, but as part of an overall programme for mining or civil engineering, In civil engineering rock mechanics is com monly offered at the M.S. level, and is often integrated with the graduate soil mechanics programme. This is a logical trend, as must civil engineering departments also concentrate on soil mechanics at the M.S. level, while at the BS. level, a more general programme in civil en- gineering is offered, with only introductory courses in soil mechanics. Ia mining, rock mechanics courses are more often included as part of the undergraduate curric- ulum of the mining school. Many of the Australian universities, for example, include 1 to 3 rock mechanics courses at the BS. level for mining engineers 4.2, Rock Mechanics as an Introductory Subject There is a trend for rock mechanies to be taught as an introductory subject in schools without a strong research concentration in rock mechanics. The Commission feels that this is an important area of rock mechanics edu- cation, At the same time, it recognizes the need for supporting the academic staff in such schools. In the responses to the survey, the need was often expressed, particularly by schools not specializing in rock mechan- ics, for the publication of examples of typical curricula, programme, and courses in rock tmechanies. In this report, some examples of courses and programmes are presented, Many engineering schools offer introductory courses in soil mechanics at the undergraduate level. Although it may not be possible to offer @ full course in rock mechanics at that level, it would be desirable, and possible in most cases, to introduce the topic of rock engineering in the introductory soil mechanics or “geo technical’ courses. The student's perspective would be balanced with the inclusion of rock mechanies topics in which the importance of discontinuities, such as shears, faults and joints, are emphasized. He would Jearn that the strength of a discontinuity in either a soil or rock ‘mass depends on characteristics that cannot be obtained solely from a faboratory test on an intact sample. He would learn how to recognize significant rock properties from a study of rock core, and learn what information is often missing in the rock core, He could be introduced to the problems of shales or residual soils that have both. rock-like and soil-like properties. Examples could be presented of projects, such as excavations, tunnels, slopes, and formations that extend through both soil and rock at the same site. These and other examples of proposed curricula are presented in Section 2 To further support the teacher of rock mechanics, teaching aids, such as slide or overhead projection sets, might be developed to illustrate rock mechanics prin ciples. Slides could be distributed that show examples of rock conditions in the field, with an accompanying text that gives a quantitative description of the significant rock indices at the site and summarizes the engineering problems encountered. Such materials would permit the student t0 gain field experience without leaving the 199 4.3, Interaction with Other Geotechnical Disciplines Many universities reported that their interaction with other geotechnical disciplines (Soil mechanics and en- gineering geology) was good. This may, to extent, reflect the goal more than the accomplishment. Most univer- sities indicated the need for more interaction. Several universities noted that a lack of interest in applied problems among the geology Faculty was a cause of the difficulties in obtaining adequate interchanges between engineering and geology departments However, more interaction between the disciplines appears to be developing. In civil engineering, in partic- ular, the areas of soil and rock mechanics are being. integrated, as they must be, in order to properly treat the many residual soil and variable rock-soil problems that are encountered in practice. Most faculty also recognize the importance of field geology courses as part of a rock mechanics programme. 44. Education of the Rock Mechanics Specialist ‘The Commission wishes to emphasize the need to train students in making observations and using them to define and solve problems. Geological training is of importance in order to see a condition; engineering training in order to relate the condition to the problem at hand. If the conditions affecting a project cannot be visualized or predicted, the best analysis or test may be inrelevant. Several of the Commission members have seen the success of working field trips, rather than tourist-type excursions, in which students predict, map, log conditions, prepare a design, and then have oppor- tunity to examine the acttal conditions at the site and thereby test their predictions. Such opportunities are all too rare, even in practice. jin the field of rock mechanics there have been significant developments in the available analytical tools, such as the finite element method. These tools will become even more useful as techniques such as inter- active graphics make the programs accessible to non- specialists, and permit the engineer and student to interact with the program. To prevent improper use of such tools, the student must understand the basic re lationships behind the advanced analytical techniques and understand the limitations of even the advanced techniques with respect to the actual behaviour of a rock mass. Thus, the student should obtain a solid grouading in the behaviour and mechanics of materials and should also be introduced to rea) cases and examples, and learn to use such experiences in evaluating a problem. The student should recognize that the engineering process consists of more than a test and an analysis. It is much broader. It includes the determination of the critical parameters affecting a project, exploration and obser- vations to evaluate the site conditions (which may include some sophisticated testing), a review of previous experience and precedent, with correlations to the pro- Posed problem using appropriate scaling factors and analyses, Cost, risk, contractural relationships, the abil:200 ity to monitor and modify conditions inthe field—all are considerations in the selection of a design. The Commission concludes, from the responses to the survey and from their own contacts with rock mechanics education throughout the world, that it is difficult in many universities to develop and conduct a programme that not only provides students with an adequate grounding in the fundamentals of engineering and scientific theory, yet also provides an adequate insight into the engineering approach to problems and the methods of investigating problems in the field. It is difficult for a faculty member to teach and establish a research programme and also maintain significant con- tact with practice. Young academic staff members tend to be forced into, or gravitate toward, the ‘publish or perish’ mode in which the most convenient research ISRM: TEACHING OF ROCK MECHANICS effort consists of breaking a piece of rock in a laboratory testing machine. Some of that research is relevant, some is not, The rock mechanics specialist, in particular, should always be aware that the scale of his material rock—requires him to go into the field to view it and learn about it 4.5. Future Revisions to University Listings The Commission on Teaching of Rock Mechanics recommends that future revisions of this repori be effected by using a form, such as the form available as Appendix B, that will permit the summary of rock mechanics programmes at universities or institutes to be kept current, Received 4 March 198,