1

STABILIZATION OF LATERITE AGAINST WATER PENETRATION

IN EARTH (MUD) ROOFS USING LOCUST BEAN POD ASH
AND SUGARCANE STRAW ASH

by

MOMOH, SADETU
PG/M.Ed/11/58821

DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION

(INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION)
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA

DECEMBER, 2014
 i

STABILIZATION OF LATERITE AGAINST WATER PENETRATION

IN EARTH (MUD) ROOFS USING LOCUST BEAN POD ASH
AND SUGARCANE STRAW ASH

by

MOMOH, SADETU
PG/M.Ed/11/58821

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL

TEACHER EDUCATION (INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION)
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION (M.ED) IN
INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION (BUILDING TECHNOLOGY).

i
 ii

APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been approved for the Department of Vocational Teacher Education,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

by

_____________________ __________________
Sir, Prof. S.C.O.A. Ezeji Internal Examiner
Supervisor

___________________ __________________
External Examiner Prof. (Mrs.) C.A. Igbo
Head of Department

__________________
Prof. Uju Umoh
Dean, Faculty of Education

ii
 iii

CERTIFICATION

I, Momoh, Sadetu, a postgraduate student in the Department of Vocational

Teacher Education with Registration number PG/M.Ed/11/58821 have

satisfactorily completed the requirements for the course and research work for the

Master of Education Degree in Industrial Technical Education (Building

Technology). The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been

submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any University.

__________________ _____________________
Momoh, Sadetu Sir, Prof. S.C.O.A. Ezeji
Student Thesis Supervisor

iii
 iv

DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to my late parents in the persons of Mallam Jafaru A.

Shaibu and Mrs Rosemary Shaibu. May God Almighty grant them eternal rest. Amen.

iv
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My profound gratitude goes to my hardworking, dedicated supervisor, Sir, Prof.

S.C.O.A. Ezeji for his patience, criticism, guidance, corrections throughout the entire

research work. Sir, I do sincerely appreciate your effort. May God Almighty never forget

your generation in Jesus name. I also thank the entire staff of the Department of

Vocational Teacher Education for the cooperation given to me during the course of my

study.

I am grateful to my family members for their love, support and encouragement

throughout the course of my study. In this line, I am grateful to my husband in the person

of Barrister Muhammadu-Bello Momoh and my mother-in-law Revered Gloria Momoh

for her care and love; my uncle Jacobs Gibah; my brothers and sisters; my little princess;

my friends too numerous to mention; I say thank you to all of you for supporting me

through your prayers, finances and in other ways.

Also, my sincere appreciation goes to Engineer John Onoja for his unfailing help,

his patience, support and understanding in the course of carrying out the tests needed for

this research.

Finally, I give praise to God Almighty, the maker of the universe, for his love,

care, protection and preservation over my life, and for seeing me through to the end of

this programme.

v
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL PAGE ii
CERTIFCATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWELDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 5

Purpose of the Study 6

Significance of the Study 7

Research Question 8

Delimitations of the Study 9

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10
Conceptual Framework 10

Laterite as a Building Material: Strengths and Weaknesses 12

Stabilization of Laterite for Building Construction 14

Locust Bean Pod Ash as a Stabilizer to Laterite 16

Laterite Stabilized with Sugarcane Straw Ash 18

Review of Related Empirical Studies 20

Summary of Review of Related Literature 23

vi
 vii

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY 25
Design of the Study 25

Area of the Study 26

Materials for the Study 26

Procedures for Constructing Traditional Laterite Earth Roof 27

Preparation of Specimens 29

Mixing of Materials 30

Specimen Preparation 31

Test on Samples 32

CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 34
Analysis of Research Questions 34

Research Question 1 34

Research Question 2 35

Research Question 3 36

Research Question 4 37

Findings of the Study 37

Discussion 38

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 40
Re-statement of the Problem 40

Summary of the Procedures Used 41

Summary of the Findings 41

Implications of the Study 41

vii
 viii

Conclusions 42

Recommendations 43

Suggestions for Further Research 43

REFERENCES 44

APPENDICES 50

Appendix A: Falling Head Water Permeability Apaparatus 51

viii
 ix

LIST OF TABLES
Table page

1. Chemical and Physical Requirements of Pozzolans 18

2. Chemical Composition of Sugarcane Straw Ashes 20

3. Format for Recording Test Readings of Specimens 33

4. Water Resistance Effectiveness of Locust Bean Pod Ash after 14 and 28 days
of Curing 35
5.Water Resistance Effectiveness of Sugarcane Straw Ash after 14 and 28 days
of Curing 36

6. What Resistance Effectiveness of Locust Bean Pod Ash and Sugarcane

Straw Ash 37

ix
 x

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
1. Illustration of the Mix Ratios of Materials 31
2. The Falling Head Permeameter Apparatus 52

x
 xi

Abstract
This research examined the stabilization of laterite against water penetration on earth
(mud) roofs, using Locust Bean Pod Ash (LBPA) and Sugarcane Straw Ash (SCSA). The
laterite soil was collected from pits around Hagagawa quarters of Bichi Local
Government Area. It was stabilized with different mix ratios of 14, 22 and 30 per cent of
LBPA and SCSA with different mix proportions of laterite. These mixes were subjected
to permeability test to ascertain their water resistance effectiveness. The results of the test
showed that, laterite sample without additives is more porous, thereby, allowing easy
penetration of water and thus, not very suitable for roof construction. The suitability of
the laterite sample was improved by optimum of LBPA and SCSA at 30 per cent. Also,
the least amount of water penetration after 14 and 28 days of curing was with the mix
ratio of 70:30, followed by 78:22. The results also showed that the increase in quantity of
Locust Bean Pod Ash resulted in greater water resistance than increase in quantity of
Sugarcane Straw Ash for both 14 and 28 days curing periods.

xi
 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Housing for citizens is one of the major challenges facing humankind in the 21st

century. Although studies have shown that the problem of housing is universal, it is,

however, more critical in less developed countries (LDCS) including Nigeria. The

challenge of housing is not particularly acute to the rural dwellers, it also affects the

urban areas in many less developed countries, where expansion of the urban population

due to the high population growth rate and a massive rural-urban drift have compounded

the housing situation.

The urban slum mostly live in over-crowded housing which is usually self-made

temporary structures, having effect on deteriorating urban infrastructures and social

services (Diogu, 2002). The need for adequate provision of housing facilities is

increasing with increase in population and with the demand of maintenance of the

existing ones. The search for local materials to supplement cement or partially replace it

in most applications as evidenced by many researchers world-wide have become

paramount.

In recent years, the potential for laterite earth as a valuable and desirable

construction material is being rediscovered. When referring to earth, soil, laterite or mud

in building construction ,both terms mean the same material, they are materials excavated

from the sub-soil layers of the ground kneaded together for walling or other building

construction purposes. Methods derived from the traditional techniques are being

developed to improve the quality of earth construction and broaden the potential for the

1
 2

application. Earth is primarily used for the construction of walls but can also be used for

the construction of roofs where its good insulation properties are particularly

advantageous, especially in hot, dry climate.

Roof is the uppermost weather proof and essential part of any building. It encloses

the space within the building providing vital protection from the elements. It is both an

esthetic and structural element. The shape and material used determine the style of the

entire construction (Adam and Agib, 2001). According to Aliyu and Yaradua (2012),

weather –tight roof is essential for preserving the structure of the entire building. If the

roof is badly constructed with poor quality materials, heat loss or gain will result as well

as water penetration and consequently the rest of the building will suffer damage. Roof

should exclude rain, prevent excessive heat gain or loss, have good resistance to fire and

should require little maintenance during its life span (Aliyu and Yaradua, 2012). The

above qualities of a roof can be achieved in a number of ways depending on availability

of materials and expertise (Adam and Agib, 2001).

Researches carried out by many organizations especially the National Center for

Human Settlement (2001) on earth construction technology have shown that laterite has

been successfully, used in the construction of dams, arches, roads, walls, and roofs.

According to Aliyu and Yaradua (2012), laterite has been the most important of all

building materials used in the history of building construction. Middendort (2001)

recorded cases of the use of mud and clay which dated back to Mesopotamia around 800

BC. Adam and Agib (2001) stated that more than two billion people live in buildings

constructed of laterite and clay products mostly in Asia and Africa.

 3

Laterite which has been used for ages in the construction of houses from Nile to

the gigantic monuments in Egypt and Babylon consists of highly weathered soils formed

by the concentration of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum (Thagesen,1996). The soil

name laterite was coined by Buchanan in 1807 in India from a Latin word:Later’ meaning

brick. The principal reason for using laterite earth is its excellent sustainable

characteristics in construction and recycling process. These include the efficient use of

infinite resources, minimizing pollution, waste and low carbon emission. Laterite as a

building material is available everywhere in the world and exists in many different

compositions. It is most efficiently used in developing countries like Nigeria especially in

cities such as Kano, Kaduna, Gusau, Kastina and other cities in Northern Nigeria to house

a great number of people at reduced cost. However, it must be noted that laterite earth

buildings are not found only in the third world countries but also in the developed

countries (EBA, New Zealand, 1998). In Nigeria and other third world countries the

majority of houses in rural areas are built with laterite earth (Lasis and Osunade 1996;

Kamang, 1998). Despite obvious limitations (like shrinkage, swelling, leading to cracks)

in its acceptability and strength, the use of the material has continued to increase.

Because of these limitations in the use of laterite in construction activities, recent

research efforts have been geared towards improving its engineering properties for low-

cost house. One way by which improvement of laterite for earth building construction can

be achieved, is through soil stabilization. This is aimed at upgrading the traditional

technology of laterite in construction through enhanced strength, durability, water

penetration and other performance characteristics. Stabilization is a technical process, the

object of which is to neutralize or at least restrict the detrimental behavior of the clay
 4

present and thus reduce the natural sensitivity of soil to water, which leads to a loss of

strength and cohesion. Thagesen (1996) defines stabilization as any process by which a

soil material is improved and made stable. Garber and Hoel (2000) describe soil

stabilization as the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering properties. In

general, soil stabilization is the process of creating or improving certain desired

properties in a soil material so as to render it stable useful for a specific purpose. Since

the inception of this process of stabilization, most soil materials which have been thought

not useful have found application in many areas of both civil and building construction.

In the time past, traditional earth builders used some local additives or stabilizers

(stabilizers or additives are substance added to materials or process to modify its

chemical or physical properties) to stabilize and improve the performance of laterite in

constructions. Ola (1983) and Osinubi (1995) adduced that laterite can be stabilized with

additives or agents such as cement and lime. Admixtures of coal bottom ash and cement,

with phosphatic wastes, have been used to stabilize and improve engineering properties

of laterite earth with significant or remarkable results (Osinubi and Medubi, 1998;

Osinubi, 2000). Further researches into cheaper ways of stabilizing laterite (mud) could

yield big relief from the expensive stabilization of laterite using cement and lime.

Stabilization of laterite using conventional materials for construction purposes can be

expensive, especially in a depressed economy, where cement is not within the reach of

the low income earners. Hence, the need for alternative low-cost stabilization materials.

A number of researches have been made on utilization of locally- available waste

materials to stabilize laterite earth for construction purposes. Examples of such recent

researches include the use of bagasse ash, rice husk ash, locust bean pod ash, sugarcane
 5

straw ash mixed to stabilize laterite as undertaken by Osinubi and Stephen (2005, 2006,

2007); Osinubi and Mustapha (2008); Ochepo (2008), Osinubi and Eberemu (2006);

Adam and Jimoh (2011); Ogunribido (2012). The search for local additives to supplement

cement in most applications is paramount, because cement is very expensive to obtain.

Notable alternatives are some natural additives such as locust bean pod ash, cow dung,

earth worm hill, sugarcane straw ash and rice husk ash. All these can be seen locally in

most parts of Nigeria and can be used as stabilizing agents to laterite. The use of these

additives depends on the expertise of the local earth builders and availability of the

additives in a given locality. In this study, laterite earth will be stabilized using locust

bean pod ash (LBPA) and Sugarcane straw ash (SCSA) to serve as stabilizers to laterite

in order to improve its engineering properties against water penetration in roofs. Water

penetration in roof is the rate at which water enters into the roof structure. The faster

water penetrates into the roof, the more likely the roof will deteriorate. That is why

stabilization is necessary especially in earth mud roofs.

Statement of the Problem

Laterite earth buildings are predominantly found in many cities of Kano State,

like most part of northern Nigeria, especially in their rural areas, for instance, Bichi Local

Government Area. In this part, traditional houses are constructed using laterite from

foundation to the roof level. Some of these houses are being destroyed by rain annually

leading to live loss and properties. This may be caused by the limitations, laterite has as a

building material, that is, its high shrinkage and swelling properties. Because of the

mineralogical nature of clay, that makes it to expand when wet and shrinks when dried.
 6

This characteristics can cause cracks in the structure especially when used as a roofing

material which may lead to water penetration.

Using some additives, (like locust bean pod ash, sugarcane straw ash, rice husk

ash, bagasse ash e.t.c ), the challenge can be taken care of to some extent. It has been

proven by some researchers such as Adama and Jimoh(2011), Adama, Jimoh and

Kolo(2013), Osinubi and Stephen (2007), that materials mentioned above, have some

cementation properties in them which they exhibit when mixed with laterite. This may be

due to the high amount of silicon oxide present in them, making them highly pozzolanic.

This study was conducted to finding the effect of selected additives when mixed with

laterite in preventing water penetration in earth roofs.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to stabilize laterite against water penetration in

earth (mud) roofs, using locust bean ash (LBPA) and sugarcane straw ash (SCSA).

Specifically, the study will determine:

1. the water resistance effectiveness of laterite material stabilized with locust bean

pod ash (LBPA).

2. the water resistance effectiveness of laterite material stabilized with sugarcane

straw ash (SCSA).

3. the difference in water resistance of laterite materials stabilized with only locust

bean pod ash or sugarcane straw ash, when compared with that stabilized with a

mixture of both materials (LBPA and SCSA).

4. the effectiveness of water resistance of laterite material stabilized with LBPA and

SCSA as a result of variations in their mix proportions.

 7

Significance of the Study

This study would establish the proportion of locust bean pod ash and sugarcane

straw ash to be mixed with laterite to produce a matrix that will reduce water penetration

in mud roofs. Having such knowledge, the study would be of benefit to local earth

builders, farmers of locust bean and sugarcane, society, low- income earners, federal

housing authority, building technology policy makers like Council of Registered Builders

of Nigerian (CORBON).

The out come of this study would be beneficial to the local earth builders, by

providing them with a standardized mix proportion of locust bean pod ash and sugarcane

straw ash as stabilizers to laterite for roof construction. This will be done by sensitizing

them through workshops and enlightenment campaign.

The study would also be of great benefit to farmers of locust bean and sugarcane,

because the findings will help to direct their focus to new area of investment in the

production and marketing of these products, with the assurance of a sustainable,

renewable source of raw material as there will be increase in the planting of both locust

bean and sugarcane plants on the awareness of the potentials of the plants. This circle is

capable of stimulating industrial growth in the processing of both plants.

The federal housing development authority is responsible for the provision of

housing for all. The findings of this study would help them to make necessary reviews

and further contribution in their housing policies that will support the use of locally

sourced materials for roof construction; leading to the construction of affordable and low

cost houses for the populace

 8

The immediate community (society), would find the study useful in exploring the

economic benefit of raising more locust bean trees, sugarcane plants and new market for

the products .The findings of the study would give low-income earners the awareness on

the availability of cheaper and environmental friendly roofing material and will also give

them some level of confidence in the use of the stabilized laterite for roofing

construction.

The result of this study would be of great benefit to bodies formulating and

regulating building industry policies; for instance, Council of Registered Builders of

Nigerian (CORBON), to develop a national earth building code for Nigerian.

Research Questions

To guide the conduct of this study, four research questions were raised as follows:

1. At what mix proportion of locust bean pod ash (LBPA) to laterite will stabilized

laterite material provide effective water resistance for laterite earth to be used for

roof construction purposes?

2. What will be the water resistance effectiveness when sugarcane straw ash (SCSA)

is mixed with laterite for roof construction purpose?

3. What is the difference in the water resistance of laterite material stabilized with

LBPA and SCSA as a result of variations in mix proportion?

4. What will be the mix ratio of locust beam pod ash and sugarcane straw ash to

laterite that will give the desired paste needed to check water penetration in mud

roofs?
 9

Delimitations of the Study

This study would be delimited to determining the water penetration properties of

stabilized laterite for roof construction in Bichi Local Government Area of Kano State,

using locust bean pod ash (LBPA) and sugarcane straw ash (SCSA) singly and in

combination. Using different mix proportion.

 10

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The related literature for this study will be reviewed under the following sub-headings:

a. Conceptual Framework

· Laterite as a Building Material: Strengths and Weakness

· Stabilization of Laterite for Building Construction

· Locust Bean Pod Ash as a Stabilizer to Laterite against Water Penetration

· Laterite Stabilized with Sugarcane Straw Ash

b. Related Empirical Studies

c. Summary of Review of Related Literature

Conceptual Framework

Laterite soils are generally used for construction, especially in the Civil and

Building industries. Laterite soil in its natural state generally has low bearing capacity

and low strength due to high content of clay.When laterite soil contains a large amount of

clay materials its strength and stability cannot be guaranteed under load especially in the

presence of moisture (Ogunriibido, 2012). When this soil consists of high plastic clay,

plasticity of the soil may cause cracks and damage on building components or any other

Civil Engineering construction projects. The improvement in the strength, durability and

water penetration of laterite soil in recent times has, therefore, become imperative. This

search for improvement has geared up researchers towards using stabilizing materials that

can be sourced locally at very low cost. This is based on the growing cost of the

conventional building materials, especially roofing sheets, coupled with the need for the

economic utilization of industrial and agricultural wastes for beneficial engineering

10
 11

purposes. Thus the possible use of locust bean pod ash and sugarcane straw ash as a

additives to laterite for roof construction in agrarian communities will reduce or eliminate

the environmental hazards caused by such waste (Agbede and Joel, 2011). According to

Ogunnibido (2012), there is a wide range of stabilizers that are locally available (such as

sugarcane straw ash, rice husk ash, coconut husk ash, fly ash, bottom ash, waste steel

slag, and locust bean pod ash) for the construction industries. The choice and

sustainability of a particular stabilizer depends largely on its availability, nature of

project, individual preference, durability, proximity and economic consideration.

In view of the increasing demand for safe and cost-effective engineering in

modern technology, construction materials in their natural forms may not satisfy all

technology engineering requirements. Hence, the necessity for stabilization of laterite

materials to enhance their properties. This explains why efforts are being directed to

material conversion of industrial wastes and bio wastes to engineering products and

materials (Collins, 1993). Stabilization has been defined by Thagesen (1996), as any

process by which a soil material is improved and made more stable. Garber and Hoel

(2000) described soil stabilization as the treatment of natural soil to improve its

engineering properties. The primary aim of soil stabilization is to increase its resistance to

destructive weather conditions. Kerali (2001) noted that high clay soils require very high

proportion of stabilization or a combination of stabilizers to achieve results, especially

when using local additives. By so doing, some important changes can be made to the

traditional earth construction especially in the construction of roofs, and this can

enormously improve the performance of the laterite soil while keeping its desirable

characteristics. Howe (1992) and McNally (1998) stated that, most soil materials which
 12

have been thought not useful have found application in many areas of engineering work.

This is due to the improvement made on these soil properties through stabilization, which

leads to increase in soil strength, stiffness, durability, reduction in swelling and water

penetration.

The technological capability to use local additives in stabilizing laterite materials

for roofing construction in the rural areas may be seen in two different ways. First and

foremost, one must identify suitable soils and their limit states and secondly, one must be

able to improve on the natural characteristic weaknesses of the earth material and to

standardize such improvements for incorporation into modern housing designs and

programmes without losing their desirable natural characteristics.

Laterite as a Building Material: Strengths and Weaknesses

Laterite earth has been widely used for building construction in tropical and sub-

tropical regions of the world where they are readily- available and economical, compared

to other natural stones ( Varghese and Bysu, 1993; Osadebe and Nwakonobi, 2007).

However, laterite has not been extensively used in constructing medium to large size

building roof structures, probably because of lack of adequate data needed in the analysis

and design of roof structures built of laterite soils. This underscores the need for more

research efforts in this area.

According to Adoga (2008), laterite is a highly- weathered material, rich in oxides

of Iron, aluminum or both. It is nearly devoid of base and primary silicates but may

contain large amount of Quarts, and Kaolinide. Laterite historically, is the oldest and

most widely known and used building material ( Aliyu and Yaradua 2012). According to

Rigassi, 2000), laterite earth structures are completely recyclable, that is, they return to
 13

the earth without polluting the soil. Using laterite for building up the environment will be

a strong component in the future of humankind (Norton.1997; Olugbenga.2007;

Kasthurba, Manu and Mathews, 2005).

The properties that make laterite suitable for building purposes are: its plasticity

when wet and its ability to harden when dry. Laterite clay has some special characteristics

that make it differ from other soils. These include the fact that it tends to harden on

exposure to air and the darker the laterite is, the harder, heavier and more resistant to

moisture it is. Also, laterite is found to have pozzolanic reaction when mixed with lime

and other stabilizers. Therefore, laterite clay has some strength that makes it a building

material. These are: laterite has very high thermal capacity that enables it to keep the

inside of a building cool, when the outside is hot and vice-versa. It is a good noise

absorbent, it is easy to work on using simple tools and skills, It is resistant to fire, it is

cheaper than most alternative walling/roofing materials and readily available on most

building sites.

These qualities encourage and facilitate self-help and community participation in

building houses. According to Kasthurba and Mathews (2005), in spite of the popularity

and good qualities of laterite, the material has the following weaknesses as a building

material: It has low resistance to water penetration resulting to crumbling and structural

failure, It has a very high shrinkage (swelling ration resulting to major structural cracks

when exposed to changing weather condition),It has low resistance to abrasion and

requires frequent repairs and maintenance when used in building construction.

In order to overcome these weaknesses and make deficient laterite soils useful and

meet the engineering requirements, researchers in the likes of Moses (2010); Alhassan
 14

and Mustapha (2007); Osunubi and Eberemu (2005); Osinubi and Stephen (2006), have

focused on the use of potentially, cost-effective materials that are locally- available from

industrial and agricultural wastes, in order to improve and stabilize the properties of

laterite soils. With the advent of improved technology in earth construction, clays will

find better place in the provision of affordable houses, especially for rural dwellers.

Stabilization of Laterite for Building Construction

Laterite generally has a very low bearing capacity and high swelling and

shrinkage characteristics. It is, therefore, important to know the characteristics of the clay

content whether it is expansive, stable or unstable (Burrough, 2002). This information is

necessary to determine the nature/type of stabilization (this technique involves the

addition of natural or processed binders to earth such as straw, cow dung, cement, lime

and bitumen to improve certain properties of laterite) to adopt. The stabilization

technique according to Amu and Salami (2010) can be broken down into two categories

namely: mechanical and chemical stabilization.

Compaction or mechanical stabilization is one of the oldest means of stabilization.

Soil particles are re-arranged, that is, by changing the gradation through mixing with

other soils and then densified or by undercutting the existing soils and replacing them

with granular material to improve the soil’s engineering properties of strength,

permeability and compressibility. An existing soil may have poor strength or stability

because of excess clay, silt or fine sand. If a suitable soil was located within a reasonable

distance, blending soils together could affect an improvement in the existing soil

(Kubanni, 2011).
 15

Chemical stabilization of laterite has been used for close to half a decade now.

The concern of engineers has been to make poor engineering soil much better. Chemicals

most often used are organic in nature and are mainly industrial wastes which pose

environmental problems (Kubanni, 2011). In the presence of organic matter, where a soil

contains a certain amount of fine that cause plastic behaviour of soil, stabilization is often

recommended (Osinubi and Katte, 1997). Stabilization is a process used to improve soil

characteristics and it involves the use of different kinds of agents. These agents include:

cement, lime, bitumen, and fly ash. These chemicals have been used either singly or in

combination with one another.

As a result of new developments in laterite buildings globally, new techniques

have been introduced while the old ones are gradually phasing out. According to Dobson

(2004), the new techniques can give earth buildings far increased performance than the

old techniques. Moor and Healthcole (2002), in their study noted that laterite in an

unstabilized form will have limited durability. Sidibe (1998) said even the best of laterite

and water mixture to produce mud paste can develop cracks. Therefore, it is important to

introduce other materials to the mix to prevent water from penetrating. Stabilization of

laterite increases its resistance to destructive weather condition in one or more of the

following ways:

· by cementing the particles of the soil together leading to increase in strength and

cohesion,

· by reducing movement (shrinkage and swelling) of the laterite when its moisture

content varies due to weather conditions,

 16

· by making soil waterproof or at least less permeable to moisture, (Bengtsson and

Whitaker, 1998).

Since the inception of the process of stabilization, most soil materials which have

been thought not useful have found value in areas of engineering especially in Civil

Engineering and Building Construction. In spite of the enormous advantages of

stabilization for earth construction, it is important to note that different types of soils and

stabilizers exist. Therefore, there is no one way to solve all cases (Kenndy, 2009;

Bongtsson and Whitaker, 1998). In this case, caution should be taken when processing

any laterite-based materials because the procedures of laterite stabilized with local

additives are often not the same standards set for cement- based materials or cement

mixes, because the hardening process of materials other than cement, require a different

approach to all procedures. It is, therefore, necessary to standardize mix proportions of

the local additives that will give the laterite material the desired water resistance and

durability as a standard for general application in earth building construction especially in

the area of roof construction using laterite mud. This is the direction this study intends to

explore.

Locust Bean Pod (parkia biglogosa) Ash as a Stabilizer to Laterite

As a result of increased industrial and agricultural processes across the world,

there has been significant increase in industrial and agricultural wastes which most often

have negative impact on the environment. Much research efforts in recent times are

geared towards possible ways of recycling these wastes such as fly ash, bottom ash, rice

husk ash, wastes steel slag, palm oil fuel ash, waste glass, and organic fibers for re-use to

keep the environment clean and safe. In this dispensation, transportation, construction
 17

and environmental industries have the greatest potential for re-use because they use large

quantities of earthen materials annually (Basha and Roslan, 2002).

Locust bean pod ( parkia biglobosa) is a waste, agricultural, biomass (WAB)

obtained from trees, found in the savannah vegetation which grow to some 15m heights.

The tree has dark, evergreen, pinnate leaves. The fruits are leathery, tightly curved,

indehiscent pods 30cm to 40cm long and 2.3cm wide that cluster in club-shape fruit base.

The base having first developed red non-petal flowers has several pods, each of which

contains on the average 20 brown-blackish seeds embedded in sweet, yellow, floury pulp

(Sina and Traaore, 2002). Each seed is a flattened round shape measuring 0.5cm to 1cm

long. The seeds are very rich in protein and widely used as food seasoner. After the seeds

have been removed the remaining waste (Floury pulp and pods) can constitute

environmental menace on decaying. Using this waste in treatment of laterite soil could

reduce this menace and enhance the soils engineering performance (Akinmade, 2008).

Adama (2010) noted in his study, that the particle size distribution and chemical analysis

of locust bean pod ash (LBPA) confirms that it has pozzonlanic properties and can be

classified under class “C’ group of pozzonlanic on the American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) classification system.

A Pozzolan is described as a “siliceous or alumino-siliceous material that

possesses little or no cementitious value but that in divided form and in the presence of

moisture will chemically react with alkali and alkaline earth hydroxide at ordinary

temperatures to form or assist in forming compounds possessing cementitious

properties” (ASTM, 19870; Abdullahi, 2003; Akinmade, 2008). Such materials occur in

form of volcanic ash, diatomite, fly ash, bagasse ash, rice husk ash, locust bean pod ash,
 18

and sugarcane straw ash. ASTM specifications for pozzonlans are as summarized in

Table 1.

Table 1
Chemical and Physical Requirements of Pozzolans
Mineral Admixture
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS N F C
Silicondioxide, Aluminium Dioxide and Ironoxide (5iO2 +Al2 70 70 50
O3 + FE2O3) minimum %
sulfurioxide (SO3), maaximun% 4.0 5.0 5.0
moisture content, maximum % 3.0 3.0 3.0
loss on ignition, maximum % 10.0 16.0 6.0
Available Alkalis as NK2O maximum% 1.5 1.5 1.5
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
fineness, maximum% retained on 325. Mesh (44um) sieve 34 34 34
Source: American Society For Testing Material(ASTM), Specification C618-92a
Chemical and Physical Specifications (1994).

Laterite Stabilized with Sugarcane Straw(Saccharum officinarum)Ash

Several researches on soil stabilization have been carried out. The ability to blend

the naturally-occurring laterite soil with additives to give it better engineering properties

in both strength and water proofing is very essential (Amu, Ogunniyi and Oladeji, 2011).

Researchers that have used various additives such as rice husk ash, sugarcane straw ash,

fly ash, bamboo ash, lime or cement include Amu, Bamisaye and Komelafe, (2011);

Amu, Ogunniyi and Oladeji, (2011); Nwoke and Ugwushiwu,( 2011); Amadi,( 2010)

Adama, Jimoh and Kolo,( 2013);Nasly and Yassin,( 2009). The over- dependence on the

utilization of industrially manufactured soil improving additives (cement, and lime) has

kept the cost of building construction materials especially roof materials financially high.
 19

High cost of building materials has prevented third world countries like Nigeria from

providing good and affordable housing for its citizens, particularly rural dwellers.

Sugarcane straw is one of the local additives used for stabilization. It is a major

by-product in the manufacture of sugar in the sugar industries. Proper disposal of waste

products has been a global concern. In order to make sugarcane straw a useful material,

some researchers have shown that sugarcane straw ash contains a high amount of silicon

oxide, making it highly pozzolanic (Amu, Ogunniyi and Oladeji, 2011).

Sugarcane is a Saccharumis a genus of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses

natural to warm temperate to tropical regions of the old world (Amu, et al, 2011). It has

stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar and measure two to six meters tall.

However, several experiments and papers have discussed the characterization of sugar

industry soil waste as pozzolanic materials (Fri’as and Cement Concrete Research, 2005).

Table 2 shows the chemical composition of sugarcane straw ash (SCSA) based on

research that was conducted by Villarcocin, Valencia-Morales, Gonza’lez-Podn’guez and

Herna’ndez-Rul’z (2003), where they studied the pozzolanic behaviour of a mixture of

sugarcane straw with 20 and 30 percent clay burned at 800 and 10000c .
 20

Table 2

Chemical Composition of Sugarcane Straw Ashes

Oxides 8000c 10000c

SiOz 70.20 70.99
Al2O3 1.93 2.08
Fe2O3 2.09 2.25
CaO 12.20 12.44
MgO 1.95 2.01
K2O 3.05 3.10
Ma2O 0.50 0.02
TiO2 0.2 0.02
P2O5 1.40 1.37
SO3 4.10 4.35
Li2O 1.81 0.52
Source: (Fri’as and Concrete, 2005)
Sugarcane straw can be recycled in the manufacture of commercial cement and

other compositions either as raw material or as pozzolanic material. It has been reported

that sugarcane straw ash obtained from heaps of open-air burnt straw in the vicinity of

sugar factories, showed a high pozzolanic activity (Martirena, Middendorf and

Budelman, 1998).

Review of Related Empirical Studies

Several researches have been conducted all over the world on laterite as a

construction material. Some have been specific on laterite stabilization for construction,

in both civil and building engineering works, especially using some locally sourced

additives as stabilizers for construction purposes.

 21

Little and Morton (2001) conducted a study on building with earth in Scotland

and discovered that; Scottish traditional earth building technologies have evolved to take

advantage of local skills and materials to respond to local conditions; there is sufficient

and easy access to earth as a resource for building in a significant number of regions and

locations in Scotland; several projects show that earth has the potential to be used to

produce high quality building projects. The study is related to the present study, because

the researcher finds out that, people of Bichi predominantly built with laterite, using their

local skills and locally available material to respond to their local conditions.

Study was conducted by Ogunribido (2012). The study was on potential of

sugarcane straw ash for stabilization in road construction. The purpose of the study was

to examine the influence of sugarcane straw ash as stabilizer for improving the lateritic

soil strength, three soil samples A, B and C were collected from different location in

Akure stabilized with 0, 2 ,4, 6, 8 and 10% of the sugarcane straw ash, were subjected to

tests such as natural moisture content, specific gravity, linear shrinkage, atterberg limit,

shrinkage limit, compaction, California bearing ratio and unconfined compressive

strength. The result of the preliminary tests with the sugarcane straw ash stabilizer shows

that, the laterite soil in the area are good for road construction. The suitability of the soil

samples A, B and C was improved by the addition of sugarcane straw ash. The optimum

percentage by weight of soil of the sugarcane straw ash for the improvement of the

engineering properties of the lateritic soil is 4%. At the end of the investigation, it was

found that the soil samples A, B and C can be used as sub- grade materials in road

construction, when there is optimum stabilization with sugarcane straw ash. Since the

study showed that lateritic soil stabilized with sugarcane straw ash can be used as sub-
 22

grade material in road construction, it becomes important to find out if laterite stabilized

with sugarcane straw ash adopted by the researcher will prevent water penetration on

earth (mud) roofs.

In the same vein, Amu, Ogunniyi, and Oladeji (2011) explore the geotechnical

properties of lateritic soil stabilized with sugarcane straw ash. This study was meant to

determined the geotechnical properties of lateritic soil stabilized with sugarcane straw ash

with a view to obtain a cheaper and effective replacement for the conventional soil

stabilizers. Preliminary tests were performed on three samples, A, B and C for

identification and classification purposes followed by the consistency limit tests.

Geotechnical strength tests were performed on the samples in both the stabilized and

unstabilized states (adding 2, 4, 6, and 8% Sugarcane Straw Ash). The result showed that

Sugarcane Straw Ash improved the geotechnical properties of the soil samples. Optimum

moisture content increased from 19.0 to 20.5 per cent, 13.3 to 15.7 per cent and 11.7 to

17.0 per cent, California bearing ratio (CBR) increased from 6.31 to 23.3 per cent, 6.24 to

14.88 per cent and 6.24 to 24.88 per cent and unconfined compression strength increase

from 79.64 to 284.66KN/M2, 204.86 to 350.10KN/M2 and 240.4 to 564.6KN/M2 in

samples A, B and C, respectively. Sugarcane Straw Ash was, therefore, found as an

effective stabilizer for lateritic soils. The research under study intends to also seek

materials that will be relatively cheap for the low income earners, for the construction of

roofs.

In a study carried out by Adama and Jimoh(2011) on production and classification

of locust bean pod ash (LBPA) as a pozzolana, revealed that locust bean pod ash has been

used among the Nupe speaking tribe found in Niger state of Nigeria as bonding agent for
 23

locally manufactured clay tile use to prevent water from raising from the ground to the

surface. This study relates to the present study because the researcher is trying to see how

effective laterite soil stabilized with locust bean pod ash can prevent water penetration on

earth (mud) roofs.

Another study by Adama, Jimoh and Kolo(2013) of effect of locust bean pod ash

on compaction characteristics of weak sub-grade soils, shows that chemical stabilization

of weak sub-grade soils using locust bean pod ash was studied with respect to

compaction characteristics and appropriate recycle of waste agricultural biomass(WAB).

The soil used for the study was obtained from pits along Minna-Kataeregi-Bida road in

northern Nigeria and analyzed for their main index properties and compaction. The

experimental results revealed that locust bean pod ash can be use to achieve optimum

satisfactory accomplishment of stabilization of weak soil as road sub based. The

conversion of the WAB to a pozzolanic material for soil stabilization provided at least

three significantly desirable components in modern day total quality development of high

ways; environmental pollution control, recycling of waste for new useful material and

rejuvenation of an exhausted source of construction materials. The study is related to the

present study by way of using locust bean pod ash as pozzolanic material in stabilizing

laterite to see its effectiveness in roof construction.

Summary of Review of Related Literature

The review of literature related for this study has revealed that most soil which

have been thought not useful have found application in many areas of engineering

through soil stabilization. It has also shown that, the most common agents or stabilizers

used for stabilization of soil are: lime, cement and bitumen. In view of increasing demand
 24

for safer, cost effective and environmentally- friendly construction materials, efforts has

been directed to materials conversion of industrial and bio-wastes (such as: fly ash,

bagasse-ash, rice-husk-ash, palm oil-fuel-ash, locust-bean-pod-ash, and sugarcane straw

ash) to stabilize laterite to make it more efficient and effective for construction purposes.

The review also showed that even the best of laterite and water mixture can

develop cracks, but when other materials such as local additives are introduced to the

mix, they can prevent water penetration. The review of literature for this study has shown

that mix proportion of base laterite materials and stabilizers are major contributors to the

quality of the end product of earth buildings. It also showed that stabilization of earth

materials is important to promote both quality and safety of improved earth materials.

Most of the literature reviewed showed how laterite is stabilized and used for

bricks, blocks, and interlocking blocks. However, the studies did not show how stabilized

laterite can be used in roof construction. It thus appears that in the search for cost

effective and environmentally- friendly materials for roof construction in the Northern

part of Nigeria, no studies known to the researcher have been carried out on the

stabilization of laterite against water penetration on earth (mud) roofs in Bichi Local

Government Area of Kano State. This gap is what this study intends to fill.
 25

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter is concerned with the methods and materials to be used for the

conduct of this research. It describes the research design, area of the study, materials for

the study, methods of sample collection, preparation of specimen, and test on samples

collected.

Design of the Study

The research design employed in this study is Research and Development (R &

D) design. The main thrust of Research and Development design according to Gall, Gall

and Borg (2007) and Nworgu (2006) is to develop products and field test the products to

confirm their efficacy before use. Uzoagulu (2011) explained Research and Development

as twin words that go together to the extent that research appears to be the most effective

means of knowledge development. Although, costly and demanding, Research and

Development activities provide valuable means of not only developing new products but

also of improving on existing ones for wider usage and application. Adeyemi (2010) in

Uzoagulu (2011) asserted that product development is the application of research to the

upgrading of the existing product or development of a new one. It is evident from these

definitions that Research and Development is about discovering new knowledge about

products, processes and services and applying such knowledge to create new or improved

products, processes and services that meet people’s needs.

25
 26

The design (Research and Development) was found appropriate for this study,

since it is focused on developing new products through testing of the effectiveness of

selected natural additives as stabilizers to laterite in the construction of roofs.

Area of the Study

The study was carried out in Bichi Local Government Area of Kano State. In this

area, buildings are pre-dominantly constructed with laterite soil from the foundation to

the roof level. Bichi is a Hausa speaking community, pre-dominantly farmers and traders;

it is situated in Kano State. It is about 2.7km off Kano-Kastina road along the old Bichi-

Bagwai road.

Materials for the Study

The materials that will be used for this study are: Laterite soil, Locust bean pod

ash and sugarcane straw ash, timbers and water.

Laterite Soil

The soil sample used for this study were collected at Haggagawa Quarters of

Bichi town in Kano State. The criteria for selecting soil for this research are based on

literature and field tests and they include: the soil classification, the plasticity index,

chemical composition, moisture content and depth for soil extraction. The soil for this

study will be extracted at depths between 0.5m and 1.5m below ground level to avoid any

organic material.

Locust Bean Pod Ash (LBPA)

The locust bean pod ash was obtained by burning the locust bean husks gathered

from Santa Sabo and Badume both in Bichi Local Government Area of Kano State. The

husks will be burnt into ashes using a locally-constructed Kiln made from sealed empty

drum with appropriate air inlets and an ash collection outlet at the bottom level. This
 27

precaution will ensure that only locust bean husk is burnt not the husk and sand or other

mixture of impurities. Also, the precautionary measure adopted will ensure that the

burning and cooling time and temperature would be kept consistent all through the

burning process. The burnt material would be allowed to cool and would be sealed in

polythene bags so as to avoid moisture.

Sugarcane Straw Ash (SCSA)

The sugarcane straw ash was obtained from a sugarcane depot in Rogo Local

Government Area of Kano State. The straws were spread out on a very clean platform

and air-dried to facilitate easy burning. After air-drying, the sugarcane straws was burnt

in a sealed empty drum with air inlets and the ash were collected from an outlet at the

bottom level. Then sieved using Bs 75mm sieve to obtain very fine ash, packed in

polythene bags and stored under room temperature.

Timbers
The timbers used was obtained from the trunks of the male palm tree known in

Hausa as “deleb or gingiya.” These timbers are commonly called ‘azara’ beams. They

were used to make frame constructions, beams, and brackets, as elements for carrying the

flat roofs.

Water
Water that was used to mix the laterite material for hydration and workability,

was Clean drinking water to avoid contamination.

Procedures for Constructing Traditional Laterite Earth Roof

Laterite earth roofs are still used in various parts of Kano State, Bichi Local

Government Area inclusive, because in this area, there is low level of rain fall, compared

to the southern part of Nigeria. This type of roof is popular because of its low-cost, ease
 28

of construction and high resistance to heat. Construction materials required to build such

roofs are also available in this locality.

The laterite earth roof can be laid directly on top of earth walls. The roof for a

room of about 4m x 4m is constructed as follows:

· A central timber joint, about 180mm in diameter, is laid on the walls across the

center of the space to support the whole roof structure.

· Round wooden rafters between 100 and 120mm in diameter or rectangular timber

rafters (100mm x 40mm) area laid on the walls over the central timber joint at

500mm centers. These are laid at five to 100 pitch to facilitate water run-off.

· Reeds are laid over the rafters and fixed firmly with locally made rope.

· Dry thatch, hay or sheet of polythene is then laid over the reeds to give more

insulation and prevent easy water penetration.

· Stabilized earth is then laid over the hay cushion to an average thickness of

100mm. the dry thatch, hay or sheet of polythene also provide protection against

wet earth penetration through the sofit of the roof.

· Rain water spouts are then embedded in the stabilized laterite cover.

· After the earth layer is completely dry the surface is rendered with a mixture of

laterite, straw ash or locust bean pod or cow dung and water and carried for three

to four days. The mix is thoroughly mixed into workable slurry and used to render

the roof surface in a layer about 20mm thick. The rendering serves as a good

sealant against water penetration.

 29

Preparation of Specimens

The specimens for this research were made from stabilized laterite to be used for

roof construction. The production of these specimens will come in five major production

stages namely: laterite preparation, preparation of stabilizers, batching of materials,

mixing of the materials and specimen production.

Laterite Preparation

The laterite samples were excavated from pits located within Haggagawa quarters

in Bichi town of Kano State. Soil samples extracted from the sample pits were stored in

bags. The soil samples was subjected to grading and field classification tests, and

moisture content tests. Also, the samples will be spread out to dry on a plat form. During

the drying period, the samples were turned repeatedly until a uniform soil colour was

obtained from top to bottom indicating uniform moisture content.

Preparation of Stabilizers

The already burnt locust bean pod ash were ground into a powder pozzolana. The

burning time, temperature, cooling time and cooling conditions of the locust bean pod ash

will be carefully checked and kept constant at the experimental stations, by the

researcher. This will ensure that the experimental conditions are not unduly affected by

extraneous variables.Also, the collected burnt sugarcane straw ash will be sieved and

stored in polythene bags to prevent moisture and contamination from other materials.

Batching of Materials

The soil samples will be batched (measured) by volume, then the stabilizers

(additives) will be batched and added to the soil samples at various stages at replacement

level of 14 to 30 per by volume and at eight per incremental levels for both stabilizers.
 30

Mixing of Materials

The batched materials (i.e. laterite and additives0 will first be dry-mixed. Water is

then added until a workable state is attained for each batch (that is, the mix of laterite and

locust bean pod ash and the mix of laterite and sugarcane straw ash).The mix will be in

three parts and each part will have three specimens.

Part One

Here, laterite material will be mixed with locust bean ash in different mix proportions to

produce the specimens as follows: 86:14:10 (that is , 86% of laterite material to

14%locust bean pod ash and 10% of water).78:22:10 (that is, 78% of laterite to 22% of

locust bean pod ash and 10% water.70:30:10 (that is, 70% laterite to 30% of locust bean

pod ash and 10% water).

Part Two

Here, laterite material will be mixed with sugarcane straw ash in different mix

proportions as follows: 86:14:10 (that is 86% of laterite to 14% of sugarcane straw ash

and 10% water), 78:22; 10 (that is 78% of laterite to 22% of sugarcane straw ash and

10% water).70:30:10 (that is 70% of laterite material to 30% of sugarcane straw ash and

10% water).

Part Three

Here, both materials will be combined to obtain three different specimens as

follows:

86:7:7:10 (that is, 86% of laterite material to 7% of locust bean pod ash and 7%

sugarcane straw ash and 10% water).78:11:11:10 (that is 78% of laterite material to 11%

of locust bean pod ash to 11% of sugarcane straw ash and 10% water).70;15:15:10 (that
 31

is, 70% of laterite material to 15% of locust bean pod ash to 15% of sugarcane straw ash

and 10% water).

Specimen Preparation

The specimen for this investigation will be prepared following local construction

practice earlier described. To this end, a matrix will be prepared measuring 50mm x

100mm. Six specimens each will be prepared in the specified proportions, using locust

bean pod ash, sugarcane straw ash and a combination of both materials respectively, to

get a total of 18 specimens.

Permeability test will be carried out on nine of the specimens 14 days. After 28 days,
the same test will be repeated on the other nine specimens.
Figure 1 illustrates the mix ratios of materials.

86:14 78:22 70:30 86:4:10 78:14:08 70:10:20

LBPA Laterite, LBPA, SCSA

Locust Bean Pod Ash

Sugarcane Straw Ash

Laterite

86:14 78:22 70:30

Figure 1: Mix Ratios of Materials
 32

Test on Samples

Permeability test was conducted to determine the water resistance effectiveness of

laterite material stabilized with Locust Bean Pod Ash, Sugarcane Straw Ash and a

combination of both materials. The test was carried out on specimens after 14 and 28

days, respectively.

Disturbed soil samples were used. The soil was compacted to the required size

and shape in this study (that is 50mm x 100mm), using the falling head permeameter

shown in Figure 2.

The testing procedure is as follows:

1. Determine the internal dimensions of the mould.

2. Insert the specimen into the mould, taking note of the weight and water content of the

soil.

3. Immerse the mould and specimen into water at room temperature for 24 hours, until

the specimen saturates.

4. Connect the mould and specimen to the permeameter assemblage and allow the whole

system to equilibrate by allowing water to flow through the specimen for between

three to six hours.

5. Note the reading at the hydraulic head.

6. Collect one litre of water flowing out of the specimen noting the time taken for this

quantity of water to emerge.

7. Note the final hydraulic height

8. Repeat the test three times.

 33

Table 3

Format for Recording Test Readings of Specimens

Test 1 2 3 4

Internal diameter of mould

Internal height of mould

Cross-sectional area of soil

Diameter of stand-pipe

Length of soil sample

Initial water height stand-pipe

Final water level in stand-pipe

Log 10 H1

Log 10 H2

Log 10

KT

The table shows how readings will be recorded for determining the permeability of the

soil.
 34

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of data for answering the

research questions.

Analysis of Research Questions

The four research questions posed by the researcher were answered as presented

below.

Research Question 1

At what mix proportion of Locust Bean Pod Ash (LBPA) to laterite will stabilized

laterite material provide effective water resistance for it to be used for roof construction

purpose?

To answer research question one, six specimens of laterite mix with Locust Bean

Pod Ash (LBPA) at different mix ratios were prepared in a formwork or mould

measuring 100mm x 50mm. The specimens were subjected to permeability test after

curing three for 14 days and the other three for 28 days, respectively, using a

permeameter apparatus. Water was allowed to flow through the specimens for upto 24

hours and readings were taken at intervals of 30 minutes.

Specimens were labelled A,B and C that is, A for 86:14; B for 78:22 and C for

70:30. Specimen A with ratio 86:14 was observed to absorb more water; while specimen

B with ratio 78:22 absorbed less water than specimen A. However, specimen C with mix

ratio of 70:30 absorbed the least amount of water both for the 14 and 28 days of curing.

This means that, the mix ratio with more Locust Bean Pod Ash and less laterite allowed

less water penetration. The results in table 4 showed that, the least amount of water

34
 35

penetration after 14 and 28 days of curing was with the mix ratio of 70:30; followed by

78:22. The table also showed that, the greatest amount of water penetration occurred with

specimen A with mix ratio of 86:14 with the volume of water absorbed to be 2.4 litres

and 1.2 litres, respectively, after curing for 14 and 28 days. This means that, longer

curing period results to more water resistance effectiveness of the mix.

Table 4

Water Resistance Effectiveness of Locust Bean Pod Ash after 14 and 28 days of Curing
Mix ratio Vol. of H20 Vol. of H20 Vol. of H20
Released absorbed after 14 absorbed after 28
days of curing days of curing
86:14 15 litres 2.4 litres 1.2 litres

78:22 15 litres 1.6 litres 1.0 litres

70:30 15 litres 1.2 litres 0.9

Research Question 2
What will be the water resistance effectiveness when sugarcane straw ash (SCSA)

is mixed with laterite for roof construction purpose?

To answer research question two, the water resistance effectiveness of six

specimens of Sugarcane Straw Ash and laterite was determined using three specimens,

each at different mix ratios that were cured for 14 and 28 days, respectively. After curing,

each specimen was subjected to permeability test by injecting 15 litres of water at 30

minutes interval for 24 hours. The result is presented in Table 5.

 36

Table 5
Water Resistance Effectiveness of Sugarcane Straw Ash after 14 and 28 days of Curing
Mix ratio Vol. of H20 Vol. of H20 Vol. of H20
Released absorbed after 14 absorbed after 28
days of curing days of curing
86:14 15 litres 2.6 2.4

78:22 15 litres 2.0 1.8

70:30 15 litres 1.5 1.4

The results in table 5 showed that the least amount of water penetration occurred with

mix ratio of 70:30, absorbing 1.5 and 1.4 litres of water respectively, after curing for 14

and 28 days.

Research Question 3
What is the difference in the water resistance of laterite material stabilized with

Locust Bean Pod Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash as a result of variations in mix

proportion?

In order to determine the difference in water resistance of laterite material

stabilized with Locust Bean Pod Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash, the materials were mixed

at various mix proportions namely; 86:4:10, that is, 86 parts of laterite, four parts of

Locust Bean Pod Ash and 10 parts of Sugarcane Straw Ash; 78:14:08, that is 78 parts of

laterite to 14 parts of Locust Bean Pod Ash and eight parts of Sugarcane Straw Ash and

70:10:20, that is 70 parts of laterite to 10 parts of Locust Bean Pod Ash to 20 parts of

Sugarcane Straw Ash.

The results are shown in Table 6.

 37

Table 6

What Resistance Effectiveness of Locust Bean Pod Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash

Mix ratio Vol. of H20 Vol. of H2 0 Vol. of H2 0

Released absorbed after 14 absorbed after 28
days of curing days of curing
86:4:10 15 litres 1.5 litres 1.0 litres

78:14:08 15 litres 0.8 litres 0.4 litres

70:10:20 15 litres 1.0 litres 0.7 litres.

Table 6 showed that increase in quantity of Locust Bean Pod Ash resulted to

greater water resistance than increase in quantity of Sugarcane Straw Ash for both 14 and

28 days curing periods.

Research Question 4

What will be the mix ratio of Locust Bean Pod Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash to

laterite that will give the desired paste needed to check water penetration in mud roofs?

Data that provided answer to this research question are presented in Table 3.

The results of the tests shown in Table 3 indicated that 78 per cent of laterite

mixed with 14 per cent of LBPA and eight per cent of SCSA was the most appropriate

mix ratio that will give the desirable paste needed to check water penetration or mud

roofs, being that it was the mix that absorbed the least amount of water.

Findings of the Study

The following were the findings of the study:

(1) The results obtained showed that both Locust Bean Pod Ash mixed in the ratio of

70:30 and Sugarcane Straw Ash mixed in the same ratio provided desirable pastes

needed for the construction of mud roofs based on their water resistance

effectiveness.
 38

(2) It was observed that the longer the products were allowed to set and cure, the

more effective, they became in resisting water penetration.

(3) The results indicated that, the higher the content of stabilizers, the more their

water resistance effectiveness.

Discussion

The stability of structures founded on laterite soil depends to a large extent on the

interaction of the soil with water. Some soils absorb large amount of water during the

rainy season and do not allow easy passage of such water. This consequently results in a

large volume increase of water, which drastically reduces during the dry season. This

phenomenon has substantial effect on structures founded on such soils. Thus, the

stabilization of such soil is important to the process of improving their performance and

making such marginal soils perform better as building construction materials. The

application of local additives (stabilizers) such as Locust Bean Pod Ash (LBPA) and

Sugarcane Straw Ash (SCSA) or a combination of these, often results in the

transformation of the soil index properties which may involve the cementation of the

particles and prevention of water penetration. This study has shown that when water was

injected into stabilized laterite soil after being cured for 14 and 28 days, respectively, the

rate of water penetration was reduced meaning that the problem of water penetration in

laterite soils can be ameliorated by the addition of local additives (stabilizers).

The results also showed that, the curing and setting period of stabilized laterite

product is important. This implies that any building construction component that will take

a solid form before being used to prevent water penetration must gain sufficient strength.

This finding is in line with Lilly and Wai (2001), who observed that any component, be it
 39

concrete, brick, block or slab, should be allowed to set for at least 1 – 24 hours before

curing for seven days for effective durability and strength. However, there is need for

stabilized laterite to be cured in a moist condition (especially in cellophane bags) before it

is allowed to completely dry out. This will enable the specimen to be hardened and to

gain enough strength after it has set.

The result of this study also revealed that, the ratio of the additives residue

produced from the combustion process is 1:25 by weight. That is, for every 1kg of the

material burnt, the weight of the ash to be produced will be 0.04kg. This means that, the

stabilizer has to be gathered during their season and in a very large quantity before usage.

Through this study, it was found that the introduction of both stabilizers (LBPA

and SCSA) enhanced the gradation characteristic of the laterite soil by reducing the

amount of clay size particles through flocculation and agglomeration of the clay particles.
 40

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is concerned with the summary of the research problem, purpose of

the study and it’s methodology. The summary of findings, conclusions, recommendations

and suggestions for further research also are presented.

Re-statement of the Problem

The rate at which purchasing power of people is increasing in the third world,

majority of the people in the Northern part of Nigeria will in all likelihood, continue to

live in laterite (mud) buildings well into the foreseeable future. At the moment, over 50

per cent of the population of this people (especially in Bichi Local Government Area)

still live in buildings, where laterite is used mainly as a building material, especially for

roof construction. The rising prices of modern roofing materials may move even further

out of reach of the purchasing capabilities of many in this part of the world. No wonder

inspite of the obvious limitations of laterite material (e.g. shrinkage and swelling

properties) it is still popular among the people. This is because, laterite as a building

material is available everywhere and affordable by many. It is this limitation that leads to

collapse of buildings annually in the Northern parts of Nigeria but with the use of some

local additives like Locust Bean Pod Ash, Rice Husk Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash, the

challenge can been taken care of to some extent. It has be proven by some researchers

that these additives have some cementations properties in them which they exhibit when

mixed with laterite.

40
 41

The specific purpose of this study, therefore, was to stabilize laterite against water

penetration in earth (mud) roofs using Locust Bean Pod Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash in

Bichi Local Government Area of Kano state.

Summary of the Procedures Used

Research and development was used for the study. Two stabilizers, Locust Bean

Pod Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash were mixed with laterite at different mix ratios,

poured into a mould 100mm x 50mm, cured for 14 and 28 days, respectively, before

being subjected to a permeability test using falling head permeameter apparatus.

Summary of the Findings

From the analysis of test results for this study, the following findings were made:

(1) It was observed that, the mix proportion of Locust Bean Pod Ash to laterite that

provided effective water resistance was the mix ratio 70:30 which had the least

amount of water penetration after being cured for 14 and 28 days, respectively.

(2) To achieve a maximum result in using stabilized laterite for roof construction, it

is important to allow the paste to set before usage. Hence, the longer the period of

curing the more water resistance effectiveness the mix will possess.

(3) The result of the test showed that, increase in quantity of stabilizers can lead to

greater water resistance effectiveness in stabilized laterite for the purpose of roof

construction.

Implications of the Study

The study has implications for local earth builders, farmers of Locust Bean and

Sugarcane plants, Low-income earners, Federal Housing Development Authority and

Building Technology policy makers like Council of Registered Builders of Nigeria

(CORBON).
 42

The implication of this study to local earth builders is to provide them with a

standardized mix proportion of additives to laterite for roof construction in the Northern

part of Nigeria. This will be done by sensitizing them through workshops.

The mix ratio derived as a result of this study could be integrated in the practice

of local earth builders for efficient and effective construction by the Council of

Registered Builders of Nigeria (CORBON).

Also to give value to earth stabilization, farmers will need to grow more Locust

Bean trees and Sugarcane Plants for use as additives, thereby creating a new market for

the products.

Low-income earners would become aware of the availability of cheaper and

environmental-friendly roofing material in their area. The study would make them have

some level of confidence in earth (mud) roof construction. The Federal Housing

Development Authority through the findings of this study now have an added source for

the provision of adequate and affordable quality housing for the populace. The findings

of this study would also encourage the government to give attention to major research

programmes aimed at developing improved conservation technologies for structures built

with laterite (mud) and related materials.

Conclusion

Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that both Locust Bean Pod

Ash and Sugarcane Straw Ash are efficient and effective stabilizers when used in a mix

ratio of 70:30, for improving the engineering properties of laterite for roof construction.

Also, the combination of the two additives, improves the water resistance

effectiveness of stabilized laterite at a mix proportion or ratio of 78:14:08 that is 78 per

 43

cent of laterite to 14 per cent of Locust Bean Pod Ash and to eight per cent of Sugarcane

Straw Ash, which absorbed 0.8 and 0.4 litres of water after being cured for 14 and 28

days, respectively.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:

(1) Federal Housing Development Authority should encourage the use of stabilized

laterite earth roof in providing affordable houses for the citizens, particularly in

the Northern parts of Nigeria.

(2) The Council of Registered Builders of Nigeria (CORBON) should make standard

codes available for local earth builders to be followed in constructing earthen

structures.

(3) There should be enlightenment campaign to promote the awareness of indigenous

building materials, especially in the area of roof construction.

(4) Government should establish institutions where, local earth builders could be

trained and taught how to use earthen materials to specifications.

Suggestions for Further Research

It is hereby suggested that further research be conducted to:

(1) Identify the skills needs of local earth builders for capacity building in the use of

stabilized earth building materials.

(2) Examine properties of compressed earth bricks with Locust Bean Pod as

stabilizer.

(3) Investigate the Stabilization of poor lateritic soils with some selected natural

fibres.
 44

References

Abdullahi, M. (2003).The use of rice husk ash in low – cost sandcrete production
(Unpublished M. Engr. Thesis). Department of Civil Engineering, Federal
University of Technology, Minna.

Adam, E. A., & Agib, A. R. A. (2001).Compressed stabilized earth block manufacture in

sudan. Printed by Graphoprint for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization. France, Paris, UNESCO.

Adama, Y.A., & Jimoh, Y.A. (2011). Production and classification of locust bean pod
ash (LBPA) as a pozzolan. Available at www.engineeringcivil.com Retrieved on
June 29, 2013 .

Adama, Y.A. (2010). A study of locust bean pod ash/extract as chemical stabilizer for
road works in sub-tropical regions. PhD Progress Report No.2, University of
Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Adama, Y.A. , Jimoh, Y.A., & Kolo, S.S. (2013). Effect of locust bean pod ash on
compaction characteristics of weak sub-grade soils. International Journal of
Engineering and Science Invention. 7, 35-40.

Adoga, E. A. (2008). Durability and fire resistance of laterite rock concrete. Unpublished
M. Tech. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Rivers State University of
Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Agbede, I.O., & Joel, M. (2011).Effect of rice husk ash on the properties of Ibaji burnt
clay bricks. American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 674-677.

Akinmade, (2008). The effects of locust bean waste ash on the geotechnical properties of
black cotton soil. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Aliyu, A.A., & Yar’adua, M.M. (2012). An examination of the properties of laterite and
clay as construction materials for sustainable buildings in Kano and Kaduna
metropolis: In Laryea, S., Agyepong, S.A., Leiringer, R. and Hughes, W. (Eds)
Proceedings 4th West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference,
24-26,July 2012, Abuja, Nigeria, 1-7.
.
Alhassan, M., & Mustapha, A. M. (2007). Effect of rice husk ash on cement stabilized
laterite. Leonardo Electronic Journal Practice and Technology, (11), 47-58.

Amadi, A. (2010). Evaluation of changes in index properties of laterite soil stabilized

with fly ash. Leonardon Electronic Journal of Practices and Technology, 2(1),
176-184.

44
 45

Amu, O. O., Bamisaye, O.F., & Komolafe, I.A. (2011b). The suitability and lime
Stabilization requirement of some lateritic soil samples as pavement.
International Journal of Pure Applied Science and Technology. 2(1), 29 – 46.

Amu, O.O., Oguniyi, S.A., & Oladeji, O.O. (2011). Geotechnical properties of Lateritic
soil stabilized with Sugar cane straw ash. America Journal of Scientific and
Industrial Research, 2(2), 323 – 339.

Anselm, E.O., & Ojonigu, F.A. (2010). The influence of rainfall on Hausa traditional
architecture. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology,
2(80), 695-702.

Basha, E.A., & Hashim, R. (2002): Effect of the Cement rice husk ash on the plasticity
and compaction of soil. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malaya,
Malaysia: KualaLumpur.

Bashan, E.A., Hashim, R., & Muntohar, A. S. (2003). Effect of the cement -rice husk ash
on the plasticity and compaction of soil. The Electronic Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering 8125-131

Bengtsson, L.P & Whitaker, J.H. (1998). Earth as a building material .In Farm structures
in tropical climates: A textbook for structural engineering. Nairobi, Kenya:
FAO/SIDA Rural Infrastructure Programme.

Burrough, S. (2002). What is Earth? In Earth Building- An environmentally sustainable

building technology publication. Sydney, Australia. 2(1) pp 1-2.

Collins, R.J . (1994). The Use of Recycled Aggregates in Concrete. BRE

Report, Building Research Establishment, UK

Diogu, J. O. (2002). Housing the poor in Nigeria: the integrated project approach,
Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES) Journal, 2(1), 1-6.

Dobson, S. (2004). Continuity of tradition: new earth building. Sydney: University of

Technology.

Fri´as, M., & Cement and Concrete Research (2005).Housing and Urban Development
Corporation (HUDCO), National Seminar on Mud in Habitat Manipal, 7-8
December,1990.1-8

Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. P. (2007). Educational research: An introduction (8th
ed).New York, USA: Pearson Education Inc.

Garber, C.F., & Hoel, M.F., (2000). Fundamentals of geotechnical analysis. Geotechnical
Engineering.15(5), 415-428.
 46

Howe, C. (1992). Sustainable earth building for the ecocity. Proceedings of ecocity 2
conference on urban ecology. April 1992, Sydney: Australia.

Kamang, E.E.J (1998). Strength properties of compressed earth bricks with earthworm
cast as stabilizer. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1(2), 65-70.

Kasthurba, A. K., Santhanam, M. & Mathews, M.S. (2007). Investigation of lateritestone for
building purposes from Malabar region, Kerala state, SW India: Part I – Field studies and
profile characterization. Journal of Construction Building Material 21(1), 73–82.

Kasthurba, A.K., Santhanam, M. (2005). Investigation of laterite stone for building

purposes from Malabar region, Kerala State, South West India: Physical and
Mechanical Properities. Journal Construction Building Material.

Kenndy, J.F. (2002). An overview of building techniques. Natural building colloquium.

Southwest, New Mexico.

Kerali, A.G. (2000). Destructive effects of moisture on the long-term durability of

stabilized soil blocks. In Working paper No. 52. Coventry England: Development
Technology Unit, University of Warwick.

Lasisi, F., & Osunade, J.A. (1985). Late rite soil and masonry unit: Performance
characteristics on Housing. Proc. Seminar on the use of clay Cricks and blocks
Zaria.

Lilly, M.T. and Wai, J.J. (2001). Development and manufacturing of roofing Tiles using
local available raw materials. Quantity surveyor vol. 35, pp. 14 – 19
.
Little, B. & Morton, T. (2001). Building with earth in Scotland: Innovative design and
sustainability. Research finding, No 14. Countryside Natural Research
Programme. Sweden, Scotland: Scotland Executive Central Research Unit.

Martirena, J. F., Middendorf, B., & Budelman, H. (1998). Use of wastes of the sugar
industry as pozzolan in lime-pozzolan binders: Study of the reaction. Cement
Concrete Research. 28, 1525–1536.

McNally, G. H. (1998). Soil and rock construction materials. London: Routledge

Middendorf, B. (2001). Masonry wall materials prepared by using agriculture waste,

lime and burnt clay. In masonry: opportunities for the 21st century eds. Throop D.
and R. Klinger. ASTM. STP 1432, West Conshohocken, PA. 274-283.

Moor, G. & Healthcote, K. (2002). Earth building in Australia: Durability research. Earth
Building Research Forum. Sydney, Australia: University of Technology.

Moses, G. (2010). Groundnut shell ash stabilization of black cotton soil. Electronic
Journal of Research in Engrg. 7(5), 105-112.
 47

Nasly, M. A., & Yassin, A.A.M. (2009). Sustainable housing using an innovative
interlocking block building system. Proceedings of the Fifth National Conference
on Civil Engineering (AWAM ’09): Towards Sustainable Development, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 130-138.

National Centre for Human Settlement, (Habitat). (2001). Appropriate grassroots level
intervention for cost effective housing: Best practices for human settlement. India.

Norton, J. (1997). Building with earth: a handbook. , 2nd ed. London: Intermediate
Technology Publications Limited.

Nwoke, O.A., & Ugwuishiwu, B.O. (2011). Local bamboo and earth construction
potentials for provision of affordable structures in Nigeria. International Journal
of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology. 2 (2), 132-140

Nworgu, B.G. (2006). Educational research: Basic issues and methodology (2nd Edition).
Enugu: University Trust Publishers.

Ochepo, J. (2008). The effect of elapsed time on the geotechnical properties of black
cotton soils stabilized with lime-bagasse ash admixture. Unpublished M.Sc.
Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Ogunrbido, T.H.T. (2012). Potentials of sugarcane straw ash for laterite soil stabilization
road construction. International journal of Science Emerging Technology 3(5)
122-129.

Ola, S. A. (1983). The geotechnical properties of black cotton soils of North Eastern
Nigeria. S. A. Ola (ed.) Tropical Soils of Nigeria in Engineering Practice.
Balkama, Rotterdam, pp. 160-178.

Olugbenga, A. (2007). Effect of varying curing age and water/cement ratio on the elastic
properties of laterized concrete. Civil Engineering Dimension.

Osadebe, N. N., & Nwakonobi, T. U. (2007). Structural characteristics of laterized

concrete at optimum mix proportion. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 26(1), 12-
17.

Osinubi, K. J., & Stephen, T. A. (2005). Economic utilization of an agro-industrial waste

bagasse ash. Proceedings of the 4th Nigerian Materials Congress “NIMACON
2005”, Zaria, Nigeria, 17-19 November, 2005 36 - 40.

Osinubi, K. J. (1995). Lime modification of black cotton soils. Spectrum Journal, 2, (1 &
2), 112 – 122.
Osinubi, K. J. (2000). Stablization of tropical black clay with cement and pulverized coal
botton ash admixture. Advances in Unsaturated Gectechnics. Edited by Charles
 48

D. Shakelford, Sandra L. Houston and Nien – Yun Cang. ASCE Geotechnical

Special Publication, No. 99, 289 – 302.

Osinubi, K. J., & Eberemu A. O. (2006). Effect of bagasse ash on the strength of
stabilized lateritic soil. Book of Abstracts of the 5th Nigerian Materials Congress
“NIMACON 2006”, Abuja, Nigeria, 17-19 November. 202 – 208.

Osinubi, K. J., & Katte, V. Y (1997) Effect of elapse time after mixing on grain size and
plasticity characteristicssoil – cement mixes. The Nigerian Society of Engineers,
Technical Transaction. 3, 38 – 46.

Osinubi, K. J., & Medubi, A. B. (1997a). Evaluation of cement and phosphatic waste
admixture on tropical black clay road foundation.Proceedings of 4th International
Conference on Structural Engineering Analysis and Modeling (SEAM 4), Kumasi,
Ghana, 9-11 July, 2007, 2, 297-307.

Osinubi, K. J., & Mustapha, A. M. (2009) Optimal use of bagasse ash on cement
stabilized laterite.Nigerian Society of Engineers Technical Transactions, 44, No 1,
1 - 16.

Osinubi, K. J., & Stephen, T. A. (2006a). Effect of Bagasse ash content on particle
distribution and plasticity characteristics of black cotton soil. Book of Abstracts of
the 5th Nigeria Materials Congress “NIMACON 2006”, Abuja, Nigeria, 17 –19
November, 214 – 220.

Osinubi, K. J., & Stephen, T. A. (2007). Influence of comparative efforts on bagasse

ash treated black cotton soil. Nigerian Journal of Soil and Environmental
Research, 7, 92 – 101.

Rigassi, V. (2000). Compressed earth blocks: Manual of production. Vilefortaine cedex,

France. CRA-Terre-EAG.I (10), 102-105.

Sidibe, B. (1998). Understanding adobe: The VITA understanding technology series.

Arlington, Virginia, USA: Technology for Development Volunteers in Technical
Assistance (VITA). TP 24 (03/85)

Sina, S., and Traore, S. A (2002).Internet record Prota Network Office Europe,
Wageningen University, wageningen, Netherlands.www.prota.org.

Thagesen, B. (1996). Tropical rocks and soils: Highway and traffic engineering in
developing countries. B. Thagesen, (eds.) London: Chapman and Hall.
 49

Uzoagulu, A.E. (2011). Research and Development in Technology and Vocational

Education and Training. A Lead paper in the Proceedings of the 24th Annual
National Conference of the Nigerian Association of Teachers Of Technology
(NATT) held at the Federal College of Education, Umunze, from 17th – 21st
October.
Varghese, T., & Bygu, G. (1993). Laterite soils – their distribution, characteristics and
management. Technical Monograph No. 1. State Committee on Science
Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, India:
Thiruvananthapuram.

Villar-Cocin, A. E., Valencia-Morales, E., Gonza´lezRodri´guez, R.,& Herna´ndez-Rui´z,

J. (2003). Kinetics of the pozzolanic reaction between lime and sugar cane straw
ash by electrical conductivity measurement: A kinetic–diffusive model. Cement
Concrete Research. 33, s517–524.
 50

APPENDICES
 51

APPENDIX A: FALLING HEAD WATER PERMEABILITY APPARATUS

 52

FALLING HEAD WATER PERMEABILITY APPARATUS

Falling water level

Specimen Plexiglas plate and Reservoir

(top and bottom)