Geometry

Sayantan Chakraborty, Aritra

January 18, 2021

Abstract
Geometry is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathe-
matics. It is concerned with properties of space that are related with
distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician
who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. Until the 19th
century, geometry was almost exclusively devoted to Euclidean geometry,
which includes the notions of point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface,
and curve, as fundamental concepts.
During the 19th century several discoveries enlarged dramatically the
scope of geometry. One of the oldest such discoveries is Gauss’ Theorema
Egregium (remarkable theorem) that asserts roughly that the Gaussian
curvature of a surface is independent from any specific embedding in an
Euclidean space. This implies that surfaces can be studied intrinsically,
that is as stand alone spaces, and has been expanded into the theory of
manifolds and Riemannian geometry.

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Contents
1 Homothety 4

2 Examples 5
2.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Example 4 8
3.1 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Example 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Problems 13

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3
1 Homothety
Lets Dig Deeper

A homothety (or dilation) is just an expansion or contraction, in which

a figure is ’zoomed’ (in/out) from a center. For instance, figure 1 shows
the effect of a homothety centred at O. In the left panel, the triangle
ABC is magnified by a factor of 2 to become triangle A0 B 0 C 0 . We say
that 4A0 B 0 C 0 is the image of 4ABC under a homothety centred at O
with scale factor 2. Mathematically we have OA0 = 2OA, OB 0 = 2OB
etc. In contrast, figure 2 shows the effect of a homothety centred at O
with scale factor -2 , i.e. OP 0 /OP = −2 for each point P . The minus
sign indicates that P 0 is outside the segment OP for any point P (e.g.
A0 is outside the segment OA ).

More formally, a homothety h is a transformation on the plane defined

by a center O and a real number k, which sends any point P to another
0
point P 0 = h(P ), such that OP OP = k. The number k is the scale factor.
Note that the transformation is meaningful for any point other than O
itself; we either leave h(O) as undefined, or set h(O) = O as a convention.
The homothety centred at O with scale factor k is sometimes denoted
by H(O, k). We emphasize again on the fact that this k can be negative,
indicating that the image P 0 lies on the ’other side’ of O w.r.t. point P .
Let us consider another simple example. Suppose that D, E, F are the
midpoints of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of 4ABC (see the adja-
cent diagram). The homothety with centre A and ratio 2 sends 4AF E
to 4ABC. On the other hand, the homothety with centre at the cen-
troid G and ratio −1/2 sends 4ABC to 4DEF .
If two triangles are similar, is it necessary that they are homothetic (i.e.
there exists a homothety that maps one of them to the other)? No. For
instance, draw two arbitrary equilateral triangles ABC and DEF such
that AD, BE, CF does not concur.

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 Properties

• The image of any object under a homothety is similar to the original

object.

• A homothety is defined uniquely by where any 2 points are mapped

to.
• The slope of a line is preserved under homothety. Hence, parallel
lines are preserved.

• Angles are preserved, meaning that 6 ABC = 6 A0 B 0 C 0

• H(O, −1) is a reflection through the center, and is also a 180◦
rotation about the center.
• For k 6= 1, the set of lines that remain invariant under H(O, k) are
precisely the lines that pass through the center O.

• If k1 k2 6= 1, then H (O1 , k1 ) ◦ H (O2 , k2 ) is a homothety.

• If k1 k2 = 1, then H (O1 , k1 ) ◦ H (O2 , k2 ) is a translation.
• In general, it need not be true that H (O1 , k1 ) ◦ H (O2 , k2 ) =
H (O2 , k2 ) ◦ H (O1 , k1 ). This is true only if O1 = O2 , or if either
homothety is the identity.
• If 3 non-congruent sets of points are pairwise homothetic, then the
(direct) centers of homothety are collinear.

Facts
Some of the above results can be proved using complex numbers. Note that
the image of point z under the homothety H(a, k) is given by z 0 = k(z − a) +
a.

2 Examples
2.1 Example 1
Statement
Chord AB is given in a circle Ω. Let ω be a circle tangent to chord AB
at K and internally tangent to ω at T . Then show that ray T K passes
through the midpoint M of are AB of Ω, not containing T

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Solution
Let us assume that T K meets the arc AB at N and we shall show that
AN = N B. Since Ω and ω are tangent at T, it follows there is a homo-
thety at T taking ω to Ω. Clearly, the tangent to ω at K (which is line
AB ) will be mapped to the tangent to Ω at N . Hence it follows that the
tangent to Ω at N is parallel to AB. Now AN = N B follows by ob-
serving that the three colored angles in the adjacent diagram are equal.

There are some more interesting re-

sults in the above configuration, e.g. 4T M B is similar to 4BM K, which in
turn implies that M K · M T = M B 2 .

2.2 Example 2
Nine Point Circle
The three midpoints of the sides of the triangle, the three feet of the
altitudes of the triangle, and the three midpoints from the vertices to
the orthocenter of the triangle are concyclic.

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Solution
Let us first recall the following facts: (i) The reflection of H in the feet of
the altitude K falls on the circumcircle (ABC). (ii) The reflection of H in
the midpoint D of BC is nothing but the point A0 , which is the reflection of
A in the circumcentre O.
Figure 3 illustrates these two facts. These two to- gether tell us that the
homothety centred at H with scale factor 2 sends K and D on the circum-
circle of ABC
We can also say that the points H1 and A0 lying on (ABC) are sent to K
and D respectively, under the homothety centred at H with scale factor 21 .

Clearly, similar argument applies to other vertices/sides as well. Let

us now look at figure 4 . The homothety centred at H with scale fac-
tor 21 sends the points H1 , H2 , H3 , A0 , B 0 , C 0 , A, B, C to the nine points
K, L, M, D, E, F, P, Q, S respectively. Since the former set of 9 points
lie on (ABC), their images must also lie on a circle (which is in fact
the image of (ABC) under this homothety). If N be the centre of the
smaller circle (the nine- point circle) then the homothety also yields
that N is the midpoint of OH. Furthermore, we can tell that the ra-
dius of the nine-point circle is half of the radius of the circumcircle.

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2.3 Example 3
Diameter of the incircle lemma
Let the incircle of triangle ABC touch side BC at D, and let DT be
a diameter of the incircle. If line AT meets BC at X, then show that
BD = CX

Solution
Assume w.l.o.g that AB ≤ AC. Consider the dilation with center A that
carries the incircle to the A-excircle. The line segment DT is the diameter
of the incircle that is perpendicular to BC, and therefore its image underthe
dilation must be the diameter of the excircle that is perpendicular to BC.
It follows that T must get mapped to the point of tangency between the
excircle and BC.
In addition, the image of T must lie on the line AT, and hence T gets
mapped to X. Thus, the excircle is tangent to BC at X. From here it is

easy to show that BD = CX,

3 Example 4
Statement
Three circles of equal radius have a common point O and lie inside a
given triangle. Each circle touches a pair of sides of the triangle. Prove
that the incentre and the circumcentre of the triangle are collinear with
the point O.

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Solution

Let A0 , B 0 , C 0 be the centres of the circles. Since the radii are the same, so
A0 B 0 is parallel to AB, B 0 C 0 is parallel to BC, C 0 A0 is parallel to CA. Since
AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 bisect 6 A, 6 B, 6 C respectively, they concur at the incentre I
of 4ABC. Note O is the circumcentre of 4A0 B 0 C 0 as it is equidistant from
A0 , B 0 , C 0 . Then the homothety with center I sending 4A0 B 0 C 0 to 4ABC
will send O to the circumcentre S of 4ABC (not shown in the above dia-
gram). Therefore, I, O, S are collinear.

3.1 Example 5

Let I, O be the incentre and the circumcentre of triangle ABC, and

D, E, F be the circumcentres of triangles the BIC, CIA, AIB respec-
tively. Let P, Q, R be the midpoints of segments DI, EI, F I. Prove that
the circumcentre of triangle P QR, say M, is the midpoint of segment
IO.

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Solution

The key idea here is that the circumcentres D, E, F lie on (ABC). To see
why, note that if the internal bisector of 6 BAC intersect (ABC) at D0 ,
then simple angle chasing gives D0 B = D0 C = D0 I which tells us that D0 is
nothing but the circumcentre D of 4BIC. Thus the circumcentre D lies on
(ABC). Similar argument holds for E and F as well.
Now consider the homothety centred at I with factor 2 that sends the mid-
points P, Q, R to D, E, F respectively. Since this homothety sends (P QR)
IM IP 1
to (ABC), it must send M to O. Furthermore, M O = ID = 2 , which

completes the proof.

3.2 Example 6
Statement
In a triangle ABC we have AB = AC. A circle which is internally tangent
with the circumcircle of the triangle is also tangent to the sides AB, AC
in the points P , respectively Q. Prove that the midpoint of P Q is the
centre of the incircle of the triangle ABC

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Solution

Let O be the centre of the circle.

Let the circle be tangent to the circumcircle of 4ABC at D. Let I be the
midpoint of P Q. Then A, I, O, D are collinear by symmetry. Consider the
homothety with centre A that sends 4ABC to 4AB 0 C 0 such that D is on
B 0 C 0 . The scaling factor here is k = AB 0 /AB. Now since the right triangles
AIP, ADB 0 , ABD, and AP O are similar,
AI AI AP AD AB AB 1
= = 0
= 0
=
AO AP AO AB AD AB k
This tells us that the homothety sends I to O. Then O being the incentre of
4AB 0 C 0 implies that I is the incentre of 4ABC.

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3.3 Example 7
Statement
Triangle ABC has orthocentre H, incentre I and circumcentre O. Let K
be the point where the incircle touches BC. If IO is parallel to BC, then
prove that AO is parallel to HK

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Solution
Let KE be a diameter of the incircle, and let line AE meet BC at D. Let

M be the midpoint of BC.

By the diameter of the incircle lemma, M is also the midpoint of KD. Since
IO is parallel to BC, we can say that KM OI is a rectangle. Since I is the
midpoint of KE and M is the midpoint of KD, we see that 1 O must be the
midpoint of ED. Thus lines AE and AO coincide.

The rest is easy. Since AH = 2OM = EK and AH and EK are both per-
pendicular to BC, it follows that AHKE is a parallelogram. Hence HK is
parallel to AE, which coincides with line AO.

4 Problems
• Consider disjoint circles ω1 , ω2 , ω3 in the plane, no two congruent. For
each pair of circles, we construct the intersection of their common external
tangents. Prove that these three intersections are collinear.
• Let A be one of the two distinct points of intersection of two unequal
coplanar circles C1 and C2 with centers O1 and O2 respectively. One of
the common tangents to the circles touches C1 at P1 and C2 at P2 , while
the other touches C1 at Q1 and C2 at Q2 . Let M1 be the midpoint of
P1 Q1 and M2 the midpoint of P2 Q2 Prove that 6 O1 AO2 = 6 M1 AM2 -
• In the plane let C be a circle, ` a line tangent to the circle C, and M
a point on `. Find the locus of all points P with the following property:

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 there exists two points Q, R on ` such that M is the midpoint of QR and
C is the inscribed circle of 4P QR
• Let ABC be a triangle. Let the excircle of ABC opposite to A touch
side BC at D. Similarly define E on AC and F on AB. First show that
AD, BE, CF concur at a point N ( known as the Nagel point ). Let G be
the centroid of ABC and I the incentre of ABC. Show that I, G, N lie in
that order on a line (known as the Nagel line), and GN = 2IG
• Let ABC be a triangle and let ω be its incircle. Denote by D1 and E1
the points where ω is tangent to sides BC and AC, respectively. Denote
by D2 and E2 the points on sides BC and AC, respectively, such that
CD2 = BD1 and CE2 = AE1 , and denote by P the point of intersection
of segments AD2 and BE2 . Circle ω intersects segment AD2 at two points,
the closer of which to the vertex A is denoted by Q. Prove that AQ = D2 P .
• Two circles Ω1 and Ω2 touch internally the circle Ω in M and N and
the centre of Ω2 is on Ω1 . The common chord of the circles Ω1 and Ω2
intersects Ω in A and B.M A and M B intersects Ω1 in C and D. Prove
that Ω2 is tangent to CD.
• A non-isosceles triangle A1 A2 A3 has sides a1 , a2 , a3 with the side ai lying
opposite to the vertex Ai . Let Mi be the midpoint of the side ai , and let
Ti be the point where the inscribed circle of triangle A1 A2 A3 touches the
side ai . Denote by Si the reflection of the point Ti in the interior angle
bisector of the angle Ai . Prove that the lines M1 S1 , M2 S2 and M3 S3 are
concurrent.
• Let ABC be a triangle. Let M and N be the points in which the median
and the angle bisector, respectively, at A meet the side BC. Let Q and
P be the points in which the perpendicular at N to N A meets M A and
BA, respectively. And O the point in which the perpendicular at P to
BA meets AN produced. Prove that QO is perpendicular to BC.

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