Geomorphology Savindra Singh PDF

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 : NATURE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY 1-23
D e fin itio n and sc o p e o f g e o m o rp h o lo g y ; e v o lu tio n o f

A
geom orphological thoughts; Indian contributions to g eo m o rp h o lo g y ;
f-
system c o n c e p t ; g eo m o rp h ic m odels ; m ethod s and ap p ro a c h e s to
the study o f landform s.
CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY 24-56
C o n c e p t s r e l a t e d to u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m , g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e ,
g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l p rocesses, stages o f time, g e o m o rp h ic sc a le (tim e
s c a l e - c y c l i c tim e , g r a d e d tim e a n d s te a d y tim e , s p a ti a l s c a l e ) ,
g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l equation, com plex ity o f la n d fo rm s etc.
CHAPTER 3 : TH EO RIES O F LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT 57-88
L a c k o f c o m m o n ly a c c ep tab le theo ry ; s ig n ific a n c e a n d g o a ls o f

g e o m o r p h ic th e o ries ; historical p ersp ectiv e ; b ases a n d ty p e s o f
g e o m o rp h ic theo ries (teleological theory, im m a n e n t th eory, h isto rical
th e o ry , ta x o n o m ic theory, functional theory, realist theory, c o n v e n t io n
alist t h e o r y ) ; m a jo r g e o m o rp h ic theories o f G. K. G ilb ert, W .M . D a v is ,
W . P en ck , L. C. K ing, J. T. H ack, M . M o ris a w a an d S. A. S c h u m m ;
g e o m o rp h ic th eories in Indian context.
CHAPTER 4 CLIMATIC GEOMORPHOLOGY AND MORPHOGENETIC
REGIONS 89-104
D ia g n o s tic la n d fo rm s ; g e o m o rp h o lo g ica l p ro c e sse s and c lim a tic c o n
trol ; d ire c t co ntrol o f cl i m a t e ; indirect clim atic c o n t r o l ; c lim a tic c h a n g e s
a n d la n d fo rm s ; m o rp h o g e n e tic regions.
CHAPTER 5 : CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH'S INTERIOR 105-113
S o u rc e s o f k n o w le d g e ; artificial sources, e v id e n c e s fro m th e th e o rie s o f
th e o rig in o f the earth, an d natural so u rces ; e v id e n c e s o f s e is m o lo g y ;
c h e m ic a l c o m p o s itio n and la y erin g sy stem o f the earth ; th ic k n e s s a n d
d ep th o f different layers o f the earth ; recent view s - crust, m a n tle and core.
CHAPTER 6 : CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 114-131

In tro d u c tio n ; te tra h e d ra l h y p o th e sis ; co n tin e n ta l d rift th e o ry o f T a y l o r ;
c o n tin e n ta l d rift th e o ry o f W e g e n e r ; p late te cto n ic th e o ry .
CHAPTER 7 : TH EO RY O F ISO STA SY 132-139

Introduction ; discovery o f the concept ; concept o f Airy ; concept o f
Pratt; concept o f Hayford and B ow ie ; concept o f Joly ; concept o f
Holmes ; global isostatic adjustment.
CHAPTER 8 : ROCKS 140-157
Introduction; classification o f rock s; igneous rock s; sedimentary rocks ;
metmorphic rocks.
CHAPTER 9 : EARTH'S MOVEMENT 158-169
Introduction ; endogenetic forces (sudden forces and movements,
diastrophic forces and movements - epeirogenetic movements, orogenetic
m ovem en ts); folds ; faults ; rift valleys ; exogenetic forces.
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CHAPTER 10 STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 170-184
Geomorphic expressions of uniclinal structure ; topographic expressions
of fault structure (fault geomorphology) ; topographic expressions o f
folded structure (fold geomorphology), inversion o f relief, fluvial cycle
of erosion on folded structure ; topographic expressions o f domed
structure, fluvial cycle o f erosion on domed structure.
CHAPTER 11 : PLATE TECTONICS 185*199
Meaning and concept ; plate margins ; palaeomagnetism-source of
g e o m a g n e ti c fie ld , r e m a n e n t m a g n e tis m , r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
palaeomagnetism, reversal of polarity ; sea-floor spreading ; plate m o
tion ; causes of plate motion ; plate tectonics and continental d r i f t ; plate
tectonics and mountain building ; plate tectonics and vulcanicity ; plate
tectonics and earthquakes.
CHAPTER 12 : VULCANICITY AND LANDFORMS 200-215
Concept of vulcanicity ; components o f volcanoes ; classification o f
volcanoes ; volcanic types ; world distribution of volcanoes ; m echanism
and causes o f vulcanism ; hazardous effects of volcanic eruptions ;
topography produced by vulcanicity ; geysers ; fumaroles.
CHAPTER 13 : MOUNTAIN BUILDING 216-246
Introduction ; classification of mountains ; block m ountains ; folded
mountains ; geosynclines ; theories of mountain building - geosynclinal
theory o f Kober ; thermal contraction theory of Jeffreys ; sliding co nti
nent theory of Daly ; thermal convection current thery of H olm es ;
radiactivity theory o f Joly ; plate tectonic theory.
CHAPTE 14 : WEATHERING AND MASSMOVEMENT 247-266
M eaning and concept ; controlling factors o f weathering ; types o f
weathering processes ; physical weathering ; chem ical w eath erin g ;
biotic weathering ; biochemical weathering ; geom orphic im portance o f
weathering ; m assm ovem ent and masswasting - m eaning and c o n c e p t ;
classification o f m assm ovem ents ; factors o f m assm ov em ents ; slides;
falls ; flows ; creep.
CHAPTER 15 : HILLSLOPE 267-296
Classification o f s lo p e s ; slope e le m e n ts ; approaches to the study o f slope
development-slope evolution approach and process-form approach (m ono
process concept and poly-process concept) ; slope decline theory o f
Davis ; slope replacem ent theory o f P enck ; A. W o o d 's m odel o f slope
e v o lu tio n ; hillslope cycle theory o f L.C. K i n g ; co n ce p t o f R. A .S av ig ear ;
F isher - L ehm ann model o f slope evolution ; pro cess-resp o n se m o d e l o f
A. Y oung ; slope failure ; hillslope p rocesses and erosion.
CHAPTER 16 : CYCLE OF EROSION, REJUVENATION AND POLYCYCLIC RELIEFS 297-307
Origin and evolution of the concept ; geographical cycle of Davis ;
Penck's model of cycle of erosion; normal cycle of erosion; interruptions
in cycle of erosion ; rejuvenation ; topographic expressions of rejuvena
tion and poly (multi) cyclic reliefs.
CHAPTER 17 : DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, EROSION SURFACES AND
*
PENEPLAINS 308-333
Meaning and concept ; erosion surfaces— meaning, identification o f
erosion surfaces, dating of erosion surfaces ; erosion surfaces o f
Cnotanagpur highlands ; denudation chronology o f peninsular India ;
(ii)
denudation chronology and erosion surfaces o f Belan basin ; denudation
chronology and erosion surfaces o f Ranchi p lateau; p en ep lains; panplains.
CHAPTER 18 : DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS 334—352
M eaning and concept ; sequent drainage system s (consequent, sub se
quent, obsequent and resequent streams) ; insequent d rainag e system
(antecedent and superim posed drainage systems) ; drainage patterns
(trellised, dendritic, rectangular, radial, centripetal, annular, barbed,
pinnate, herringbone and parallel p a t te r n s ) ; river capture.
CHAPTER 19 : MORPHOMETRY OF DRAINAGE BASINS 353-384
M e a n in g and c o n c e p t ; historical perspective ; shortcom ings ; d rain ag e
basin : a geom o rp hic unit ; drainage basin : historical perspectiv e ;
d rain a g e basin hydrological cycle ; basin m orphom etry ; linear aspects :
stream ordering, bifurcation ratio, law o f stream num bers, length ratio,
law o f stream length, sinuosity indices, stream ju n c tio n angles ; areal
aspects : geo m etry o f basin shape, law o f basin perim eter, basin length
a nd basin area, area ratio, law o f basin area, law o f allom etric g row th,
stream frequency, drainage density, drainage texture ; relief aspects :
h y p so m etric analysis, clinographic analysis, altim etric analysis, av era g e
slope, relative reliefs, dissection index, law o f channel slope, profile
analysis.
RIVER V A LLEYS, GRADED RIVER AND PROFILE
OF EQUILIBRIUM 385-395
F o rm s o f valley d ev elo p m en t ; valley deepening ; valley w id e n in g ;
valley le n g th e n in g ; classification o f valleys ; graded curv e o f a riv er an d
p ro file o f eq uilibrium : longitudinal profile and graded curve, c o n c e p t o f
g rade, co n trollin g factors o f graded river, grading o f riv er ch an n e l a n d
p ro file o f eq u ilib riu m ; disturbed and regraded cu rv e : effects o f r e ju v e
n ation , effects o f deposition.
CHAPTER 21 : CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 396-412
C h a n n e l g e o m e try o r form ; hydraulic g eo m etry (at - a station re la tio n
ships, d o w n stre a m variations in channel form s, bed and b a n k m a te ria ls
a n d h y d ra u lic g eo m etry , sed im en t load and h y d raulic g e o m e t r y ) ; c h a n
nel b ed to p o g rap h y ; ch annel types (b ed ro ck c h a n n e ls and allu v ial
c h a n n e ls ) ; ch ann el patterns (straight ch annel, m e a n d e r in g c h a n n e l,
b raid e d ch an n e l, a n a s to m o s in g channel and a n a b ra n c h in g ch a n n e l).
CHAPTER 22 : FLUVIAL GEOM ORPHOLOGY 413-434

Erosional work of rivers; types of fluvial erosion ; base-level o f erosion ;
erosional landforms (river valieys-gorges and canyons, waterfalls, pot
holes, structural benches, river terraces, river meanders, ox-bow lakes,
and peneplains); transportational work of stream s; depositional works
o f streams ; depositional landforms (alluvial fans and cones, natural
levees, delta).
CHAPTER 23 : KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY 435-446
Groundwater: meaning and concept; geomorphic work o f groundwater ;
erosional work ; depositional work T lim estone (karst) topography ;
distribution o f karst areas ; erosional landforms (lapies, solution holes,
polje, sinking creek, blind valley, karst valley, caves or cavern s); karst
cycle o f erosion.
( iii)
CHAPTER 24 : COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 447-46*
A gents o f coastal erosion ; sea coast and sea shore ; processes and
m echanism o f marine erosion ; erosional landform s (cliffs, w ave-cut
platform, natural chimneys, stack, blow h o l e ) ; transportational w o rk ,
depositional landforms (beaches, bars, barriers and associated f e a t u r e s ) ,
classification o f coasts, and shorelines ; developm ent o f shorelines and
marine cycle o f erosion along a shoreline o f su bm ergence and e m e r
gence.
CHAPTER 25 : ARID AND SEMIARID GEOMORPHOLOGY 463-477
Aeolian environm ents ; erosional works o f wind ; erosional la ndform s ;
transportational works o f w i n d ; depositional w ork o f w i n d ; depositional
landform s ( b e d f o rm s ) ; fluvial desert landform s (badland, playas, p e d i
ments, b a j a d a s ) ; arid cycle o f erosion ; savanna cycle o f erosion.
CHAPTER 26 : GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 478-491
Ice and related pheno m en a ; types o f glaciers ; m o v e m en t o f glaciers ;
ero s io n a l w o rk o f g laciers ; erosional and residual la n d fo r m s ;
tran sportational and depositional w orks o f glaciers ; dep o sitio n al
landform s ; glacio-fluvial deposits and landform s ; glacial geo m o rp h ic
cycle ; ice ages and pleistocene glaciation.
CHAPTER 27 PERIGLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 492-505
M ean in g and concept ; periglacial clim ate ; periglacial areas ; p e r m a
frost ; active l a y e r ; m echanism o f periglacial processes (congelifraction,
frost heaving, congelifluction, nivation, fluvial process, and aeolian
pro cess) ; genetic classification o f periglacial land fo rm s ; periglacial
cycle o f erosion.
CHAPTER 28 : REGIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 506-553
K u m a u n H im a lay a region ; G an g a plain ; S. E. C h o ta n a g p u r re g io n ;
■ /' R an ch i p l a t e a u ; P alam au u p la n d s ; B elan b a s i n ; B h a n d e r p l a t e a u ; G irn a r
* hill region ; w est coastal plains.
CHAPTER 29 : APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGY 554-563
/ M e a n in g and co n ce p t ; applied g e o m o rp h o lo g y in I n d ia n c o n te x t ;
g e o m o rp h o lo g y and regional pla n n in g ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y and h a z a rd
m a n a g e m e n t ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y and u rb an iz atio n ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y an d
e n g in e e rin g w orks ; g eo m o rp h o lo g y an d h y d ro lo g y ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y
an d m in eral exploration.
CHAPTER 30 : ANTHROPOGENIC GEOMORPHOLOGY 564-589
Meaning and concept; historical perspective; man's impacts on environ
mental processes; man and hydrological p rocesses; man and weathering
and massmovement processes; man and coastal p rocesses; man and river
#
p rocess; man and periglacial processes ; man and subsurface processes ;
man and pedological processes ; man-induced soil erosion ; man and
sedimentation.
CHAPTER 31 : CLIMATE CHANGE AND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY 590-629
Indicators o f climatic changes; causes and theories o f climatic changes;
quaternary climatic changes and landforms.
REFERENCES 631-639
INDEX 641-652
(iv )
CHAPTER 1 NATURE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
D e f i n i t i o n a n d s c o p e o f g e o m o r p h o l o g y ; e v o lu tio n o f
g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l thoughts; Indian contributions to geomorphology ;
s y s t e m c o n c e p t ; g eom orphic models ; methods and approaches to
th e s tu d y o f landform s.
1
NATURE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
The rapidly evolving discipline of geo- forms (morphe) of the earth’s surface. T o be m o re
morphology has undergone seachange in methodol precise, forms mean topographic features o r g e o
ogy and approaches to the study of landforms and metric features (relief features) o f the earth s sur
related processes since 1945 when R.E. Horton face. P.G. Worcester (1940) prefered to d efin e
introduced quantitative methods for the analysis of geomorphology as the intepretative description o f
morphometric characteristics of fluvially originated the relief features of the earth's surface while W .D .
drainage basins. A clear-cut cleavage surfaced in the Thornbury (1954) pleaded for the inclusion o f su b
discipline in the form of evolutionary approach marine forms in addition to surface reliefs in the
involving progressive changes in landforms through realm of geomorphology.
long time periods and process-response approach Geomorphology may be defined as the scien
involving equilibrium model and steady state of tific study of surface features o f the earth's surface
landform development after 1950. Thus, the need of involving interpretative description o f landform s,
the hour is to integrate the cyclic concept involving their origin and development and nature and m e c h a
long-term historical evolution of landlorms and non- nism of geomorphological processes w hich evolve
cyclic concept involving dynamic equilibrium, func the landforms with a view that ‘all landform s can be
tional and process-reponse models on the one hand related to a particular geologic process, or set o f
and m icro-geom orphology involving smaller spa processes, and that the landforms thus developed
tial and temporal scales and mega-geomorphology may evolve with time through a sequence o f form s
involving larger spatial and longer temporal scales dependent in part, on the relative tim e a particular
on the other hand. process has been operating’ (Easterrook, 1969).
A.L. Bloom (1979) also defined g eom orphology as
1.1 DEFINITION O F GEOM ORPHOLOGY
the systematic description and analysis o f land
Geomorphology is significant branch of physi scapes and the processes that change them.
cal geography (geomorphology, oceanography, cli
m atology and b io g e o g r a p h y ). The term 1.2 SCOPE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
geomorphology stems from three Greek words i.e. The subject matter o f geom orphology m ay be
‘ge’ (rtieaning earth), ‘m orphe’ (form) and logos organized on the bases o f (i) dim ension and scale o f
(a discourse). Geomorphology, therefore, is defined relief features (landforms), (ij) processes that shape
as the science of description (discourse) of various the landforms, and (iii) the app ro ac h es to the
2 g e o m o r ph o l o g y
geomorphic studies. In fact, geomorphology, being (2) RELIEF FEATURES OF THE SECOND ORDER
a study of landforms, has a well defined framework The structural forms developed over a con '
of its subject matter. The systematic study of landforms nent or part thereof as mountains, plateaus, lakes
requires some fundamental knowledge of geology faults, rift valleys etc. constitute the category 0f
as the genesis and development of all types of relief features o f the second order. These forms owe
lan dform s p rim arily d ep en d on the m aterials their genesis mainly to endogenetic forces particu
(geomaterials or structure) of the earth's crust and larly diastrophic forces. The nature, mode and rate of
partly on the forces coming from within the earth operation of these endogenetic forces must be stud
(endogenetic forces).Based on this connotation ied properly so that general characteristics, nature
geomorphology is, some times, equated with geol and mode of origin of the second order relief fea
ogy (W.D. Thornbury, 1954) and sometimes is con tures, upon which the third order reliefs are pro
sidered a branch of geology (A.K. Lobeck, 1939). In duced, are well understood. These are called as
fact, geomorphology has originated from geology constructional landforms.
and in most of the American Universities it is still
(3) RELIEF FEATURES OF THIRD ORDER
housed in geology departments. Thus, some aspects
Micro-level landforms developed on second
o f geology, even today, are included in the descrip
order relief features by exogenetic denudational
tion and analysis of landforms e.g. structural and
processes originating from the atmosphere are in
dynamic geology. Theoretical geology helps in un
cluded in this category. These landforms may be
derstanding the nature of landforms and, therefore,
erosional (e.g. glacial valley, river valley, karst
the origin of different types of reliefs like mountains,
valley, cirques, canyons, gorges, terraces, yardangs,
plateaus, continents and ocean basins on which the
sea cliffs etc.), depositional (e.g. drumlins, eskers,
microlandforms are evolved must be properly un
flood plains, natural levees, delta, sea beaches, sand
derstood. Endogenetic forces particularly diastrophic
dunes, stalactites, stalagmites etc.), residual (e.g.
and sudden (vulcanicity and seismic events) should
monadnocks, inselbergs or bornhardts etc.) and some
be taken note of as they introduce irregularities on
times minortectonic features (by endogenetic forces).
the earth's surface which generate variety in landforms.
In fact, the relief features of the third order are given
Thus, on the basis of dimension and scale, the more importance in geomorphic studies as they
relief features of the earth's surface, the core subject constitute the core of the subject m atter of
matter of geomorphic study, may be grouped in three geomorphology. Besides, the nature, mode and rate
broad categories of descending order. of operation of denudational processes, which pro
(1) RELIEF FEATURES OF THE FIRST ORDER duce the relief features of the third order, are also
‘On the smallest scale and covering the larg studied at varying spatial and temporal scales. Be
est area is world geom orphology’ (C.A.M. King, sides natural g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l p ro c e s s e s ,
1966) which includes consideration of continents anthropogenic processes are also attached due im
and ocean basins. The consideration and interpreta portance in geomorphic investigation because the
tion of worldwide erosion surfaces requires the de role of man as ‘economic and technological m an’
scription and analysis of the characteristics and through his economic activities has augmented the
rate of natural processes beyond imagination (chap
evolution o f continents and ocean basins. Thus,
ter 30).
continents and ocean basins become the relief fea
tures of the first order. The consideration of conti The subject matter of geomorphology may
nental drift, in one way or the other, caused either by also be organized on the basis of geomorphic proc
the forces coming from within the earth (thermal esses (both endogenous and exogenous) that shape
convective currents) involving plate tectonics or the landforms and approaches to the study of
from outer sources (tidal forces, gravitational forces landforms. Davisian dictum that ‘landscape is a
etc.), becomes desirable for the analysis of major function of structure, process and tim e’ and K.J.
morphological features of the earth's surface. Plate Gregory's geomorphic equation (F=f (PM)dt, where
tectonics help in understanding the origin of conti F = landforms, f = function of, P = processes, M =
nents and ocean basins. geomaterials, dt = mathematical way of denoting
n ature o f g e o m o r p h o l o g y
X
change over time) clearly reveal that any geomorphic (1) ANCIENT PERIOD
study r e q u i r e s care fu l in v e stig a tio n of T h ough ‘geom orphology has d ev elo p ed from
geomorphological pro cesses (m ainly denudational the w ork o f late eighteenth and nineteen th century
processes), geom aterials (lithology, disposition of geologists and hyd rolo gists’ (C .A .M . King, 1966)
rock beds and co m p o sitio n o f rocks, collectively but som e ideas regarding landform s w ere indirectly
known as structure) and tim e factor, though the postulated even in the ancient period w h en ph iloso
advocates o f dynam ic equilibrium theory have pleaded phers and historians o f G reece, R om e, E g y p t etc.,
for exclusion o f tim e factor on the basic premise that the principal seats o f ancient culture an d civilization,
the landform s are tim e-independent. G eomorphic took the initiative in this precarious field. H ero d o tu s
studies incorporate tw o m ajor approaches viz. his (485 B.C.— 425 B.C), a noted G re e k historian,
torical studies in v o lv in g historical evolution of made significant contribution in the field o f r iv e r s
landforms and functional studies involving time- alluvial behaviour during his ex tensiv e jo u rn e y o f
independent series o f landform evolution reflecting Egypt. After having a close observation o f depositional
association b etw een landform characteristics and work of the Nile he postulated that ‘E g y p t w a s th e
existing en viron m ental conditions. Both the ap g ift o f N ile ’. He fu rth er re la te d th e s h a p e o f
proaches have their relevan ce in geomorphological depositional feature at the m outh o f the r iv e r to
investigations. Greek letter A and nam ed this feature as d e lta . H e
also postulated that ‘there is gradual g ro w th o f d elta
1.3 EVOLUTION OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL towards the sea. On the basis o f the p re s e n c e o f
THOUGHTS
marine fossils in the alluvium o f the N ile far inland
T he present status o f geom orphology is the he opined that ‘the level o f sea is not p e r m a n e n t b u t
result o f gradual but successive development of there is occasional rise and fall w hen sea a d v a n c e s
geomorphic thoughts postulated in different periods landw ard ( tr a n s g re s s io n a l p h a s e ) a n d r e tr e a ts
by i n n u m e r a b l e p h i l o s o p h e r s , e x p e r t s and (regressional phase)’ Thus, we can infer the co n c e p t
geoscientists in the subject and out side the subject. of transgressional and reg ressio n a l p h a se s o f the
Thus, the developm ental phases of geomorphology sea from the statements o f H erodotus.
indicate its dynam ic nature. After taking its birth in
A ristotle (384 B.C.— 322 B.C.), a rep u te d
the philosophical ideas o f the ancient Romans and
Greek philosopher, presented som e very interesting
Greeks the su b ject has b lo sso m ed through the
ideas regarding w ater spring, origin o f stream s an d
geom orphological m ethodological nutrients of the
behaviour of seas and oceans. A ccording to h im
18th and 19th century and reached its golden status
spring-fed streams are seasonal and ephem eral (n o n
in the 1st and 2nd decades o f the 20th century with permanent). Limestones cannot m aintain p erm a n e n t
the postulation and w ider acceptance of cyclic con surface drainage as m ost o f the stream s d isap p ea r
cept o f landscape d ev elo p m en t and denudation chro and form subterranean drainage.' A cco rd in g to him
nology world over. After 1950, the science o f geomor water springs get supply o f w ater through (i) ra in w a
phology w itnessed a m ajo r change in the m ethodo ter, which reaches underground through percolation
logical aspect in the form o f rejection o f Davisian and seepage, (ii) condensation o f underg ro und satu
model o f cyclic dev elo p m en t o f landforms, intro rated air, and (iii) w ater vapour. He w as also aware
duction o f quantitative m ethods in geomorphological o f changing nature o f sea-level and deposition o f
studies, postulation o f dynam ic equilibrium theory eroded materials by the rivers in the form o f allu
of landscape d ev elo p m en t based on the concept o f vium. Strabbo (54 B.C— 25 A.D.). a noted h isto
time-independent series o f landform evolution, more rian, made significant contributions in the field o f
emphasis on process geom orphology (process re depositional work o f the rivers. A ccording to him thc^
sponse m o d e l) , e m e r g e n c e o f e n v iro n m e n ta l size and shape o f delta depend on the nature o f
geomorphology, shift from mega-geomorphology terrain through which the river makes its course. Am
to micro-geomorphology, from longer temporal scale extensive region having com paratively weaker rocks
to shorter tem poral scale, and more attention to gives birth to larger delta as weak rocks through
erosion yield more sedim ents to maintain large delta
wards applied aspect o f the subject.
4 GEOMORPHOLOGY
while the region of resistant rocks maintains smaller in the 18th century A.D. through his well knit con
delta because resistant rocks are less eroded and cept o f uniformitarianism but the postulation of
hence produce less sediments. Thus, we may infer an coherent scientific thoughts in the field of geomorphol-
indirect glimpse of the concept o f differential ero ogv already began in the 15th, 16th and 17th centu
sion from the statements o f Strabbo. Seneca main ries when the preexisting concept o f everlasting
tained that ‘the rivers deepen their valleys through (permanent) landforms was rejected and theirchanging
abrasion.’ nature through weathering and erosion was very
It may be mentioned that some incoherent much realized. L eonardo da V inci (1452— 1519
ideas were forwarded by ancient philosophers and A.D.) was o f the opinion that the rivers formed their
historians but they could not collectively come to valleys themselves through vertical erosion and de
any definite conclusion. posited the eroded materials elsewhere. Buffon
(1707— 1788 A.D.) rejected the catastrophists’ pos
(2) DARK AGE tulation of very little age o f the earth (thousands of
V iith the fall of Roman empire a lull prevailed years). He further opined that the rivers were the
in the development of geographical as well as most powerful agent of erosion and they were capa
geomorphological thoughts for a very long period of ble of eroding the uplifted high land mass to sea-
1400 years (from 1st century A.D. to 14th century level. T argioni Tozetti (1712— 1784 A.D.), an Ital
A.D.). Besides, some glimpses of geomorphological ian thinker postulated that the irregular courses (sym
ideas put forth by few thinkers e.g. Aviecena (980— metry and asymmetry of the valleys) o f the rivers
1037 A.D.), an .Arabian thinker, broke the academic depended on the nature of rocks through which they
monotony. According to him mountains should be flow. The regions of massive and resistant rocks
divided into two categories i.e. (i) mountains origi maintain deep and narrow courses (valleys) whereas
nated due to upliftment and (ii) mountains origi broad and meandering courses are developed in the
nated due to erosion by running water. regions of soft and less resistant rocks. Thus, this
(3) AGE OF CATASTROPHISM concept gives the glimpse of differential erosion.
The long continued academic silence of 1400 According to G u e th a r d (1715— 1786 A.D.) not all
years was suddenly broken by the emergence of the eroded sediments are deposited by the rivers in
catastrophists who believed in the quick and sudden the seas rather some parts are also deposited in the
origin and evolution of all animate and inanimate courses of the rivers as flood plains. He also at
objects in very short period of time and thus new tached importance to the erosive power o f the m a
pages of peculiar and fantastic concepts were added rine processes. Dim arest (1725— 1815 A.D.) was of
to the treasure of geomorphological and geographi the opinion that ‘the valleys through which rivers
cal literature. The age of the earth was calculated to flow have been formed by themselves through the
be a few thousand years. Only those events could be process of valley deepening’. He was probably the
given cognizance which occurred in the life-time of first to postulate the concept of development o f
the people. It may be pointed out that sudden landforms through successive stages.
endogenetic forces like volcanic eruption and earth
The 18th century appeared with a new wave
quakes may be held responsible for convincing the
of uniform itarianism on the academic stage of
thinkers to postulate such fantastic and unreaslistic
geomorphology, with Jam es H utton as its postula-
ideas not only related to the landforms but to all of
tor. His concept of uniformitarianism is based on the
the animate and inanimate objects. The concept of
basic tenet that the same geological processes which
sudden change and evolution also swept the biolo
operate today operated in the past and therefore the
gists who believed in sudden evolution and destruc
history of geological events repeats in cyclic pattern.
tion of all the living organisms.
His concept of ‘present is key to the p ast9 aimed at
(4) AGE OF UNJFORMfTARtANISM the reconstruction of past earth-history on the basis
The concept of catastrophism was finally of the present. According to him the nature is sys
rejected and gradual cyclic nature o f earth's history tematic, coherent and reasonable and thus destruc
was postulated by Jam es Hutton (1726— 1797 A.D.) tion ultimately leading to construction indicates
NATURE o f g eo m o r ph o lo g y 5
orderliness o f nature. He w as the first geologist to glacial erosion, marine erosion, fluvial processes
observe cyclic natu re o f the ea rth ’s history. His and erosion, arid and karst landscapes.
work was published in the form o f a research paper Sir Charls Lyell ( 1797— 1873 A .D .) not only
‘theory of the earth : or an investigation of laws endorsed the concept o f uniform itarianism put forth
observable in the com position, dissolution and res by James Hutton but also popularised the concept
toration of land upon the g lo b e’ in the Transactions through his books, ‘Principles o f G eology (two
of the Royal Society o f Edinburgh in 1788. Later on, volumes). His significant contributions in biology
his major work was published in the form o f a book became the base of ‘p r ig in o f S p e c ie s’ o f Charles
entitled, ‘Theory o f the Earth with Proofs and Illus Darwin. His book entitled, ‘T he G eological E v i
trations' in two volum es in 1795. His concept, ‘that dences o f the Antiquity o f M a n ’ (published in 1863)
topography is carved o u t and not built-up’ is a accommodated most o f the concepts o f H utton.
significant contribution in geomorphology. John
Credit goes to E u ro p ea n school o f g e o
Play-fair (1748— 1819), a professor of mathemat
morphology for identification and recognition o f ice
ics and a close friend o f Hutton, after making some
ages. The geoscientists collected sufficient and c o n
suitable modifications in the Huttonian concept and
vincing evidences in support o f total glaciation o f
adding some valuable contributions of his own elu
northern Europe during Pleistocene period. L ou is
cidated the Hutton's views on uniformitarianism
Agassiz (1807— 1873 A.D.) is given credit for an
through his book entitled ‘Illustrations of Huttonian
early start in this precarious field. T h ou gh J ea n d e
Theory of the Earth' in 1802. Playfair also visual
C h a r p e n tie r postulated his concept o f continental
ized the erosive and transporting powers of fluvial
glacier and ice ages in 1841 but A gassiz is given
and glacial processes. On the origin of valleys Playfair
credit for the recognition and identification o f the
was also far in advance o f the views current at his
presence of ice age during Pleistocene period as he
time’ (C.A.M. King, 1966). C harles Lyell (1797—
presented his ideas in 1840. They opined that m o st
1873 A.D.), one o f the most active followers of parts of northern Europe were covered w ith thick
James Huttcn, laid the foundation of modern histori sheets of continental glaciers during Pleistocene
cal geology and he defined geology ‘as that science period. It may be mentioned that the process o f study
which investigates the successive changes that have
of glaciation was started m uch earlier by J oh n
taken place in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of
Playfair in 1815; V enetz o f Sw itzerland in 1821 and
nature.’ Most o f his works appeared in his two
1829, Norweigian scholar E sm ark in 1824, G erm an
books ; ‘Principles o f G eo lo gy’(in two volumes)
scientist Bernhardi in 1832, Jean de C harpentier o f
and T h e Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Switzerland in 1834 than Louis Agassiz. T h e S co t
Man’ in 1863. C.G. G reenw ood came to light through
tish geologist Jam es G eikie studied different as
his paper entitled ‘rain and rivers : or Hutton and pects of ice age and published his ideas through his
Playfair against Lyell and all com ers’ in 1857 and book entitled. ‘The Great Ice A g e' in 1894. A ccord
was accepted as the father of modern subaerialism. ing to him an ice age involving longer geological
‘He put forward the idea o f the base-level o f erosion period of time is comprised of distinct several glacial
before Powell in A m eric a’ (C.A.M. King, 1966). periods which are separated by w arm interglacial
(5) MODERN AGE (NINETEENTH CENTURY) periods. A Penck and B ru ck n er after their observa
Geomorphology became an independent disci tions of Pleistocene glaciation o ver the A lps identi
pline and a major branch o f geology at the beginning fied four glacial periods during Pleistocene ice age
of the 19th century w hen the developm ent of e.g. Gunz, Mindel, Riss and W u rm w hich were
geomorphic thoughts took place at regional level separated by three warm interglacial periods.
and two distinct schools o f geomorphic thoughts can In the field of m arine erosion , corrasion by
well be identified e.g. (i) European School and (ii) sea waves was given more attention and importance.
American School. Sir A ndrew R am say (1814— 1891) presented de
(A) E u rop ea n S ch o o l— S ignificant c o n tailed description o f marine platforms made by ma
tributions were made in the fields o f recognition and rine erosion in W ales and S.W. England. It may be
identification o f Pleistocene Ice Age and glaciation, mentioned that previously Ramsay attached more
L ■
GEOMORPHOLOGY
ft
them into antecedent, superim posed, consequent
significance to murine abrasion hut in Inter part ol vU||cys etc. His most significant contribution is the
his life he gave more importance to Hu vial erosion.
postulation o f lim it o f m a x im u m vertical erosion
Baron Ferdinand N on Richthofen (1833— 1905)
(valley deepening or dow ncutting) by streams to
made significant contributions in the field ol marine
which he proposed the term o f base level, which is
erosion during his visit to China. He ‘produced his
determined by sea-level. Later on, C.A. mallot
work on the genetic treatment o f landforms, in which
(1928) inferred three types o f base level from his
he supported a marine origin for plains found be
writings viz. ultimate, local and temporary base
neath marine transgressions, these being produced
levels. He also opined that if the fluvial processes
when sea-love I is rising slowly' ( C A M . king. 1966).
(streams) were allow ed to e rode the landmass unin
C. G , G re e n w o o d , a British geologist, made terruptedly for fairly a long period o f geological time
significant contribution in the field of subacrial the high landmass m ight be ero d ed d ow n to a level
erosion. He is considered to be the first geoscientist plain which may be slightly abo ve the sea level. This
to postulate the concept o f base level o f erosion even erosional level plain was later term ed by Davis as
before M ajor Powell in the U.S.A. J u k e s (1862) peneplain. He also observ ed the nature o f narrow
divided rivers into two categories e.g. (i) transverse
ing and shifting o f w ater divides th ro u g h the process
streams which flow across the geological structures
o f lateral erosion.
and (ii) longitudinal streams which follow the direc
tion o f strikes o f rock beds or (low parallel to the G . K. G ilb e r t (1 843 — 1918 A .D .) is consid
geological structures. According to him longitudi ered as the first real g eo m o rp h o lo g is t o f A m erica
nal streams are subsequent to transverse streams i.e. because ol his significant c o n trib u tio n s in system
transverse streams originate prior to longitudinal atic and quantitative g e o m o rp h o lo g y . In fact, he was
streams. Jukes also described various aspects of much ahead o f his lime and p o s tu la ted such concepts
river capture. which still hold today. ‘He stressed the im portance
(R) A m e ric a n S chool— American school is o f creative im agination, o f testin g a n u m b e r o f
credited for making m axim um contributions in the h y p o th e se s , an d o f a n a l o g i e s in th e fie ld o f
field o f geom orphology. In fact, the last two decades geom orphology’ (C .A .M . King, 1966). G ilbert never
o f l^th century and first two decades o f 20th century preferred to be called as the o re tic ian rather he took
(i.e. from 1S75 to 1920) are considered as ‘golden him self as an investigator. A fte r a th o ro u g h study o f
a g e’ not only o f American geomorphology but also different localities o f A m e r ic a (e.g. G reat Basin,
o f world geom orphology because it was this period Bonnevile Lake, artesian w ells o f G reat Plains, Henry
when for the first time general theory o f landscape M ountains, Siera M o u n ta in s etc.) he propo und ed a
developm ent was propounded by VV.M. Davis and num ber ot laws i.e. law o f u n ifo rm slope, law of
the landform analysis attained its final shape. The structure, law of divides, law o f in c re a sin g acclivity,
concept o f sequential changes o f landforms through law ot tendency to e q u ality o f actio n s, dynamic
successive developmental phases in terms o f time equilibrium, law o f the in te rd e p e n d e n c e etc. He was
hased on the basic tenet o f time-dependent concept the first geoscientist to p r o p o u n d the concept of
o f Divisian model o f geographical cycle o f erosion graded profile ot a riv er and to e s ta b lis h relationship
became the core o f landform analysis and guide-line am ong load, v olum e, velo city a n d ch a n n e l gradient
for geom orphologists and geologists not only in on the basis o f q u a n tita tiv e a n a ly s e s o f these vari
North America but world over. Pow ell, G ilbert, ables. His co n trib u tio n s h a v e b e e n elaborated in
D utton and Davis made significant contributions in m uch detail in the 3rd Chapter o f th is book.
the field o f subaerial denudation.
C. F. Dutton (1843— 1912 A.D.) was the
M ajor J.W . Pow ell (1834— 1902 A.D.), a
first gcoscientist to use the term isostasy to denote
major in American army after a thorough study o f
equilibrium condition of upstanding and downstanding
Colorado plateau and Uinta mountains (1876) sug
landmasses of the earth’s surface. During his study
gested geological structure as a basis for the classi
and investigations of Colorado Plateau and Grand J
fication o f landforms. He attempted a genetic classi
Canyon of the Colorado river he opined that the
fication o f river valleys and consequently classified
present canyon was the result o f long continued
NATURE OF GEOMORMOl.OOY 7
period of fluvial erosion to winch he assigned ihe W. Penck in Germany. His classical model o f geo
term of the period of great denudation. He ulso graphical cycle propounded in 1899 and defined by
presented evidences in support of Powell's concept him ‘as a period of time during which an uplifted
of base level of erosion. landmass undergoes its transformation by the proc
W.M. Davis (1850— 1934) was a professor esses of land sculpture ending into a low featureless
of physical geography at Harward University. He is plain (peneplain)’ dominated the geomorphological
considered to he the patron o f the science of investigations all over the world throughout 1st half
geom orphology because o f his significant contribu of the 20th century inspite o f its stiff opposition by
tions in different fields of geomorphology and for W. Penck and others in Germany. His model of
giving new direction to landform study. He covered geographical cycle was variously termed, popular
almost every nook and corner of geomorphology. ised and applied by his followers world over e.g.
He is given credit to systematize and integrate hith no rm al cycle, erosion cycle, g e o m o rp h ic cycle,
erto seaitercd ideas of American geomorphologists hum id cycle etc. It may be mentioned that his
to present them in coherent and well defined frame ‘geographical cycle’ does not represent his general
work. His contributions were so significant and lie theory of landscape development as his general
w as so d o m in a n t am o n g the A m erican theory states ‘that th e re is se q u e n tia l c h a n g e in
geom orphologists that the American school of la n d fo rm s th ro u g h successive stag es an d the
geomorphology was recognized as Davisian school changes a re directed to w a rd s a d efin ite end i.e.
o f geom orphology. Davis is credited for the postu attain m en t of featureless p la in (p e n e p la in ) ’. The
lation of first general theory of landscape develop main goal of his theory was to present systematic
ment which, is in fact, a synthesis of his three major description and a gcnetic classification of landforms.
concepts viz.. com plete cycle of river life (1889), Davis also identified 3 basic factors which control
geographical cycle (1899) and slope evolution. He the evolution of landforms viz. ‘landscape is a
emphasized progressive developm ent of erosional function of s tru c tu re , p rocess and tim e’, which
stream valleys through the concept of complete are termed as ‘trio o f D avis’. His concept o f geo
cycle of river life while sequential changes of land graphical cycle was later on applied with all other
scapes through time involving historical evolution (other than fluvial) processes by Davis and his fol
of landforms (time-dependent series of landforms) lowers e.g. arid cycle of erosion (Davis, 1903, 1905
or cyclic developm ent of landform s were high and 1930), glacial cycle of erosion (Davis, 1900 and
lighted through the concept o f geographical cycle. 1906), marine cycle of erosion (Davis, 1912, D.W.
‘The reference system of Davisian model/theory of Johnson, 1919), karst cycle of erosion (Beede, 1911,
landscape development is that the landforms change Cvijic, 1918), periglacial cycle of erosion (L.C.
in an orderly manner as processes operate through Peltier, 1950). His model was modified and pre
time such that under uniform external environmen sented in revised forms by a few geomorphologists
tal conditions an orderly sequence of landforms after 1950. Davis concept of historical evolution of
develops’ (Robert C. Palmquist). landscape became the pivot for the classical concept
of d en u d atio n chronology and erosion (planation)
Since Gilbert and Davis also stepped in the
surfaces in U.K. D avis’ major contributions (re
20th century and hence their further contributions to
search articles, papers and addresses) were pub
the geomorphological thought are considered in the
lished in a book form entitled ‘G eograp hical E s
succeeding heading. Further, the contributions of says’ in 1909. He is considered as a great definer,
Davis will be elaborated in detail in the 3rd chapter analyser, interpreter, systematiser and synthesiser.
of this book. Only two quotes from S.W. W ooldridge and S.
(6) MODERN AGE (20TH CENTURY : FIRST HALF) Judson that ‘Davis towers above his predecessors
The beginning o f the 20th century was her and successors, like a monadnock above one o f his
ald e d by m e th o d o l o g i c a l r e v o lu t io n in own peneplains’ (S.W. Wooldridge), and ‘his grasp
geomorphological studies brought in by W.M. Davis of time, space and change, his com mand o f detail,
and his followers at home (UiS.A.) and abroad and and his ability to order his information and frame his
GEOMORPHOLOGY
arguments remind us again that wc are in the pres tried to reconstruct and interpret past events of
ence o f a giant’ (Sheldon Judson. 1975) are suffi crustal movements on the basis o f exogenetic proc
cient enough to demonstrate the greatness of Davis esses and morphological characteristics. The refer
in the e n r ic h m e n t and a d v a n c e m e n t of ence system of Penck's model o f landscape develop,
geomorphological knowledge. C.G. Higgins' (1975) mcnt is that the characteristics of landforms of a
remark that ‘Davis’ rhetorical style is justly admired given region are related to the tectonic activity of
and several generations of readers became slightly that region. The landlorms, thus, reflect the ratio
bemused by long though mild intoxication on the between the intensity of endogenetic processes (i.e.
limpid prose of Davis’ remarkable essays’ speaks of rate of upliftment) and the magnitude of displace
the academic calibre o f W.M. Davis. ment o f materials by exogenetic processes (the rate
o f erosion and removal o f materials). According to
The American school of geomorphology was
Penck landforms development should be interpreted
further entriched by significant contributions of a
by means of ratios between diastrophic processes
host of geomorphologists e.g. D.W. Johnson (ma
(endogenetic or rate of upliftment) and erosional
rine process and coastal geomorphology), C. A. Malott
processes (cxogen^tic, or rate of vertical incision).
(fluvial processes and erosion), H.A. Mayerhoff and
‘Penck is supposed to have deliberately avoided the
E.W. Olmsted (evolution of Applachian drainage),
use of stage concept in his model of landscape
R.P. Sharp. C.P.S. Sharp. A.K. Lobeck, W.D.
Thornbury etc. development either to undermine the cyclic concept
of W.M. Davis or to present a new m o del’ (Savindra
During the 1st half of the 20th century Euro Singh, 1995). In the place of D avis’ stage he used the
pean school of geomorpholgy made significant con
term entw ickelung meaning thereby development.
tributions in the advancement of geomorphological
In the place of youth, mature and old stages he used
thoughts. British geomorphologists made their inde the terms aufsteigende entw ickelung (waxing or
pendent identity and there emerged an entirely dif accelerated rate of development), gleichformige
ferent school o f geom orphology which laid empha entwickelung (uniform rate of development) and
sis on the chronological study of landscape develop absteigende entw ickelung (waning or decelerating
ment in historical perspective better known as d en u rate of development). Detailed account of Penck's
d ation ch ro n o lo g y based on the co n ce p t of contributions will be presented in the third chapter of
p alim p sest S.W. Wooldridge (his famous book this book.
being the Physical Basis of Geography : An Outline
A new branch o f geom orphology in the form
of Geomorphology, published in 1937), J.A. Steers
of climatic geom orphology was developed in France
(The Unstable Earth, published in 1832) etc. made
and Germany on the basic tenet that ‘each climatic
significant contributions in different branches of
type produces its own characteristic assemblage
geomorphology.
o f landform s’. Sauer (1925), Wentworth 1928),
The Davisian model of geographical , cycle Saper (1935), Friese (1935) etc. paved the way for
met with strong criticism and his concept of rapid the p o s tu la tio n o f the c o n c e p t o f clim atic
and erosionless upliftment became the crux of geomorphology and m orphogenetic or morpho
criticisms by the opponents of cyclic concept of the climatic regions by Budel (1944, 1948) and L.C.
evolution o f landforms particularly by the German Peltier (1950) in Germany. This concept of climatic
geoscientists. The German critics of Davisian model geomorphology was further advanced and estab
of cycle o f erosion fall in two categories viz. the first lished by Tricart and C ailleux in France in the 2nd
category of opponents pleaded for outright rejection half ot the 20th century.
of cyclic concept while the second category of critics
The statistical techniques were first intro
suggested modifications and presented entirely new
duced by Krumbein in geology in 1930s and the
model. According to Penck landform development work ol American engineer R.E. Horton (1932 and
is not time-dependent as envisaged by Davis rather 1945) brought quantitative revolution in the field of
it is time-independent. W. Penck, through his ‘M or geomorphology when he presented quantitative analy
phological Analysis’ and ‘Morphological System ’ sis ot morphometric characteristics o f fluvially origi*
NATURE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY 9
nated drainage basins. The criticism of Davisian The landscapes were taken as open systems which
model o f landscape development and descriptive are in steady state of balance through continuous
geomorphology gained currency after 1940 and si input of energy and matter and output o f matter.
ren was raised for the rejection and replacement of Though Hackian model o f landscape devel
time-dependent evolutionary concept of landscape opment envisaged landscapes as the result o f bal
development. It may be mentioned that at a time ance between the resisting force of geomaterials and
(1950) when majority of the geomorphologists world erosive force of the geomorphological processes
over became fed up with evolutionary model ot acting on them but he laid more em phasis on geo
Davis and pleaded for alternative theory of land logical control as he opined that ‘differences and
scape development which may envisage time-inde characteristics of forms are explicable in term s o f
pendent series of landforms Pelltier presented the spatial relations in which geologic patterns are the
concept o f periglacial cycle o f erosion in 1950 in primary consideration’ (Hack, 1960). It may be
Germany which offered support to Davisian model pointed out that even Hack could not escape from
of cycle o f erosion. evolutionary concept as he h im self adm itted ‘that
(7) RECENT TRENDS (SECOND HALF OF 20TH CEN evolution is also a fact of nature and that the inher
TURY) itance of form is always a possibility’ (H ack, 1960).
Post-1950 geomorphology has undergone sea- R.C. Palmquist has opined that ‘Hack (1965) para
change in the methods and approaches to the study phrases Davis’ ideal geographical cycle in term s o f
o f landforms, conceptual framework, paradigm and equilibrium concept and develops a sim ilar ev olu
thrust areas o f study. The recent trends in the field of tionary scheme. An initial disequilibrium stage (youth)
geomorphological studies since 1950 include in of rapid stream incision is followed by an eq uilib
creasing criticism o f Davisian model of cyclic de rium stage (mature) wherein the rounded interfluves
velopment o f landforms, concerted efforts for the are lowered as potential energy decreases though
replacement o f cyclic model by non-cyclic (dy they do not change in fo rm ’ (R.C. Palm quist). It may
namic equilibrium) model, descriptive geomorpho be mentioned that continued criticism o f cyclic m odel
logy (qualitative treatment o f landforms) by quanti of landform development and ultimately its rejec
tative geomorphology, inductive method of landform tion caused a conceptual vacuum which could not be
filled up even by dynamic equilibrium theory. R e
analysis by deductive method, introduction of m od
cently, a few alternative geom orphic theories have
els and system approach, emergence of process
been advanced e.g. ‘geom orphic th resh old m o d e l’,
geom orphology, climatic geomorphology, applied
‘tectonic-geom orphic m od el’ (M. M orisaw a), ‘e p i
geomorphology,environmental geomorphology, shift
sodic erosion model* (S.A. S chum m ) etc.
from larger spatial and longer temporal scale to
sm aller spatial and shorter temporal scale etc. The most outstanding contribution to the ad
vancement of geom orphological know ledg e in this
The decade 1950— 60 was devoted more for
period is the adoption of quantitative approach
the quantitative study o f landforms and processes
based on deductive scientific m ethod to the study o f
and the consideration o f geom orphic theories occu
landforms and processes at short spatial and tem p o
pied a back seat. This is the reason that a set o f basic
ral scales. The time factor w hich w as taken as a
concepts o f ‘the landscape cycle, the epigene cycle’,
process in the landscape d evelopm ent in the cyclic
‘the pediplanation c y c le ’ and ‘hillslope cycle' pos model has now been accepted as a variable. The
tulated by L.C. King and his ‘C anons o f L andscape’ maga and m eso-scales used for landform studies
(published in 1953) could not win support. The rejec have now been reduced to m icro-scale w herein the
tion o f D avisian concept o f ‘cyclic m o d e l’ based on m echanism o f processes can be properly understood
‘time dependent landform e v o lu tio n ’ culminated in through field instrum entation and m easurem en t of
the postulation o f ‘dynam ic equilibrium theory’ of the mode and rate o f operation o f geom orphic pro c
landscape dev elopm en t by J.T .H ack, R.J. Chorley esses. Thus, ‘form g eo m o rp h o lo g y 9 has been re
and others based on the concept o f ‘tim e-independ placed by ‘p rocess geom orphology*. This quantita
ent evolution o f la n d sca p e’, and ‘system co n ce p t’. tive approach resulted in the form ulation o f 4func-
10 fTf/Mtmnunsxn
tional theory o f landscape developm ent’ which The decade* 1950-60 and 1960-70 saw a real
lays more emphasis on the logical analysis of rela take off in the geomorphological research** wherein
tionship between ‘forms’ and related ‘processes’ more attention wa* paid towards the study o f differ
based on quantitative data derived through filed ent physiographic regions o f peninsular India Sig
instrumentation. nificant contributions came from R.P. Singh, A.K.
Sen Gupta, E. Ahmad, S.C. Bo**. W.D. West and
The post-1950 geomorphology was also en
V.D. Chaubey, R. Vaidyanadhan. B. Venketesh.
riched by the introduction of system theory for the
G V. Rao etc. The 21st International Geographical
explanation o f landforms and processes and postula
Congress held in 1968 in New Delhi aroused deep
tion ol different geomorphic models e.g. natural
interests in Indian geographers forgeom orpholopcal
analogue system, physical system and general sys
researches in various parts of the country. Signifi
tem. Process-response model has became the focal
theme of process-geomorphology. cant co ntrib ution s in the field o f system atic
geomorphology came from B.C. Acharya *floods of
Another significant contribution is the emer
Mahanadi;, G.K. Datta (origin and evolution of
gence of e n v iro n m e n ta l geom orphology which is,
la n d fo rm s in L o w e r S o n e V a iJ e y ), M .K .
in fact, asignificantaspectofapplied geomorphology,
Bandopadhyay (glacial landforms;. D. Suza (evolu
which envisages application of geomorphic knowl
edge for the removal of environmental problems tion of drainage pattern of Goay, R.N. Mathur
arising out of interactions - o f ‘economic’ and 'tech (geohydrology of Meerut district/. H.S. S h an na {ra
nological m an’ with geomorphological processes vine erosion/, A.K. Sengupta (denudation on ^.cntrai
and natural system. For example, monitoring of Ranchi plateau;, L>. Niyogi. S.K. Sarkar and S.
fluvial processes in man-impacted gully basin (cul Mallick (geomorphic mapping;, D. Niyogi (river
tivation) enables the investigator to ascertain the terraces;, A.K. Pal (Balasan river basin;. S. Subba
mode and rate of rill and gully erosion, siltation and Rao (landforms of Deccan traps, physical features of
loss of soi 1and to suggest remedial measures (Savindra Girnar hills;, A.B. Mukerjee (inland streams in
Singh's study, 1996). Haryana;, S. Sen (outer bank slope steepness in
meandering rivers;, E. A hm ad (gull, erosion in
1.4 INDIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOM ORPHO
LO GY India;. H.R. Betal (identification of slope categories
.T h e geomorphological researchesstartedauile in Damodar valley;. S.C. Bose<recession in Himalayan
late in India due to late start of postgraduate teaching glaciers;, R.S. Dubey (erosion surface on R e*a
o f geography (i.e. Aligharh Muslim University, 19 3 1. plateau;, M.V. K ay erk ar and S.K . Badhaw an
Calcutta University, 19 4 1, Allahabad University (geomorphic classification o f terrain; etc.
and Banaras Hindu University. 1946). In the begin Post - 21st international geography congress
ning sporadic geomorphic information in the form of
period witnessed an upheaval in geomorphological
reports, articles, essays etc. were provided by ad
researches by Indian geoscientists in the fields of
ministrators. investigators and travelers (like Swami
fluvial, arid, glacial, coastal, structural and quantita
Pranawanand of holy Kailash) and geologists. Like
tive geomorphology w herein morphometric tech
overseas development of geomorphology, inde
pendent status to geomorphology as a separate dis niques were widely used. Still most o f the wori^
cipline was accorded by geologists in India too. The were based on information derived from topographi
subject was given initial start by eminent geologists cal maps and casual field observations. In fact,
such as Heren. Wadia, Dunn, West, S.C. Chatterjee, morphometric analysis of terrain characteristics ba;>ed
Auden, Arogyaswami, Radhakrishnan and geogra on topographical maps was initiated bv R.L. Singh
phers like C h ib b e r (basically geologist), S.P. in 1967 when he presented an exhaustive paper on
Chatterjee, S.C. Bose, R.P. Singh, E. Ahmad, K. Morphometric Analysis o f T errain ’ in the form o f
Bagchi, R.L. Singh etc. The works o f these scientists presidential address at the joint session o f geology-
and their followers were primarily based on Davisian geography section o f Indian Science Congress held
model o f ‘cycle of erosion’ and denudation chronol in 1967. H isefforts culminated in the presentation o f
ogy approach’. The basic data were derived from a few Ph. D. dissertations on ’landforms and settle
topographical maps and gazetteers. ments in the department o f geography, Banaras
n a ture o f g eo m o r ph o lo g y 11
Hindu University, Varanasi, (e.g. S.C. Kharkwal, profiles on some residual hills in the Jamalpur-Kiul
1969. V.K. Asthana, 1968. K.N. Singh, 1967,Meera Hills’ by Anil Kumar (981) in the prestigious jo u r
Agarwal, 1970. O.P. Singh. 1977 etc.). Besides, nal, Zeitschrift fur Geom orphologie became a sin
significant contributions were made in different as gular contribution in field-based geom orphology
pects o f In d ia n g e o m o rp h o l o g y by S.C. bsed on A. Young's method of slope profiling. The
M ukhopadhyav (1968. geo m o rp h o lo g y of other sign ificant c o n trib u tio n s w ere m a d e by
Subamarekha basin), E. Ahmad (Ranchi to Ra jaroppa, S.C.Mukhopodhyay (1982, Tista Basin), R.K. Rai
1969), S.C. Chakravarti (1970, geomorphological (1980, Sonar-Bearm a Basin), Prudhvi Raju and R.
evolution of W. Bengal), Swami Pranawanand (1970, Vaidyanadhan (1981, Sarda Basin), B.S. M arh (1986,
Sources o f four great rivers o f India), J.P. Singh Ravi Basin) etc. Three im portant contributions in the
(1970. geomorphological evolution of Meghalaya), form of international publications (in International
K.R. Dikshit (1970, erosion surfaces and ploycyclic Geomorphology edited by V. Gardiner, 1987) cam e
reliefs of Deccan trap). R.P. Singh (1969. denuda from H .S. S h a r m a ( c l i m a t e a n d d r a i n a g e
tion chronology of C hotanagpur plateau, 1970, morphometric properties), R.K. Rai (evidences o f
periglacial cycle of erosion), Savindra Singh (1977, rejuvenation of the Deccan foreland) and S avindra
altimeteric analysis as a significant morphometric Singh and R.S. Pandey (m orphological analysis and
technique), K.R. Diksshit, S.N. Rajguru, N.S. Gupta development of slope profiles over B han der Scarps).
and J.P. Jog (1972. geomorphology of southern V S. Kale published a field-based significant paper
K o n k a n a r e a ), S .C . M u h o p a d h y a y (1 973, on ‘western ghats’ in Zeitschrift fur geom orphologie.
geomorphology ofSubam arekhabasin). Anil Kumar A research paper entitled ‘rill and gully erosion in
(1974. morphological classification of landforms of the subhumid tropical riverine environment o f Teothar
S.W. Ranchi plateau, 1979. geomorphology of tahsil, M .P.’ by Savindra Singh and S.P. A gnihotri
Simdega and its adjoining area), Savindra Singh and published in Geografiska A nnaler (1987) is a sig
Renu Srivastava (1976, denudation chronology and nificant contribution in the field and laboratory-
erosion surfaces of the Belan Basin), Savindra Singh based geomorphological study o f m a n -im p ac ted
(1977. tors o f Ranchi plateau). R K . Rai etc. gullied area. The fluvial geom orphology w as e n
The recognition of drainage basins as ideal riched by substantial work undertaken by A.B.
geomorphic units for geomorphological investiga Mukerjee, S.K. Pal. V.S. Kale, S.R. Jog etc. T he
tions resulted in the systematic morphometric analy International Conference on G eo m orph olo gy and
sis o f drainage basins consequent upon the presenta Environment held in 1987 at A llahabad U niversity
tion o f doctoral thesis on 'drainage basin character rejuvenated geormorphological researches in India
istics o f the Belan river’ by Renu Srivastava in 1976 and encouraged field m easurem ent of s p atio -tem p o
in the departm ent o f geography, Allahabad Univer ral variations in landform characteristics. R iver-bed
sity. This was followed by presentation of a number m o rp h o lo g y , alluvial m o r p h o lo g y a n d c o a s ta l
o f doctoral theses in Allahabad University e.g. small geomorphology became the centre o f intensive study
drainage basins o f Ranchi plateau (Savindra Singh, by Poona School o f G eom orphology led by K.R.
1978), m orphom etric study of small drainage basins Dikshit, V S. Kale, S.R. Jog, S.N K arlekar and their
o f P a l a m a u u p la n d (S .S . O jh a , 1981), associates. The other positive result o f the said
geom orphological study o f small drainage basins o f conference was the establishm ent o f the Indian Insti
S.E. Chotanagpur region (D.P. Upadhyav. 1981) tute of Geom orpliologists with its headquarters at
etc. geography departm ent, A llahabad University. The
The decadc 1980-90 was characterized by the annual conferences organized at different places o f
study o f causal relationship between landform s and the country under the agies o f the aforesaid organi
processes and formulation o f models and techniques. zation since 1988 have encouraged several young
Estimation o f drainage density on the basis o f drain researchers from different parts o f the country to
age texture by Savindra Singh (1976 and 1981) is a peruse field-based geom orphic studies.
significant contribution in theoretical geomorphology. A few centres o f geom orphology have co m e
The publication o f the study o f ‘nature o f slope up in the c o u n try . T h e A lla h a b a d C e n tr e o f
GEOMORPHOLOGY
geomorphology has initiated geomorphological re The Calcutta Centre of geomorphology is

searches since 1971. In the beginning, attention was given credit for early start in geomorphological
focused on the morphometric study of drainage researches. S.P. Chatterjee and K. Bagchi paved the
basins based on topographical maps and limited way forthe initiation and development of geomorphic
field observations. The detailed field studies started researches through their pioneer works in this field.
in the decade 1980-90 wherein probably the 1st Presently, the department o f geography, Calcutta
d o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n on environmental University is widely known for researches in differ
geomorphology was produced by Alok Dubey un ent branchesof geomorphology. M.K. Bandopadhyay
der the supervision of Savindra Singh in 1985. is actively eng ag ed in the stud y o f glacial
Besides fluvial geomorphology, a new branch of geomorpthology of the Himalayas and has regularly
urban geomorphology has been developed by monitored the recession of glaciers on the basis of
Savindra Singh and a few doctoral theses have been field studies. S.C. Mukhopadhyay has made signifi
produced. The doctoral theses on solution topogra cant contributions in fluvial geomorphology while
phy of Rohtas Plateau by M. S. Singh (1991) and landslides in the eastern Himalaya are regularly
applied geomorphology of Belan-Son interstream monitored by S.R. Basu.
area by Neera Rastogi (1994) are significant contri The geomorphologists o f the Central Arid
butions. The geochemistry of cave water and mor Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur,e.g. Bimal
phogenesis of Guptadham cave (Rohtas plateau, Ghose, Surendra Singh, P.C. Vats and Amalkar have
Bihar) based on laboratory analysis of water, solutes done outstanding researches in arid geomorphology
and rock samples for 36 months was subsequently and applied geomorphology on the basis o f intensive
published in Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie by field surveys and remotely sensed data. R.K. Rai and
Savindra Singh, M.S. Singh and Alok Dubey in 1992. his associates are actively engaged in the field of
Recently, micro-level study of rill and gully erosion fluvial geomorphology, structural geomorphology,
has been initiated by Savindra Singh and Alok Dubey. karst geomorphology, etc. at Shillong. Besides,
A major research project on 'gully erosion and man geomorphological researches are being persued at
agement’ of a micro-man-impacted gully basin (about Bhagalpur (Anil Kumar and his team), Jaipur (H.S.
56.000 m2. area) funded by the DST, New Delhi, has Sharma), Delhi (S.K. Pal), Jamm u (M.N. Kaul),
been completed (1991-95) wherein the meteorologi Thanjavur (Victor Raja Manickam), Almora (J.S.
cal, hydrological and geomorphological variables Rawat and R.K. Pandey), Varanasi (K. Prudhvi
have been recorded through field instrumentation for Raju), Srinagar-Garhwal (Devidatt) etc. A very out
three wet monsoon months of 1991 to 94 and soil standing contribution in the form of development of
erosion and soil loss, sedimentation, discharge etc. a c o m p u te r s o f tw a r e for the i n t e r p r e ta tio n
have been regularly monitored. (geomorphological) of satellite imagery has been
The Poona Centre of geomorphology is char developed by S.R. Jog (Pune).
a c t e r iz e d by s e r io u s r e s e a rc h e s in flu vial (
1. 5 SYSTEM C O N C EP T
geomorphology. structural geomorphology, river bed
The system concept was adapted in the expla
morphology, alluvial geomorphology and coastal
geomorphology. The gemorphological researches nation of geomorphic problems after the postulation
were initiated by K.R. Dikshit. He encouraged young o f ‘general system theory’ by Von Bertalanffy in
geomorphologists for field instrumentation of the 1950. ‘A system may be defined as a set of objects
processes. Consequently, V.S. Kale and S.R. Jog that are considered together by studying their rela
m a d e s ig n if i c a n t c o n tr ib u tio n s in flu vial tionships to each other and their individual attributes’
geomorphology. A number of research projects funded (C.A. M King, 1966). A geomorphic system is an
by the U.G.C., D.S.T. and other organizations have integrated complex of mosaic of geomorphic fea
been undertaken by K.R. Dikshit, V.S. Kale and S.R. tures and this system functions under definite condi
Jog. S.N. K arlekarand their associates have studied tions through the input of energy (precipitation,
extensively the western coasts of Maharahtra and insolation, upliftment etc.) and output o f matter. A
have made significant contributions in coastal critical balance between the input o f energy and
geomorphology. output of matter is a prerequisite condition for the
n atu re o f g e o m o r ph o lo g y 13
successful functioning o f a geomorphic system. In effected by any of the external factors (say input
fact, ‘a geomorphic system is a structure of interact factor) which regulates the equilibrium condition o f
ing processes and landforms that function individu the geomorphic system, is counter-balanced by
ally and jointly to form a landscape com plex’ (R.J. changes in other system components, this is called
Chorley, S.A. Schumm and D.E. Sudden, 1985). ‘hom eostatis’ or negative feedback mechanism. It
The system state includes its composition, organi is apparent that closed geomorphic system is regu
zation and flow of energy and matter wherein the lated through positive feedback mechanism and leads
geomorphic system may be in a steady state, dy to progressive changes in landforms through time in
namic equilibrium state or in changing state in terms such a way that a featureless plain with minimum
of time. Further, a super geomorphic system consists relief (peneplain) is produced in the end while an
of several subsystems of different suites of landforms open geomorphic system operates according to nega
and these subsystems are interconnected through the tive feedback mechanism and thus the geomorphic
input-output linkages. system remains in equilibrium.
Geomorphic systems are divided into closed Explanation-A simple example may explain
and open system s. A closed system has well defined positive feedback— increased amount o f rainfall (in
boundary wherein neither energy nor matter can crease in input) causes phenomenal increase in the
cross this boundary. Davisian ‘geographical cycle’ overland (low and surface runoff which accelerates
is an example of closed geomorphic system which soil erosion leading to removal o f surficial soil
begins to function with the input of initial potential cover and exposure of underlying resistant rock
energy through short-period rapid rate-upliftment. cover which discourages infiltration ol water and
With the march of time both height and energy augments soil erosion resulting in the lowering of
decrease progressively due to denudation resulting relief. Negative feedback— a profile ol equilibrium
into minimum height and energy at the attainment of of a stream means equilibrium o f works o f the stream
peneplain stage. Sometimes there may be temporary pertaining to erosion, transportation and deposition.
increase in energy due to rejuvenation caused either A graded stream having attained the profile o f equi
by upliftment or by negative change in sea-level but librium is such that there is equilibrium between
ultimately the system runs down when the land is transporting capacity of the stream and total load
eroded down to peneplain and the sum of available (sediments) to he transported and thus a graded
energy and the work to be done equals zero resulting stream neither erodes nor deposits in short term.
into maximum entropy. On the other hand, an open Suppose, there is sudden increase in the sediment
geomorphic system is characterized by continuous load of the stream due to accelerated rate of erosion
renewal of energy and removal of matter from the consequent upon increased rainfall. This situation
system which functions in such a way that it attains disturbs the equilibrium condition because the work
steady state. A drainage basin is an example of an to be done (i.e. sediment load to be transported down
open geomorphic system which receives energy stream) exceeds the transporting capacity (available
through insolation and rainfall and releases water energy) of the stream. This change forces the stream
and eroded material from its mouth. to deposit extra load till the channel gradients (steep
ening of gradient due to deposition) becomes such
The internal structure of a geomorphic sys
that it provides required velocity and hence required
tem is controlled by feedback mechanism. ‘Posi
energy to transport increased sediment load so that
tive feedback occurs whenever externally induced
equilibrium condition is re-attained and the stream is
changes of input produce changes in the same direc regraded.
tion as the input changes (i.e. lead to progressively-
changing ‘timebound’ state). Negative feedback 1.6 GEOMORPHIC M ODELS
operates when changes in the system input result in Model is generally defined as simplified ap
changes in other system components which regulate proximation of external real world. A model may be
the effects of the changed input such as to bring a in the form of structured idea to represent real
new ‘timeless’ equilibrium or steady state’ (R.J. situation, an hypothesis, a theory or a law (H. Skilling,
Chorley, 1967). In other words, when any change 1964). ‘It can be a role, a relation or an equation. It
14 GEOMOR PHOLOGY
can be synthesis of data. Most important from the mental and (ii) theoretical m odels, sym bolic mod
geographical view point, it can also include reason els, conceptual m odels ctc. (3) On the basis of
ing about the real world bv means of translations in system concept models are divided into 'i) synthetic
space (to give spatial models) or in time (to give system models, (ii) partial system m odels, (iii)
historical models' (P. Haggett and R.J. Chorley, balck box models.
1969). The main characteristic features o f a model According to R.J. Chorley (1967) the concep
are— tual geomorphic model system may be approached
(i) Models are selective approxim ation s as in 3 ways e.g. (i) in terms o f time and space, (ii) in
they include some of the relevant and fundamental terms of physical system, and (iii) in terms of general
aspects ol real world while they ignore detailed system. The translation of systematic geomorphic
aspects ; views in time or space yields natural analogue
(ii) Modes are s tr u c tu re d ideas about the real system.
world i.e. the selected relevant and fundamental Natural Analogue System — A natural ana
aspects are well interconnected in such a way that the logue system is such wherein geomorphological
real world may be projected in simple and general phenomena of a geomorphic system arc described
ized form; on the basis of such analogous natural system which
(iii) Models are suggestive in nature i.e. these is simple and better known and similar to the original
incorporate scope for their future extension and system. The natural analogue system is divided into
generalization; (i) historical natural analogue system when time
(iv) Models are analogies; factor is taken into consideration and (ii) spatial
natural analogue system when space becomes
(v) Models have the quality of reapplicability
main consideration. The historical natural analogue
to the real world etc.
model implies the concept of ‘time-controlled se
The functional role of models includes (i) quences’ i.e. many gcomorphic activities are re
psychological aspect which 'enables some groups peated through lime and thus the past geomorphic
of phenomena to be visualized and comprehended history has relevance to the present history. Thus,
which could otherwise not be because of its magni the past geomorphic history of a given region may be
tude or complexity’ (P. Haggett and R.J. Chorley, reconstructed on the basis of present geomorphic
1967; (ii) acquisitive aspect which provides scopc processes and their responses (resultant features).
for the acquisition of data, information and ideas for James Hutton's concept of ‘present is key to the
the formulation of models; ( iii) logical aspect which p ast’ and ‘no vestige o f a beginning : no prospect
enables the geographer (investigator) to explain the of an end’ is a line example of historical natural
details of data and information; (iv) normative analgue model. In the spatial natural analogue model
aspect, which includes provision of comparison of the geomorphic features of the original region are
selected phenomena (not previously known with described on the basis of identical and contiguous
precise perfection) with already known situation; (v) region which is better known. In other words, the
constructional aspect includes provision for for original area is described on the basis of comparison
mulation of theories and iaws etc. ol another area which is similar to original one but is
Models are classified on different bases— (1) better understood. Fenneman's physiographic re
On the basis of familiarity o f situation and existing gions' (1914), ‘tectonic or structural provinces’
reality models arc divided into (i) descriptive m o d on the basis of morphotectonics, ‘m orphogenetic
els and (ii) norm ative models wherein descriptive regions’ on the basis of the concept that ‘each
models involve description of real situation having climatic type produces its own characteristic assem
empirical information whereas normative models blage of landforms' etc. are a few examples.
are concerned with description of a less familiar P hysical S ystem involves dissection of
situation on the basis of more familiar situation. (2) geomorphic problems into several component parts
On the basis of stuff models are classified into (i) and the study of operation of each part and intercon
h a rd w a re models, physical models and experi nections between the parts presents a complete syn
thesis of the entire physical system comprising all dom unpredictable effects o f natural processes which
com ponent parts. Physical system approach of obscure simpler deterministic relationships i.e. cause
geomorphological investigations is based on quanti and effect relationships. S toch astic m athem atical
tative method. Physical system includes three inter m odels remove such w eakness o f deterministic
related models e.g. (i) hardware model, (ii) math models. Stochastic models arc, infact, statistical
ematical model and (iii) experimental design model. models wherein besides mathematical variables, pa
H ardw are m odel involves simulation of natural rameters and constants, certain aspects c5f natural
geomorphic complexes in the laboratory involving processes are also included so that the simpler deter
similar natural conditions but on very smaller spatial ministic relationships are also revealed.
and shorter temporal scales e.g. development of Experim ental design m odels are constructed
river meander, development of rills and gullies in the on the basic premise that ‘within a given range o f
laboratory etc. The construction of hardware models observational data exist certain meaningful c o m p o
in geomorphology has not been very successful nent parts which can be identified by em ploying a
because (i) the natural geomorphic system is very suitable experimental design' (quoted by R.J.Chorley,
complex and (ii) this complexity imposes problems 1967). T h e design, ,which is derived from past
of scale, both spatial and temporal. M athem atical observation, logical deduction, intuition, or a c o m
geom orphic m odels are abstract forms of equations bination of these provides a structure within w hich
wherein phenomena, forces, processes, events, fea other data are collectcd and then analysed by c o n
tures etc. o f natural geomorphic systems are re ventional statistical means to produce some gener
placed by mathematical variables, parameters, sym alization’ (quoted by R.J. Chorley, 1967). The c o n
bols. letters, constants etc. For example, Davisian struction of such models very often incorporates the
model o f ‘landscape is a function of structure, proc use of simple and multiple regression analysis, h ar
ess and tim e’ has been paraphrased into mathemati monic analysis, spectral analysis ctc. A.N. Strahler's
cal model by K.J. Gregory as a geomorphological model of linear relationship between channel slope
equation— and ground slope and linear relationship between
F = f(M P )t discharge and stream width, depth and velocity
where, (A.N. Strahler, 1950) etc. are exam ples o f experi
F = forms (landforms) mental design models.
f = function of G eneral system involves the consideration
M = maternal (geomaterials) of groups of geomorphic phenom ena which are
P = process structured into a broad general system wherein ‘e m
t = time phasis lies in the organization and operation o f the
Mathematical models are classified into (1) system as a whole or as linked com ponents rather
deterministic mathematical models and (ii) stochastic than in detailed study of individual system elem ents’
mathematical models. The deterministic m athem ati (Von BcrtalanlTy, quoted by R J . Chorley, 1967).
cal m odels are constructed on the basis of exact Within geomorphology a 'geomorphic system’ is
predictable relationships between independent and consiuereu as a general system wherein detailed
dependent geomorphic variables i.e. relationships study of geomorphological processes operating within
between cause and effect. Horton's laws of stream the system and their responses (resultant landforms)
numbers and stream orders, and stream lengths and provides explanation oflandform characteristics. ‘A
stream orders (exponential function model) are good geomorphic system is a structure of interacting proc
examples of such model. Law of allometric crowth esses and landforms that function individually and
(power function model) stating proportionate growth jointly to form a landscape com plex' (Chorley,
in all components o f drainage basins with time is Schumm and Sugden. 1985). A fluvially originated
another exam ple of deterministic mathematical drainage basin may be cited as an example o f a
models. Though nearly all of the variables of com geomorphic system which operates through input of
plex natural situation are included in de*erministic energy (solar energy and precipitation) and output of
mathematical models yet there aê certain such ran energy and matter
16 GEOMORPHOLOGY
General system is divided into (i) synthetic and depositional landforms and geomorphological
system , (ii) partial system and (ii) black boxes. processes operating therein. The entire practice and
Process-response model is ultimate result of syn exercise of landform studies may be grouped into
thetic system. In fact, process-response model is three closely linked steps e.g. (A) main tasks, (B)
constructed on the basis of structure and analysis of approaches and (C) methods (of data collection and
geomorphic events and final conclusions. The main of analysis). A geomorphologist has three main
goal of partial system is to establish workable rela tasks o f (i) description, (ii) classification and
tionships between sets of factors or subsystems of a (iii) explanation of landforms. The description and
geomorphic system wherein detailed understanding explanation of landforms may be approached in a
of internal functioning of the sub-systems is not variety of ways viz. (i) qualitative Vs. quantitative
considered to be necessary but the information of the (empirical) approach or (ii) systematic Vs. regional
interrelationships between the sets of factors or sub approach while the methods of analysis may be (i)
systems enables the investigator to determine and inductive or (ii) deductive or (iii) analytical. The
predict the behaviour of the entire system under landforms may also be analysed by adopting system
different input conditions (R.J. Chorley, 1967, approach.
p. 84). A black box is that wherein no detailed
knowledge of the internal structure of different com (A) MAIN TA SK S
ponents of the geomorphic system is required. ‘The The first and foremost task of a student o f the
black box models are constructed on the basis of science of landforms is (i) to describe the landform
assumptions and not on the basis of detailed knowl characteristics either subjectively or objectively on
edge of geomorphological processes. Examples of the basis of detailed information available to him,
such models are ‘dynamic equilibrium model’ of (ii) to classify the ladforms either genetically or
G.K. Gilbert, ‘climatic geomorphology’ of German quantitatively, and finally (iii) to explain the evolu
and French geomorphologists (e.g. Budel, Peltier, tionary processes of the concerned landforms.
Cailleux, Tricart etc.)’ ‘geographical cycle’ of W.M. (I) DESCRIPTION OF LANDFORMS
Davis, W. Penck's ‘morphological system’ etc... Landform characteristics may be described in
Geomorphic models should be such that they a variety of ways depending on the audience to
can be applied for practical purposes. It may be which the description is addressed and the nature of
mentioned that natural physical system is character problems needing description and explanation. Gen
ised by ‘homeostatis mechanism’ involving nega erally, landform description involves (a) subjective
tive feedback which counterbalances any change description, (b) genetic description and (c) objective
effected by natural factors in any component of the or quantitative scientific description.
natural physical system and thus regulates the sys (a) S ubjective d e scrip tio n involves general
tem and maintains equilibrium. But the changes and ized and literary presentation of physical landscapes
interventions effected by human activities are some
in a stylish manner by the non-specialist person.
times so enormous that they exceed the resilience of
Such description depends upon the thinking of the
the system and upset the balance. ‘Geomorphologists
individual as how he looks at the problems. Thus, the
should therefore ensure that any intervention in
description becomes highly subjective and totally
landform systems is thoroughly regulated so as to
unscientific and hence has no geomorphological
exploit the system successfully, rather than cause its
significance.
degradation. Such intervention must therefore be
based on proven geomorphological models which (b) G enetic description involves besides
can accurately predict the likely impact of any planned general information of landform characteristics, rev
intervention in the system’ (A Goudie, 1981). elation of causes and factors o f origin and develop
ment of landforms. For example, if the hillslope of
1.7 METHODS AND A P P R O A C H ES TO THE any given region is undergoing the process o f de
STUDY O F LANDFORMS cline or water divide is being narrowed down, then
The main task of a geomorphologist is to one must also describe the processes and causes of
study the evolution and characteristics of erosional slope decline and shifting of interfluves. If the rivers
MATURE o f g eo m orph o log y
17
have developed meandering courses, then the mode on deferen t scales) and rela tio n sh ip s b etw ee n
of development o f meanders should also he de morphometric variables.
scribed. W.M. Davis adopted entirely genetic ap
(II) CLASSIFICATION OF LANDFORMS
proach for describing landform characteristics of
An investigator after having an observation
any physiographic region having certain environ
of physical landforms and processes and their distri
mental conditions. He described the landforms in
bution patterns in the field attempts to classify the
terms of youth, mature and old stages. T h e Davisian
landforms and processes into identifiable catego
method of genetic description has ...... been very
ries. The landforms may be classified on two bases
widely applied in geomorphology but it is unfortu
i.e. (a) quantitative basis (quantitative or non-ge-
nately a decidedly clumsy tool, lacking in any real
netic classification) and (b) genetic basis (genetic
precision’ (R.J. Small, 1970). A.N. Strahler (1950)
has also criticised Davisian method of genetic de classification).
scription of landforms as he remarked ‘a generalized (a) Q uantitative (n on -genetic) cla ssifica
overall scheme o f landscape evolution stated in tion involves numerical data which are obtained
terms of youth, maturity and old age contributes next through morphological mapping, field instrum enta
to nothing to the understanding of factors determin tion and interpretation of air photographs and satel
ing the mechanism and intensity of erosion on slopes’ lite imageries and is descriptive in nature as it does
(A.N. Strahler, 1950). not include the consideration of mode of origin and
nature of development of landforms, which, nodoubt,
(c) O bjective description also called as quan
is very important aspect of geomorphology. A hillslope
titative or scientific description involves math
profile may be classified on the basis o f slope angle
ematical and statistical techniques. The relevant
and slope plan into summital convex, free-face,
data and information required for scientific descrip
rectilinear and basal concave slope. The m easure
tion of landscape characteristics of a given region
ment of slope angles of hillslope profiles in the field
arc gathered through precise measurements of
facilitates the geomorphologists to classify slopes
landforms in the field, or data are derived from
into (i) level slope (0°— 0.5°), (ii) almost level slope
topographical maps, air photographs and satellite
(0.5°— 1°), (ii) very gentle slope (1°— 2°), (iv) gentle
imageries and the data so derived are analysed through
slope (2°— 5°), (v) moderate slope (5°— 10°), (vi)
appropriate statistical techniques. Quantification is
moderately steep slope (10°— 18°), (vii) steep slope
applied not only to landscape forms, giving rise to
(18°— 30°), (viii) very steep slope (30°— 45°), (ix)
the branch of modern geomorphology known as
precipitous to vertical slope (45°— 90°) (A Young).
morphom etry, but also to processes such as river
Fluvially originated drainage basins arc divided into
flow, movement of sediments, types and rates of
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th............. order basins on the basis of
weathering, soil creep, solifluxion and so on' (R.J.
stream ordering and hierarchical order of the streams.
Small, 1970, p. 4.). Exam ple : An ideal hillslope
On the basis of periodicity of water flow streams are
profile may be quantitatively or objectively de
divided into ephemeral, seasonal and perennial
scribed as follows— the hillslope is characterized by
limited submittal convexity which is succeeded (down streams. ‘Indeed, classifications o f this kind are
the slope profile) by free face element of more than normally a prelude to the development o f hypoth
70° angle, middle rectilinear element having slope eses of origin, and really represent an organization
angle of more than 25° and thin vineer of debris and of the evidence on which such hypotheses are to be
basal concave element (pediment section) having founded’ (R.J. Small, 1970, p. 6).
slope angle ranging between 7° and 0.5°. Similarly, (b) Genetic classification involves division
a flu v ia lly o r ig i n a te d d ra in a g e b asin is o t landform assemblage o f a given geomorphic
morphometrically described on the basis of hierar region into certain categories on the basis o f their
chical position o f different tributary streams (stream mode of origin. For example, slopes can be geneti
ordering), stream number, stream lengths, basin cally divided into tectonic slope (due to faulting,
areas, bifurcation, length and area ratios (the data for folding, warping etc.), erosional slope, slope of
all aspects are derived from the topographical maps accumulation (depositional slope) etc. Streams may
18 GEOMORPHOLOGY
be classified into sequent and insequent streams. la n d fo rm s’. T h o ugh the advocates o f climatic
Sequent streams (which follow the regional slope) geomorphology have attempted to relate particular
are further divided into consequent, subsequent, landform or landform suites to a particular climate
obsequent and rcsequcnt streams whereas insequent (e.g. pediments to semi-arid climate, tors to periglacial
streams (which flow across the geological structure climate, convexo-concave slope to humid climate
and regional slope) are grouped into antecedent and etc.) but they have not succeeded as the so-called
superimposed streams. Besides individual landforms, diagnostic landforms o f a particular climate have
landform assemblage may also be collectively di been found in more than one climatic regions. For
vided e.g. youthful landscape, mature landscape and example, tors are found right from tropical climate
old stage landscape as envisaged by W.M. Davis. On to periglacial climate, pediments have developed in
the basis o f cyclic origin of landforms they may be many climatic regions except glacial and periglacial
divided into mono-cyclic landforms, poly-cyclic climates. Similarly, the presence o f tors in the areas
la n d fo r m s , r e ju v e n a te d la n d fo r m s , e x h u m ed having granites, sandstones, quartzites and even
landforms etc. Landform assemblages are also clas limestones has put big question mark before the
sified morphogenetically on the basis of basic tenet advocates of structure-form approach.
o f climatic geomorphology that ‘each climatic type The historical or chronological approach of
produces its own characteristic assem blage of landform explanation is based on the concept ‘that
landform s’ into (a) humid, sub-humid, arid, semi- there is sequential change in landforms through
arid and glacial landscapes (W. Penck), (b) glacial, time’, and on the ‘principle o f uniformitarianism^
periglacial, boreal, maritime, selva, moderate, sa (that ‘all the physical laws and processes that operate
vanna, semi-arid and arid landscapes (L.C. Peltier). today operated throughout geological periods not
(Ill) EXPLANATION OF LANDFORMS necessarily with same intensity as now ’ and ‘present
is key to the past’), cyclic nature o f earth's history,
The origin and development of landforms are
'the cunccpt of palimpsest topography' and Davisian
explained on the basis of available information de
model o f ‘cyclic evolution o f la n d fo rm s'. The
rived through their description and classification.
landform development is described in term s o f ev o
The explanation of landscapes may be approached
through (a) establishing relationships between lutionary stages of youth, mature and old as envis
aged by W.M. Davis. The main goal of this approach
landforms and climate (clim atic geom orphology
a p p r o a c h ) or between landforms and structure or is to reconstruct the chronological history o f d en u
rock types ( s tr u c tu r e - fo rm a p p ro a c h ), (b) through dation of a given region known as denudation
seeking landform origin and development in histori chronology and to 'identify, date and interpret plan
cal perspective (chronological or historical a p tation surfaces developed in past cycles and subcycles
p r o a c h ) and (c) through establishing relationships of erosion' (R.J. Small, 1970, p. 9). This approach
between landforms and processes (process-form also suffers from several shortcom ings w hich would
be detailed out in the succeeding subsections.
a p p r o a c h ).
The s tr u c t u r e - f o r m a p p r o a c h of landscape The p ro c e ss-fo rm a p p r o a c h o f landform
explanation is based on the basic tencnt of structural explanation involves establishment o f relationships
geomorphology that ‘geological structure is a dom i between geomorphological processes and landform s
nant control factor in the evolution of landforms . on the basis ot the concept that ‘each geom orphic
Thus, the influences of geological structure and process produces its own assem blage o f landform s.’
lithological characteristics on the evolution o f indi This approach further involves detailed study and
vidual landforms (e.g. hillslopes, scarps, valley- m o nito ring o f m ode and rate o f o p e ra tio n o f
sides, tors) or general landforms and landtorm as geomorphic processes in terns o f w eathering, ero
semblage (e.g karst topography) are studied. C li sion, transportation and deposition on one hand and
m a te (through processesj-lan dform a p p r o a c h of their relationships with individual and groups o f
landform explanation is based on fundamental co n landforms on the other hand. A few geomorphologists
cept o f climatic geomorphology that ‘each climatic have also expressed reservations against this ap
ty p e produces its own characteristic assemblage of proach. For example, S.W. W ooldridge remarked, ‘I
nature o f g eo m o r ph o lo g y 19
regard it as quite fundamental that geomorphology esses in smaller areas during shorter period o f time.
is primarily concerned with the interpretation of The description o f morphological characteristics o f
forms, not the study of processes’ while A.N. Strahler larger areas may also be approached in two ways e.g.
cautioned that ‘geographically-trained geom orpho (i) historical o r c h ro n o lo g ical a p p r o a c h and (ii)
logists are not well qualified to work in the field of em pirical a p p ro a c h . Alternatively the explanation
process.’ of landform characteristics may be approached ei
Though process-form approach is more sci ther through (i) regional a p p r o a c h or through (ii)
entific and involves mathematical and statistical system atic a p p ro a c h .
techniques but it also suffers from certain shortcom (I) HISTORICAL APPROACH
ings. (1) The mechanism of all geomorphological Historical approach o f landform studies in
processes is not the same. Some processes operate so volves description of landform evolution through
slowly (e.g. soil creep or chemical weathering) or so successive stages of geological time or say cyclic
intermittently (e.g. rainwash) that their precise and time involving larger spatial and longer temporal
careful measurement in the field becomes necessary scales. ‘In this type of analysis the em phasis is
so that reliable data my be obtained. (2) The changes placed on the historical development o f the land
in some landform take place at exceedingly slow rate scape, based on the cyclic concept o f Davis, on the
over long period of time that it becomes virtually assumption that evidence of the past character o f the
impossible to measure them within a life-time of the landscape is still apparent in its present form ’ (C.A.M.
investigator. (3) It becomes difficult to relate all the King. 1966, pp. 15-16). In fact, historical approach
landforms to the present processes as many of the is based on the concept of ‘p a lim p se st to p o g r a p h y ’
landforms are in fact ‘relict’ or ‘fossil’ features, the which means such a surface which bears the imprints
result of past processes (e.g. granitic tors of Dart of geomorphological processes during past geologi
moor of England). (4) ‘Another fundamental prob cal periods after partially erased initial imprints
lem is the sheer difficulty of proving a causal rela (features) in the beginning. Palimpsest refers to that
tionship between process and form. How can it be manuscript which has been written, erased and re
demonstrated conclusively that a particular process written several times. Similarly, palimpsest topog
results in a particular form?’ (R.J. Small, 1970, pp. raphy represents complex topographic features of a
11 -12) because many processes operate together and region which have been written (characterized by
thus it becomes difficult to isolate one process from topographic features) by geomorphological proc
other processes. For example, most of the weather esses, erased (previous geomorphological features
ing processes (physical, chemical and biological) partially destroyed by succeeding processes) and re
operate together (physico-biochcmica! weathering). written (production of new reliefs on older surfaces)
This approach will be further elaborated and exam several times.
ined in the succeeding sections. An attempt is made to reconstruct (reproduc
tion) the past geomorphic history of the region
(B) A PP R O A C H ES TO GEOM ORPHOLOGICAL concerned on the basis of present and remnant
AN ALYSIS landforms following the dictum o f ‘p re s e n t is key to
The explanation of morphological character the past. This method of landform study is popularly
istics of a given region may be approached in a known as d enudation chronology (denudational
number of ways depending on spatial and temporal history of a given region). ‘The principal objective
scales and goals of the geomorphologists. Based on (of this method) is to identify, date, and interpret
conceptual bases the geomorphic studies may be plantation surfaces developed in past cycles and
approached in two ways e.g. (i) historical a p p ro ac h sub-cycles of erosion’ (R.J. Small, 1970, p. 9) on the
and (ii) functional a p p ro a c h . The historical ap basis of evidences of drainage development, relic
proach is adopted when geomorphological evolu surfaces and past tectonic events. The degree of
tion of larger areas is traced through long geological precision of landform analysis rests on deductive
period while functional approach is adopted when power of the researcher and level of qualitative and
landform characteristics arc related to present proc quantitative description of relic features.
20 GEOMORPHOLOGY
This approach suffers from ccrtain percepti- drainage density and drainage texture and carto
blc weaknesses. This approach is highly deductive graphic presentation of their spatial patterns) ; and
because unknown events and their responses are r e l i e f aspect (computation of altimetric, hypsometric
described on the basis of very limited known infor and clinographic variables and determination of
mation and evidences. In fact, the past geomorphic relationships between area and height, height and
history is reconstructed on (he basis of very small slope angles, determination o f altitudinal frequency
parts ol pre-existing landforms. ‘An important criti ipaxima for the identification o f erosion surfaces,
cism which has been levelled against the denudation calculation of hypsometric and erosion integrals for
chronology approach is that it succeeds in explain the determination of stages of cycle of erosion,
ing directly only very small parts of the existing computation of relative reliefs, dissection and rug-
landscape, namely the fragments of former (erosion) gedness indices, slope angles and measurement of
surfaces which have been dissected and almost to slope profiles etc.)
tally destroyed in some cases by more recent ero This quantitative approach was developed in
sion' (R.J. Small, 1970). Secondly, historical ap the U.S.A. in 1940s and was subsequently adopted
proach is highly speculative because the old erosion by geomorphologists worldover. It may be pointed
surfaces and remnant forms have been so greatly out that the results derived through morphometric
modified by subsequent processes that it becomes analysis are sometimes misleading and erroneous
difficult or say impossible to find out their original and if they are not verified on the basis of field
forms and initial heights. The dating of erosion checks thes,e may lead to wrong conclusions about
surfaces is also highly speculative as valid geologi the geomorphological problems.
cal evidences are not available.
(Ill) REGIONAL APPROACH
(II) QUANTITATIVE AND EMPIRICAL APPROACH Regional approach involves study of land
Quantitative or empirical approach as alter scape assemblage of a geomorphic region at large
native to historical approach is adopted to explain spatial and long tem poral scales e.g. m ega-
landform characteristics of such larger areas where geomorphology an d m eso-geom orphology. In fact,
sufficient evidences for historical study are not avail regional approach also involves theoretical studies
able because of destruction of relic forms due to of ‘cyclic evolution of landforms and more practical
g r e a te r d eg ree o f dissectio n by subsequent studies of denudation chronology’ at different spa
geomorphological processes. The empirical approach tial scales varying from regional to continental scales.
to study geomorphic problems of the large-scale Similarly, the approaches to the study of the mega
geomorphological features involves the measure scale landforms may be grouped into 3 sub-catego
ment of geometry of different aspects of landscape ries e.g. (i) explanation of present landscape charac
and their quantitative interpretation. A fluvially origi teristics and their evolution with reference to palaeo-
nated drainage basin is selected as an ideal geomorphic processes involving spatial scales varying from re
unit for morphometric study wherein measurable gional to subscontinental areas and temporal scales
properties of different aspects are measured, com of 108 years to 10s years ; (ii) examination and
puted and tabulated for reasonable explanation e.g. explanation of ‘present processes and the dynamic
linear aspect (determination of hierarchical orders balance between process and form on sub-continen
of streams, computation of stream numbers and tal and regional scales* (Rita Gardiner and Helen
bifurcation rattio, measurement of stream lengths
Scoging, 1983) involving temporal scale of 1 to 100
and basin areas and computation of length and area
years; and (iii) examination and explanation of sig
ratios and establishment of relationships between
nificant determinants of geomorphological proc
these morphometric variables and examination of
esses i.e. climatic and sea-level changes and re
morphometric laws of stream numbers, stream lengths
gional to global tectonics. Thus, regional approach
and basin areas based on exponential function mod
lor the study of mega-geomorphology aims at, mega
els and law of allometric growth based on power
scale, ‘an accurate understanding o f the nature of the
function model) ; areal aspect (measurement of
past environmental conditions and associated proc
basin shapes and computation of stream frequency,
esses; for an appreciation of how and when these
nature o f g e o m o r ph o l o g y 21
past processes m oulded the surface of the earth; and evolution of form over tim e’ (Rita G arddiner and
for description and models of the present dynamic Helen Scoging, 1983). Thus, a gcomorphologist's
interaction between process and form ’ (Rita Gardiner task is to (i) have detailed instrumentation and study
and Helen Scoging, 1983, p. xi). It is apparent that in o f micro-processes so as to understand the physical
one way or the other the regional approach is analo and chemical works performed by them, their co m
gous to historical approach o f landscape studies. It plex interactions and responses (effects) in the evo
may also be pointed out that the historical or regional lution of morphological features, (ii) reconstruct
approach has been overshadowed by process-form chronology of environmental changes w hich might
approach involving micro-geomorphology (spatial have occurred during geological past, identify palaeo-
and temporal scales both being very small). processes and their probable relationships with
landforms, and (iii) ‘analyse m ega-scale (regional
(IV) SYSTEMATIC (FUNCTIONAL ) APPROACH
and continental) dynamic systems existing at present
Systematic approach of landform studies in
because the independent variables controlling the
volves the measurement and analysis o f operation of
development of the landform may change totally as
geomorphological processes which shape different
the scale changes from mega to micro levels. O nce
suites of landforms in varying environmental condi
these aspects of geomorphology have been ev alu
tions. The conceptual base o f systematic approach
ated and combined we will better understand, model,
comprises functional studies o f reasonably contem
and predict the morphological developm ent o f the
porary processes and the behaviour of earth material
surface of the earth’ (Rita G ardiner and Helen
which can be directly observed and which help the
Scoging, 1983).
geomorphologist to understand the maintenance and
change of landform s’ (Chorley, Schumm and Sugden, (C) R E S E A R C H METHODS
1985). Functional approach lays more emphasis on Explanation of processes and landform s and
the observation and monitoring of operation of present building of models require data acquisition from
day processes at very small spatial and short tempo various sources. R.J. Chorley (1966) has outlined 3
ral scalcs and establishment of causal relationships steps and methods of data acquisition which ulti
between process and form which becomes process mately lead to theoretical work. The integrated
geom orp h ology which aims at prediction of likely approaches to research methods in geom orphology
responses (effect) to be produced by causative fac include, according to R.J. Chorley, field observa
tors i.e. independent variables. Systematic approach tions, laboratory observations, office observations
is further divided on the basis of major causative and theoretical work.
factors of landscape development into (a) process- ‘O bservation in the field plays a very large
form approach and (b) structure-form approach. part in geomorphological work, w hatever the aim o f
The process-from approach envisages that the particular study or whatever the method o f ap
‘an understanding o f the erosional and depositional proach’ (C.A.M. King, 1966). Field observation
processes that fashion the landforms, their mechan involves qualitative as well as quantitative methods
ics and their rate o f operation must also be obtained of data acquisition depending on the approaches of
in order that the past evolution can be explained and landform studies. For example, the geomorphologists
future evolution predicted. The aspects and short of the school o f denudation chron ology used to
comings o f process-form approach and structure- derive information about chronological evolution o f
form approach have already been detailed in the landscapes and erosion surfaces at regional and
preceding section. mega scales through qualitative field observations
It may be concluded that ‘if geomorphology and through ‘subjective map analysis’ but the emer
is to continue to exist as an independent discipline, gence of functional and process-from approach to
and not to be subsumed within earth sciences, geol landform studies dem anded accurate quantitative
ogy, engineering, hydrology and so on, it must data regarding forms, processes and materials (rocks
attempt to explain the relationships between form and soils). Thus, quantitative data are obtained through
and process, both in past and present, as well as the numerical measurement o f forms (e.g. slope angles,
GEOMORPHOLOGY
22
absolute and relative reliefs, various properties re 1992, 1993 and 1994 and the mass data set, so
garding height, dimension etc. of landform compo derived, were processed in the computer lab. besides
nents) and processes (e.g. measurement of discharge, analysis o f w ater and s e d im e n t loads in the
infiltration, evaporation, sediment load, rainfall, runoff geomorphological laboratory.
etc. in the case of fluvial process) in the field through The quantitative ap proach gave birth to
appropriate instruments. morphometric analysis o f linear, areal and relief
Laboratory observation involves experimen aspects of fluvially originated drainage basins which
tation and numerical measurements of samples col have been recognized as ideal geomorphic units
lected in the field (e.g. chemical and mechanical since 1945. Detailed data pertaining to linear aspect
properties of soil and rock samples, chemical prop (e.g. hierarchical orders of streams, stream number,
erties of water, grain-size measurement and deriva stream lengths, sinuosity, m eander properties etc.),
tion of chemical properties of suspended sediment areal aspect (stream frequency, drainage density,
load and other eroded materials etc.) and measure drainage texture etc.) and relief aspect (relative
ment derived through controlled experiments in the relief, average slope, dissection index, altimetric,
laboratories (e.g. nature and rate of rill and gully hypsometric and clinographic properties etc.) are
development, rate of meander development, rate of derived from topographical maps o f different scales.
soil erosion and sedimentation, rate of nick point Theoretical \york involves data processing
recession etc.). The examples may be cited from and formulation of models and theories e.g. laws o f
other processes and related landforms of different stream numberand stream lengths (R.E. H orton)and
environmental conditions. calculation of mathematical models.
Office observation comprises data deriva
tion from map analysis say map work. These days a (D) METHODS O F A N A LYSIS
mass data set is being derived through measurement There are three alternative routes for satis
and computation involving numerous useful tech factory scientific explanation o f geom orpholoigcal
niques from topographical maps, air photographs problems e.g. (i) inductive m ethod, (ii) ded u ctive
and satellite imageries pertaining to different com method and (iii) analytical m ethod, all o f w hich are
ponents of landforms. The measurement and deriva based on data acquisition, their classification, and
tion of data of geomorphological significance from analysis so as to come to certain ‘conclusions con
air photographs and satellite images at regular time cerning the nature and genesis of the particular
intervals has enabled the geomorphologists to moni feature, investigated, whether it be a whole conti
tor geomorphic changes. nent or one small slope or spit’ (C. A.M. King, 1966).
The recent work by Savindra Singh and Alok In du ctiv e m e th o d of argum ent and analysis
Dubey (1991-1995) on ‘gully erosion and manage of geomorphic problems involves, in successive
ment’ in sub-humid tropical riverine alluvial envi steps, arrangement ol unordered facts in logical
ronment of India incorporates almost all the steps order on the basis ot correct definition and classifi
referred to above for the study of genesis, micro cation of observed facts of the given problem s so that
geometry, morpho-cyclcs and integrated manage one (fact) leads to another and then to the final
ment of gully watersheds as the gully basin was conclusion (C.A.M. King, 1966), inductive gener
surveyed thrice ( 19 9 1, 1992 and 1994) and contours alization and linal conclusion resulting into formu
at the interval of one meter were traced on the ground lation ol laws and theories which offer satisfactory
for the derivation of morphometric data of gully
explanation of geomorphic problem. It may be pointed
basin, the meteorological (rainfall, temperature, rela
out that in inductive methods data are collected first,
tive humidity, evaporation etc.), hydrological (dis
t ey are defined and classified and final conclusion
charge, runoff, infiltration, hydrological budget etc.)
about the real world is drawn (i.e. model or theory
and geomorphological (rate of erosion, deposition,
suspended sediment load etc.) data were obtained Ul, ' ng) ' n *ast stagc. In other words, inferences
and final conclusions are drawn on the basis of
(hi i ugh field instrumentation during 3 wet monsoon
o served tacts. ‘As a method it is best suited to a
months of July, August and September for 1991,
air y simple problem, the solution o f which is based
on a wide field of observation and relevant data, so only those facts which validate the tentative hypoth
that it is not necessary to invoke theoretical reason- esis and may ignore those facts which do not favour
ing' (C.A.M. King, 1966). This method suffers from his deductions. T h e quality of results will depend
the shortcomings that no generalization about the on the nature of deductions and the closeness of
real world is made in the beginning and hence a lot comparisons. When there are many complex or
of labour in the collection of data is wasted and since peculiar deductions then there is a better chance that
only one conclusion is derived at the end and hence the comparison will be valid, and the theory will be
such conclusion may be questionable or sometimes more strongly supported’ (C.A.M. King, 1966).
may be even false because some of the facts, which The fundamental difference between induc
may be geomorphologically significant but may not tive (the method of ruling hypothesis) and deductive
be favourable to the final result, are deliberately or (the method of working hypothesis) is that in the 1st
subconsciously ignored. But, ‘it is sometimes help method theory is formulated in the last stage on the
ful to give at least some indication of the final basis of observed facts while in the second method
conclusion nearer the beginning of the argument* a working hypothesis is deduced in the beginning
(C.A.M. King, 1966). and the fieldwork and data collection is accom
The deductive m ethod of explanation of plished according to the demand o f the deduced
geomorphic problems involves formulation of a hypothesis.
tentative hypothesis regarding the real world (i.e. The analytical m ethod involves deduction
geomorphic problems under investigation) in the and formulation of more than one alternative hy
beginning. After the formulation of tentative hy potheses (multiple hypotheses) and thus data are
pothesis its consequences are deduced in advance, collected according to alternative hypotheses and
facts are collected according to the demand of de hence the investigator does not have bias to a par
duced hypothesis, actual field observations are com ticular hypothesis. The observed facts and deduc
pared with deduced consequences and finally it is tions of all the alternative hypotheses are compared
argued whether the hypothesis is approved or re and finally only that hypothesis is approved and
jected. In case the tentatively deduced hypothesis is retained which conforms with the greatest number
not approved or it becomes unsuccessful, original of observations derived through filed work. Thus, it
hypothesis is revised and the entire process as re is obvious that the analytical method of landform
ferred to above is repeated but if the hypothesis analysis overcomes the shortcomings of deductive
becomes successful after comparison of deduced and inductive methods.
and observed facts, it leads to the construction of It may be concluded that ‘main essential in all
laws and theory which may offer reasonable expla the other methods discussed is that observations
nation o f the real world. This method suffers from should be accurate, as far as possible quantitative,
the weakness that there is every likelihood that the and carried out on a systematic basis, while imagina
investigator may become biased in the matter of tion and integrity are required in the development
collection o f data and information as he may retain and testing of hypotheses’ (C.A.M. King, 1966).
CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY 24-56
C o n c e p t s r e l a t e d to u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m , g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e ,
g e o m o r p h o l o g ic a l processes, stages o f time, geom orphic scale (time
s c a l e - c y c l i c tim e , g r a d e d tim e and ste a d y tim e, sp a tia l s cale ),
g e o m o r p h o l o g ic a l equation, com plexity o f landforms etc.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN
GEOMORPHOLOGY
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l to it in his famous book ‘p rin cip les o f g eo lo g y ’. It

thoughts through different periods of evolution of may be pointed out that H utton's original concept
geom orphological know ledge and associated re was a bit different from the co n ce p t stated above and
searches pertaining to the understanding and expla suffered from some sh o rtcom ing s. F or example,
nation o f landform characteristics and geomorphic Hutton stated that ‘geological processes w ere active
processes associated with their genesis and meth with same intensity during each period o f geological
odological development o f geomorphic research have tim e’ and thus he postulated an o th e r principle on this
enabled the geom orphologists to conceive a few concept e.g. ‘the p resen t is k ey to th e p a st’ and ‘no
fundamental concepts which generalize the landform vestige o f a b eg in n in g an d n o p ro sp ect o f an end.’
developm ent. W.D. Thornbury (1959) has presented It is inferred from his co n cep ts that all the geological
a su m m a ry o f a few fundam ental concepts in processes affecting the earth's crust, w hich operate
geom orphology. It is, thus, desirable that the readers at present, were also active in the geological past and
s h o u ld be a q u a i n te d w ith su ch fu n d a m e n ta l hence the past geological and g e o m o rp h ic history of
geom orphic concepts. the earth may be reco nstructed on the basis o f present
processes and their topographic expressions (landform
CO N CEPT 1 characteristics).
The sam e p h ysica l processes and laws that Hutton's concept ‘that physical processes were
operate today, o p era ted throughout geological time,
always active with sam e intensity throughout geo
although no t necessarily always with the same intensity
logical periods is erro n eo u s and confusing. For
as now ’ (W.D. Thornbury)
example, g laciers w ere m ore activ e during Car-
The present conccpt is fundamental principle boniler.ous and P leistocene p erio d s than other pro
o f modern geology which is very often popularly cesses. At the sam e time, they w ere m ore active
known as ‘p rin cip le o f u n ifo rm ita ria n ism ’ which during aforesaid periods than the present glaciers.
was first postulated by renow ned Scottish’ geolo
The temporal variations in the m ag nitude o f opera
gist, Jam es H utton, in 1785. This concept was tion ol processes are because o f clim atic changes
furthei modified and developed by his disciple Jhon
and there are definite ev id en ces for several phases of
P layfair i n 1802. S ir C harles L yell popularized this
climatic changes du ring past geological times. Thus,
concept o f uniformitarianism by giving suitable place
the distributional p atterns o f d ifferent climatic types
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY 25
have registered spatial shiftings during geological believed in orderliness o f nature i.e. the nature
past. For example, some areas, which are presently evolves in orderly course. According to him the_
characterized by humid climate and dominance of nature is systematic, orderly, coherent and reason-
fluvial process, have been dominated by dry climatic able i.e. destruction leads to construction while
conditions and aeolian process. Similarly, some of construction results into destruction. For example,
the present dry desert areas have been humid regions denudation of uplands (destruction) leads to sedimen
in the past. For example, the fossils of coal found in tation in lowiying areas giving birth to alluvial plains
Great Britain are indicative of vegetation commu (construction). Continuous sedimentation leads to
nity of equatorial climate, which forcefully proves subsidence of ground surface. The nature has inbuilt
that Great Britain, which enjoys humid temperate self regulatory mechanism known as hom eostatis
climate at present, was characterized by hot and mechanism which acts in such a manner that any
humid equatorial climate during Carboniferous pe chang e effected by natu ra l fa c to rs (w h e th e r
riod when the present-day tropical areas were domi endogenetic or exogenetic) is suitably com pensated
nated by glacial climate. For example, ample evi by changes in other components of the natural
dences are available to elucidate several phases of system.
climatic changes in India. There is presence of Hutton was the first scientist who postulated
glacial boulders and boulder clay just below the the concept of cyclic nature o f earth's history. All
Talchir coal seams in Orissa. Most of the coal seams major geological activities are repeated in cyclic
of India were formed during Gondwana period, manner. For example, there have been four major
which means belore the formation of Gondwana periods of mountain building viz. precam brian,
system o f rocks (sedimentaries including coal), the Caledonian, hercynian and tertiary periods o f m oun
regions having coals in India were glaciated. The
tain b u i 1d in g a n d ^ a c h jn o u n ta i^ ^
coal seams overlying glacial boulder indicate the succeeded by a period of quiescence. Similarly,
prevalence of hot humid climate. Similarly, vulcanicity glacial periods during Pleistocene ice age w'ere sepa
was not uniformly active throughout geological pe rated by interglacial periods. There are ample evi
riods. It was more active during Cretaceous period dences to validate the observations that each geo
than today. The Cretaceous lava flow was so wide logical process has completed several cycles during
spread that extensive lava plains and plateaus were geological past but it becomes difficult to find out as
formed in almost all o f the continents including to when a particular geological process began to
basaltic lava flow over Peninsular India. The m ou n work and it is equally a difficult task to predict as to
tain building was confined to certain periods only when a particular process would cease to work.
e.g. pre-Cambrian. Caledonian. Variscan(hercynian) Based on this connotation Hutton postulated his
and Tertiary periods of mountain building. concept, ‘no vestige o f a b eg in n in g : no prospect o f
It is. thus, obvious that geomorphic and tec an end.
tonic processes were active in all the geological The examples of denudation chronology o f
periods and their mode o f operation was the same as the Applachians and Peninsular India may dem on
today (e.g. rivers formed their valleys through ver strate the cyclic nature of earth's history as envis
tical and lateral erosion in the past in the same aged by Hutton. The Applachian revolution during
manner as they are forming their valleys to day, sea Permian period resulted in the 1st upliftment of the
waves shaped coastal areas in the same manner as Applachians which was followed by long period of
they are doing today, the glacial movement and active denudation culminating into the development
erosion was controlled by the same laws and princi of Schooley peneplain which w'as again uplifted and
ples during Carboniferous and Pleistocene periods then was peneplained to form Shenondoah peneplain.
as they are controlled today etc.) but the intensity of The third phase of upliftment was again followed by
erosional and depositional works differed tempo active denudation resulting in the formation o f
rally. Harrisberg peneplain which was again uplifted in
The processes (mainly endogenetic) which the recent past and fourth cycle o f erosion is in
affect the earth's crust act in a cyclic manner. Hutton operation. Peninsular India has passed through van-
26 GEOMORPHOLOGY
domi n a n t that they overshadow the control of geokaL
ous phases o f cyclic development e.g. D h a r w a r
cal structure. Som e um es geological structure
landscape cycle, Cuddapah-Vindhyan landscape
- ^ ^ T j S v e factor in the evolution o f landforms.
cycle, Cambrian landscape cycle, Gondwana land
‘There is tendency to regard structure as the domi
scape cycle, Cenozoic landscape cycle etc. (R.P.
nant control of surface form and no doubt this is true
Singh), (see Chapter 17).
in many instances. But structure is not always the
CONCEPT 2 principal control and never the only one’ (E.H.
‘G eologic structure is a dom inant control Brown) and thus ‘thejandform s_cannpt be
fa c to r in the evolution o f landforms and is reflected rn nne cause, but are the result o f a complex inter.
in them. ” (W.D. Thombury) several factors and processes, both
^ ^ i d r T o r T g i n a t i n g from within the earth's
The above concept demonstrates imposing
m i r t nnH i " H a tin g structure and rock-type) and
influence of geological structure on primary and
^ r r l r w i r (originating from the atmosphere and'
secondary landforms (produced by exogenetic-
T n du din gw eath ering , transportation and erosion’
denudational processes). W.M. Davis included ‘struc
tu re’ in his ‘t r i o ’ namely structure, process and (R.J. Small, 1970).
time, as important controlling factors of landscape If structure is used in narrow sense of the term
development through his postulate that ‘landscape is then it includes only deformation and arrangement
a function o f structure, process and time’ but he gave of rocks due to earth-movements (endogenetic forces)
more importance to ‘tim e’. A few usages like ‘rocks but if this term is used in w ider sense then structure
and reliefs’, ‘geological structure and landforms’, includes (i) nature o f rocks (lithology, meaning
‘geologicalgeomorphology’ (Chorley, Schumm and rock types), (ii) arran gem en t o f rocks (widely
Sugden, 1985), ‘structural geomorphology’, ‘vol known as structure) and (iii) rock characteristics.
c a n ic la n d f o r m s , ’ ‘a re n a c e o u s la n d fo r m s ’, Here, ‘structure’ is used in w ider sense o f the term so
‘argillaceous landforms,’ ‘calcareous landforms,’ as to demonstrate influences o f all the aforesaid
‘igneous landforms’, ‘metamorphic landforms’ etc. aspects of geological structure and landforms.
c le a rly d e m o n s tra te the view s o f a host of
geomorphologists about strong control of geologi 1. Lithology or Nature of R o cks
cal structure and lithological characteristics on mor Lithological aspect o f geological structure
phological characteristics of a region. includes types of rocks (e.g. igneous, sedimentary
Even the modem geomorphologists like J.T. and metamorphic groups o f rocks). Lithological
Hack, R.J. Chorley, S. Schumm, D.E. Sugden etc. c h a r a c te r i s t ic s h a v e g r e a t e r s ig n if ic a n c e in
have clearly outlined influences of geological struc geomorphology because these determ ine and con
ture on landforms. ‘Exposed rocks are immediately trol the evolution o f landform s and nature of land
acted upon by exogenetic weatheripg and erosional scape. Considering this fact S.W. Wooldridge and
processes to form secondary landforms, which re R.S. Morgan aptly remarked, ‘rocks whether igne
flect geologic controls at both global and local ous or sedimentary, constitute on the one hand the
scales (p. 7 8 )............ The distinctive characteristics manuscripts of the past earth-history, on the other,
o f landscape are commonly a complex response to the basis for contem porary scen ery ’. In fact, differ
variations in rock type (lithology), to primary struc
ent types of rocks differ considerably as regards their
tures within the rock units, to secondary structures
composition and chemical characteristics and hencc
involving groups of rocks units mainly due to
weathering and erosional processes act upon them at
diastrophic processes, to the effects of different
exogenetic processes and to the geomorphic history’ varying rates thus giving birth to variations in landform
(Chorley, Schumm and Sugden, 1985, p. 150). characteristics. ‘Lithological controls over landforms
produce a large num ber o f variations and, more
This does not mean that geological structure
important, these variations may be associated with a
is always and only dominant control factor in the
evolution o f landforms as sometimes exogenetic wide range o f discrete regions varying in size from
(denudational) processes become so effective and a distinctive outcrop o f a few square metres to areas
of uniform rock type extending over hundreds of
square kilometres’ (Chorley, Schumm and Sugden, near Khandala (between Bombay and Pune). The
1985). Yellowstone river has dug out a large canyon in the
The relatively hard rocks (most o f igneous Columbian lava plateau o f the U.S.A.
and metamorphic rocks) give birth to bold topogra If the sills are intruded in the tilted or inclined
phy. Sometimes, the influence of some rocks on sedimentary layers and if they are more resistant
geomorphic features is so dominant that the resul than the surrounding sedimentary' rocks, the latter
tant landscape is named after the rock group or are enoded more than the former and thus resistant
individual rock e.g. granitic landforms, karst or sills project above the general ground surface as
limestone landforms, chalk landforms etc. The associa cuestas and h o g b ack s (fig. 2.1 >.
tion of few rocks and their topographic expressions Granitic rocks when subjected to exfoliation
(landforms) may be examined to elucidate the con or onion w e a th e rin g give birth to dom eshaped
cept in question. landforms known as exfoliation d o m e s. Several
Igneous Topography exfoliation domes o f granite-gneisses are seen over
the Ranchi plateau, for example. Kanke Dome near
Variations in structure and composition of
igneous rocks o f a particular area exert strong influ Ranchi city, a group of gneissic dom es near Buti
ence on the genesis, development and nature of village (near Ranchi city).
landscape. Further, intrusive (e.g. granites) and ex
trusive (e.g. basalt) igneous rocks influence land
form characteristics differently depending on their
degree o f relative hardness.
M assive lava flows over extensive areas re
sult, after cooling and consolidation, in the forma
tion o f lava plateaus the surfaces of which are least
affected by fluvial erosion because ‘the drainage is
conducted underground by the joint systems, perme
able ash and flow cavities, but deep weathering of
basalt (especially where closely jointed in the humid
tropics) and areas o f poorly welded tuffs may lead to
considerable piecemeal reduction of volcanic pla
teau by ero sio n ’ (Chorley et. al. 1985) but the rivers,
which develop over the basaltic plateaus and are Fig. 2.1 : Landforms resulting from differential erosion
subsequently fully established, resort to vigorous o f sills and surrounding rocks.
valley deepening through active downcutting with
Massive granitic batholiths. when exposed to
the result the extensive basaltic plateau is seg
the earth's surface due to removal o f superincum bent
mented into num erous smaller plateaus character
load of overlying rocks through continued erosion,
ized by flat tops and steep slopes on all sides. Such become interesting landforms. These dom e-shaped
features are called as m e sas and bu ttes. Basaltic hills project above the general surface. Such ex
plateaus and plains give birth to picturesque land posed granite-gneissic domes are very often found
scapes after continued weathering and erosion. Very on Ranchi Plateau. The granitic batholiths were
deep and long gorges and canyons have been formed intruded in the Dharwarian sediinentaries during
by the source segm ents o f the Saraswati (draining Archaean period. After a long period o f prolonged
towards Arabian Sea) and the Krishna rivers (drain subaerial erosion the Dharwarian sedimentaries have
ing towards the Bay o f Bengal) through their vigor been removed and the batholiths, regionally known
ous vertical erosion in the massive and thick basaltic as Ranchi Batholiths, have been exposed well above
covers o f M ahabaleshw ar plateau (about 100 km the ground surface (50 to 100m from the ground
south-west o f Pune). Similarly, the Ullahas river has surface). M urha Pahar near Pithauria village, lo
entrenched a very deep gorge in the basaltic plateau cated to the north-west o f Ranchi city, is a typical
28 GEOMORPHOLOQy
exam ple of exposed grantic-gneissic batholithic

domes. These exposed batholithic domes have suf
fered intense fracture because of the removal of
superincumbent load o f Dharwarian sedimentaries
and hence resultant massive joints have been re
sponsible for the development of different types of
‘t o r s ’. Extensive granitic domes of Yosemite P a rk ,
Sierra Nevada, S to ne M o u n ta in of Georgia (U.S.A.)
and S u g a r L o a f of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) are other
exam ples o f such granitic domes which have been
formed due to unloading of superincumbent load
(sedimentaries) consequent upon prolonged erosion.
Fit’. 2.3 : An example o f volcanic butte.
The differential erosion of the basaltic ‘cap
Sometimes magma is injected in a vertical
r o c k s ’ (fig. 2.2) produces interesting features like
columnar form in the sedim entary rocks. The upper
m e sas and buttes. Mesa is a Spanish word meaning
portion of vertical column of magma appears as
thereby a table. Mesa, in fact, is such a hill which is
butte when the overlying rocks arc eroded down.
characterized by almost flat and regular top-surface
Such butte is called as ‘volcanic b u t t e ’ (fig. 2.3).
but by very steep slopes (wall-like) from all sides.
When mesas are reduced in size due to continuous The grantic rocks having rectangular joint
weathering and erosion, they are called buttes. Messas patterns are weathered and eroded along the inter
are locally called as ‘P a ts ’ or ‘P a tla n d ’ 011 the faces of their joints and thus smaller tables or blocks
are separated by the eroded narrow clefts developed
Chotanagpur plateau of south Bihar. Jamira pat,
along the joints. Such granitic topography develops
Netarhat Pat, Bagru pat, Khamar pat, Raldami pat,
rectangular drainage pattern (fig. 2.4).
Lota pat etc. are typical examples of lava-capped
messas of the western Chotanagpur High Lands.
Mahabaleshwar plateau and Panchgani plateau (of
the Western Ghats, Maharashtra) are characteristic
representatives of well developed basaltic mesas.
Grand Mesa and Raton Mesa of the state of Colo
rado, USA, are typical examples of extensive mesas.
Grand Mesa rises more than 1500m (5,000 feet)
higher than the surrounding ground surface.
Fig. 2.4 : Development ofrectangular topographicfea

tures on granitic rocks having rectangular
joint pattern.
The igneous rocks having columnar joints
give birth to hexagonal landforms after weathering
and erosion (fig. 2.5).
Scoria and ash cones when subjected to fluvial

erosion develop radiating rills and gullies whereas
strato-valcanic cones, after prolonged erosion, are
Fig. 2.2 : Lava-capped mesa and butte.
c aracterized by n u m e ro u s ra d ia tin g valleys
Fig. 2.5 : Development o f hexagonal landforms on

igenous rocks having columnar joints.
known as ‘b a r r a n c a s ’. The valcanic pipe filled with
breccia is exposed after prolonged erosion above the
ground surface and is called d ia tre m e . Shiprock
Fig. 2.6 : Formation o f tors.
(fig. 12.8) o f New; M exico (USA) is fine example of
diatreme which projects 515m above the surround Similarly, mesas and butles are co n fin ed not
ing surface composed of sedimentary rocks. If magma only to basaltic plateau but these have also been
is intruded as sills into inclined sedimentary beds of found over sandstone rocks where these overlie
weak resistance then the sedimentary beds are eroded weak shales and siltstones. M orchapahar(H azaribagh
and the sills being resistant project above the ground plateau, Bihar, India) is a fine exam ple o f sandstone-
surface. capped mesa. Similarly, B hander plateau (M.P.,
India) having Vindhyan sandstones over w eak shales
Well jo inted granitic rocks give birth to very
and siltstones is an example of extensive m esa. It
peculiar landform s such as to rs which ‘are piles of
may, thus, be concluded that the d ev elo pm ent o f
broken and exposed masses o f hard rocks particu mesas and buttes is no doubt lithologically co ntrol
larly granites having a crown o f rock blocks of led but these are not confined to a particular rock
different sizes on the top and clitters (trains of type. They may be formed through active fluvial
blocks) on the sides. The rock-blocks, the main erosion in humid and subhum id climate w henever
com ponents o f tors, may be cuboidal, rounded, an relatively resistant rock overlies weak rock.
gular etc. in shape. They may be posted at the top of
Sedimentary Landforms
the hills, on the flanks o f the hills facing a river
The landform s developed over different sedi
valley or on flat basal p la tfo rm ’ (Savindra Singh,
mentary rocks (e.g. arenaceous— siltstones, m u d
1977, p. 93, N ational G eographer, Vol. 12(1) (fig.
stones, sandstones; argillaceous— clay and shale;
2.6). A few alternative hypotheses o f tor formation calcareous— limestones, dolom ites etc. rocks) are
have been put forth e.g. pediplanation theory o f L.C. called sedimentary landforms. Som etim e, the co n
King, deep basal w eathering theory o f D.L. Linton, trol of a particular sedim entary rock on landform
periglacial theory o f J. P alm er and R.A. Neilson, characteristics is so dom inant that particular rock is
two-stage theory o f J. D einek, glacial theory ot R. p refix e d w ith g e o m o rp h o lo g y e.g. ‘lim e sto n e
Dalh etc. but there is no unanim ity am ong the exp o g eom orp h ology 9 (Stephen Trudgill, 1 9 $ 5 )o rk a rst
nents becausc tors are not confined to a particular geom orp h ology etc. Sandstones having silica ce
rock type and clim ate as tors have been found over mentation are resistant to chem ical w eathering and
granites (even basalt), sandstones, limestones etc. hence give birth to bold topography and developm ent
right from hum id tropical to periglacial climate. o f low drainage density while sandstones cem ented
30 GEOMORPHOLOGY
by ferrous contents are subjected to rapid rate of to identi fy a separate class of distinctly metamorphic
oxidation and fluvial erosion and hence give birth to landforms' (Chorley, Schumn and Sugden, 1985).
undulating and rolling terrain. The argillaceous rocks Quartzitic sandstones when lie over shales and
e.g. clay and shale are less resistant to erosion and siltstones give birth to stupendous escarpment char
thus low relief is associated with them. Argillaceous acterized by upper free face and rectilinear segment
rocks respond differently in humid, arid and semi- and basal concave pediment section (last two devel
arid environment e.g. in humid regions these are oped on shale and siltstone). Quartzite^ are on an
characterized by low relief, low to gentle slope average resistant to mechanical and chemical weath
angles (less than 8°), moderate drainage density, ering and produce bold topography having very high
dendritic drainage pattern, convexo-concave hills ; reliefs. Slates are more succeptible to erosion and
subhumid and semi-arid regions having clay-shale are associated with subdued reliefs while resistant
rocks are characterized by the development of badland schist rocks produce highland topography. Gneissic
topography with high drainage density (due to
rocks form domes and tors.
numerous rills and gullies) and subdued reliefs, the
gully valleys having steep valley sides (30°-60° and 2. Arrangement of Rocks
sometime 70°-80°) are separated by narrow ridges. Arrangement of rocks means disposition of
Calcareous rocks (e.g. limestones, dolomites rock beds mainly of sedimentary rocks due to de
and chalk) are subjected to solution under humid formation processes. Sedimentary rocks are gener
conditions and give birth to solution holes and de ally deformed due to isostatic, tectonic and oroge-
pressions of varying shapes and dimensions (e.g. netic mechanisms into folded, faulted, domed, ho-
sink holes, swallow holes, dolines, polje, uvala etc.), moclinal (uniclinal) structures etc. Horizontal dis
underground solution networks (caves and associated position of sedimentary beds denotes least deforma
features), disorganized and poor surface drainage tion but these may be subjected to upwarping. Such
etc. The landforms developed on carbonate rocks are geological structures exert strong influence on land
collectively called as k a rs t topography. In humid form characteristics.
tropics two special types of karstic topography have
been identified e.g. cone karst, in the ‘cockpit (I) FOLDED STRUCTURE AND LANDFORMS
country* of Jamaica and Cuba, characterized by Sedimentary rock beds are sqeezed and buck
steep sided rounded hills, and tower karst, in led and folded into anticlines and synclines due to
monsoon land of China and Vietnam, characterized lateral compressive forces. The folded structure ranges
by isolated very steep sided (almost vertical ) narrow from simple folds to complex folds (i.e. recumbent
but high pillars (upto 300m). Wherever sandstones
folds depending on intensity of compressive forces).
overlie shales and siltstones majestic mesa and butte
are formed and escarpments are crowned by stupen Simple folded structure is characterized by sequence
dous steep scarps (e.g. Rewa escarpments, Bhander of anticlines and synclines and in the initial stage
escarpments, Rohtas plateau escarpments etc. where trellis drainage pattern evolves over such structure.
Vindhyan sandstones lie over shales and siltstones). Such drainage pattern is characterized by the devel
opment ot consequent, subsequent, obsequent and
Metamorphic Landforms
resequent streams. The Fegion of folded structure
Unlike sedimentary and igneous rocks meta
morphic rocks are not pronounced in the develop when subjected to continued fluvial erosion for
ment of landforms because these (e.g. quartzite, longer period experiences the process of inversion
slate, schist, gneiss etc.) have uniform resistance to of relief wherein original anticlines (due to more
erosional processes though the process of meta erosion) are eroded down and become anticlinal
morphism-‘coverts rocks of lower resistance (e.g. valleys where as synclines (due to less erosion)
shale and sandstone) to those of higher resistance become synclinal ridges (fig. 2.7). For details see
(e.g. slate and quartzite). Although metamorphic chapter 10 and figs. 10.9, 10.10 (chapter 10).
rocks generally present more resistance to erosion examples ot inverted reliefs are found in Jura moun
than do their sedimentary counterparts, it is not easy tains and southern Applachians.
faultline s carp is formed due to renewed downward

erosion caused by further fall in base-level of ero
sion. In fact, resesequent scarps result from the
reversal of obsequent scarp and it is oriented in the
direction of the original normal or consequent scarps
but is much older than the latter (fig. 2.8(4)).
Fig. 2.7: Development o f landforms over folded structure.

(II) FAULTED STRUCTURE AND LANDFORMS
A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks wherein
th* rocks are displaced along a plane called as fault
plane. In other words, when the crustal rocks are
displaced due to tensional movement caused by the
endogenetic forces along a plane, the resultant struc
ture is called a fault. Different types of faults are
created due to varying directions of motion along the
fault plane e.g. normal faults, reverse faults, lateral
or strike-slip faults, step faults, transform faults etc.
Differentfaulttypesproduce,aftererosion. landforms
of varying characteristics. Take the case of normal
fault where downthrown block is displaced down
ward along the fault plane giving birth to fault scarp Fig. 2.8 : Developmen t ofdifferent types o f fault line scarps
over normalfaults e.g. 1. consequent or normal,
which is, without doubt, structural in genesis. Such
2. obliteration o f scarps by erosion^ 3. ob
fault scarps after prolonged erosion produce differ sequent and 4. resesquent fault-line scarps.
ent types of erosional landforms e.g. (a) consequent
faultline scarp is formed due to erosion of weak (Ill) DOMED STRUCTURE
rocks of downthrown blocks. Such fault scarps are Domed structure results either due to upw'arp-
oriented towards the direction of original fault scarp ing of crustal surface effected by diastrophic force or
(fig. 2.8 (1) ; (b) reverse o r obsequent faultline due to intrusion of magma into surficial rocks. The
s c a rp developes in opposite direction to the original superincumbent material is removed due to pro
fault scarp due to erosion of weaker strata of the longed erosion and the underlying structure is ex
upthrown block of the fault. Such fault line scarps posed to the surface and few typical features like
are formed at much later date at relatively lower cuesta, hogback and ridges are formed. Domqs
height (fig. 2.8 (3)). ‘An obsequent fault-line scarp formed due to upwarping are characterized by the
will normally represent a later stage o f development development of radial or centrifugal drainage
than a consequent scarp, though this is not invariably p a tte rn having a set of sequent streams which fol
the case__ the reversal of the fault line scarp is low the slope gradient e.g. consequent, subsequent,
possible only because a Iall in base-level has ex obsequent and resequent streams (fig. 2.9). For de
posed to denudation the weak rocks on the upthrown tails, see ‘fluvial cycle of erosion on domal struc
side of the fault* (R.J. Small, 1970). (c) Resequent ture’ (chapter 10).
32 GEOMORPHOLOGY
hard and soft rocks and sometimes there are alter

nate bands of soft and resistant rocks and hence these
are subjected to differential erosion with the result
rivers form their valleys along soft rocks giving birth
to the formation of strike vales while resistant rock
beds arc less eroded and hence become lines of
asymmetrical hills known as cuesta having one side
of steeper scarp slopes while other side represents
gentle slope. Homoclinal structure formed due to
general tilting of sedimentary beds of coastal plains
Fig. 2.9: Development o f erosional landforms over and retreat of sea water presents ideal condition for
domed structure.
the development o f consequent and subsequent
(IV) UNICLINAL/HOMOCLINAL STRUCTURE
streams. The consequent streams drain seaward across
Homoclinal structures are those which repre
resistant and weak rock beds alike but the lateral
sent inclined rock strata at uniform dip angle caused
by general regional tilt. ‘These structures are formed subsequent streams develop on the less resistan
in two main ways, either by the uplift of a sequence rocks. Thus, lines of asymmetrical cuesta features
of off-lapping coastal plain sediments or as part of having steeper landward facing scarp slopes and
one limb of a large dome or fold' (Chorley, Schumm gentler seaward facing dipslopes are formed parallel
and Sugden, 1985). Such structure^ involve both to the coast lines (fig. 2.10).
Fig. 2.10 Development o f trellis drainage and cuesta on uniclinal strata of coastal plain, after Von Engeln. 1948.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
33
(V) HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE AND LANDFORMS 3. Rock Characteristics
If the regional sedimentary formation has
The rock characteristics include chemical and
developed well defined horizontal beds o f resistant mechanical composition of rocks, permeability and
rocks, say sandstones, then after fluvial erosion impermeability, joint patterns, rock resistance etc.
tabular topography is formed. The uplifted hori Chemical composition determines nature o f chem i
zontal thick beds of relatively resistant rocks (e.g.
cal weathering of rocks which in turn determines
sandstones) lying over shales and siltstones, when
resultant landforms. For example, limestone co m
subjected to erosion from all sides, produce isolated
posed of calcium carbonate is very much prone to
flat-topped hills known as m esa (ot large size) and
intense chcmical weathering under humid condition
butte (of smaller size). Such numerous features
and hence running and groundwater, when acts on
have developed over Rew a and Bhander plateau
carbonate rocks, produces picturesque limestone
(M.P.). In fact, Bhander plateau having massive
sandstone capping over shales and siltstones of landscape (karst topography). Dolomite having m ag
Vindhyan formation is itself an example of very nesium carbonate as principal constituent is also
extensive mesa while a few smaller mesas have readily attacked by acidulated water. Some sandstones
developed around Bhander plateau (fig. 3.8). Look having calcareous or ferrous cements undergo the
hill in Jawa block of R ew a district (M.P.) is fine process of chemical erosion under warm and humid
example o f mesa capped with Vindhyan sandstone climatic conditions. The prolonged chemical action
overlying shales. The horizontal structures having on some common minerals and rocks produces dif
alternate bands of sandstones and shales or sand ferent kinds of clay (e.g. terra-rosa on limestone and
stone - limestone - shale, are sub jected to differential dolomite, kaolinite on granite and gneiss, clay on.
erosion and give birth to step -lik e scarps and bench chalk etc.) the thick accumulation o f which on sur
topography (stru ctu ra l ben ch es). The Grand face causes soil crecp and slumping resulting in
Canyon (Colorado, U.S.A.) having horizontal beds gentle rounding of the existing landscape. The re
of alternate bands o f sandstone, limestone and shale sultant soil creep produces convex slope.
presents a picturesque view of well pronounced Rock joints are considered to be significant
structural benches flanking the deeply entrenched attribute of rock characteristics which influence
canyon of the Colorado river. Even horizontally dis landform characteristics both at macro-and micro-
posed basaltic beds of different phases of lava flow scalcs because rock joints determine permeability of
sometimes are of varying resistance and after vigorous rocks, their weathering and erosion and detailed
erosion produce picturesque stepped topography shape of some landforms. A well jointed rock being
(e.g. source tributaries of the Savitn and the Krishna more permeable is subjected to intense chemical
rivers have produced Grand-Cany on - like topography weathering because it allows dow nward movement
around M ah ab alesh w ar plateau in Maharashtra). of corroding agent (solvent water). Similarly, rocks
T ooth -lik e top ograp h y develops over resistant having well developed joint pattern are vulnerable to
quartzitic sandstones whereas impervious and insolu mechanical disintegration into big rock blocks. A
ble resistant rock produces rounded topography. permeable rock having well developed joint system
reduces surface drainage by allowing efficient dow n
ward movement of water and hence fluvial erosion
and transportation at the surface is remarkably mini
mized. Joint pattern also influences development of
drainage pattern at least on well jointed rocks. Widely
jointed granites after weathering produces ‘tors’
while poorly jointed rocks like besalt are chemically
decomposed enmass.
‘Perm eability refers to the capacity of a rock
Fig. 2.11 : Development ofstripped and structural plains for allowing water to pass through it. A prime factor
on horizontal structure, after W.M. Davis and determining the degree of permeability is the pres
C.A. Cotton (in Chorley et. al, 1985). ence of bedding planes and joints, but in some
34 GEOMORPHOLOGY
instances porosity can promote and enhance perme geomorphic age it is medium through which eroded
ability. Porosity refers to the presence of small gaps materials are transported from the place of erosion to
between the constituent mineral particles of a rock’ the place of deposition. On an average, geomorphic
(R.J. Small, 1976). Highly permeable rocks disfa process and geomorphic agent should be considered
vour erosion as these allow more efficient perco as synonym. In fact, geomorphic processes include
lation of water and hence form high relief topogra those physical processes which operate on the earth s
phy e.g. high plateaus, escarpments and ridges (for surface both internally and externally (Savindra Singh,
example, sandstones and limestones) while imper 1991, p. 277). ‘In geomorphology the word process
meable rocks (e.g. clay and shale), which are me is a noun used to define dynamic actions or events in
chanically weak, discourage percolation of water geomorphological systems which involve the appli
and hence are more readily eroded and produce cations of forces over gradients. Such actions are
undulating vales and lowlands. caused by agents such as wind and falling rain,
Rock h a rd n e ss is always considered in rel waves and tides, river and soil water solution (J.B.
ative sense because a particular rock may be resis Thorns, 1979).
tant to weathering and erosion in certain environ Types of Processes
mental condition while the same rock may be less On the basis of source-place geomorphic pro
resistant or weak in other environmental conditions. cesses are divided into two broad categories e.g.
For example, limestone becomes weak rock in hu endogenetic and exogenetic processes. The inter
mid climatic conditions because of active dissolution nal or endogenetic processes originating from within
of rock but the same rock becomes relatively resist the earth fostered by diastrophic and sudden forces,
ant in hot and dry climate due to absence of water. caused by thermal conditions of the interior of the
Normally, less resistant rocks (e.g. clay, shale) are earth and varying physical and chemical properties
more rapidly eroded and give birth to lowland while of the materials of which the earth’s interior has been
resistant rocks produce bold topography due to less composed of, introduce vertical irregularities on the
erosion. It may be mentioned that ‘however, the earth's surface and create various suites of habitats
relationship between rock strength and erosive proc for biotic communities. The significant endogenetic
esses is by no means straightforward’ (R.J. Small, or hypogenous processes include diastrophic, seis
1970). mic and volcanic activities. The external or exogenous
It may be concluded that geological structure (epigene) processes originating from the atmos
and lithological characteristics no doubt are impor phere driven by solar energy change the face of the
tant factors in influencing landform characteristics earths surface through erosional and depositional
in different environmental conditions but it is not the activities. Exogenetic processes include running water
only factor controlling landscape development and (rivers— fluvial process), groundwater, sea waves
landform characteristics. (marine process), wind (aeolian process), glacier
(glacial process), periglacial process etc. Besides,
CO N CEPT 3
weathering and mass translocation of rockwaste are
‘Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive
also included in this category. There are certain
imprints upon landforms and each geomorphic proc
ess develops its own characteristic assemblage o f extraterrestrial processes (e.g. fall of meteorites)
landforms. ” ’ W.D. Thornbury which are neither related to the interior of the earth
nor to the atmospheric conditions.
Meaning The endogenetic and exogenetic processes
Geomorphic process and geomorphic agent are considered competing forces which are engaged
are considered separately for different meaning by a in continual conflict. Thus, the interactions between
few geomorphologists. According to W.D. Thornbury endogenetic and exogenetic processes produce com
geomorphic processes include all those physical and plex sets of physical landscapes. Endogenetic pro
chemical changes which affect earth s surface and cesses are considered as constructional processes
are involved in the evolution and development of as these produce surface irregularities in the form of
landforms of varying sizes and magnitudes, while mountains, plateaus, faults, folds, volcanic cones,
depressions etc. on the earth’s surface. On the other Mechanism of Processes

hand, exogenetic processes are called as grada Exogenetic processes are generally called as
tional or planation processes because these are erosional processes which perform three-phase
continuously engaged in removing vertical irregu work i.e. erosion, transportation and deposition.
larities created by endogenetic processes through These external processes are also known as
denudational mechanism (including both weather destructional processes because these are con
ing and erosion) and depositional activities. The tinuously engaged in the destruction o f relief fea
planation work o f the earth s surface irregularities is tures created by the endogenetic forces through
accomplished through (i) degradation (e.g. weath weathering, erosional and depositional activities.
ering and erosion wherein upstanding landmass is The erosional work by differrent processes
lowered dow n by weathering (disintegration and is performed through the mechanism o f chem ical
decomposition and consequent downslope transfer erosion (corrosion or solution), corrasion or ab ra
of weathered materials) and erosional activities (this sion, attrition, hydraulic action, deflation, pluck-
mechanism o f planation is called as level down) and ing, polishing, crvoturbation etc.
(ii) aggradation (deposition, this mechanism of
planation is termed as level up). 1. Erosional Work
(l) The mechanism o f corrosion involves
A. E pigene or Exogenous Processes
dissolution of the soluble materials (carbonate rocks)
(gradational/planation/denudational processes) through the process of disintegration and decom po
1. D egradational work sition of carbonate rocks. Solution refers to dissolu
(i) weathering tion of soluble particles and minerals from the rocks
(ii) massmovement of rockwaste with the help of water (having dissolved carbon
(iii) erosion dioxide in it) in motion. Solution o f rocks depends
fa) running water (rivers) on the nature of rocks, solubility o f solids, ratio
(b) groundwater between the volume of solvent (water) and the solids
(c) marine process (sea waves) and contact time of solvent and solids. Running
(d) aeolian process (wind) water (streams), groundwater and sea waves effec
(e) glaciers tively corrode carbonate rocks. Streams remove
( f ) periglacial process soluble materials from the parent rocks and the
2. Aggradational work chemically eroded sediments are suspended in the
Deposition of weathered and eroded running water of the streams. Most o f the salts are
sediments removed from the bedrocks through the process o f
(a) running water (rivers) carbonation and are suspended in river water. A c
(b) groundwater cording to the estimate of Murray every cubic mile
(c) Sea waves water of the river contains about 7,62,587 tons o f
(d) wind suspended minerals of which about 50 per cent is
(e) glaciers calcium carbonate. On an average, the world rivers
B. H ypogene o r E n do g en o u s Processes discharge about 6,500 cubic miles o f water into the
(constructional forces; oceans ever)' year. On the basis of Murray’s estimate
1. D iastrophic movements it may be inferred that about 5 billion tons o f miner
(i) Epeirogenetic force als are removed from the bedrocks by the world
(a) emergence rivers every year. Groundwater is the most effective
(b) submergence efficient process of corrosion o f carbonate rocks.
Rainwater mixed with atmospheric and organic car
(ii) Orogenetic force
bon dioxide (C O J becomes active solvent agent and
fa) faulting
disintegrates and dissolves carbonate rocks at the
(b) folding
sunface and below the surface to form numerous
(c) warping
types of solutional landforms. It may be pointed out
C. Extra-terrestrial Process
.D. Anthropogenous G e o m o r p h o lo g ic a l Processes that amount of dissolution o f carbonate rocks by
36
g eo m orphology
groundwater depends on temperature, partial pres lateral abrasion leading to erosion of valley walls
sure ot atmospheric carbon dioxide, organic carbon Lateral abrasion causes valley widening while the
dioxide, chemical composition of carbonate rocks vertical abrasion leads to valley incision wherein the
(e.g. calcium carbonate - limestone, magnesium erosion tools drill the valley floor through the mecha
\.arbonate - dolomite etc.). rock joints, nature and nism of pot hole drilling resulting into the forma
velocity of flow o f groundwater, contact time of tion of pot holes (cylindrical depressions in the
groundw ater with the rock etc. Sea waves also resort valley floors). Vertical abrasion becomes most ef
to corrosion o f coastal rocks and form numerous fective when the erosion tools are of large size
coves and caves of varying dimensions. (boulders and cobbles), and of high angularity (high
(2) calibre)
Abrasion or corrasion involves the re and the channel gradient is steep causing
moval ot loosened materials of the rocks by different high velocity of running water. Vertical abrasion
erosional processes in different manner. The degree and valley incision (downcutting) becomes more
o f abrasion depends on a host of variables, e.g. effective during juvenile (youthful) stage of river
nature of erosion tools, nature of erosional processes and valley development when channel gradient and
(e.g. rivers, groundwater, seawaves, glacier, wind velocity are very high. A b rasion by groundwater
etc.), nature of geomaterials (rocks), force of ero is not effective because of exceedingly slow move
sional processes, nature of ground surface, gradient ment of water and very fine sediments, that too in
etc. Erosion tools refer to all those solid materials solution form. A brasion by sea waves is very effec
(boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sands etc.) with the help tive because high-energy storm waves charged with
of which erosional agents attack and abrade the large cobbles drill out circular pot-holes and abrade
rocks. The efficiency of abrasion depends on size, the standing bedrocks. W ind armed with entrained
amount and calibre of erosion tools. Calibre of sand grains as tools of erosion attacks the rocks and
erosion tools means shape and angularity of eroding erodes them through the mechanism of abrasion,
materials (e.g. whether rounded or angular in shape). pitting, grooving and polishing (collectively called
Generally speaking, large-size and quantity and high as sandblasting). Aeolian abrasion is minimum at
calibre (more angular) of erosion tools make the ground-level because wind velocity is retarded by
erosional processes most effective abrading agents. friction. Similarly, wind ceases to become an ero
Nearly all of the erosional processes resort to abra sive agent beyond the height of 182 cm frcm the
sion work but the mode of abrasion differs from ground surface level because normal wind cannot
process to process. lift and carry particles of average size. Thus, maxi
Abrasion by running water (rivers) refers to mum abrasion occurs at the height between 20-25
the breakdown of rocks and removal of loosened cm from the ground surface. A b rasion by glaciers
materials of rocks of valley walls and valley floors depends on the rate o f movement of glaciers, gradi
with the help o f erosion tools as referred to above. ent and nature of erosion tools. Normally, glacier
The erosional tools or river loads move down the erodes its bed and valley walls with the help of
channel gradient along with water and thus strike erosion tools (coarse debris) through the m echanism
against the rocks which come in contact with them. of abrasion.
The repetition of this mechanism weakens the rocks (3) Hydraulic action involves the break
which are ultimately loosened, broken down and down ot rocks due to pressure exerted by water
dislodged. The nature and magnitude of abrasion by currents ot the rivers and sea waves. In fact, hydrau
rivers depends on the nature, size and calibre (angu lic action is the mechanical loosening and rem o v al
larity) of erosion tools, channel gradient and How ol materials of rocks by water alone (without the
velocity. Boulders, cobbles and pebbles of various
help of erosion tools). It may be pointed out that
sizes and angularity are by far the most important
chemical erosion (corrosion), abrasion and hydrau
tools of erosion which arc generally called as drill
lie action are so intimately interrelated that it ,s
ing tool*. The erosional mechanism of abrasion unwise to think of exclusively pure action
h y d r a u l i c
operates in two ways e.g. (i) vertical erosion leading

without chemical erosion and abrasion. The rivers
to erosion and deepening of valley floors and (ii)
erode their valley walls through hydraulic action-
Sea waves are more powerful agents of hydraulic tion (frost weathering), congelffluctlon (soil creep),
action which refers to impact of gushing water on the frost heave (bulging and subs'dence), nlvationfsnow
coastal rocks. Powerful storm sea waves attack the patch erosion) etc. are significant weathering and
coastal rocks with enormous hammer-blows amount- transportation rnecahnisms performed by periglacial
ing.to 50 kg f per square centimeter (gravity force (f) processes. T he mechanism o f erosion, though very
is 9.81 and hence sea waves normally hurl a force of slow and insignificant, by periglacial processes is
50 kgf per square centimeter of the coastal rocks). cryoturbation.
Repeated blows of striking sea waves enlarge the
incipient joints, fracture patterns and thus help in 2. Transportational Work
breaking the rocks into smaller joint-bounded blocks. T he tra n sp o rta tio n w o rk by different
The waves are capable of dislodging larger fragment gcmorphic processes is accomplished through flota
of rocks weighing several tonnes in weight. This tion, suspension, traction, saltation , solution etc.
process of displacement of rock fragments is also Running water (rivers) transports sedim ents through
called as quarrying and sulcking. traction, saltation, suspension and solution. G.K.
Gilbert has propounded a law o f stream tran sp or
(4) A ttrition refers to mechanical tear and
tation based on the relationship between stream
wear of erosion tools suffered by themselves. The
velocity and its transporting power. T he law is
boulders, cobbles, pebbles etc. while moving down
known as Gilbert's Sixth Pow er L aw according to
stream with water collide against each other and thus
which the transportation power o f the streams is
are fragmented into smaller and finer pieces in the
proportional to the sixth power o f their velocity
transit. The rock pieces are so broken down that
(transportation power a stream velocity*). The mecha
ultimately they are comminuted into coarse to fine
nism ofsaltation by streams involves the transport
sands which are transported down the channel in
of load with water currents wherein coarse load
suspension. Attrition by marine process involves
moves downward by leaping and jum ping through
mechanical tear and wear and consequential break
valley floors. This mechanism is extremely slow.
down of rock fragments due to their mutual collision
The downstream movement of loose materials on
effected by backwash and rip currents which remove
the valley floor is called traction. The bed-load
the fragments from the cliff base and transport them
being transported by traction method consists o f
towards the sea. A ttrition by wind involves me
gravels, pebbles, cobbles and boulders. The m ateri
chanical breakdown o f rock particles while they arc
als of medium size are suspended in water (called as
transported by wind through the processes ofsaltation
suspended load) due to buoyancy. The transporta
and surface creep. Saltating grains frequently rise to
tion by streams is unidirectional (downstream).
a height of 50 centimeters over a sand bed and upto
The soluble materials are dissolved in water and
2 meters over pebbly surface by combined action of
become invisible and are transported downstream in
aerodynamic lift and the impact of other saltating
solution. The groundw ater transports dissolved
grains which return back to the ground surface. materials in suspended form.
Thus, the particles, while they are moving, collide
against each other and are further comminuted in The transportational w ork o f sea w aves
finer particles. varies significantly from other agents o f erosion and
transportation. For example, the backw ash or un
(5) D eflation, the process of removing, lift
dertow currents (moving from the sea coasts and
ing and blowing away dry and loose particles of beaches towards the sea) pick up the eroded materi
sands and dusts by winds, is called deflation (de als and transport them seaward but the uprushing
rived from Latin word deflatus, which means blow breaker waves or su rf curents pick up these mate
ing away). Long continued deflation removes most rials and bring them again to the coasts and beaches.
of loose materials and thus depressions or hollows Thus, the transportation o f materials takes place
known as ‘b low ou ts’ are formed and bedrocks are from the coastland towards the sea and from sea
exposed to wind abrasion. towards the coast (i.e. to and fro transportation).
(6) The mechanism o f periglacial processes is Longshore curents transport the materials parallel to
quite different to other processes i.e. congelifrac- the coast and shorelines. The materials involved in
g e o m o r ph o l o g y
the transportation by sea waves includc sands, silts, channel gradient, (ii) spreading o f river water oVer
gravels, pebbles, cobbles, and some times boulders. large areas, (iii) obstruction in channel flow, (iV)
The transportation by sea waves is bi-directional. decrease in the volum e and discharge o f water, (V)
The tran sportation al w ork o f wind differs decrease in stream velocity, (vi) increase in sedi
significantly trom other agents of erosion because ment load etc. The decrease in stream velocity re
the direction ot wind is highly variable and hence duces the transporting pow er o f the streams which
wind-lransportation is m ulti-directional. Wind trans are forced to leave additional sedim ent load to settle
port involves cntrainm cnt of loosened grains of down. Sedimentation takes place in the river beds,
sands and dust in the air and their movement to new flood plains and at the river m ouths (to form deltas).
locations. Very tine materials with a diameter of less Depositional work by groundw ater takes
than 0.2 m m are kept in suspension by upward place when solvent (water) becomes oversturated.
m oving air. Such materials kept in suspension are As the chemical erosion o f carbonate rocks contin
called dusts and extremely fine particulate matters ues, the groundwater or say solvent receives more
arc called haze or snioke. The materials larger than and more solutes and becomes saturated with dis
0.2 m m in diam eter are transported through the solved sediments. Since the m ovem ent of ground
m echanism o f bouncing, leaping or jumping, which water is exceedingly slow it cannot transport enough
is know n as saltation whereas the loosened materi sediments. Thus, chemical erosion (dissolution) and
als transported through surface creep or traction sedimentation (deposition) take place together. Large-
alw ays touch the ground. A very significant aspect sized sediments immediately settle down whereas
o f wind transport is that materials are transported at suspended fine sediments kept in supended form are
the ground surface and above the ground surface. deposited due to following factors— (i) due to ob
Only very fine materials are transported to greater struction in the flow path of groundwater and conse
distances in one step while coarser materials are quent decrease in the flow velocity of solvent, (ii)
transported in stages and steps by rolling, leaping due to evaporation of water because of increase in
and jum ping. temperature and consequent decrease in the volume
G lacial sedim ents (glacial drifts) are trans of groundwater and increase in solute-water ratio,
ported along the sides and floors of the glacial (iii) due todecrease in solution capacity of groundwater
valleys and snouts o f the glaciers. The debris falling etc. Deposition of sediment takes place at various
directly into the galcier is transported without touch places in different forms e.g. (i) at the floor of caves,
ing the bottom of the glacier while the debris falling (ii) along the ceiling o f caves, (iii) in the rock joints
on to the surface of a glacier is transported downslope etc. All the deposits in the caverns are collectively
with the moving ice mass. The materials derived called speleothem s of which calcite is the common
from the bed by subglacial erosion are transported constituent. Banded calcareous deposits are called
by touching the bottom. travertines whereas the calcareous deposits, softer
than travertines, at the cave mouths are called tufa
The mechanism o f transportation of materials
or calc-tufa. The calcareous deposits from dripping
in periglacial areas has been described variously e.g.
water in dry caves are called dripstones.
con geliflu ction , congeliturbatityi (it is also used
for erosion) and gelifluction etc. Solifluction or Deposition by m arine processes (sea waves)
co ng elifluction involves only soil-flow in the is most variable and temporary in character because
periglacial areas having permafrost below activc surl currents or breakers abrade the coasts and back-'
layer. According to K. Bryan (1946) cryoturbation wash or undertow curents and rip currents bring
them seaward and deposit at the lower segments of
includes all types o f massmovement of regolith in
wave-cut platforms but these sediments are again
periglacial environment. Recently, gelifluction is
picked up by surf curents and breakers and are
used in place o f congelifluction. brought to the coasts. Thus, marine sediments are
reworked by sea waves again and again. When there
3. Depositional Work
isequilibrium between incoming supplies of sediments
The deposition o f load carricd by the streams
is effected by a variety of factors e.g. (i) decrease in
PUNDAMBNTAI, r'ONCHKrS IN OliOMOKl'HOUKiY 39
by backwash on the wave-cut platforms, a profile of Procaaa-Raaponaa (Landform*)

equilibrium it achieved If the wavc-cui rock plat fl is evident from the aforesaid analysis o f the
form i» characterised by steep slope towards the mechanism o f the operation (erosional and deposi-
oceanic slope, Ihc destructive waves become very tional work) of exogenetic processes that the mode
aciive and thus resultant powerful backwash re of operation of each geomorphic process is different
moves sediments from the landward side so lhal Ihc from the other process and hence the landforms
slope ol the platform is lessened, On the other hand, produced by each process may be differentiated if
if the slope of wave-cut platform is less sleep, wc accept the m ono-process concept e.g. dissected
constructive waves become more effective as they by streams, abraded by wind, glaciated by glaciers
favoui sedimentation and beach deposition on Ihc etc. Before the emergence o f process geomorphol
landward side so that the slope of the platform ogy, landscape characteristics o f a gi ven region were
becomcs steeper. Beaches, cusps, bars and associ studied as a response of com bined actions o f all
ated features arc formed due to marine sedimenta processes operating in that region (p oly-p rocess
tion but since the depositional work depends on a approach) but now operational mechanism (ero
variety of factors and fiencc these features are sel sional, transportational and depositional works) o f
dom permanent as they are built and depleted and each gcomorphic proccss and resultant landforms
rebuilt. (erosional, depositional and relict) are studied sepa
D e p o s itio n a l w ork by w in d is gco- rately. Bccausc of distinctive characteristics the
landforms produced by one particular process may
rnorphologically very important because significant
be dif ferentiated from those produced by other proc
features like sand dunes and loess arc formed.
esses. For example, alluvial cones and fans, flood
Deposition of wind blown sediments occurs due to
plains, gorges and canyons, natural levees, river
marked reduction in wind speed and obstructions
meanders, and deltas arc indicative o f the work o f
caused by bushes, forests, marshes and swamps,
fluvial process (streams) while solutional holes and
lakes, big rivers, walls etc. Sands arc deposited on depressions (sink and swallow holes, dolines, polje,
both windward and leeward sides ol fixed obstruc uvalas etc.), limestone caves, stallectites and stalag
tions. '/b e accum ulated sand mounds on cither side mites arc the products of the erosional and d e
of the obstructions arc called sand shadow s whereas positional works of groundwater on carbonate rocks.
accumulations o f sands between obstacles arccallcd Sand dunes indicate the depositional work by winds,
sand drifts. moraines, drumlins, eskers etc. and U-shaped valley
'I hc rock debris carried by glaciers arc collcc- with hanging valley, cirque, aretes etc. denote the
tively callcd as glacial drifts which include (i) till, product of glacial proccss whereas patterned ground
(n) ice-con tact stratified drift, (iii) outw ash etc. t.stone circles, stone nets, stone polygons etc.), pingo,
'Ibe unsorted arid non-stratificd glacial drifts arc thermokarst, solifluctatc lobes and terraces, stone
called tills which arc further divided into ( IJ basal or glacier, blockfields, altiplanation terraces.nivation
lodgem ent till and (ii) ablation till. I he basal or hollows etc. arc the exclusive responses o f periglacial
lodgement tills are com pact, tough, dense and rich in processes.
clay. These arc deposited at the base of the glaciers. On the basis o f landform assem blage having
'Ihc ablation tills are poorly consolidated and lack in d istin ctiv e ch a ra cteristics produced by each
fine grain *ize. The ice-contact stratified drifts are geomorphic proccss the landforms may be classified
modified glacial debris by inellwater. Till is also genetically as initiated by W .M. Davis. The genetic
known as b oulder clay. Glacial debris arc divided classification o f landforms enables us to understand
into 3 type* on the basis of location e.g. (i)en glacial the mode of origin o f particular landform, sequence
d ebris, which is transported within the glaciers, (ii) o f developm ent and gcomorphic history. Generally,
supraglacial d ebris, which exists on the surface of a few terms arc used to indicate certain sets o f
the glacier and (in* su bglacial d eb ris, which is general landforms which do not give any clue for
found at the base o f the glacier. The glacial deposi their genesis e.g. ridge, gorge, scarp, column, mound,
tion it generally called m oraine. table, hole, depression, valley, trough, cave, dune,
40 GEOMORPHOLOGY
terrace, bench, cone, fan, creek, plain, hummocks, thermokarst (frost thaw, periglacial process); hum.
cliff, polygon etc. If these and many more forms are mocks -earth hummock (frost weathering, periglacial
associated with the processes which have formed process), turf hummock (frost weather ring, periglacial
them, then we may have knowledge of their genesis process); polygon - frost polygon (frost weathering,
and developmental mechanism. For example, plain periglacial process), stone polygons (frost heave’
is formed by several processes e.g. flood deposition periglacial process), cliffs - river cliff (fluvial), sea
(flood plain), peneplanation (peneplain, all by flu cliff ( erosional, sea waves) ; platform - wave-cut
vial process), karst plain (by groundwater), pediplain platform (erosional, sea waves), wave-built plat
(by scarp retreat and pedimentation in semi-arid form (depositional-sea waves) etc.
climate), panplain (by coalescence of flood plains Savindra Singh's genetic classification of
caused by lateral erosion by fluvial process), etchplain periglacial landforms (1974) presents an ideal ex
(by etching and washing of debris by streams in ample of process-related and mechanism-related
savan na region), alluvial plain (deposition by (weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition)
streams), outw ash plain (due to fluvio-glacial ac landforms developed in periglacial areas as fol
tion), cryoplain (due to cryoplanation) etc. The lows—
following additional examples support genetic as
pect of landforms and processes responsible for their (1) CONGELIFRACTATE LANDFORMS
formation. (due to frost weatehring and frost-heave)
Ridg e— anticlinal ridge (tectonic), synclinal (e.g.) in v o lu tio n s , h u m m o c k s , pingo,
ridge (erosional, streams), hogback ridge (tectonic thermokarst, frost cliffs, frost polygons etc.).
and erosional), beach ridges (depositional, sea waves), (2) PATTERNED GROUND
morainic ridge (deposition, glacier), nivation ridge
(due to frost heave and solifluction)
(depositional, periglacial process) etc.; gorge-river
(e.g. stone circles, stone nets, stone polygons,
g o rg e ; scarp— faultscarp (tectonic), fault-line scarp
stone garlands, stone stripes)
(erosional, fluvial process), normal, obsequent and
resequent fault-line scarps (erosional, fluvial proc (3) CONTORTED SURFACE
ess), resurrected scarp (erosional, fluvial) e t c .; val (due to frost heave and congelifraction)
leys- (V-shaped valley-fluvial), rift valley (tectonic),
(4) SOUFLUCTATE/CONGELWLUCTATE LANDFORMS
hanging valley (both fluvial and glacial), karst val
(due to differences in the movement of so
ley, blind valley, solution valley (solution by
lifluction)
groundwater), glacial valley (U-shaped, glacial ero
sion), dry valley (periglacial process) etc. (e.g. solifluction terraces, solifluction lobes,
talus, stratified scree).
> Holes — sink hole, swallow hole (solutional
work by groundwater), thaw sink (periglacial proc (5) ALTIPLANATION LANDFORMS
ess), pot-hole (fluvial process, erosional) etc.; mound- (e.g. altiplanation terraces, altiplanation cliffs,
mima mound (congelifluctate, periglacial process); tors, frost-riven cliffs, blockfields, stone streams)
dunes-sand dunes (aeolian, depositional), benches- (6) NIVATION LANDFORMS
wave-cut benches (erosional, seawaves), structural
(e.g. nivation hollows, nivation platforms,
benches (tectonic and structural), giant benches (ero nivation ridge, nivation fans)
sional, glacier); terraces-river terraces, paired ter
races, fluvial terraces (both erosional and depositional, (7) PERIGLACIO-FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
streams), marine terraces (erosional, sea waves), (e.g. thaw gullies, thaw ravines— thaw bad-
solifluction terraces( soil creep, periglacial process), land)
altiplanation terraces (frost action, periglacial pro It may be pointed out that it is easier, theo
cess), nivation tcrraces (depositional, periglacial retically, to associate a particular landform with *
process); cone - alluvial cone (depositional, streams), particular process but very few landforms are of
volcanic cone (depositional, vulcanicity); karst mono-process origin because most o f the land
(solution al,. g r o u n d w a te r, c a rb o n a te rocks), forms have been developed by more than one pro
c
cesses i.e. they are of poly-process origin as dif The present concept is related to one o f ‘trio
ferent geomorphic processes seldom operate in iso o f D avis’ (landscape is a function o f structure,
lation. For example, even in periglacial environment process and tim e ) which was given more impotance
(as referred to above) different geometrical patterns rather was overemphasised by Davis. The stage
(very commor.iy called as patterned ground having concept is based on the concept o f ‘cyclic tim e’
definite geometrical patterns such as circle, net, which involves long geological period o f millions o f
polygon, stripe etc.) are formed due to combined years and larger spatial areas. It may be pointed out
actions of frost heave and solifluction whereas invo that Davis used ‘tim e’ as a p ro cess’ rather than ‘an
lutions, h um m ocks and pingo are formed by attribute’ of landscape developm ent wherein he
congelifraction (frost weathering) and altiplanation envisaged sequential changes in landform s through
landforms (as referred to above) are the result of tim e.’ ‘For Davis, the concept o f evolution implied
combined actions of solifluction, ni vation, frost heave an inevitable, continuous and broadly irreversible
and congelifraction. process of change producing an orderly sequence o f
It has been accepted that geomorphic pro landform transformation, w'herein earlier forms could
cesses play significant role in the evolution and be considered as stages in a progression leading to
changes in the form of hillslopes but there is con later forms. By this model, time becam e not a tem
trasting opinion about the evolution of slopes in poral frame work within which events could occur,
terms of mono-process or poly-process origin. Con
but a process itself leading to an inevitable p rogres
vexity and concavity have been related to soil creep
sion of change’ (Chorley, Schum m and Sugden,
and rainwash respectively. Fenneman (1908) ex
plained the evolution of convexo-concave slope 1985, p. 17).
through rainwash alone. H. Baulig (1950) postulated Thus, following Davis there is progressive
the concept of poly-process origin and development change in landform characteristics with the passage
of hillslope wherein soil creep and rainwash were of time. Davis’ model o f cycle o f erosion is based on
accepted as the most important processes. The the conccpt of ‘low -entropy closed sy ste m ’ w herein
summital convexity o f a convexo-concave hillslope initial potential' energy in the closed system is p ro
in humid temperate region results due to soil creep as vided by initial rapid rate short-period upliftm ent o f
it becomes more active than rainwash due to less landscape. With the passage o f time and continuous
volume of rainwater while basal concavity is formed erosion there is equal distribution o f energy in the
by rill and gully erosion because soil creep becomes geomorphic system so that all com ponents o f the
less effective due to abundance of surface water system are characterized by equal energy levels and
(coming from upslope). A few geomorphologists are hence in the absence o f difference in the energy
of the view that soil creep and rainwash instead of levels of different com ponents of the system, the
working separately work together to form different state of m axim um disord er and hence m axim u m
slope forms. entropy is achieved wherein no further w ork is
The advocates o f climatic geomorphology performed because there is no energy flow and the
have pleaded for the study of landforms association ultimate result is the developm ent o f peneplain.
of a climatic region together involving all the pro Though this concept o f Davis (closed geom orphic
cesses active therein and have suggested to divide
system characterized by evolutionary changes in the
the world into morphogenetic regions e.g. L.C. Peltier
landform geom etry) is subject to severe criticism but
(1950) has divided the world into glacial, periglacial,
‘for Davis, each stage or his cycle w as associated
boreal, maritime, selva, moderate, savanna, arid and
with declining potential energy as the relief was
semi-arid morphogenetic regions (see chapter 4).
worn down, and each stage was characterized by an
CONCEPT 4 assemblage o f landforms (i.e. valley-side slopes,
“As the differen t erosional agencies act on the drainage patterns etc.) having geom etries appropri
earth’s surface there is p ro d u ced a sequence o f ate to the local potential energy expressed by the
landform s having distinctive characteristics at the difference in level between the land surface (ridge
successive stages o f their developm ent. ” crest or top o f w ater divides) and some, low er
— W.D. Thornbury elevation (base level, valley floor) tow ards which
GEOMORPHOLOGY
42
mum clue to high velocity o f flow rate and high
degradation was directed’ (Chorley, Schumm and
kinetic energy because o f very steep channel gradi-
Sugden, 1985).
ent High transporting capacity enables the rivers to
W.M. Davis divided the whole time span of carry big boulders (tools o f erosion) o f fairly good
geographical cycle of erosion (fig. 3.1) into three size (large size) and calibre (angular boulders) which
distinct stages of varying landform geometries on help in the p othole d rillin g o f the river beds. It may
the basis of time span of human life e.g. (i) youthful be mentioned that pothole drilling is the mostactivc
stage characterized by higher energy landform s, and powerful process o f vertical erosion (valley
(ii) m ature stage of m edium -energy landform s deepening) in the juvenile stage o f the normal cycle
and (iii) old or penultim ate stage of low but equal
of erosion.
energy-landform s. Based on further variations in
landform characteristics he further divided each The valley becom es very narrow and deep
stage into early, m iddle and late e.g. (i) early youth, with almost vertical side walls due to continuous
middle youth and late youth, (ii) early mature, mid active downcutting o f the valley floors at exceed
dle mature and late mature and (iii) early old, middle ingly fast rate. The valley side slopes are convex in
old and late old stages. Based on Davisian model of plan. Thus, the resultant ju v e n ile valleys are V-
normal cycle of erosion in humid temperate regions shaped and are called gorges and canyons. The
the following sequences of landform evolution through valley floors are studded with num erous pot holes
successive stages of youth, mature and old stages which are the result of pothole drilling. The inter
may be presented in the support of the above con stream areas or w ater d iv id es (land area between
cept. the valleys of two major stream s) are extensive and
wide and these are least affected by denudational
1. Youthful stage
processes because valley w id en in g by lateral ero
The region experiences rapid short-period
sion is less effective in the early and middle youth
upliftment resulting into m axim um potential en
stages. The valley thalw egs (longitudinal profiles of
ergy and m inim um entropy. ‘The potential energy
the rivers) are characterized by num erous rapids and
of landform o f initial uplift is the dominant source of
waterfalls which always recede upstream. Most of
energy input (potential energy) and that, thereafter,
the waterfalls and knick points disappear by late
there is an irreversible equalization of energy levels youth. The rivers are underloaded (not having the
throughout the landform assemblage, leading ulti required amount ol sedim ent load according to their
mately to a spatially uniform terrain-the peneplain transporting capacity) and thus available energy is
or peneplane’ (at the end of the cycle i.e. old stage)
more than the work to be done. The rivers are well
(Chorley, Schumm and Sugden, 1985).
integrated by the end o f youth when maximum
Consequent streams (which follow the re relative reliefs are formed.
gional slope) are originated with the upliftment of
River capture is the m ost characteristic fea
land area due to endogenetic forces. In the begin
ture of the juvenile stage o f the normal cycle of
ning, the streams are less in number and short in
erosion. Main rivers having steeper channel gradi
length. Very few tributaries of the master conse
ents and more volume o f w ater capture smaller
quent streams are originated. The slopes are domi
streams of relatively low channel gradient through
nated by numerous rills and gullies rather than big
headward erosion.
streams. These rills and gullies lengthen their lon
gitudinal profiles (increase their lengths) through 2. Mature stage
headw ard erosion. Gradually and gradually the
Marked valley deepening through vertical
main streams deepen their valleys. The origin and erosion uring youthful stage results in pronounced
evolution of tributaries of master streams give birth ecrease in channel gradient and consequent de
to the development of dendritic drainage pattern. crease in flow velocity with the result the arrival of
The rivers are continuously engaged in rapid rate o f y maturity is heralded by marked decrease in
downcutting o f their valleys (valley incision) be ey eepening due to (i) decrease in channel
cause the transporting capacity o f the rivers is maxi gra lent, (ii) decrease in the velocity o f river flow,
(iii) decrease in the transporting capacity etc. Conse downcutting. The convex slope o f valley sides is
quently, valley w idening through active lateral progressively transformed into u niform or recti
erosion dominates over valley incision through linear slope and the gorges and canyons charac
terized by deep and narrow valleys are replaced by
broad and flat valleys.
The rivers deposit big boulders at the foothill
zones due to sudden decrease in channel gradient
and hence marked decrease in the transporting ca
pacity of the rivers. These materials form alluvial
fans and alluvial cones. The gradual expansion o f
these fans and cones due to their continuous grow th
result in the formation of extensive p ied m o n t plains
through the coalescence o f several fans and cones.
Interstream areas or water divides are continuously
narrowed due to backw asting caused by active
lateral erosion and valley widening. Thus, inter
stream areas are transformed into narrow ridges. T he
major river erodes down to its base level (sea level)
and becomes ‘graded’. Thus, the longitudinal pro
file of the master river becomes the p rofile o f eq u i
librium wherein there is balance between available
energy and the work to be done i.e. balance betw een
the transporting capacity and total sedim ent load to
be transported. Because of marked decrease in
channel gradient rivers adopt sinuous courses and
develop numerous m eanders and loop s in their
courses. Extensive flood plains are formed due to
sedimentation o f alluvia. Rivers frequently change
their courses because o f gentle to level slopes o f the
flood plains. Numerous ox-bow lakes are formed
due to straightening o f highly m eandering loops.
Deposition of sediments on either side of the river
valleys leads to the formation o f natural levees.
3. Old Stage
The old stage is characterized by further de
crease in channel gradient, almost total absence o f
valley deepening, decrease in the num ber of tribu
tary streams and flattening o f valleys. Tributary
streams also attain the base level of erosion and are
graded. Lateral erosion and consequent backwasting
eliminates most of interstream areas. Valleys be
come broad and flat characterized by concave slopes
o f valley sides. Downcutting o f the valleys is totally
absent. Weathering processes are most active. Thus,
Fig. 2.12 : Stages o f landform development - 1. initial lateral erosion, downwasting and weathering con
stage. 2. early youth. 3. late youth. 4. early tinuously degrade the land resulting into gradual
m aturity. 5. m aturity and 6. old stage lowering of absolute altitude and water divides.
(peneplain). Interstream areas and water divides are remarkably
reduced in height and are changed to lowland but kinetic energy (through precipitation and channel
they still rise above the surrounding areas. Trans flow), o f thermal energy (through insolation from
porting capacity o f the rivers becomes minimum the sun) and o f chem ical energy (through disintegra
because o f very low channel gradient and thus the tion and decom position o f rocks) and there is con
rivers becom e overloaded. Consequently, sedi tinuous export o f energy and m atter out o f the system
m entation becom es m ost active during this stage. and hence the geom orphic system tends to be in
The rivers adopt highly meandering courses. The equilibrium condition. Thus, the Davisian concept
extensive flood plains with level to gentle slopes (2°- o f sequential changes o f landform s through succes
5°) and very low channel gradient make the river sive stages is not tenable.
flow so sluggish that the main channel of the river is Moreover, it is argued that the life cycle of
divided into num erous distributaries and thus the landform development cannot be equated with hu
river becom es braided. Valley sides are bordered by man life cycle because the time span o f three stages
extensive natural levees which are also known as o f the latter (youth, mature and old) is almost fixed
bluffs which denote the farthest limit of recurrent and one stage changes to the next stage after certain
floods o f the concerned rivers. Rivers deposit and time period but this is not possible in the case of
form extensive deltas at their mouths if other envi landscapes because a region having weak and less
ronm ental conditions remain favourable for delta resistant rocks is quickly eroded dow n and youth
formation. stage advances to mature stage within shorter period
The entire landscape is converted into exten of time but if the region is characterized by hard and
sive flat plain o f undulating surface except a few resistant rocks then the period o f youth stage is
residual convexo-concave hills which project above lengthened and change from youth to mature stage is
the general flat surface and thus break the monotony much delayed. This is why W. Penck pleaded for the
o f reliefless flat plain, called as peneplain. These rejection of Davis’ concept, ‘landscape is a function
residual hills, the result of differential erosion, are of structure, process and time (stage)’, and postu
called m onadnocks on the basis of monadnock hills lated the concept that, ‘landforms reflect the ratio
o f the North-East Applachians in New England between the intensity of endogenetic processes (i.e.
region (USA). The whole landscape is dominated by rate of upliftment) and the magnitude o f displace
concave slope, minimum available energy, both ment of materials by exogenetic processes (the rate
potential (because o f very low height) and kinetic of erosion and removal o f weathered and eroded
energy (due to very low channel gradient) and m axi materials)’. Inspite o f some inherent weaknesses in
m um entropy (means maximum d i s o r d e r ^ relief, Davisian model the stage concept cannot be alto
as the whole area is characterized by featureless gether discarded. Even Penck is supposed to have
peneplain). deliberately avoided the use o f stage concept in his
The Davisian model of sequential changes in model of landscape development either to under
landforms through youth (maximum relief, maxi mine the cyclic concept o f W.M. Davis or to present
m um potential and kinetic energy, narrow and deep a new model. According to Von Engeln (1960)
valleys with convex valley sides and minimum en Penck found escape from the concept o f cyclic
tropy), maturity (graded stream profile, broad valley change marked by the stages youth, maturity and old
with rectilinear valleysides) to old stage (equally age . In the place o f stage he used the term
distributed energy, broad and flat valleys with con entwickelung meani ng thereby d ev elo p m en t Thus,
cave slope, featureless plains-peneplain, minimum in place of youth, mature and old stages he used the
potential and kinetic energy and maximum entropy) terms aufsteigende entw ickelung (waxing or ac
is possible only in low-entropy closed geomorphic celerated rate of developm ent), g le ic h f o r m ig *
system but the geomorphic systems having different entwickelung (uniform rate o f developm ent) and
landform assemblages are open systems wherein absteigende enlw ickeluge (waning or decelerating
t h e r e is continuous input of potential energy (through rate of development). In fact, stage does not mean
upliftment of landscape, plate tectonic theory has specified absolute period o f time rather it denotes
demonstrated continuous tectonic activities), of the phase of landform development and hence ‘stage’
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN GEOMORPHOLtXJY 45
should be used in relative sense and not in absolute It may be pointed out that time and space are
sense. no longer passive factors rather they are active
It may be further argued that each stage of independent variables which influence both proc
geomorphic cycle docs not have same time-period. esses and landforms at micro-meso and macro ncale
Further, if the landscape development in different resolution levels. ‘At different scale resolution lev
regions is passing through similar stage (say youth els, which are mapped out according to our aims and
stage) it does not mean that the time-period of abilities, different problems arc identified; different
similar stage is the same in all regions. If two regions types of explanation arc rele v an t; different levels o f
are characterized by same stage of landscape devel organization arc appropriate: different variables are
opment the landform characteristics in both the dominant; and different roles o f casue and effect are
regions may be similar but not the same. assigned’ (Chorley, Schumm and Sugden, 1985).
The geomorphic scales, very often used in
CO N CEPT 5
geomorphological investigations, arc o f two types
1. ‘G eom orphic scale is a significant param e.g. (i) time scale and (ii) spatial scale. The scale
eter in the interpretation o f landform development level resolutions depend on the objectives o f study.
and landform characteristics o f geomorphic sys For example, if the evolutionary phases of landscape
tems. '
development ever long period of time involving
2. ‘Landscape is function o f time and space \ larger areas are to be reconstructed, the model o f
The geomorphic investigation requires study Davisian cycle of erosion involving cyclic time
of different geomorphic processes (both mode and (millions of years) may be more apropriate but if a
rate of operation ) and related landforms of a spatial component of landform assemblage is to be studied,
unit over definite time-span for having ‘postdiction a shorter time scale would be more appropriate. It
(extrapolation from the present to the past of con may be mentioned that conclusions derived about
temporary ‘process-form interrelationships) and landform development and processes at one spatial
and temporal scale may not be applicable to other
prediction’ (future development of landforms). Both
scales because the influence of dominant variables
gemorphological processes and landforms are con
changes from one scale to another scale.
sidered at various levels of spatial and temporal
resolutions. The detailed study of processes through Time Scales
field instrumentation in small areas over small time Generally, temporal scales are considered at
span has revealed significant results regarding their three resolution levels e.g. macro-temproal scale
mode and rate of operation and their influences on involving millions of years for the study o f mega
landform characteristics under varying time-inter- geomorphology, meso-temporal scale involving
vals. ‘Certainly one major result of process study has thousands of years and micro-temporal scale in
been the relegation of time to the position of a volving shorter time-span involving tens and hun
parameter to be measured rather than a process (as dreds of years. For geomorphic evolution and inter
envisaged by W.M. Davis) in its own right. Another pretation temporal scales are, alternatively, consid
major result of the change in gemorphological em ered at three resolution levels e.g. cy d ic time, graded
phasis has been a reduction in the spatial and tempo time and steady time. Time scale assumes greater
ral scales within which landforms are now consid significance in the study o f the rates of operation of
ered’ (M.G. Anderson and T.P Burt, 1981). In 1965 processes and changes occurring in landscapes.
an important contribution to the development ol Generally, no perceptible change may occur in the
landform as a function of lime and space (area) morphological features during short period of time
was made by Schumm and Lichty. rhcy argued that because either the force exerted by the processes
the kind of model we construct for the study of may not be enough to introduce significant change
landform development depends upon the length ol or the processes might have not operated for desired
the time-span wc have in mind (P. McC ullagh, sufficient length of nine. Any changc in the rate of
1978). the operation of geomorphic process is supposed to
GEOMORPHOLOGY
46
limc-span involves progressive but slow change in
bring corresponding changc in the landforms. ‘Some
both process rate and landforms. In a cyclic time
times the response is instantaneous, as when a large
•landforms slowly lose energy and mass as agents of
flood passes through a channel. At other times, the
denudation reduce altitude’ (P. M cCullagh, 1978).
response may be quite slow or there may be ‘dead
Davisian model o f cycle o f erosion .s based on cyclic
tim e’ when nothing happens to land forms to reveal
the change in process. The time taken for the system time wherein there is progressive sequential change
to respond to externally imposed changes is called in landforms through time i.e. as the erosion begins
its 'reaction tim e’ (J.B. Thornes, 1979). with the completion o f upliftm ent there is continu
ous lowering of reliefs and loss o f energy in such a
Cyclic Time way that there is equal distribution o f energy in
Cyclic time involves longer geological pe geomorphic system so that all co m po nents of the
riod ol time measuring millions o f years (say system are characterized by equal energy levels and
10,000,000 years) and very larger spatial areal unit hence in the absence o f difference in the energy
measuring thousands of square kilometers of arca.This levels o f different co m ponents o f the system the
slate of m axim um d isord er and h ence m axim um
en tro p y is achieved wherein no further w ork is
performed because there is no energy flow and the
®
t
h-
C y c l i-c T i m
■e
( 10,000 000 Y e a r s )
ultimate result is the dev elopm ent o f peneplain.
Cyclic time is punctuated by g ra d ed tim e (fig. 2.13
A) having a time-span o f 100 to 1000 years.
2
S. A. Schumm and R.W. Lichty (1965) have
LU Gr aded
T i me identified ten drainage basin variables (10) and their
relative importance in term s o f cyclic, graded and
steady time-scales.As regards the cyclic develop
CYCLIC TIME ment of landforms, tim e, in itial r e li e f (representing
difference of height between ridge crest and valley
doors or between highest and low est parts created by
Gr aded Time tectonic events-upliftment and subsidence, vulcanicity
( 100 -1000 Y e a r s ) or sea-level changes), geology (both structure-folds,
r y Steady Time faults ctc. and lithology-rock types) and clim ate
t & f ---- --------- (precipitation and insolation) are in dep en den t vari
ables which control landform d e v e lo p m e n t involv
ing cyclic time-span (long geological period o f time
ranging in millions o f years), w h ereas vegetation
GRADED TIME (type and density, d e p e n d in g on p recip ita tio n ,
2:
insolation and geological characteristics), re lie f or
<
i
© S t e a d y Time
C 10 Y e a r s . )
volume o f landmass above base level, h yd rology
(runoff and sedim ent yield p er unit area within the
(j system-drainage basin), d ra in a g e n etw o rk m or-
P ° ogy (diainage density ex p essed as total stream
V
,nn!f K I*0 *1 âSm area)’ h illslo p e m o rp h ology,
I n s t a n t a n e o u s Ti me
( O n e day ) f .I r° (discharge o f water and sediment
0,11' . f ^ ? tCir^ 3re ê Pendent variables which are
S TE ADY T I ME n ro e y aforesaid four independent variables
ime, initia relief, geology and clim ate) but time is
Fig. 2.13 : Timcscales-(A) cyclic tune, (/ij graded tii concenKnnrCant,1|nuCên^Cnt varia^*e - There are three
and (C) steady time. 2 14A» t h e r e |U br, Um * d e c a * “ l^ i b r iu m (fig-
is progressive but slow rate o f decline
*
in form through time leading to establishment of energy level wherein erosional processes act in epi
equilibrium condition in the penultimate stage-old sodic manner as envisaged by S.A. Schumm and
stage-ot Davisian cycle of erosion), dynamic equi R.W. Lichty (1965). Based on the concepts of
librium (tig. 2.14 C) (indicating a condition of geom orphic thresholds and com plex system re
forms oscillating around a moving average value but sponse Schumm postulated that some changes in the
also characterized by continuous decline in form fluvial system are not effected by external factors
through time e.g. a river’s long pofile characteized (isostatic upliftment) rather these are caused by
by alternate actions of erosion and deposition) and inherent geomorphic controls in the'eroding system
dynamic metastable equilibrium (fig. 2 . 14D) (rep-, e.g. due to erosional and depositional activities.
resenting ‘a condition of oscillation about a mean According to him effective erosion is not a continu
value of form which is trending through time and, at ous process rather it is episodic in nature and thus the
the same time, is subjected to step-like discontinuities valley floors are not continuously deepened but are
as a threshold effect appears to promote a sudden reduced in discontinuous manner as periods o f ero
change of form' (Chorley, Schumm and Sugden, sion are separated by periods of deposition of
1985) i.e. a condition of equilibrium at insufficient sediments to an unstable condition. In other words,
the period of erosion (period o f instability) is fol
lowed by period of deposition of sediments.W hen
the sediment storage in the valley crosses the thresh
old value and channel gradient is steepened then the
system becomes unstable and active erosion is initi
* ated resulting in the downcutting (excavation o f
deposited sediments and valley floor) of valley floor.
The process continues till the sediments are flushed
out and again period of deposition is initiated due to
lessening of channel gradient. Thus, the valley floor
becomes stepped. It is apparent that there is period o f
,r4v/Va / I(/V
a aVA Y A V*, v ay I aa « dynamic equilibrium between periods of instability
occasioned by episodic erosion (see chapter 3, and
fig. 3.7). The result is stepped valley floor (fig. 2.14
St eady S ta t e Equ i l ib r iu m
D=a, b. c, d indicate steps in the valleyfloor). T h i s
*- dynamic metastable equilibrium model of eipsodic
erosion shows, in addition, that many of the details
of the landscape (e.g. small terraces and recent
H
alluvial fills) do not need to be explained by the
influence of external variables because they devleop
as an integral part of system evolution’ (Chorley,
Schumm and Sugden, 1985, p. 40).
Graded Time
The time-scale having shorter period (say 100
to 1000 years), during which smaller streams or parts
ot big streams and individual hillslopes in adrainage
network achieve graded stage of steady state equi
librium (where geomorphic forms of a system, say
rig. 2.14 : Equilibrium types : A—decay equilibrium.
drainage basin, oscillate around a stable average
B—steady stale equilibrium. C—dynamic
value) due to self regulatory mechanism (i.e. nega
equilibrium, D—dynamic mestastable
equilibrium (based on A\ J. Chorley and R. B. tive feedback mechanism), is called graded time.
Beckinsale, /980 and SA. Schumm, 1975). As the timc-span of landscape development is re
a, b, c and d indicate stepped valley floor. duced the number of controlling (of landforms)
48
GEOMORPHOLOGY
factors (i.e. independent variables) increases and may be studied in terms of graded or steady time-
number o f dependent variables decreases. For exam scale while larger area should be studied in terms of
ple, in a drainage basin time, initial relief, geology cyclic time-scale.
and climate are independent (controlling) variables
in cyclic time but in graded time besides these four Spatial Scales
variables, vegetation (type and denisty), relief (above There has always been shift in the selection of
base level) and hydrology (runoff and sediment ideal geomorphic unit having specific areal cover
yield per unit area within the system) also become age for the study of landforms and geomorphic
processes with varying view points and objectives.
independent variables (which are dependent vari
If we go in historical perspective, spatial scales have
ables in cyclic time). It may be mentioned that time
varied considerably i.e. from ‘physiographic re
and initial reliefs, which are very significant control gions’ of N.M. Fenneman (1914) through Hortons
ling variables (of landforms) in cyclic time become (1945) ‘drainage basin’ as ideal geomorphic unit to
insignificant in the development of landforms in J.F. Gellert's ‘m orphotops’ or ‘m orphofacies’
graded time while drainage network morphology, (1982). Fenneman's physiographic regions of N.
hillslope morphology and discharge of water and America on the basis of chronology and uniformity
transport o f sediment out of the system remain of geological history and structural geology repre
dependent variables e.g. they are controlled by afore sent large spatial scale i.e. macro or mega scale and
said independent variables. further subdivisions of major physiographic regions
into smaller units involved small spatial scale i.e.
Steady Time meso and micro scales. Bourne ( 1932) based on his
Still shorter time-span (10 to 100 years), concept of ‘characteristics-site-assem blage’ rec
during which a very short reach of the stream or a ognized morphological regions at two levels e.g. (i)
single slope segment (e.g. convex or rectilinear or ‘regions of first level were distinguished on the
concave segment) involving very small area reaches basis of morphological features produced by ero
steady state, is called steady time in which there is sional and depositional features’ and (ii) regions of
balance between erosion, transport and deposition. second level were identified on the basis of areal
The aforesaid seven variables (e.g. time, initial re units having similar environmental conditions for
lief, geology, climate, vegetation, volume of relief the development of pedogenic processes, vegetation
above base-level, runoff and sediment yield per unit etc. R.E. Horton ( 1945) recognized ‘erosional drain
a re a w ithin the s y s t e m , d r ai na ge , which are age basin’ as ideal spatial geomorphic unit for the
indipendent variables in cyclic and graded time plus study of drainage basin processes and forms. R e
drainage network morphology and hillslope mor cently, J.F. Gellert( 1982) recognized ‘m orphotops’
phology (which are dependent variables in graded or ‘morphofacies’ as basic units for morphological
time) becom e independent variables and only one regionalization and ‘suggested a uniform shape (mor
variable (i.e. discharge o f water and sediment out of phology, morphometry), homogeneous lithological
the geom orphic system (say drainage basin) be structure, uniform origin and d e v e lo p m e n t
com es dependent variable in steady time. The in (morphogenesis, morphochronology) and uniform
s ta n ta n e o u s tim e re fe rs to the condition of form present-day processes (morphodynamics) as the
at a single day. characteristic features for the identification of
‘It will be seen that time can be considered as geomorphological regional units’ (Mamta Dubey,
the most significant independent variable in landform 1993). It is apparent that spatial scales have changed
studies, or regarded as o f relatively little signifi from macro or mega-scale (of earl ier gemorphologists
cance, depending upon the time-span involved (and dealing with the cyclic development o f landforms
and denudation chronology) through m eso-spatial
the size o f spatial unit-areal coverage). It is generally
scale to present - day m icro-spatial scale (in the
true to say that most modern geomorphological
case of process geomorphology).
emphasis is upon studies concerned within graded or
steady tim e’ (P. McCullagh, 1978, p. 11). The It may be mentioned that spatial scale has
geomorphic system having smaller areal coverage much significance in controlling the rate and mecha
nism of operation of processes and their responses the equation (e.g. between form, proccss
(landforms) as the areal coverages of study areas and materials) at specific time.
change. For example, if a small area (less than one Level 3 : Differentiating the equation, involving
square kilometer) of gullied zone is selected for the the investigation o f the way in which
study of behaviour of runoff, discharge, soil erosion, some relationships between form, proc
sediment transport etc. during strong rainstorms ess and materials vary over time.
associated with thunderstorm, the fluvial process is
highly accelerated and the rate of erosion becomes Level 4 : Applying the equation i.e. to apply the
very high becuase of maximum runoff and discharge results drawn through aforesaid three
but if the study area is a large drainage basin then the levels of investigation for solving the
effect o f strong rainstorm of short duration is ob environmental problems.
scured as only the part of the basin is affected by high
intensity rainstorms. The post- 1950 geomorphology Study of Elements of the Equation
lays more emphasis on the study of different aspects It is necessary to study detailed aspects of
of processes on the basis of field instrumentation and forms (landforms), geom aterials (of which the
laboratory experiments. This requires shorter tem landforms have been formed) and processes (which
poral scale (time scale) and smaller spatial unit. It shape the la n d fo rm s th r o u g h e r o s io n a l and
may be concluded that ‘at different scales of space depositional activities) independently so that the
different variables become dominant, different lev landscape of a particular geomorphic unit o f a spe
els of generalization may be employed and even cific spatial scale may be studied in right perspec
different problems identified’ (Chorley, Schumm tive.
and Sugden, 1985). Different aspects of forms (landforms) have
been widely studied and given more attention right
C O N C EP T 6 from the beginning of geomorphological investiga
A sim ple geom orphological equation may be tions to the development of the branch of landform
envisaged as a vehicle for the explanation o f landforms geography (B. Zakrzewska, 1967). Morphometric
as fo llo w s — techniques have enabled geomorphologists to study
F = f (PM ) dt K.J. Gregory, 1977 different morphometric aspects (shapes, amplitude
This geomorphological equation envisages and dimension) of landforms produced by various
that ‘the landform (F) is the function of process (P), denudational processes. Information derived from
material (M, geomaterial) and change through time aerial photographs and satellite imageries have also
(dt)’. Gregory stated (1977) that ‘morphology (F) = enriched landform geography. ‘Although the study
function o f processes (P) on materials (M) over of form is a necessary p re-req u isite to later
tim e ( t) \ According to him ‘morphology refers to geomorphological analysis it has been argued that it
the form of earth's surface or landform; processes should not be an end in itself because it is very
include the geomorphological processes associated difficult to understand the past development o f form,
with weathering, wind, water, ice and massmovement, the present significance or future character, from
and materials connote the rock, soil and superficial morphology alone’ (E. Derbishire, K.J. Gregory and
deposits upon which processes operate (Gregory, J.R. H ails, 1979) and h e n c e m a te r ia ls and
1977, p. 137). He has identified four aspects of geomorphological processes should also be studied
with equal emphasis.
interest wherein the equation may be studied at four
levels— Geomaterials, of which the landforms are
Level 1 : Study of elements of the equation, i.e. composed, have not been studied in right perspec
investigation of three elements of the tive inspite of the fact that geological structure plays
equation (e.g. form, process and materi an important role in the evolution of landforms (see
als) independently. concept 2). Generally, geomaterials include rock
Level 2 : Balancing the equation i.e. tu obtain types, geological structure (disposition of rock beds
relationships between ihe elements ot e.g. folded, faulted, uniclinal, domal etc. structures),
50 GEOMORPHOLOGY
rock characteristics (mechanical and chcmical com esses (driving force- operation of processes) and
position), weathered materials, surficial deposits materials (resisting force) leading to the attainment
and soils. Traditionally, geological structure includes of equilibrium when driving force equals the resist
three aspects viz. lithology or nature of rocks (igne ing force (see chapter 3, Gilbert’s model).
ous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks), arrange •
ment and disposition of rock beds (folded, faulted, Differentiating the Equation
uniclinal, domal etc.) and rock characteristics (chemi Differentiating the equation requires to find
cal and mechanical composition, permeability and out ‘the way in which geomorphological systems
impermeability, joint patterns, rock resistance etc.). change or adjust over time’. In fact, the geomorphic
investigation requires study of different geomorphic
Processes (see concept 3) constitute third processes (both mode and rate of operation) and
element o f the equation and include those physical related landforms o f a spatial unit over definite time-
processes which operate on the earth's surface both span for having ‘postdiction (extrapolation from the
internally and externally (i.e. endogenetic and present to the past of contemporary process-form
exogenetic processes). A detailed investigation re interrelationships) and prediction’ (future develop
garding three-phase work of geomorphic processes ment of landforms). ‘Inclusion of time dimension is
(i.e. erosion, transportation and deposition) is needed necessary because periods of time may be necessary
to understand the mode of origin and development of for a certain process or assemblage of processes
landforms of varying scales. The detailed study of acting upon particulate materials to produce a spe
exogenetic geomorphic processes (denudational proc cific form’ (Gregory, 1977). The changes in landforms
esses e.g. fluvial, coastal, glacial, aeolian, periglacial, may be studied through varying temporal scales e.g.
groundwater etc.) through field observation and macro-time scale (cyclic time, involving millions of
instrumentation and laboratory experimentation has years), meso-time scale (involving thousands of
gained currency since 1950. years) and micro-time scale (involving tens of years).
Balancing the Equation Alternatively, landform changes may be investi
After the detailed investigation of form gated through cyclic time (involving long-term pe
(landforms), materials and processes individually riod of millions of years), graded time (hundreds of
and independently, attempt is made to produce a years) or steady time (tens of years). Time scale
general model o f ‘form -processes-m aterials rela assumes greater significance in the rates of opera
tionships.9 In other words, an attempt is made to tion of processes and changes occurring in land
establish relationships between landform and mate scapes. Generally, no perceptible change may occur
rials (structure, see concept 2), between form in the morphological features during short period
(landforms) and processes (see concept 3) and be because either the force exerted by the processes
tween form, materials and processes leading to for may not be enough to introduce significant change
mulation of functional theories of landscape devel or the processes might have not operated for desired
opment. ‘The system approach is ideally suited to sufficient length of time. Any change in the rate of
the identification o f the relationships between the operation of geomorphic process is supposed to
elements o f the equation and has been instrumental bring corresponding change in the landforms, ‘som e
in clarifying the diverse ways in which indices of times the response is instantaneous, as when a large
materials, o f process, and of form are related’ (Der flood passes through a channel. At other times the
byshire, Gregory and Hails, 1979). It may be men response may be quite slow or there may be ‘dead
tioned that not only perceptible relationships be time when nothing happens to landforms to reveal
tween form, processes and materials in any specific the change in the process’ (J.B. Thornes, 1979).
area having definite climatic conditions are investi Recently, the role o f man (through his eco
gated but spatial contrasts of the elements of equa nomic activities) as geomorphic agent has increased
tion and interrelationships are also studied. The significantly and thus it has becom e necessary to
introduction of equilibrium concept has enabled the study the influences of man on geomorphological
geomorphologists to envisage the landscape devel processes and their responses (forms) in a particular
opment on the basis o f relationship between proc area at different stages. For example, the rate o f soil
erosion in man-impacted gully basins has increased the measurement o f contemporary environmental
alarmingly (Savindra Singh, e l at 1995). Similarly, (geomorphological) processes since 1950 ushered
the impact of human activities on hydrological, in a new era o f realization o f significance o f human
fluvial, coastal, periglacial processes etc. has .in a c tiv itie s a ffe c tin g the en v iron m en tal
creased many fold (see chapter 30). ‘It is possible to (geomorphological) processes (Savindra Singh, 1991).
envisage several geomorphological equations each
pertaining to a particular time in an area and each CONCEPT 7
relating to a particular degree of m an’s influence' 4C om plexity o f geom orphic evolution is m ore
(Gregory, 1977). common than sim p lic ity .9 W .D. Thornbury
Generally, landform characteristics are ex
Applying the Equation plained on the basis o f most dom inant controlling
The knowledge derived through the analysis factor on the basic premise that majority o f landforms
of geomorphological equation at three levels viz. (i) are simple and have less com plex geom orphic ev o
study o f forms, materials and processes individually lution but in reality most o f the landform s are the
and independently, (ii) establishing relationships result of poly-factor rather than m ono-factor. S ec
between form and materials, between form and proc ondly, mono-process evolution o f landform s o f
esses and between form-processes-materials, and topofunction or of lithofunction or o f tectonofunction
(iii) investigation of changes in geomorphic system or o f pedofunction or of clim o-function etc. has been
and landforms over time (cyclic time, graded time recently refuted by majority o f geom orphologists
and steady time) is utilized for 'estimation of the
and they have been considered to be the o u tc o m e o f
behaviour of geomorphological systems either in
poly-process evolution. In fact, 'the crux o f the
locations where processes have not been measured problems o f landform evolution as to w heth er there
(spatial prediction) or in the future (temporal pre
is sequential change in landscape ecology w ith the
diction)' (Derbyshire, Gregory and Hails, 1979).
march of time (time-dependent approach-cyclic ev o
This becomes the field o f applied geomorphology
lution of landforms). or an individual process is
having varying dim ensions e.g. environmental
competent enough to evolve its own characteristic
geomorphology, urban geomorphology, geomorphic
landforms (process- form approach), or steady state
engineering etc (see chapters 29 and 30).
of operation o f processes leads to tim e-independent
‘We can think o f environment as a machine series of landform (dynamic equilibrium — non-cy-
which we need to control. However, such control clic evolution of landforms), or geologic structure is
can be achieved only if we fully understand how the the most dominant controlling factor in the evolu
geomorphological machine w orks’ (Derbyshire et.
tion of landforms (structure-form approach, litho
al., 1979). function), or each climatic type produces its own
T h e equation outline is tentatively offered as distinctive assemblage of landforms (clim ate-proc-
a basis for synthesising contemporary approaches to ess-form approach— climo-function) etc. still re
geom orphology and it could be extended to physical main unresolved' because o f the fact that ‘the basic
geography as a w hole’ (Gregory, 1977). The useful factors controlling the genesis and developm en t o f
ness of geomorphic investigations depends on the landforms based on the param eters o f geologic struc
successful application of geomorphic knowledge in ture (lith o-fu n ction ). tectonics (tecto n o -fu n ction ),
ameliorating different environmental problems cre climatic elements (clim o-function), processes (proc-
ated by hum an a ctiv ities and acceleration of
ess-resp o n se), vegetal cov ers iflo ro -fu n ctio n K
geomorphological processes by man as a potent
pedological characteristics (p ed o-fu n ctioii), human
geomorphic agent. T h e under-emphasis on the study
interference with physical environm ent ( a n th r o p o -
o f m an's role in c h a n g in g the en v iro n m en ta l
function), and topographic factors (top o-fan ction )
(geomorphological) processes till 1950 was because
su bstantially vary both spatially and temporally*
of lesser attention paid towards the measurement of
(Savindra Singh. 1985).
contemporary geomorphological processes and quali
tative assessment o f the reconstruction o f the effects It may be mentioned that landscape mosaic of
of palaeoprocesscs. Increased enthusiam towards any physiographic region or morphogenetic region
52 GEOMORPHOLOGY
having a distinctive clim atic regim e is the result o f a causc interruptions in cycles o f erosion w hich co m
variety o f factors but it may be that one o f the factors plicate the landform s through rejuvenation and ini
may be most dom inant in shaping the landforms. tiation o f new cyclcs o f erosion,
The variations and com plexity in landform s arc (v) C h anges in base-lcvcls o f erosion cause
introduced due to follow ing reasons— by negative or positive changes (fall and rise) in sea-
(i) T h e p r e s e n t la n d s c a p e s o f d iffe re n t Icvcls either due to tectonic ev ents (rise o f sea-floor
physiographic regions at least at macro-spatial scale or subsidence of coastal land— rise in sea level
(m egageom orp h ology) are exam ples o f p alim p sest positive changc or fall in sea-lev el— e ith er due to
top ograp h y ('lik e surfacc which has been written subsidence of sea-floor or d u e to uplift o f coastal
on m any times after previous incriptions have been land - negative changc in sca-level)or climatic changes
only partially erased; G reek : palin -'‘a g ain ’, psegma- (fall in sea-level or negative ch an g c d u e to glacial ice
‘rubbed o ff’-Chorley et a i , 1985) because these age or rise in sea-level due to intcrglacial period) are
regions have experienced several phases o f cycles of responsible for the initiation o f successive cy cles o f
erosion and the landform s have evolved very slowly erosion and hence polycyclic landform s.
over long period o f geological time and thus the On the basis o f variations in landform ch a ra c
landscapes having superim posed effects of climate teristics H orberg (1952) divided the la n d sca p es o f
and tectonic factors show evidences o f poly-cyclic the globe into five principal categories viz. (1) sim
evolution and com plexity in their general character ple landscapes, (2) co m pou nd lan dscapes, (3) m ono-
istics. In fact, successive cycles o f erosion introduce cyclic landscapes, (4) m ulti-cyclic landscapes, and
com plexity in landforms. Fo rex am p le, most parts of (5) exhum ed or resurrected landscapes.
peninsular India exhibit a fine exam ple o f palimpsest
topography having polycyclic reliefs characterized Sim ple La n d scap e s
by different erosion (planation) surfaces at different Simple landscapes are those w hich are gener
elevations. ally devoid o f com plexity and are the result o f m ono
process acting during a single cy cle o f erosion. For
(ii) The operation of several geom orphic proc
exam ple, if we take the case o f a region having
esses even during a single cycle o f erosion intro
sedim entary rocks consisting o f alternate bands o f
duces com plexity in landforms. Forexam ple, though
wind is the most dom inant geom orphic process in relatively resistant (sandstones) and soft rock beds
warm and hot arid regions but fluvial process be (shales) and river as agent o f erosion, the differential
com es occasionally very active when there is occa fluvial erosion will give birth to step p ed landscapes.
sional heavy rainfall through strong rainstorm (though It may be adm itted that even sim ple la n d sca p e is not
very rarely). Consequently, besides aeolian landforms the resulf o f a single g eom orph ic process but for
{e.g. inselbergs, yardang, zeugen, sand dunes etc.), simplification and generalization the m o st d o m in an t
very interesting fluvial landforms (pediments, bajadas, process is given due im portance and landscape d e
playas and badland) are also formed. Similarly, velopm ent is studied in term s o f m ost d o m in an t
besides the developm ent o f pure glacial landforms process (e.g. fluvial landscapes, glaciated landscapes,
in glaciated regions, fluvio-glacial landforms (e.g. periglacial landscapes, aeolian or arid landscapes
kame, eskers, outw ash plains etc.) are also evolved. etc.). For exam ple, if the landscape o f a given region
is evolved due to the work o f ru nn ing water (river),
(iii) The spatial variations in landform-con-
trolling factors (e.g. lithology, geological structure, the fluvial process undoubtedly is the m ost effective
climatic parameters mainly temperature and pre geom orphic agent but w eathering process (corrasion)
cipitation, vegetation, soils, human activities etc.) and m assw asting and m asstranslocation (slum ping,
within a physiographic or m orphogenetic region soil creep, mud flow etc.) also play significant role.
introduce complexity in the landforms, Similarly, the solution (corrosion) m echanism is
(iv ) T e c to n ic ev en ts (u p w arp in g , m o s t d o m i n a n t d e n u d a t i o n a l m ech a n ism by
downwarping, upliftment, subsidence, folding, fault groundw ater in the areas o f carbonate rocks but
ing etc.) are very important factors for creating surface w ater (surface ru n o ff resulting form rainfall)
variations in landform characteristics. Tectonic events also helps in the evolution o f landforms. In fact, the
concept o f ‘m ono-process landform 9 is related to m onocylic landform s. Like sim ple landscapes,
the concepts o f clim a tic g eom orp h ology and monocyclic landscapes are less com m on in reality.
m orphogenetic regions wherein it is envisaged that Monocyclic landscapes may be possible along coastal
‘each c lim atic typ e (and hence the resu ltan t plains provided that the coastal plains are not
geomorphic process) produces its own characteris affected by several phases o f em ergence and sub
tic assemblage of landforms’. L.C. Peltier’s classifi mergence. Monocyclic landforms generally develop
cation of climatogenetic landforms into nine catego over volcanic cones, lava plains and lava plateaus,
ries and division of world landscapes into nine newly formed domes etc. It may be pointed out that
morphogenetic regions (e.g. glacial, periglacial, monocyclic landscapes may be both sim ple and
boreal, maritime, selva, moderate, savanna, semi- compound.
arid and arid morphogenetic regions) is based on the
concept o f climatic geomorphology but it may be Poly-cyclic Landscapes
p o in te d o u t that the a d v o c a te s o f c lim a tic Landscapes produced due to com pletion o f
geomorphology have not succeeded in presenting several cycles of erosion (successive cycles o f e ro
ample convincing evidences in support of their argu sion) in a region are called as poly (multi) cyclic
ments through diagnostic landforms (e.g. lateritic landscapes (example of palimpsest topography). M ost
feature, inselbergs, pediments, tors etc.). of the present-day landscapes are the exam ples o f
multicyclic landscapes which have developed d u r
Compound Land scap es ing more than one cycles o f erosion. It m ay be
The landscapes, produced by more than one mentioned that landsforms o f older cycles are not
geomorphic processes and landform controlling fac found in their original forms because they are m o d i
tors, are called as com pound landscapes. In fact, fied by succeeding phases o f cycle o f erosion and
com pound landscapes are more common in reality hence only relic features of older cycles are p r e
than simple landscapes. The landscapes produced served. Polycyclic landscapes are identified on the
during Pleistocene glaciation present examples of basis of a few diagnostic and representative landforms
com pound landscapes as glacial geomorphic fea e.g. valley in valley topography (multi-storyed
tures (both erosional and depositional) are found at valleys, topographic discordance), rejuvenated river
higher altitudes while fluvial landforms (produced valleys, uplifted peneplains, incised m eanders, nick
by rivers) are found at lower levels. Besides, aeolian points or heads of rejuvenation etc.). T he m u lti
features mainly depositional forms have also devel cyclic landscapes are evolved due to rejuvenation
oped. Several exam ples o f compound landscapes are consequent upon lowering o f base level o f erosion
seen in Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada etc. of cither due to upliftment or negative ch ange in sea-
the U.S.A. where volcanic cones and related vol level (fall in sea-level). Applachian highlands o f the
canic landform s and lava-flow related features have USA present fine exam ple o f polycyclic landscapes
developed in the fluvially originated river valleys. which have developed because o f three successive
Tectonic events also introduce complexity in the cycles of erosion (viz-Schooley, H arrisberg and
landscapes. Com posite fault-line scarps are such Sommerville cycles o f erosion). T h e D am o d ar river
examples. Such features bear the characteristics of valley at Rajroppa in Hazaribagh (Bihar, India) and
fault plane as well as erosional surface. Such co m
the N armada valley at B heraghat (near Jabalpur,
posite fault-line scarps are formed when fault scarp
M.P.) present ideal exam ples o f rejuvenated valleys
is originated due to faulting resulting in the dow n
having three-tier te rra c e s on e ith e r side. T he
ward m ovem ent o f down thrown block along the
Chotanagpur region in general and Ranchi plateau in
fault plane and subsequent erosion of lower segment
particular represents exam ples o f polycyclic land
o f fault scarp. Thus, the upper segment is technically
formed (due to faulting) while the lower segment is scapes. Hundrughagh falls on the Subam asekha river,
erosional. Johna or G autam dhara falls at the confluence d f the
G unga and the Raru rivers, D assam ghagh falls on
Mono-cyclic La n d scap e s the Kanchi river (a tributary o f the Subarnarekha)
The landform s produced in a physiographic etc. indicate heads o f rejuvenation along the junction
region during a single cycle of erosion are called of the central and eastern Ranchi plateau (Bihar).
54 GEOMORPHOLOOY
Resurrected Landscapes ered and rounded sharp peaks and hills. The retreat
The resurrected or exhum ed landscapes are ing ice sheets left morainic deposits behind and thus
those which were covered with either lava flow numerous morainic ridges and glacial lakes were
(volcanic eruption) or sedimentation (mainly on the formed in North America and Europe.
coastal plains) after their formation but were uncov Though the Himalayan orogeny began either
ered at a later date due to denudational processes. during late Cretaceous period (M esozoic era) or
Majority o f landscapes were covered with thick ice Eocene period (Tertiary) but it was not complete
sheets during Pleistocene ice age in North America until Pleistocene period but most o f the topographic
and Eurasia but these reappeared after deglaciation details were carved out during Quaternary epoch by
o f ice sheets. M any of the landscapes were buried the fluvial processes. The H imalayas are character
under lava sheets in Peninsular India during Creta ized by young and rejuvenated landforms e.g. deep,
ceous vulcanicity and a few o f them have rôw been long and narrow valleys (gorges and canyons), three
exhum ed due to erosion of lava cover. paired terraces, waterfalls and rapids etc. The side
effects of the Himalayan orogeny are well observed
CONCEPT 8
in the present-day topographic features o f the
‘Little o f the earth's topography is older than
Chotanagpur (Bihar, India). Tertiary epoch regis
Tertiary and m ost o f it no older than Pleistocene. ’
tered three phases o f upliftment and hence interrup
W.D. Thornbury
tions in fluvial cycles of erosion occurred several
It is argued by majority of geomorphologists times mainly in Palamau uplands and Ranchi Pla
that most o f the present-day landforms are the result teau. The marginal areas o f the Ranchi plateau
o f geomorphic processes which operated in the T er (including ‘paltands’) characterized by waterfalls
tiary and Quaternary times as the landforms older (Hundrughagh falls, G autam dhara or Johna falls,
than Tertiary have been either obliterated by the Dassamghagh falls, Pheruaghagh falls etc.), nick
dynamic wheels o f denudational processes or have points and breaks in slopes and juvenile characters
been so greatly modified that they have lost their of the rivers where these descend from the escarp
original shapes and cannot be properly and accu ments, tell the story of Tertiary upliftments. The
ra te ly id e n tif i e d . On the o th e r han d , som e formation of the Gangetic trough consequent upon
geomorphologists also argue that the present-day the Himalayan orogeny rejuvenated the foreland of
landform assemblages are the examples of palimpsest Indian peninsula which is evidenced by the presence
topography and are the result o f past (palaeo) and of a series of waterfalls on the northward flowing
present processes. rivers which after descending through the foreland
The advocates o f this concept (aforesaid) meet the Yamuna and the G anga rivers right from the
argue that pre-existing earth's surface was greatly extreme western point of the Rewa plateau (M.P.) to
affected and modified by global Tertiary orogeny Rohtas plateau in the east (Bihar) e.g. Tons or Purwa
(formation of Alpine-Himalayan chains, Rockies, falls (70 m), Chachai falls (127m), Kevti falls (98m),
Andes, Atlas, Island arcs and festoons of east Asia Odda falls (148 m, all in M.P.), Devdari falls (58 m),
etc.) and related rejuvenation o f existing cycles of Telharkund falls (80m), Sura falls (120m ), Durgawati
erosion and initiation o f new cycles resulting in the falls (80 m), Dhuan Kund falls, Rahim Kund falls
origin of new sets o f landforms world over. The (168 m) etc. (all in Rohtas plateau, Bihar).
Quaternary epoch experienced global climatic change ‘It is now clear that an understanding of the
and Pleistocene ice age comprising four glacial new geology ahd o f tectonics is essential to under
periods (Gunz, Mindel, Riss, Wurm in Europe and stand landforms, and not only first order landforms......
Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoin and Wisconcin in. N. and there is an increasing concern with the older
America) and alternated by four interglacial periods landscapes’ (C.D. Oilier, 1981).
(warm period) obliterated and modified nearly all of It may be mentioned that erosional and weath
the pre-existing landscapes in most o f the regions of ering processes, responsible for the creation o f most
North America and northern Eurasia as the advanc of the third order landforms are largely determined
ing ice sheets filled up the lowlying areas and low by climatic conditions and hence climatic changes
f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s in g e o m o r p h o l o g y 55
through g e o lo g ic a l tim e s h av e g re a te r them, there are numerous relic (fossil) landforms

geomorphological significance. ‘Weathering fea which arc not the result o f present-day processes or
tures preserved in rocks show that climate and weath to those o f Quaternary times, rather they are quite
ering havcchangcd not only in Quaternary times, but old.
through all geological time’ (C.D. Oilier, 1969). For "Ifie earth's surface contains many relics of
example, latcrite profiles of Tertiary period have former gcomorphic processes— landforms that were
been covered by lava sheets in Ireland. It is iilso well created long ago, and remain at the earth's surface.
known fact that latcrites arc formed under warm and So in the thinking of time-scale we are concerned
humid climate and hence the latcritcs of Ireland not only with the formation, but also the preserva
cannot be attributed to present climatic conditions. tion of landforms. There are places where actual
‘In Triassic time England was largely a desert, as landforms, such as river valley systems, have been
was Scotland in Torridonian (Prccambrian) lime. In preserved for hundreds o f millions o f years' (C. D.
contrast, South Africa, India and Australia had gla Oilier, 1981). It is pertinent to point out that time
cial climates in Permo-Carboniferous time’ (C.D. scale is also o f paramount significance in the evolu
Oilier, 1969). tion of landf orms. For example, some landforms are
Some of the relics of landforms resulting created instantaneously following tectonic activity
from weathering and erosional processes as a conse (e.g. faults and fissures due to tensional forces or due
quence of climatic changes through geological times to seismic events), some features are formed in
have been preserved. For example, most of the weeks and months e.g. due to vulcanicity (volcanic
southern hemisphere (S. America, Africa, India, cones such as ash or cinder cones), erosional activity
Australia etc.) were glaciated during upper Carbon (e.g. sand dunes by wind, gullies by storm rains etc.)
iferous time. ‘In Mesozoic times the whole world while the evolution o f some landforms takes m il
experienced a warm phase, and glaciation was com lions of years such as the formation of planation
pletely absent. World climates in the Jurassic were surfaces. Plate tectonics have demonstrated that
particularly uniform, but in the upper Jurassic and earth movements leading to upliftment are not sud
Cretaceous climatic variations once again became den and rapid rather they are slow and continuous.
important......... at the start o f the Tertiary the world It may be concluded that, no doubt, the cli
was still considerably warmer than it is now. There matic oscillations and tectonic activities since Terti
were no ice caps, trees grew in polar regions, and the ary and mainly during Quaternary have so greatly
climate was more uniform over the earth’ (C.D. modified (Pleistocene glaciation) pre-existing m or
Oilier, 1969). phological features that they have lost their original
G.H. Ashlay has forcefully pleaded for the characteristics at least in North A m erica and north
very young nature of landforms at global level and ern Europe but many relic geomorphic features o f
maintained that ‘most of the word's scenery, its longer geological histories are indicative of their
mountains, valleys, shores, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, palaeo-genesis. ‘Indeed wherever geomorphic his
cliffs and canyons are post-Miocene, that nearly all tories are long there seems to be evidence that things
details have been carved since the emergence of were different in the past’ (C.D. Oilier, 1981).
man, and that few if any land surfaces to day have
CO N CEPT 9
any close relation to pre-Miocene surfaces’ (G.H.
Ashlay, 1931). It may be mentioned following C.D. 'Each clim atic type produces its ow n charac
Oilier that since major parts of N.America and teristic assem blage o f landform s \
northern Europe were affected by Pleistocene gla This concept is based on the basic tenet o f
ciation and the impact of glaciation on landscapes clim atic geom orphology based on the work o f Von
was great and perceptible that most of the writers of Richthofen (in China), Passarge, Jenson, Walther,
geomorphology text books were guided by Pleistocene and Thorbecke (in Africa) and Sapper (in Central
bias and subscribed to the above view points. But America and Malanesia) and advocated by J. Budel
there are also many geomorphologists who do not (1948, 1982), L.C. Peltier (1950), C. Troll (1958),
subscribe to this view point because, according to W.F. Tanner (1961). P. Birot (1968). D.R. Stoddart
56 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(1969), L. Wilson (1969, 1973),J. Tricart and A.

Cailleaux (1972) etc. The concept envisages that and erosional processes while indirect influence o f
geomorphic processes, which shape the landscapes, climate on landforms is through vegetation and
are determined and controlled by climate which thus soils.
produces distinctive landscapes through processes. The climatic geomorphologists (Budel, Peltier,
The advocates o f climatic geomorphology Tricart and Cailleux) have divided the world into
have attempted to validate the influences o f climatic definite morphogenetic (climatogenetic) regions on
conditions on the evolution and characteristics of the basis o f dom inant weathering and erosional
landforms on the basis of certain diagnostic landforms processes generated by a particular suite o f climatic
such as duricrusts (such as laterites, silcrete, calcrete parameters.
etc.), inselbergs, pedim ents, tors etc. This concept is further elaborated in chapter
It is argued that climatic parameters control 4 (clim atic geom orphology) o f this book separately
landscape development directly and indirectly. Cer in o r d e r to in c lu d e all a s p e c t s o f c l im a t ic
tain climatic parameters such as temperature and geomorphology and morphogenetic regions.
CHAPTER 3 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT 57-88
L a c k o f c o m m o n l y a c c e p ta b le th e o ry ; s ig n if ic a n c e a n d g o a l s o f
g e o m o r p h i c th e o rie s ; h is to ric a l p e r s p e c tiv e ; b a s e s a n d ty p e s o f
g e o m o r p h i c th e o rie s (teleo lo g ical theory, im m a n e n t th e o ry , h is to ric a l
th e o r y , ta x o n o m ic th e o ry , fu n ctio n al theory, realist th e o ry , c o n v e n t i o n
a lis t t h e o r y ) ; m a jo r g e o m o rp h ic th eories o f G. K. G ilb e rt, W .M . D a v is ,
W . P e n c k , L. C. K ing , J. T. H ack, M . M o r is a w a an d S. A . S c h u m m ;
g e o m o r p h i c th e o rie s in In d ian co ntext.
3
THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
This chapter deals with a few aspects of explain the landscapes of the earth's surface in all
geomorphic theories viz. lack of commonly accept environments on the basis of a single theory. The
able general theory, significance and goals of conceptual vacuum created by the rejection o f Davisian
geom orphic theories, historical perspective of cyclic model of landforms could not be filled up as
geomorphic theories, bases and types of geomorphic yet inspite of postulation of non-cyclic model of
theories and evaluation of important theories. landform development (dynamic equilibrium theory).
3.1 LA C K O F COMMONLY A CC EP TA B LE THEORY Question arises as to why no such common
The crux o f the problems of landform evolu theory could be postulated which can be acceptable
tion as to whether there is sequential change in to majority of geomorphologists and can be applied
landform development with the march of time (cy in different environmental conditions. C.G. Higgins
clic evolution of landform s, time-dependent series has opined that ‘it would seem that one reason we
of landform development), or landform develop lack an acceptable theory of landscape development
ment is time-independent and there is dynamic equi is that there is as much diversity of opinion about
librium (tim e-independent series of landform de structure, process and form as there is diversity
v e lo p m e n t or n o n -c y c lic d ev elo p m en t of among structure, process and landforms themselves.’
It is, thus, obvious that there is spatial and temporal
landform), or each geomorphic process produces its
variation in the factors controlling the genesis and
own characteristic assemblage of landforms (proc-
development o f landforms e.g. geologic structure,
ess-geom orphology), or geological structure is the
tectonic events, climatic elements, geomorphic proc
most dominant control factor in the evolution of
esses, vegetal covers, pedological characteristics
landforms (structural or geological geomorpho-
and human interference with physical environment
logy ), or each climatic type produces its own charac
through his economic activities, and landscapes are
teristic assemblage of landforms (climate-process- more complex than simple. In spite of the fact that
fonm approach, clim atic geomorphology), or tec complexity of geomorphic evolution is more com
tonics play important role in the evolution of landforms mon than simplicity, landform development has
(tectonic geom orphology or tectono-geomorphic been related to single causative factor by individual
concept), or episodic erosion model is most appro geomorphologist. According to C.G. Higgins the
priate to explain fluvially originated landforms etc. controversy regarding the theories of landform de
still remains unresolved because of the fact that the velopment has surfaced because of the fact that the
postulator has always attempted to describe and theories have been oversimplified. He further cat-
58 OriOMORFHOIXKJY
cgorically stated that ‘there m ay be no definitive more than one theories may be applicable in a region
theory or geom orphic system that can fit all having uniform environmental conditions e.g. paral
lan d scap es.’ S. Schumm (1975) has also corrobo lel retreat and slope decline may be applicable side
rated the idea o f Higgins as he has aptly remarked, by side. For example, the hillslope having sandstone
‘most models o f geomorphic evolution arc oversim capping above weak shales in Bhander plateau (M.F*,)
plified and therefore they arc unsatisfactory for near Maihar is characterized by all the four elements
short-term interpretation of landform changc. T here of ideal hillslope profile (e.g. summital convexity,
fore, a very complcx denudational history of a free face, rectilincarity and basal concavity) and is
landscape may be gcomorphologically norm al.’ *undergoing the process of parallel retreat of free facc
clement and slope replacem ent at the basal segment
It may be pointed out that majority o f theo
rists have postulated their respective geomorphic (Penckian model o f parallel retreat and slope re
theories on the basis o f limited study of landforms in placement) while the con vexo-cogcave hills, girdling
a small area and thus the results so derived may not the Bhander plateau (fig. 3.8), which have lost sand
be universal and may not be acceptable to all. It stone capping because o f prolonged backwasting
may not be out ot context to emphasize that there is and parallel retreat, are undergoing the process of
so much diversity, variability and complexity in the activc downwasting and slope dcclinc (e.g. Sharda
landform characteristics and their mode of forma Pole hill very close to Sharda T em ple hill (fig. 3.8),
tion and their controlling factors (as mentioned popularly known as Maihardevi hill, is experiencing
above) that the problems of landscape development the process o f slope decline Davisian model of slope
in all parts of the earth's surface and in all environ decline.
mental conditions cannot be solved on the basis of a It may be concluded that the most compelling
single geomorphic theory rather these can be tackled reason for the lack o f com m only acceptable general
on the basis of composite or multiple theories. Thus, geomorphic theory has been the lack o f proper and
according to C.G. Higgins, ‘we need multiple theo meaningful investigation o f processes and landforms
ries or different theories for different purposes........ and establishment and explanation of relationships
as scientists we may all be seeking a correct or between geom orphic processes and landforms in
complete rational answer to landform origins, but if different physiographic regions in correct perspec
the natural world is irrational, no internally com tive. Many of the geom orphologists have related the
plete and substantive theory or system would work.’ present-day geom orphic features Df the earth’s sur
Further, all of the geomorphic theories, pos face to the geom orphic processes operating pres
tulated so far, lack in elastacity and broader perspec ently whereas many o f these landforms are relic
tives and are unable to accommodate all aspects and features and the result o f past processes (older than
Quaternary.
view points related to genesis and development of
landforms in different environmental conditions in 3.2 S IG N IF IC A N C E AND G O A L S OF GEO
volving a host o f landform controlling parameters. M ORPHIC T H E O R IE S
But it may also be pointed out that because of In any branch o f science a theory plays an
complexity in landforms and parameters controlling important role for the developm ent of new concepts
their evolution no single theory can incorporate all
and approaches to the study of scientific problems
aspects o f landform development. It is also not
and hence the formulation of theories is necessary
desirable that wc should seek solution of all prob for the furthcrencc o f scientific knowledge. Thus,
lems of landform development from a single theory general theory is also required in geomorphology for
or geomorphic system. In fact, wc need multiple the understanding o f mode o f formation and devel
solutions instead of single solution of landform- opment o f landforms. The main role o f a geomorphic
related problem. For example, the evolution and theory is to in teg rate th ree m a jo r aspccts of
development o f hillslope in varied environmental geom orphology e.g. decription (descriptive aspeci).
conditions may be explained separately involving classification (taxanomic aspect) and genesis and
alternative theories e.g. slope decline theory, paral explanation (genetic/evolution aspect) of landforms
lel retreat theory, slope replacement theory etc. Even in different environmental conditions. A geomorphic
t h e o r ie s o f l a n d f o r m d e v e l o p m e n t 59
theory may be formulated on the basis of empirical (iii) Theory should present bases for histori
generalization, deductions or on the basis of inter cal interpretation and future prediction for landform
pretation of observed facts related to landforms and changes.
related geomorphic processes, or on models. Only
3.3 GEOM ORPHIC T H E O R IE S : H ISTO RICA L
that theory becomes most significant and commonly
acceptable which is most general, simple and elastic P ER SP EC T IV E
so that it can accommodate and explain nearly all Though a well organized and general theory
aspects of landforms e.g. right from their mode of of landscape development was propounded by W .M.
genesis through development to the present form. Davis in 1889 (com plete cycle o f river life) and
1899 (geographical cycle) but a few theories and
In fact, the main problem of landform study
concepts related to genesis, evolution and decay of
(genesis and development) may be conveniently and
geomorphic features appeared before Davis e.g.
logically, if not unambiguously, tackled if three
concept o f catastrophism and James Hutton s con
lines of geomorphic inquiry viz. precise way of
cept of uniform itarianism . In fact, the formulation
description of landforms. their classification and
of real geomorphic theory began with G.K. Gilbert
mode of genesis and evolution through time and
though he did not admit himself to be called as a
space and process-form relationship together with
theorist rather he preferred to be an ‘investigator*
the mode of operation of processes are taken into
and postulated a set of principles based on broad
account because ‘a future for geomorphic theory
generalization regarding the genesis and develop
seems assured by the needs of geologists for a sound
ment of landforms in different parts o f the U.S.A.
basis for historical interpretation of landscape, of
e.g. law of uniform slope, law o f structure, law of
environmentalists and planner for a sound basis for
divides or law of increasing acclivity, law of ten
predicting man’s effects on the landscapes and of the
dency of equality of action, law of interdependence
science itself for a means of maintaining communi
of parts etc.
cation between its perspective, genetic-historical
and process-oriented linesof inquiry’ (Higgins, 1975). The first real and general geomorphic theory
was postulated by W.M. Davis in the form of ‘geo
A c c o r d in g to C.G. H iggin s (1975) a
graphical cycle’ in 1899. In the beginning Davis
geomorphic theory must seek the solution of the formulated his model of geographical cycle for the
following three lines of inquiry related to landforms explanation of landscape development in humid
and landscapes— temperate regions of the world but later on he ap
(i) How the landforms can best be described ? plied hiscyclic model fortheexplanation of landforms
in arid regions (arid cycle o f erosion, 1903, 1905,
(ii) How these have been formed and how
1930), glaciated regions (glacial cycle o f erosion,
these have changed through time ?
1900, 1906), coastal regions (1912, also by D.W.
(iii) Which processes have formed them and Johnson in 1919)etc. D avis’ cyclic model became so
how these processes operate ? popular that it was applied to explain nearly all of the
It means a sound and forceful geomorphic landscapes produced by different geomorphic proc
theory must be competent enough to decribe the esses by geomorphologists all over the world even in
landforms, to explain the mode of formation and Germany where his model was severely criticised
historical evolution o f landforms and to identify and and most of the geomorphologists pleaded for out
reveal the mode of operation of geomorphic proc right rejection of Davisian model. Karst cycle of
esses. erosion by Beede (1911) and Cvijic (1948) and
periglacial cycle of erosion by L.C. Peltier (1950, a
According to C.G. Higgins an ideal geomorphic
German geomorphologist) etc. are such examples of
theory must include the following properties application of Davisian cyclic model.
(i) Simple and easily understandable terms It may be pointed out that universal applica
should be used to describe the landforms. tion of Davisian model (e.g. fluvial cycle o f erosion,
(ii) Theory should be based on contemporary marine cycle of erosion, karst cyclc o f erosion, arid
geological and geomorphic ideologies and thoughts. cycle oferosion, glacial cycle of erosion and periglacial
60 GEOMORPHOLOGY
cycle o f erosion) w eakened the theory to such an tutes to fill the conceptual vacuum created by the
extent that not only the model was severely criticised rejection o f Davisian model o f cyclic evolution of
and modifications were suggested but siren was landforms.
raised for the total rejection o f the model. Subse
3.3 B A S E S A N D T Y P E S O F G E O M O R P H IC T H E O -
q u e n tly , W . P e n c k p o s tu la te d his m o d e l o f
‘geom orphic sy stem ’ or ‘m orphological an aly R IES
sis’— ‘m orp h ologisch c a n a ly se’ in 1924 (posthu If we look into the history o f geom orphic
mous publication o f his work) wherein he rejected thoughts for the last two hundred years, it appears
D avis’ evolutionary model involving sequential that the bases o f geom orphic theories have been
changes in landforms and pleaded for time-inde- greatly influenced by the contem porary geological,
scientific and philosophical concepts and ideologies
pendent developm ent o f landfom is (dynamic equi
such as teleological, im m anent, historical, taxo
librium model). C.H. Crickmay's ‘panplanation
nomic, functional, realist, conventionalist etc. con
cy cle’ (1933) and ‘concept o f unequal a cclivity’
cepts and view points w hich b eca m e bases of
(1975), L.C. King's ‘pediplanation cy cle’ (1948),
geomorphic theories in historical perspective. R.J.
‘h illslop e cy cle’ (1953), ‘river cy cle’ (1951) and
Chorley (1978) has elaborated the bases o f geomorphic
‘landscape cy cle’ (1962), J.C. Pugh's ‘savanna
theories in historical perspective and has also Out
cycle o f erosion ’ (1966), S. A. Schumm's ‘episodic
lined the c h a ra c te ristic s o f d if fe r e n t ty p e s o f
erosion m od el’ (1975) etc. came as a result of
geomorphic theories.
modifications in Davisian model o f geographical
cycle. (1) T E L E O L O G IC A L TH EO R Y
Geomorphic theory was given a new turn and The teleological base o f geom orph ic theory
direction in the decades. 1930-40 and 1940-50 when in the beginning o f the dev elopm en t o f geom orphic
Krumbein and R.E. Horton (1932 and 1945) intro thoughts was influenced by religious orthodoxy
duced quantitative techniques in the interpretation wherein all the natural events were taken as the
of geomorphic processes and landforms resulting result of God's creation. ‘In som e senses it m ight be
therefrom. The introduction of quantification in argued until the later part o f the eighteenth century
geom orphology was further strengthened by A.N. the true object o f geom orphological study was not
Strahler (1950, 1952 and 1958). It may be m en the landform itself but the m ind o f the A lm ighty, o f
tioned that after 1950 geomorphologists were least which the landform was held to be an outw ard and
interested in the formulation or search of geomorphic visible m a n i f e s t i n ’ (R. J. Chorley, 1978). T hus, it is
theories as they became more interested in the study obvious that landforms were co nsidered as G o d ’s
o f geomorphic processes (mode of operation) through creation. Theory o f catastrophism , w hich envisaged
field instrumentation and experimentation in the quick and sudden origin and evolution o f all anim ate
laboratories and interpretation of landforms result and inanimate objects in a very short period o f time,
ing from these processes. This is the reason that L.C. may be cited as a typical exam ple o f teleological
King's popular work ‘Canons of Landscape Devel geom orphic theories. It m ay be m entioned that quick
o p m e n t’ (1953) and models such as ‘landscape cy and widespread events o f larger m agnitude, both in
c le ’, ‘epigene cy cle’ and ‘pediplanation cycle’ could
temporal and spatial contexts (like valcanic erup
not draw proper attention rather went unnoticed by
tions, seismic events etc.) formed the basis o f tele
the geomorphologists.
ological geom orphic theories. Even the earth's age
The forceful rejection o f Davisian evolution was calculated to be only a few thousand years.
ary model (cyclic evolution) o f landscape develop Events o f sm aller m agnitude (both in spatial and
ment resulted in the postulation o f ‘dynam ic eq u i temporal context) were ignored. T he concept of
librium th eory’ (A.N. Strahler, 1950, 1952, J.T. sudden change and evolution also sw ep t the biolo
Hack, 1960, 1965, 1975, R.J. Chorley, 1962). The gists and naturalists (e.g. Cuvier) w ho believed in
‘geom orphic threshold th eory’, ‘tectono-landform abrupt evolution and destruction o f all the Jiving
th eory’ (M. Morisawa, 1975) and ‘episodic erosion organisms. R.J. Chorley has aptly rem arked ( l 978)
th eory’ (S.A. Schum m , 1975) appeared as substi that ‘the decline o f old teleology was due to break
THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT 61
down in confidence regarding the magnitude and singular past events and description o f landforms in
frequency of events which it presupposed. It was evolutionary manner. The main goal of geomorphic
natural that it should be replaced by a causal basis of theories is retrodiction or reconstruction o f past
theory founded upon events of smaller magnitude events and not prediction of future events and changes
both in space and time.’ in landforms and processes. Thus, historical theories
are essentially based on the ‘law o f evolution’ or
(2) IMMANENT THEORY ‘law of historical succession’. Models o f cycle of
The significance of events of smaller magni erosion, denudation chronology and tectonic theory
tude in both space and time, inherent features of fall under the category of historical theories. Scien
endogenetic and cxogenetic processes, interpreta tifically speaking, these theories are not considered
tion of landform characteristics on the basis of their as scientific theories because these are based on
inherent features and causal basis formed the bases singular events whereas scientific laws are not based
of immanent theories which became dominant dur on individual events rather these are based on a host
ing eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as a conse of events and their recurrence whereas history is
quence of rejection of teleological theories. Theory based on unique events and non-repeatable proc
of uniformitarianism of James Hutton and John
esses.
Playfair is a typical example of immanent geomorphic
theories. They believed that spatial patterns of ero Davis' ‘geographical cycle’ is considered to
sion and deposition were auto-correlated. Thus, sci be the first successful attempt for the formulation o f
entists began to conceptualize inherent relationships theoretical model in geomorphology. This model
aimed at the genetic classification and description o f
between erosion and deposition, upliftment and sub
sidence, form and process. The further manifestion landforms on the basis of regional spatial and geo
of immanent theories in the nineteenth century was logical temporal scales. The model o f denudation
the development of ideas regarding relationship be chronology was based on the ‘concept o f historical
tween landform and geology and between rocks and succession9. Though both the models (cycles of
relief. J.P. Lesley, W. Smith and J.W. Powell studied erosion in the USA and denudation chronology in
the relationships between geology and landforms in U.K.) were initially framed separately but later on
much detail and postulated that there was clearcut they merged together. The model of denudation
expression of structure in landforms. It may be chronology aims at the reconstruction of successive
pointed out that intimate relationship between stages of the earth's history. Though the main goal of
lithology and structure and landforms was so deeply study is landforms but in reality it remained to be the
conceived that it was not needed to study the causal study of geological history of a given region. It is
relationships between rocks and reliefs ‘in terms of argued that Davisian model of geographical cycle
detailed studies of the manner by which certain begins on ttte basis of initial conclusion drawn from
differences in rock types support the recurring dif the study of maps of the region concerned and then
ferences observed to exist in terrain’ (R.J. Chorley, attempts to validate the initial conclusion on the
1978). At a later date detailed studies of lithology basis of logical arguments and ‘carefully selected
and structure at smaller spatial scale revealed re field observation’ which may justify the initial con
markable variations in geological structure and thus clusion.
immanent theory was further modified and strength Though tectonic theory of W. Penck is more
ened. The micro-level studies and results coming or less theoretically similar to denudation chronol
therefrom convinced the en vestigators that very close ogy but it could not acclaim as much popularity as
relationship between rocks and relief was possible was in the case of the latter because of ‘language,
only at a larger spatial scale and no profound rela political and personal considerations on the one
tionship between these variables couid be possible at
hand, and less technical assumptions on the other’
smaller spatial scale. (R.J. Chorley, 1978).
(3) HISTORICAL THEORY The historical theories started losing their
The base of historical geomorphic theories ground and popularity after 1950 because these
has been the historical succession of individual or involved very long temporal (geological time scale
GEOMORPHOLOGY
62
and m athem atical m e th o d s to the study o f landform s
involving hundreds o f m illions o f years) and very
and processes. T h e p rim ary goal o f the em erg e n c e o f
large spatial scales. ‘They (historical theories) broke
functional theory was to relate m o rp h o lo g ic a l forms
down because their time scales were so large and
to their controlling factors. It m a y be m e n tio n e d that
unsignposted that they becam e the playground for
a few geo m o rp h o lo g ists (e.g. G .K . G ilb e rt) used
unbridled and untestable speculation. T he field b e
functional basis for the in terp reta tio n o f landform s
cam e dominated by the spinners o f ingenious his
and processes and their in terrela tio n sh ip s even b e
torical sagas, following themes that were traditional
fo re th e f o r m a l e m e r g e n c e o f q u a n t i t a t i v e
both in development and outcom e’ (R.J. Chorley,
geom orphology i.e. before the classical w o rk o f R.E.
1978).
Horton in 1945 w ho e m p h a siz e d the stu d y o f rela
(4) TAXONOMIC THEORY tionship betw een erosional la n d fo rm s and gross
The availability of huge dataset regarding hydrological transfers and the d etaile d study of
landforms after 1890 necessitated the classification erosional processes but he could not s u ccee d in
of these data and landform assemblages resulting in developing ‘a genetic m odel for the d e v e lo p m e n t of
the g row th o f reg io n al ta x o n o m ic s tu d ie s in large-scale drainage n e tw o r k ’. T h e e m e rg e n c e of
g e o m o r p h o l o g y . L ik e h u m a n g e o g r a p h y , ‘classic f u n c tio n a l s c ie n c e ’ in the d e c a d e 1950-60
geomorphology was also armed with dualism wherein augm ented the study o f m e so -s c a le la n d fo rm s which
‘the theoretical binality of taxonomy has caused it to were taken as the function o f g e o m o rp h ic processes.
assume the gloss of more challenging theory and Further, the relationship betw een fo rm s and proc
thus in geomorphology we find historical/cyclic, esses was: substantiated w ith the h elp o f statistical
fu n ctional/clim atic and in teractive/ecological
correlation techniques. T h e study o f fu n ctio n al rela
developments of regional taxonomy, not to mention
tionship betw een the fo rm s (la n d fo rm s) o f m edium
the social/utilitarian ones upon which present land
tosmall spatial scale involving rapid tem poral changes
classifications rest’ (R.J. Chorley, 1978). The base
and geom orphic p rocesses and o th e r la n d fo rm c o n
of taxonomic theories was provided by two major
trolling factors becam e the focal th e m e o f functional
geomorphic concepts of clim atic geom orphology
theory but the required in fo rm atio n o f rap id te m p o
and m orphological geom orphology which devel
ral changc to validate functional re la tio n sh ip s w'as
oped in the beginning of the 20th century mainly in
not forthcoming. T h u s, the fun ction al theory d e
Germany and France. Considering the paramount
pended on the co m p cten c e o f statistical and m ath
influence of climatic parameters mainly humidity
ematical m ethods. T h e functional theory faces a
(precipitation) and temperature on geomorphological
form idable problem o f re la tin g the present-d ay
processes and landforms resulting therefrom the
landforms to the present processes. It m ay be m en
concept of m orphogenetic/m orphoclim atic region
tioned that most o f the la n d fo rm s o f the earth's
was developed and the division o f the globe into
surface are considered to be relict an d the landform
morphogenetic regions (by J. Budel, 1948, L.C.
assem blages are e x am p les.o f ‘p a lim p se st top ogra
Peltier, 1950, W.F. Tanner, 1961, D.R. Stoddart,
phy . The real functional rela tio n sh ip betw een forms
1969, L. Wilson, 1969, J. Tricart and A. Cailleux,
and processes m ay be estab lish ed o nly w hen the rate
1972 etc.) became the major manifestion o f taxo
of changes o f form s and the rate o f operation of
nomic theory.
processes is properly u nd ersto od. T h is necessitates
(5) FUNCTIONAL THEORY m easurem ent o f the rate o f o p eratio n o f processes in
The main basis o f functional theories is func the field so that ord ered inform ation m ay be avail
tional relationships between forms (landforms) and able but the absence o f su ch d ata b ecam e major
processes i.e. cause and effect relationship. The im pedim ent in the validation o f functional theory.
major methodological shift in geomorphology after (6) R E A L IS T T H E O R Y
Second World W ar was characterized by the appear
Realist theory, in fact, is the extended and
a n ce o f ‘n ew g e o m o r p h o lo g y ’ , ‘ s c ie n t if ic
modified form o f functional theory. T he basis of
geom orphology,’ and ‘qu antitative geom orpho-
realist theory is the study o f the structure (geomaterials)
logy’ as a consequence o f application o f statistical
of which the landform s have been form ed and the
63
physical and chemical processes which are respon vation and accumulation of data regarding landforms
sible for the developm ent and sustenance o f external and related geomorphic processes. It may be empha
form (o f landforms). In other words, the study of the sized that neither theory can be formulated without
detailed causal mechanisms and materials of landforms observation and aquisition o f data nor external real
on one hand, and the study of their (of processes and ity may be properly understood without theory. The
materials) interrelationships forms the basis of real study o f gully erosion and management in Deoghat
ist theory. Thus, realist theory emphasizes the de area of Allahabad district (U.P., India) at micro-
tailed and minute investigations of physical and spatial (about 56,000 m2 area) and temporal scales
chemical mechanisms operating in the geomaterials (1991— 1994) by Savindra Singh and Alok Dubey
and geological structure within the external forms (1996) is suitable example o f such approach as they
because these mechanisms are responsible for the have studied the causal mechanisms o f soil erosion
creation, changes and maintenance of geomorphic and gully development in man-impacted (cultivated)
features. The realization of the importance of the gully basins and have suggested management of
aforesaid theme blossomed in the form of the emer fragile gully basins.
gence o f realist theory and a significant shift in
m ethodology o f geomorphic investigation appeared 3.4 MAJOR GEOM ORPHIC T H EO R IES
after 1960 wherein micro-scale process study was Various theories of landform development
preferred to meso-scale form study. Though the seed have been formulated by different geomorphologists
o f ‘p ro c e s s r e a lis m ’ was sown by G.K. Gilbert from time to time on the basis of contemporary
(1909, 1914), A.K. Sundborg (1956), R.E. Horton thoughts prevalent in the field of science o f landforms
(1945), S.A. Schumm (1956) etc. but this concept (geomorphology). It may be pointed out that most of
blossomed with the work o f A.E. Scheidegger (1961) the geomorphic theories revolved around two basic
and G.H. Dury (1972). It may be mentioned that a concepts of landform development e.g., ‘sequential
few geom orphologists became so much engrossed change of landform through time’ (i.e. progressive
with ‘process realism ’ that they concentrated on the and irreversible change involving positive feedback
study o f the mechanisms o f physical and chemical mechanism) and ‘compensatory change or oscilla
weathering processes at very micro-spatial and tem tory change’ (involving steady state and equilibrium
poral scales. Here, the geomorphologists face two and governed by negative feedback mechanism).
major problem s viz. (i) the study of physical and The significant geomorphic theories include those
chemical processes at very micro-spatial and tempo of G.K. Gilbert, W.M. Davis, W. Penck, J.T. Hack,
ral scales requires specially trained geoscientists in L.C. King, Marie Morisawa, S.A. Schumm etc.
general and biochemists in particular and this may 1. Geomorphic Theory of G.K. Gilbert
not be possible for the geomorphologists, and (ii) the It may be pointed out at the very outset that
results draw n through the investigation of processes Grove Karl Gilbert did not propound any definite
at micro-scales may not be applicable for the gener theory of landform development. He did not prefer
alization o f mechanisms o f processes at meso-scale. to be called as theorist rather he opted to be an
(7) CONVENTIONALIST TH EO RY investigator. According to him theorists are seldom
Conventionalist theory is, in fact, admixture able to prove their theories while investigators are
o f different geom orphic theories. The study of always in search of collecting information and data,
geom orphic processes and forms at micro-spatial through field observation and instrumentation, about
and temporal scales (base o f realist theory) leading landform characteristics and processes which shape
to human welfare and blending o f utilitarian consid the landforms. Tentative theories of landform devel
erations form the base o f conventionalist theory. The opment are seldom proved on the basis o f field data.
This is the reason that Gilbert devoted most of his
philosophical base o f such theory is the concept that
no appreciable distinction may be made between time in the investigation of landforms and landform
theory and observation because theory is constructed making processes in different parts o f the U.S.A.
on the basis o f observation. In other words, the (e.g. Great Basin, Bonneville Lake, artesian wells o f
construction o f geom orphic theory precedes obser Great Plains, Alaska, Basin Range, Henry M oun
64 GEOMORPHOLOGY
tain, California, Sierra Mt. etc.) but did not prostulate states that ‘as time passes and the energy within the
any com m on theory regarding the evolution and system becom es m ore equally distributed the en
development o f landforms, rather he postulated a set tropy (measure o f order or disorder) increases until,
o f principles regarding different geomorphic fea at the state o f m axim um entropy, all parts o f the
tures viz. ‘law o f uniform slo p e’, ‘law o f stru c closed system have the sam e energy level’ (R.J.
tu re’, ‘law o f d ivid e’ (law o f increasing acclivity), Chorley et. at, 1985). In other w ords, with the
‘law o f tendency to eq u ality’, ‘dynam ic equilib passage o f time a system tends to achieve m inimum
riu m ’, ‘law o f interdependence o f p arts’ etc. In energy and m axim um entropy (m ax im um disorder).
fact, Gilbert was ahead o f his time as he propounded Gilbert took n ature in the p resen t ten se i.e.
such advanced concepts as ‘steady states’ ‘graded he was more interested in the present forms and
curve and profile of equilibrium,’ ‘dynamic equilib processes and their future trends (prediction) rather
riu m ’ etc. in the beginning of the 20th century which than in the reconstruction o f past events and forms
became the base of the ruling theory o f landform (retrodiction). His concept o f nature was based on
development (e.g. dynamic equilibrium theory in two fundamental concepts o f natural philosophy i.e.
volving time-independent development o f landforms) (i concept o f rhythm ic tim e, and (ii) co n cep t o f
and became the pivot of drastic methodological shift equilibrium .
in the post-second world war geomorphology. G ilb e rt's understanding o f ‘tim e ’ was quite
Though Gilbert did not specifically claim to different from geologists’ concept o f time. A ccord
have framed any definite geomorphic theory but on ing to him geologic time is rhythm ic. ‘A ny event (of
the basis of his writings and interpretation of landforms the earth) represents a plexus o f particular rhythm.
and processes his geomorphic theory may be stated The motion o f the earth is the basic rh y th m ’ which
as follows— affects climate which in turn affects and controls
4Landscapes remain in equilibrium condition, processes which create different suites o f landforms.
their history/ is rhythm ic punctuated by oscillatoty It may be mentioned that motion o f the earth, which
changes and their fo rm s are punctuated by frictional, is responsible for the genesis o f seasons and cli
rhythms arising out o f the m echanism o f driving and mates, includes rotation and revolution o f the earth.
resisting forces. ’ Gilbert attempted to differentiate the traditional con
According to Gilbert the identification and cept of evolution (involving continual grow th or
quantification o f fric tio n a l rhythm s (processes) and decay on the basis o f basic tenet o f progressive
determ ination o f their ( o f processes) dynam ic com evolutionary change o f landform s) from non-evolu-
petition is the m ajor geom orphic problem and the tionary concept involving equilibrium model. He
m ain task before the geom orphologists is to solve ciiticised and rejected the evolutionary concept of
this problem . geologists involving continuous progressive change
The geomorphic principles of G.K. Gilbert in landforms through time and advocated the con
revolve around three major components of his pos cept o f time-independent model o f landform devel
tulates viz. ‘concept o f quantification’, ‘concept opment involving dynam ic equilibrium and steady
o f tim e’ and ‘concept o f equilibrium ’. state.
Gilbert used scientific methods for interpre His concept o f eq u ilib riu m envisages that in
tation o f geom orphic processes and landforms re the final form of any functional system ‘the sum of
sulting therefrom wherein he gave more emphasis to the forces acting on the final form equalled zero.*
‘q u antity’ in place of ‘q u ality’ and applied the laws This is also known as the prin ciple o f least force*
of thermodynamics to the analysis o f geological The forces in question are o f two types, i.e. driving
processes. According to first law o f thermodynam force and resisting force. He explained his model o f
ics in any system o f constant mass, energy is neither equilibrium with specific examples which were based
created nor destroyed but total energy remains con on his own field studies. First, he applied the concept
stant and it can be transferred from one type to o f equilibrium for the explanation o f the formation
another type (the law is known as conservation of o f loccoliths resulting from vulcanicity. The forma
energy) while the second law o f thermodynamics tion and rise o f laccolith depends on the competence
of driving force (rise o f m agm a) and resisting force and models presented by him from time to time e.g.
(overlying pressure o f superincum bent load). The (i) ‘com plete cycle o f river I if e \ propounded in his
formation and growth of loccoliths continue so long essay on “The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania’
as the driving force o f rising m agm a is not countered in 1889, (ii) ‘geographical cycle’ in 1899, (iii)
by resisting force (acting downward) of equal m ag ‘slope evolution’ etc. He postulated the cyclic con
nitude. In other words, so long as driving force cept of progressive development o f erosional stream
exceeds the resisting force, m agm a continues to rise valleys under the concept o f ‘complete cycle of
upward and loccoliths register continuous growth river-life’, while through ‘geographical cycle’ he
but when the driving force is balanced by resisting described the sequential development of landforms
force, the state of equilibrium sets in and the growth through time.
of laccoliths becomes static. Thus, the principle of The general theory of landform development
least work becomes operative wherein the sum of of Davis is not the ‘geographical cycle’ as many of
driving and resisting forces becomes zero. the geomorphologists believe. His theory m a y b e
Gilbert also applied this principle of least expressed as follows—
force leading to establishment of equilibrium condi "There are sequential changes in landforms
tion in the case o f river to elucidate profile of through time (passing through youth, m ature and
equilibrium. The downstream flow of river water old stages) and these sequential changes are d i
(river discharge) is guided by the force of gravity rected towards well defined end product-develop-
wherein the potential energy is converted into ki m ent o f peneplain. ”
netic energy. The driving force in the case of a river
The basic goal of Davisian model of geo
(say energy o f the river system) is provided by its
graphical cycle and general theory of landform de
flow velocity while the resistance is offered by the
velopment was to provide basis for a systematic
bed-load and lithology of river valley. More pre
description and genetic classification of landforms.
cisely, the friction to flow velocity is offered by the
The reference system of Davisian general theory of
materials of the valley. So long as the system energy
landform development is ‘that landform s change in
say driving force (flow velocity) equals the resisting
an orderly manner as processes operate through
force say frictional force, the state of equilibrium is
time such that under uniform external environm en
established and this condition prevails till the equilib
tal conditions an orderly sequence o f landform d e
rium condition is maintained and thus the principle
velops” (R.C. Palmquist, 1975). Various models
of least force works. The long profile of a river which
were developed on the basis of this reference system
has attained the equilibrium state is called profile of
e.g. normal cycle of erosion, arid cycle of erosion,
equilibrium (i.e. equilibrium of actions) and such
glacial cycle of erosion, marine cycle of erosion etc.
river (in the state o f equilibrium) is called graded
Thus, ‘geographical cycle’ is one o f the several
river. It may be mentioned that Gilbert applied the
possible models based on Davis’ reference system
concept of ‘grad e’ to all of the landforms and
processes which he studied in the field e.g. ‘graded of landform development.
h each ’ in the case of Bonneville Lake, ‘graded Davis postulated his concept o f ‘geographi
hillslope’ in the case of Sierra mountain etc. cal cycle’ popularly known as ‘cycle o f erosion9 in
Thus, Gilbert propounded that ‘the landscape 1899 to present a genetic classification and system
is the result o f two competing tendencies i.e. ten atic description of landforms. His ‘geographical
dency towards variability ( when driving force ex cycle' has been defined in the following manner.
ceeds resisting fo rce) and tendency towards uni ‘Geographical cycle is a period o f time during
fo rm ity (when driving fo rce equals resistingforce).' which an uplifted landmass undergoes its transfor
2. Geomorphic Theory of Davis mation by the process of landsculpture ending into
W illia m M o rris D av is, an A m eric an low featureless plain or peneplain (Davis called
geomorphologist, was the first geomorphologist to peneplane).’
present a general theory of landform development. According to Davis three factors viz. struc
Infact, his theory is the outcome of a set ol theories ture, process and time play important roles in the
66 GliQMOK PI IOLQG Y
origin and development of landfonns of a particular (5) Erosion docs not start until the upliftment
place. These three factors are called as ‘Trio o f is complete. In other words, upliftment
D avis’ and his concept is expressed as follows— and erosion do not go hand in hand, Thi*
assumption of Davis bccarnc the focal
‘Landscape is a function of structure, process
point o f severe attacks by the critic* of the
and tim e’ (also called as stages by the followers of cyclic concept.
Davis).
Davis has described his model o f geographi
Structure means lithological (rock types) cal cycle through a graph (fig. 3 . 1).
and structural characteristics (folding, faulting, joints
The c y c le of erosion begins with the upliftment
etc.) of rocks. Tim e was not only used in temporal
o f landmass. There is a rapid rate o f short-period
context by Davis but it was also used as a process
upliftment of landmass o f hom ogeneous structure.
itself leading to an irreversible progression of change
This phase o f upliftment is not included in the cyclic
of landforms. Process means the agents of denuda
time as this phase is, in fact, the preparatory stage of
tion including both, weathering and erosion (run
the cycle of erosion. Fig. 3 . 1 represents the model of
ning water in the case of geographical cycle).
geographical cycle wherein UC (upper curve) and
The basic prem ises of Davisian model of LC (lower curve) denote the hill-tops or crests of
‘geographical cycle’ included the following assump water divides (absolute relief from mean sea-level)
tions made by Davis.
and valley floors (lowest reliefs from mean sea-
(1) Landforms are the evolved products of level) respectively. The horizontal line denotes time
the in te r a c tio n s o f e n d o g e n e tic
whereas vertical axis depicts altitude from sea-level,
(diastrophic) forces originating from within
AC represents maximum absolute relief whereas BC
the earth and the external or exogenetic
denotes initial average relief. Initial relief is defined
forces originating from the atmosphere
(denudational processes, agents of weath as difference between upper curve (summits o f wa
e rin g and e r o s io n - r iv e rs , w ind, ter divides) and lower curve ( valley floors) o f a
groundwater, sea waves, glaciers and landmass. In other words, relief is defined as the
periglacial processes). difference between the highest and the lowest points
(2) The Evolution of landform takes place in of a landmass. A DG line denotes ba.se level of
an orderly manner in such a way that a erosion which represents sea-level. No river can
systematic sequence of landforms is de erode its valley beyond base level (below sca-lcvcl
veloped through time in response to an Thus, base level represents the limit o f maximum
environmental change. vertical erosion (valley deepening) by the rivers.
(3) Streams erode their valleys rapidly down The upliftment of the landmass stops after p o im C
ward until the graded condition is achieved. (fig. 3.1) as the phase o f upliftment is complete. Now
(4) There is a short-period rapid rate of up erosion starts and the whole cycle passes through the
liftment in land mass. It may be pointed following three stages—
out that Davis also described slower rates (1) Y outhful S ta g e — Erosion starts after the
o f upliftment if so desired. completion of the upliftment o f the landmass.
Fig. 1 1 : Graphical presentation of geographical cycle presented by W.M Davis.

T h e top-surfaces or the summits of the water ally diminish with march of time and
divides are not affected by erosion because the rivers these practically disappear by the end of
are small and widely spaced. Small rivers and short late youth. The main river is graded.
tributaries are engaged in headward erosion due to (2) M a tu r e Stage— The early mature stage is
which they extend their length. The process is called
heralded by marked lateral erosion and well inte
stream len gth en in g (increase in the lengths of the
grated drainage network. The graded conditions
rivers). B ecause o f steep slope and steep channel
spread over larger area and most of the tributaries are
gradient rivers actively deepen their valleys through
graded to base level of erosion. Vertical erosion or
vertical erosion aided by po th ole drilling and thus
valley deepening is remarkably reduced. The sum
„ there is gradual increase in the depth of river valleys.
mits of water divides arc also eroded and hence there
This process is called valley deepening. I he valleys
become deep and narrow characterized by steep is marked fall in upper curve (UC) i.e. there is
valley side slopes of convex plan. The youthful stage marked lowering of absolute relief. Thus, absolute
is characterized by rapid rate of vertical erosion and relief and relative relief, both decrease. The lateral
valley deepening because fi) the channel gradient is erosion leads to valley widening which transforms
very steep, (ii) steep channel gradient increases the the V shaped valleys o f the youthful stage into wide
velocity and kinetic energy of the river flow, (iii) valleys with uniform or rectilinear valley sides. The
increased channel gradient and flow velocity in marked reduction in valley deepening (vertical ero
creases the transporting capacity of the rivers, (iv) sion or valley incision) is because o f substantial
increased transporting capacity of the rivers allow decrease in channel gradients, flow velocity and
them to carry big boulders of high calibre (more transporting capacity of the rivers.
angular boulders) which help in valley incision (val (3) Old Stage— Old stage is characterized by
ley deepening through vertical erosion) through almost total absence of valley incision but lateral
pothole drilling. The lower curve (LC, valley floor) erosion and valley widening is still active process.
falls rapidly because of valley deepening but the Water divides arc more rapidly eroded. In fact, water
upper curve (UC. summits of water divides or div id es are reduced in d im e n s io n by both,
interstrcam areas) remain almost parallel to the hori downwasting and backwasting. Thus, upper curve
zontal axis (AD, in fig. 3.1) because the summits or falls more rapidly, meaning thereby there is rapid
upper parts of the landmass are not affected by
rate of decrease in absolute height. Relative or avail
erosion. Thus, relative relief continues to increase
able relief also decreases sharply because of active
till the end o f youthful stage when ultim ate m axi
lateral erosion but no vertical erosion. Near absence
m u m relief (EF, in fig. 3.1) is attained. In nutshell,
of valley deepening is due to extremely low channel
the youthful stage is characterized by the following
gradient and remarkably reduced kinetic energy and
characteristic features. maximum entropy. The valleys become almost flat
(i) Absolute height remains constant (CF is with concave valley side slopes. The entire land
parallel to the horizontal axis) because of scape is dominated by graded valley-sides and di
insignificant lateral erosion. vide crests, broad, open and gently sloping valleys
(ii) Upper curve (UC) representing summits having extensive flood plains, well developed me
of water divides is not affected by ero anders, residual convexo-concave m onadno ck san d
sion. extensive undulating plain of extremelyMow relief.
(iii) Lower curve (LC) falls rapidly because of Thus, the entire landscape is transformed into
rapid rate of valley deepening through peneplain. As revealed by Fig. 3.1 the duration of
vertical erosion. old stage is many times as long as youth and maturity
(iv) Relief (relative) continues to increase. combined together.
(v)' Valleys are of V shape characterized by Evaluation of the Davisian Model of Landform
convex valley side slopes. Development
(vi) Overall valley form is gorge or canyon. Davisian model of landform development
(vii) Long profiles of the rivers are character involving progressive changes in landforms through
ized by rapids and water falls which gradu time and his concept o f ‘geographical cycle’ re
68 GEOMORPHOLOGY
ceived world wide recognition and the geomorpho- (6) His model is capable o f both predictions and
logists readily applied his model in their geomor- historical interpretation o f landform evolution
phological investigations. The academic intoxica (retrodictions).
tion of Davis’ model o f cycle of erosion continued NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF DAVIS' MODEL
from its inception in 1899 to 1950 when the model (1) Davis' concept o f upliftment is not acceptable.
had to face serious challenges though hi';, model was He has described rapid rate o f upliftment of
being criticised from the very beginning of its pos short duration but as evidenced by plate tec
tulation. S. Judson (1975) while commenting on tonics upliftment is exceedingly a show and
Davis' geographical cycle remarked, “His grasp of long continued process.
time, space and change; his com m and of detail; and
(2) D av is' c o n c e p t o f r e la tio n s h ip b etw ee n
his ability to order his information and frame his upliftment and erosion is erroneous. A ccord
arguments remind us again that we arc in the pres ing to him no erosion can start unless upliftment
ence o f a giant” . C. G. H iggins (1975) admitted that is complete. Can erosion wait for the com ple
“ Davis system came to dominate both teaching and tion o f upliftment ? It is a natural process that
research in the descriptive and genetic-historical as the land rises, erosion begins. Davis has
aspects o f geomorphology. Its continued validity is answered this question. He adm itted that he
attested in part by continuing objections to it by deliberately excluded erosion from the phase
recent critics such as R.C. Flemal (1971) and C.R. of upliftment because o f tw o reasons- (i) to
Twidale (1975), that such an obviously flawed doc make the model sim p le,a n d (ii) erosion is
trine could have enjoyed such prolonged popularity insignificant during the phase o f upliftment.
among large segment of the geomorphic community (3) The Davisian model requires a long period of
suggests that there must be compelling reasons for crustal stability for the com pletion o f cycle of
its appeal” (Charles G. Higgins. 1975). erosion but such eventless long period is
POSITIVE A SP EC T S O F DAVIS' MODEL tectonically not possible as is evidenced by
plate tectonics according to w hich plates are
(1) Davis' model of geographical cycle is highly
always in motion and the crust is very often
simple and applicable.
affected by tectonic events. Davis has also
(2) He presented his model in a very lucid, com offered explanation to this objection. Accord
pelling and disarming style using very simple ing to him, if crustal stability for desired period
but expressive language. Commenting on the is not possible, the cycle o f erosion is inter
language of Davis used in his model Bryan rupted and fresh cycle o f erosion may start.
remarked, “Davis' rhetorical style is just ad
(4) Walther Penck objected to over em phasis of
mired and several generations of readers be
time in Davis' model. In fact, Davisian model
came slightly bemused by long, though mild
envisages ‘tim e-d ep en d en tseries’ o f landform
intoxication of the limpid prose of Davis' re
development whereas Penck pleaded for ‘time-
markable essay.”
independent serie s’ o f landforms. According
(3) Davis based his model on detailed and careful to Penck landiorm s do not experience pro
field observations. gressive and sequential changes through time.
He, thus, pleaded for deletion o f ‘tim e’ (stage)
(4) Davis' model came as a general theory of
from Davis' ‘trio ’ of ‘stru ctu re, process and
landform development after a long gap after
tim e’. According to Penck “geom orphic forms
Hutton's ‘cyclic nature of the earth history.’
are expressions o f the phase and rate of
(5) This model synthesized the current geological upliftment in relation to the rate o f degrada
thoughts. In other words, Davis incorporated tion” (Von Engcln, 1942).
the concept of ‘base level’ and genetic classi (5) A.N. Strahler, J.T. H ack and R.J. Chorley and
fication o f river valleys, the concept of ‘graded several others have rejected the Davisian con
stream s’ of G.K. Gilbert and French engi ccpt o f ‘historical ev o lu tio n ’ o f landforms.
neers’ conccpt o f ‘profile of equilibrium’ in They have forwarded the dyn am ic equilib
his model. rium theory for the explanation o f landform
69
development. It may be pointed out that non- dependent model stems from an unacknowledged
cyclic concept of ‘dynamic equilibrium* as fundamental postulate that the history of the earth is
valid substitute o f Davis' cyclic concept of itself cyclic, then no non-cyclic theory o f landscape
landform development and other so-called development can win general acceptance until this
‘open sy stem ’ and non-cyclic models of postulate is unearthed, examined and possibly re
landform development could not arouse any jected*.
e n th u sia s m am ong the m o d e rn
geomorphologists. 3. Geomorphic Model of Penck
W. Penck is perhaps the most misunderstood
(6) Though Davis has attempted to include struc
ture, process and time in his model but he geomorphologist of the world. It is not yet sure
overemphasized time. His interpretation of whether he used the word ‘cycle’ or not in his model
geomorphic processes was entirely based on of landform development. Penck's views could not
empirical observation rather than on field in be known in true sense and could not be interpreted
strumentation and measurement. Though Davis in right perspective because of (i) his incomplete
decribed the structural control on landforms work due to his untimely death, (ii) his obscure
but he failed to build any model of lithological composition in difficult German language, (iii) ill-
adjustment of landforms. defined terminology, (i v) misleading review by W.M.
Davis and (v) some contradictory ideas. His work
(7) Davis attempted to explain the concept of
was posthumously published in the form o f ‘Die
grade in terms of ability to work (erosion and
morphologische Analyse’ in 1924.
deposition) and the work that needs to be done.
It is evident from the essays of W.M. Davis It may be pointed out that German scientist
that in the initial stage o f landform develop Walther Penck pleaded for the rejection o f Davisian
ment (in terms of cycle o f erosion) the avail model of geographical cycle based on time-depend
able energy is more than needed to transport ent series of landform development and presented
the eroded sediment. Thus, the river spends his own model o f ‘m orphological sy stem ’ or ‘m o r
additional available energy to erode its valley. phological analysis’ for the explanation o f land
As the river valley is deepened the sediment scape development. The m ain goal of Penck's model
supply (the work needed to be done increases) of morphological system was to find out the mode o f
for transportation increases but available en development and causes o f crustal movement on the
ergy decreases. Ultimately, required energy basis of exogenetic processes and m orphological
and available energy become equal and a con characteristics. The reference system o f Penck's
dition ofequilibrium isattained. Butthe critics model is that the characteristics of landforms o f a
maintain that the concept o f balance between given region are related to the tectonic activity of
available energy and the work to be done has that region. The landforms, thus, reflect the ratio
not been properly explained by Davis. It is between the intensity of endogenetic processes (i.e.
apparent from the writings of Davis that the rate o f upliftment) and the magnitude o f displace
work to be d o n e’ refers to transportation of ment of materials by exogenetic processes (the rate
debris by the rivers and energy is spent in two of erosion and removal of materials).
ways e.g. in transportation o f debris and in
valley deepening. Such division of expendi
According to Penck landform development
ture of energy is not justified. Thus, there are should be interpreted by means of ratios between
two shortcomings in this concept viz. (i) ero diastrophic processes (endogenetic, or rate of uplift)
sion in itself depends on the mobility of and erosional processes (exogenetic, or rate of ver
sediments and erosion is never effective in the tical incision).
abscnce o f sediments, (ii) such condition when Following arc the basic premises of Penckian
the whole energy is spent in transporting the model of landscape development—
sediments and erosion becomes totally absent (1) The morphological characteristics of any
is practically not possible. region of the earth's surface is the result of competi
It may be concluded in the words of C.G. tion between crustal movement and denudational
Higgins (1975) that ‘if the desire for a cyclic, time- processes.
70 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(2) Landscape development is time-independ peneplain representing either new ly em erged sur
ent. face from below sea level or a ‘fastenbene’ or
‘pen ep lain ’ type of land surface converted into fea
(3) Tectonic m ovem ents can be explained
tureless landmass by uplift. A ccording to Von Engeln
and their causal factors may be ascertained on the
(1942) the “prim aru m p f is a prim ary peneplain, one
basis of morphological characteristics.
which could, in either case, exhibit truncated beds
(4) The shape of the hillslope depends on and structures, and yet need n ever have had a greater
relative rates of valley incision by rivers and re altitude or a higher re lie f’. In other words, primarumpf
moval o f debris from hillslope. is the initial landscape with ev iden ces o f erosion but
(5) There are three crustal states e.g. (i) state with low altitude.
o f crustal stability when there is no active displace Contrary to the concept o f W .M . Davis, ‘that
ment, (ii) state o f initial domed uplift in a limited landscape is a function o f structure, process and time
area followed by widespread uplift and (iii) state of (stage)’, Walther Penck postulated that, ‘geomorphic
extensive crustal upliftment.
forms are an expression o f the phase and rate of
(6) There are three states of adjustment be uplift in relation to the rate o f degradation. It is
tween crustal m ovem ent and valley deepening viz. assumed that interaction between the two factors,
(i) if crustal upliftment remains constant for longer uplift and degradation, is continuous. T he landforms
period of time, the vertical erosion by the river is observed at any given site give expression to the
such that there is balance between the rate of upliftment relation between the two factors (uplift and degrada
and erosion, (ii) if the rate of uplift exceeds the rate tion) that has been or is in effect, and not to a stage
of valley deepening, then the channel gradient con in a progressive sequence” (O.D. Von Engeln, 1960,
tinues to increase till the rate of valley deepening pp. 261-62).
matches with the rate of upliftment and the state of
The landscape developm ent (we may say the
equilibrium is attained when both become equal, and
cycle of erosion) begins with the upliftm ent of
(iii) if the rate of valley deepening exceeds the rate
primarumpf (initial landscape with low height and
of crustal upliftment, then the channel gradient is
relief) representing an initial featureless broad land
lowered to such an extent that the rates of upliftment
surface. In other w ords, p rim a r u m p f is initial
and erosion become equal and the state o f equilib
geomorphic unit for the beginning o f the develop
rium is attained.
ment of all sorts o f landforms. Penck is supposed to
(7) Upliftment and erosion are always co have assu m ed v ary in g rates o f u p liftm e n t of
existent. Penck is supposed to have deliberately prim arum pf for the developm ent o f landforms. In
avoided the use of stage concept in his model of the beginning the uplift is characterized by exceed
landscape development either to undermine the cy ingly slow upheaval of long duration and thereafter
clic concept of W.M. Davis or to present a new the rate o f uplift is accelerated and ultimately it stops
model. According to O.D. Von Engeln (1960) “Penck after passing through the intermediate phases of
found escape from the concept of cyclic change uniform and declerating rates o f upheaval. In fact,
marked by the stages youth, maturity and old age’1. ‘the most tectonic m ovem ents began and ended
In the place of ‘stage’ he used the term entwickelung slowly, and that the com m on pattern o f such move
meaning thereby ‘development’. Thus, in the place ments involved a slow initial uplift, an accelerated
o f youth, mature and old stages he used the terms uplift, a deceleration in uplift and, finally, quies
aufsteigende entwickelung (waxing or accelerated cence’ (R.J. Chorley, et al., 1985, p. 28). The initial
rate o f development), gleichformige entwickelung uplift begins with regional updoming and the landform
(uniform rate of development) and absteigende development passes through the following three
entwickelung (waning or decelerating rate of devel phases.
opment). (1) Aufsteigende Entwickelung means the
Penck used the term prim aru m p f to repre phase o f waxing (accelerating) rate o f landform
sent the characteristic lanscape before upliftment. development. Initially, the land surface rises slowly
Primarumpf is, in fact, initial surface or primary but after some time the rate o f upliftment is acceler
ated. Because o f upliftment and consequent increase (relative) increase (1 in fig. 3.2). The slopes o f valley
in channel gradient, flow velocity and kinetic energy sides are convex in plan.
and of course increase in discharge (not due to uplift) The valley side slopes are continuously steep
the rivers continue to degrade their valleys with ened due to continued valley deepening. The radius
accelerated rate of downcutting (valley deepening or of convexity o f .slopes is reduced with passage o f
incision) but the rate o f upliftment far exceeds the time due to parallel retreat o f the steeper slope
rate of valley deepening (say degradation of uplifted segments. With the passage of time and more accel
landmass). Continuous active downcutting and val erated uplift and degradation the primary peneplain
ley deepening results in the formation of deep and or say primarumpf is surrounded by a series of
narrow V -shaped valleys. As the rate of uplift benches called as piedm ont treppen. Each o f such
(aufsteigende entwickelung) continues to increase benches develops as a piedmont flat, called in G er
the V-shaped valleys are further deepened and sharp man as piedm ontflache on the slowly rising m ar
ened. Since valley deepening does not keep pace gins o f the dome.
with the upliftment of landmass, the absolute height
(2) G leichform ige E n tw ick elu n g means
continues to increase. In other words, the altitudes of
uniform development of landforms. This phase may
divide summits as well as the altitudes of valley
be divided into 3 subphases on the basis o f rate o f
bottoms continue to increase as the rate of upliftment
far exceeds the rate o f vertical erosion (fig. 3.2 ) but uplift and degradation (2 in fig. 3.2). P hase (a) is
the relative or available reliefs continue to increase characterized by still accelerated rate o f uplift. A b
due to everincreasing rate o f vertical erosion or solute height still increases because the rate o f ero
valley deepening. Thus, both maximum altitude sion is still less than the rate o f upliftment. Altitudes
(absolute height from sea level) and maximum relief of both summits of water divides and valley floors
o f U p lift Curve
No F u rth er Uplift
i
Roschung o r G ravity Slope
Ilaldcnhag o r W ash Slope
Insell>erg
Case Level A ltitude
Fig. 3.2 : Graphic presentation o f Penck's model o f landform development.
continue to increase but at relatively lower rate than due to matching o f upliftment by the lowering of
in the phase o f aufsteigende entwickelung. M axi divide Summit due to denudation. It means that
mum altitude (absolute relief) is attained but relative upliftment still continues. Relative relief also re
relief remains constant because the rate of valley mains constant because the rate o f erosion o f divide
deepening equals the rate of lowering of divide summits matches with the rate o f valley deepening
summits. The valley sides are characterized by straight while both are uplifted uniformly. The slopes of
slopes (2a in fig. 3.2). This phase is called the phase valley sides are still straight as in phase 2 a because
o f uniform development probably because of uni of parallel retreat. This phase is, thus, characterized
form rate of valley deepening and lowering of divide by constant absolute and relative reliefs and thus
summits. P h a s e (b)-Altitude (absolute relief) nei uniform developm ent o f landform s. P h a s e (c)-
ther increases nor decreases i.e. remains constant Upliftment of the land stops com pletely. A bsolute
72 GEOMORPHOLOGY
reliefs or altitudes o f summit divides start decreas EVALUATION OF PENCK'S MODEL

ing because of absence o f upliftment but continued The Penck’s model o f landscape develop
erosion of summits o f divides. Relative reliefs also ment. as pointed out in the beginning, could not be
remain constant bccausc the rate o f the lowering of correctly interpreted because o f its publication in
divide summits equals the rate o f valley deepening. obscure G erm an language and wrong interpretation
Thus, this subphasc is also characterized by uniform of his ideas by English translators. P enck’s morpho
development o f landscape. logical system was severely criticised in the USA in
the same way as the ‘geographical c y c le ’ was criti
(3) A b steig en d e E n tw ic k e lu n g means w an
cised in G erm any. P en ck ’s concepts o f parallel re
ing development o f landscape during which the
treat o f slope and continued crustal movements
landscape is progressively dominated by the proc
became the most sensitive points o f attacks by Ameri
ess of lateral erosion and consequent valley w iden
can geologists. It m ay be pointed out that earlier
ing and marked decrease in the rate o f valley deep
translation o f Penck s w ork in E nglish revealed that
ening through vertical downcutting. This phase is
Penck believed in parallel retreat o f slopes but sub
marked by progressive decline o f landforms. A bso
sequent English translations sho w ed that Penck be
lute relief (altitude from sea level) decreases re
lieved in slope replacem ent w herein each upper
markably because o f total absence of upliftment but
slope unit o f hillslope and valley sides w as consid
continued downwasting o f divide summits. Relative
ered to he replaced by low er slope unit o f gentler
relief also decreases because the divide summits are
slope. It may be, thus, forw arded that m ost o f the
continuously eroded down and lowered in height
criticisms o f Penck's m orphological system came
while downcutting of valley floor decreases remark
out o f the faulty interpretations o f his views. Some
ably due to decrease in channel gradient and kinetic
o f the American critics stooped do w n to such an
energy. Parallel retreat o f valley side slopes still
extent that they rem arked that ‘his p eculiar notions
continues. Nov/ the valley side slope consists o f two owed to his incomplete recovery from a head wound
segments. The uppermost segment maintains its suffered in World W a r I ’ (quoted by C.G. Higgins,
steep angle inspite of continuous lowering of ridge 1975). His concept o f long con tin ued upliftm ent and
crests. T his slope is called g r a v it y slo p e or tectonic speculations could not find any support but
b o sch un gen . The lower segment o f the valley sides his concepts of slope d ev elo p m en t and weathering
is called wash slope or h a ld e n h a n g . Haldenhang, processes are definitely o f m uch geom orphological
composed o f talus materials o f lower inclination, is significance.
formed at the base o f the valley sides due to rapid
parallel retreat o f gravity slope or boschungen and 4. Geomorphic Model of L.C. King
consequent elimination of much of the convex wax The geom orphic theory or very com m only
ing slopes. Divide summits are continuously low known as geom orphic system o f L.C. King co m
ered by the intersection o f the retreating boschungen prises a set of cyclic m odels such as the lan d scap e
o f adjoining valleys. Thus, the intersection of cycle, the epigene cycle, the p ed ip la n a tio n cycle,
boschungen and haldenhang produces sharp knick hillslope cycle etc. essentially based on the land
(break in slope). Haldenhang or wash slope contin scape characteristics o f arid, sem i-arid and savanna
ues to expand at the cost of upper gravity slopes. In regions of South Africa as studied by him.
the advanced stage o f the phase o f absteigende The reference system o f K ing's m odel is that
entwickelung the gravity slopes or boschungen are 'there is uniform d evelo p m en t o f la n d fo rm s in vary-
reduced to steep-sided conical residuals called ing environm ental co n d itio n s a n d th ere is insignifi
inselbergs (fig. 3.2). Eventually, inselbergs arc also cant influence o f clim a tic ch a n g es in the develop
consum ed and the whole landscape is dominated by m ent o fflu v ia lly o rig in a ted la n d fo rm s. M a jo r land
a series o f concavc wash slopes or haldenhang. Such scapes in a ll the co n tinents have been evo lved by
extensive surface produced at the end o f absteigende rhythm ic g lo b a l tectonic events. There is continuous
entwickelung is called ‘endrumpf% which may be m igration (retreat) o f h illslope a n d such retreat is
considered equivalent to D avis’ peneplain. alw ays in the fo r m o f p a ra lle l retreat. ‘
As stated above King formulated his model Each cycle begins with rapid rate o f upliftment
(theory) on the basis o f information of landform followed by long period o f crustal (tectonic) stabil
characteristics derived through his personal studies ity. Thus, King's concept o f upliftment and crustal
of landscape scenery of South Africa having arid, stability is similar to the concept o f Davis. It may be
semi-arid and savanna environment and then as pointed out that cycle of pediplanation begins with
serted that his model may be practicable in other the upliftment o f previously form ed pediplains and
parts of the globe. According to L.C. King an ideal not of any structural unit. T he pediplanation cycle
hillslope profile consists of all the four elements of passes through the stages o f youth, mature and old as
slope viz. summit, scarp, debris slope and pediments in the Davisian cycle o f erosion.
and such hillslopes develop in all regions and in all The stage o f youth is characterized by initia
climates where there is sufficient relief and fluvial tion of rapid rate o f active dow n cutting of valleys by
process is dominant denudational agent. the rivers consequent upon upliftment. Thus, the
King, through his extensive field observa long profile of the rivers is punctuated by a series o f
tion, identified ‘remarkable surfaces of planation, nick points which move upstream. The valleys are so
surmounted by isolated hills (inselbergs) and piles deepened that they assume the form o f gorges and
o f rock boulders (castle koppies), that are such an canyons. With the march o f time active dow n cutting
obvious feature o f the landscape in arid, semi-arid of valleys is slowed down and as a consequence o f
and savanna parts o f A frica’ (R.J. Small, 1970). which the valley side slopes are characterized by
Thus, King propounded an entirely new ‘cyclic constant slope angles. The form o f valley side slope
m odel o f p ed ip lan ation ’ (known as pediplanation is controlled by physical processes operating on the
cycle) in 1948 to account for the unique landscapes slopes and lithologica! characteristics. ‘Eventually,
as referred to above as he was convinced that Davisian downcutting will become less active, and small
model o f arid cycle o f erosion was not competent to pediments will begin to appear in the valley bottoms.
explain these landscapes. It may be mentioned that These will become more extended as interfluve and
King claimed to have propounded his geomorphic upland areas are consumed by scarp retreat’ (R.J.
system as entirely different from Davisian cyclic Small, 1970). By the late youth most o f the interfluves
model and based on some assumptions of Penckian are narrowed down due to scarp retreat and are
model but in fact King's model is nearer to Davisian converted to steep sided hills which are called as
model than the Penckian model. inselbergs. The rounded inselbergs are called as
After extensive study of South African land bornhardts and castle koppies.
scape scenery King was convinced that the African The beginning of m ature stage is heralded by
landscape consisted of three basic elements e.g. (i) the absence of active valley deepening and initiation
rock p e d im e n ts flanking river valleys and having of lateral erosion. There is backw ard retreat o f valley
concave slope varying in angle from 1.5° to 7° cut side slope because of valley widening and hence
into solid rocks, and (ii) scarps having steep slopes valley sides are distanced from the channel but there
bounding the uplands and varying in angle from 15° is no significant change in the angle o f valley side
to 30° and experiencing parallel retreat due to slope. Extensive pediments varying in slope angles
backwasting by weathering and rainwash. (iii) The from 5° to 10° are formed at the base o f valley side
third element com prises steep sided residual hills slope. The pediments are o f concave slope plan.
known as inselbergs (bornhardts) which vary in size Continuous erosion and w eathering results in pro
and shape. The size o f inselbergs is determined by gressive decrease in the num ber 9f inselbergs. M any
the magnitude of erosion, less eroded inselbergs are o f the inselbergs are so greatly w eathered that they
large in size (e.g. mesa) while intensely eroded ones are converted to castle koppies. G radually, m any o f
are small in size (e.g. buttes). The shape of these the inselbergs and castle koppies finally disappear
inselbergs depends on the nature of underlying struc while there is continuous extension o f pedim ents
ture. consequent upon gradual parallel retreat o f scarps
The cycle o f pediplanation is performed by (upper segm ent o f valley side slope). Eventually,
twin processes viz. scarp retreat and pedimentation. many pediments coalesce to form extensive flat
74 GEOMORPHOLOGY M
surface termed by King as pediplain which is char (pediplanation cy cle) both the m odels are compat- J
acterized by uneven surface with low reliefs and ible to som e extent as boch envisage cyclic develop
subdued intersecting concave surfaces. The pediplain ment o f landscape w herein cy cle o f erosion begun
surface is still characterized by the presence of a few with rapid rate o f upliftment o f short period followed
remnants o f inselbergs and mounds. by long period o f crustal stability (tectonic stability
or tectonic inactivity). Eventually, the landmass is
By old stage m o st o f the residual hills
eroded dow n to peneplain (D a v is) and pediplain
(inselbergs) disappear. ‘The whole landscape will
(King). Both the landscapes (peneplain and pediplain>
now be dom inated by low-angled pediments; the
have com m on sim ilarity in that both have antique
multi-concave surface is the ultimate form (pediplain)
characteristics, extensive areas and subdued reliefs.
o f the cycle, the pediplain its e lf (R .J. Small, 1970).
Both the models are based on the assumption of
King has also postulated the concept of an completion o f all the three stages (youth, mature and
tique pediplanation. According to King the rem old) of the cycle. Besides these sim ilarities, both the
nants o f original pediplains developed during each models also differ from each o th e r viz. Davis
cycle are preserved and exist on all summits. ‘Par peneplain is formed due to do w n w astin g w hile King's
ticularly where formed in resistant rocks, pediplains pediplain is formed due to c o alescen ce and integra
and pediplain remnants are believed to achieve great tion o f several pedim ents w hich are form ed due to
antiquity, so much so that the highest pediplain
parallel scarp retreat. D av is’peneplain, once formed,
remnants are believed by King to have formed be
does not experience further d e v elo p m en t (growth)
fore the break-up o f the southern hemisphere conti
until it is,reuplifted. W hen uplifted, new’ cycle of
nental plates in the Jurassic’ (R.J. Chorley et. al,
erosion is initiated and the rivers are rejuvenated. On
1985). King has identified a few antique pediplanation
the other hand. K ing’s pediplain. once formed, fur
surfaces in Africa, S. A merica and Australia viz. (i)
ther grows headward. New scarp is initiated at the far
African G ondwana pediplain (formed in Jurassic
end o f the previously fo rm ed p ed ip lain which is
period) of 1300 m height having its counterpan at the
progressively consum ed by the retreat o f new scarp
elevation of 7 0 0 -1000m in Brazil ; (ii) African
and thus second pediplain is form ed w h ile the former
pediplain (formed in Creataceous period) at two
pediplain experiences decrease in its e x t e n t The
elevations i.e. 600-800m (in the coastal areas o f
Africa) and 1000-1600m (in the interior of South process co n tin u es and a series o f intersecting
Africa) which is comparable to Australian pediplain pediplains are formed which extend headw ard. Thus.
at the elevation o f 400-500m. King's pediplains, so form ed, are an alo g o u s to W.
Penck’s p ied m on t trep p en .
Regarding the development of hillslope King
has opined that the form of migrating or retreating A few' o f the assu m ptions o f K ing's model are
(parallel retreat) slope is controlled by the processes controvercial e.g. (i) K ing’s m odel is based on Afri
operating on them. The summit o f hillslope is con can experience but ‘it is not su rp risin g to find that
vex and summital convexity results from the process King has gone to apply his con cept not only to the
o f soil creep. Scarp slope (free face element) is African landscape, but also to the regions which
carved out o f rock outcrops and is characterized by today experience clim atic con dition s quite different
parallel retreat due to backwasting under the influ from those o f Africa w hich exhibit ‘p en ep lain s', not
ence o f rock fall, landslides and gullying. Scarp is the
readily accounted tor by the D avisian theory* (RJ.
most active element o f hillslope. Debris slope is
Small, 1970). (ii) K in g s assertion that there is uni
formed by the debris com ing from upslope and the
gradient is determined by the angle o f repose of form developm ent of landscapes in different envi
debris while the pediment, forming the lowermost ronmental conditions is doubtful, (iii) ‘Despite the
segment o f the hillslope, is formed due to erosion of existense of these extensive surfaces (pediplain sur
solid rocks by turbulent sheet flood. faces) ol low relief separated by cliff-lik e escarp
m en ts in the trop ics, the co n cep t o f antique
Evaluation pediplanation must rem ain questionable, if Q*dy i
If wc com pare the geom orphic models o f because ot vast periods o f time involved and our lack
W.M. Davis (geographical cycle) and L.C. King ot knowledge regarding the nature and rapidity of
75
erosional processes in subhumid environment’ (R.J. differences in the rocks and the processes acting on
Chorley, et. al, 1985). them’.
It may be pointed out that King's geomorphic The goal o f the theory of Hack is to explain
theory could not receive as much support and recog the landscapes of any region of the earth s surface on
nition as it deserved because of the fact that his the basis o f present denudational processes operat
‘canons of landscape developm ent’ came at the time ing therein and to demonstrate lithological adjust
(1953) when most of the geomorphologists were ment to landforms (for which he presented examples
least interested in geomorphic theories as they were from the Shenandoah valley of the Applachians,
busy in quantifying the landforms and processes on USA).
the basis o f information and data obtained through The reference system o f Hackian model is
field instrumentation and laboratory experimenta that ‘geomorphic system is an open system which
tion at much shorter temporal and smaller spatial always tends towards steady state while his m odel
scales.
may be stated as 'the shape o f the landform s reflects
5. Geomorphic Model of J.T. Hack the balance between the resistance o f the underlying
J. T. Hack, an American geomorphologist, is m aterials to erosion and the erosive energy o f the
a supporter and advocate of dynam ic equilibrium active processes. ’
theory of landscape development, which implies a The basic p rem ise o f Hackian model o f land
delicate condition o f energy balance and envisages scape development is that ‘the landscape a nd the
that ‘so long as the factors controlling landscape processes that fo rm it are p a rt o f an open system
development and denudational processes and en which is in steady steady o f b a la n c e ' (Hack^ i960).
ergy in the open geomorphic system remain con Hack further conceived the following reference sys
stant, there is no appreciable change (evolution) in tems on the basis of his basic assumptions—
landforms through tim e’. In fact, Hack's geomorphic
(i) T h e r e is balance between denudational
model is a serious attempt to fill the conceptual
processes and rock resistance’.
vacuum created by the criticism and rejection of
Davisian evolutionary model of geographical cycle (ii) ‘There is uniform rate o f dow nwasting in
and Penck's ‘m orphological system ’. According to all components o f landscapes.’
Hack multilevel landscape (polycyclic relief) can (iii) ‘Differences and characteristics o f form
not be explained on the basis of multiple erosion are explicable in terms of spatial relations in which
cycles as m aintained by W.M. Davis and his follow geologic patterns are primary consideration’ (Hack,
ers, albit these landscapes can be explained on the 1960).
basis of dynam ic equilibrium theory. He further
(iv) The processes (denudational) which o p
admitted that ‘eq u ilib riu m co n cep t’ is not in itself
erate today have carved out the landscapes of the
a m o d el’ rather it is a reality in nature. Hack’s
earth's surface.
geomorphic model is exclusively based on the con
cept o f open system but minute analysis of Hackian (v) ‘T h e re is lith o lo g i c a d j u s t m e n t to
model also reveals clear glimpse of evolutionary landforms’.
model in it. The basic tenet o f Hack's model is that Though J.T. Hack did not construct evolu
(as referred to above) geom orphic system is an open tionary model of landscape developm ent directly
system and so long as energy remains constant in the but he did opi ne *that evolution is also a tact o f nature
geomorphic system, landscapes remain in the condi and that the inheritance o f form is always a possibil
tion o f steady slate though there is lowering in the
ity’ (Hack, 1960). Though he did not build a model
landscape by denudational processes. It is, thus,
of progressive changes in landform s through time
o b v io u s that Hack's model envisages time inde
with changing environmental conditions but he opined
pendent or timeless developm ent of landscapes.
that ‘landforms do experience changes w ith chang
Besides, Hack also invoked a model of lithological
ad justm ent to lan d form s as he stated that topo ing equilibrium conditions but these changes are not
graphic forms and processes are closely related to like Davisian evolutionary changes.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
76
Hack postulated the concept o f variations in remains stable for long geological period (stable
landscapes in relation to varying conditions of bal base level) then the landmass is eroded down and
ance between rates o f upliftment and erosion viz.— lowered to base level o f erosion and thus the changes
in landform s from initial stage to the final stage
(i) The rate o f upliftment is balanced with the
occur in evolutionary sequ en ce (like D avisian model
rate o f erosion. If there is rapid rate o f upliftment and
o f cycle o f erosion). A cco rd in g to H ack in the case
erosion, there is produced high reliefs. This condi
o f stable base level ‘an orderly netw ork o f ridges and
tion is m aintained so long as the higher rate of
ravines’ is produced in the final ph ase o f landscape
upliftm ent and erosion remains constant.
development. Thus, there is gradual and sequential
(ii) So long as the rate o f upliftment increases, lowering in reliefs w hen base level o f erosion is
the relief also increases so that rate of erosion matches stable.
the increasing rate of upliftment. (ii) If the base level o f erosion rises because o f
(iii) When the rate o f upliftment becomes positive change in sea-level then the lo w e r segment
zero i.e. when upliftment stops, then relief also o f the rivers is subm erged due to transg ressio n o f sea
declines, though ridge and ravine topography is still water on coastal land but there is n o appreciable
maintained. effect o f base level chang e (positive) on the up
H ack has opined that if the diastrophic move stream segm ent o f the streams. T h e p ositiv e change
ment is gradual and if it is balanced by the denudational in base level also leads to low ering o f relief. Hack
processes (i.e. rates o f upliftment and erosion are maintains that the long profiles o f rivers and their
equal) then landscape, while changing from one normal work w hich controls the d ev elop m en t o f
form to the other, remains in equilibrium condition. valley side slopes are influenced and controlled by
O n the other hand, if there is rapid rate o f diastrophic upstream conditions o f the drainage basin and not by
movement, then relict landforms are preserved until the dow nstream conditions. Thus, H ack on the basis
new equilibrium condition is not attained. of this concept justified the validity o f R.E. Horton's
scheme o f ordering o f stream s and stream segments.
R.C. Palmquist has rightly revealed inherent
It may be mentioned that H orton (1942 and 1945)
glimpse o f evolutionary model o f Davis in Hack's
attempted to determ ine the hierarchy o f stream seg
model— ‘H ack (1965) paraphrases Davis' ideal geo
ments in the fluvially originated d rain ag e basins
graphical cycle in terms o f the equilibrium concept
from upstream section (source tributary streams).
and develops a similar evolutionary scheme. An
initial disequilibrium stage (youth) of rapid stream (iii) If there is low ering o f base level o f
incision is followed by an equilibrium stage (ma erosion (negative change) then there is rapid rate o f
erosion in the dow nstream section (m ainly near the
ture) wherein the rounded interfluves are lowered as
new base level i.e. m outh o f the river) o f the stream
potential energy decreases though they do not change
which influences larger areas o f the d rain age basin.
in fo rm ’ (Palmquist, 1975).
New adjustm ent betw een erosion (rapid rate) and
H a c k a lso d e v e l o p e d a ‘c o n tin u o u s rock resistance is attained.
dow n w astin g m o d e l’ which though envisages ten
dency for dynam ic equilibrium but it is not neces H a c k a lso p r o p o u n d e d th e c o n c e p t o f
lithological ad ju stm en t to landform s* ‘F o r exam
sary that the dynamic equilibrium is in steady state.
ple, it has been s u g g e s te d that, in the folded
He him self admitted that ‘though there is possibility
Applachians, the local relief and slo pe angles have
for steady state but it is not possible in reality.’
been so adjusted that each m ajor geological outcrop
He further opined, ‘that evolutionary models
yields an equal sedim ent load p er unit area (i.e. hard
can be conceived on the basis o f base level of
rocks-high, rugged and steep ; soft r o c k s — low,
erosion. In this context he considered three condi
gently rolling and w ith low slo pes— Hack, I960)*
tions o f base level viz. (i) stable base level, (ii)
(quoted by R.J. C horley et. al, 1985). R.J. Chorley c t
positive (rise) change in base level and (iii) negative
al have rem arked that ‘although this is an attractive
(fall) change in base level.
alternative explanation for geological limited 4cy*
In the case o f stable base level o f erosion he clic surfaces, but it is difficult to su ppo rt’ (RJ«
maintains that if any landmass is uplifted and then Chorley et. al, 1985).
THEORIES of lan dform developm ent
77
T h e advocates o f dynam ic equilibrium theory 6. Tectono-Geomorphic Model of M. Morisawa
including J.T. H ack m aintain that the so-called The appearance o f plate tectonic theory since
peneplain and planation surfaces at different eleva 1960 has provided impetus to geomorphological
tion levels (the outcom e o f rejuvenation and succes i n v e s t ig a t io n s in n ew d i r e c t i o n s as som e
sive cycles of erosion as envisaged by Davis and his geomorphologists have attempted to explain land
followers) are not the result o f completion o f succes scape development on the basis o f gradual and
sive cycles o f erosion bul they have been formed continuous tectonic movements as evidenced by
differently. T h e y argue, in any area of rocks which plate movements and sea-floor spreading. American
are reasonably uniform in terms of resistance, when geom orphologist Marie M orisaw a's geomorphic
the stream spacing (drainage density) is uniform, model of landscape development (1975) is based on
and where the slopes are at the same maximum such premise. The following are basic premises o f
angle, it is to be expected that the summits and the Morisawa's ‘tectono-geom orphic model’—
divide crests will all reach the same height and so (1) Landforms are the result o f inequality o f
give the impression of a former level surface which force or inequality of resistance or o f both.
has, subsequent to its formation, been dissected by
(2) The variations in landforms are due to
valleys. Hack has even gone so far as to propose that
inequality of rates of operation o f exogenetic proc
such a landscape, which he refers to as ‘ridge-and-
esses acting on different geomaterials o f the earth’s
ravine topography', is the normal expression of a
surface and inequality o f the rates o f endogenetic
condition ofdynamic equilibrium’ (R.J. Small, 1970).
processes.
Evaluation (3) Nature tends to attain balance/equilibrium
The Hack's concept that ‘most of the land between force (of processes) and resistance (o f
scapes are in uneasy dynamic equilibrium between geomaterials) but this situation (of balance) is not
available energy for work (erosion and transporta always possible because the earth is unstable and
tion) and the work being done’ cannot be validated dynamic. Thus, the earth's surface is characterized
because if there is gradual and continuous lowering by frequent changes and hence in stead o f static
in regional elevation (and hence decline in energy equilibrium there is tendency to equilibrium. D y
available for denudational work) then no landscape namic earth system is characterized by isostatic
of open system may remain in steady state. Simi feedback which affects upliftment and erosion, and
larly, the concept o f Hack that landscapes are adapted/ deposition and subsidence i.e. upliftment is fol
adjusted to changing environmental conditions is lowed by erosion and erosion is followed by deposi
doubtful because there are very little landscapes tion which is followed by subsidence which again
which have instantaneously adjusted/adapted to new leads to upliftment and thus the process continues.
environmental conditions. R.J. Rice ( 1977) has aptly The isostatic feedback also affects the rates o f
remarked, ‘to an extent all landforms are prisoners upliftment and erosion, and deposition and subsid
ence.
of their own evolutionary history. A few of the
assumptions or precepts of dynamic equilibrium (4) The present landforms are the result o f
theory are merely deductions which do not have difference of ratios of the actions o f endogenetic and
ground support. For example, the fact that ‘there is exogenetic processes. It may be mentioned that W.
perfect relationship between present-day processes Penck also postulated identical concept (landforms
and landforms' is not always true. A.L. Bloom (1978) reflect the ratio between the intensity o f endogenetic
has evaluated the Hackian model in right perspec processes i.e. rate o f upliftment and the m agnitude o f
tive— ‘If, however, tectonics and climatic changes displacement of materials by exogenetic processes
invalidate the assumption ol initial upliit or other i.e. rate of erosion and removal o f eroded materials).
constructional processes followed by still stand and The ratio ot rates o f action by endogenetic and
landscape evolution, then the dynamic equilibrium exogenetic processes varies temporally and spa
model, changing only from disequilibrium to equi tially. This aspect is responsible for temporal and
librium, is most suitable as a basis for interpreting spatial variations in landform characteristics. Thus,
the present landscape1 (A.L. Bloom, 1978). the landforms o f the earth's surface becom e com plex
78
G V / M W n S fA / fff
and hence it becom es difficult to understand the (1968). It m ay be pointed out that the ta id rate
mode o f their genesis and development. erosion is for those rivers w hich corns out (rtntt the
Himalayas.
(5) Some morphological features can be ex
plained on the basis o f plate tectonics. Based on aforesaid in f o r m a l/f t MorHawa
hypothesised that ‘there h d ire c t p<*tt'tvc rc te irm -
(6) Any landmass when uplifted or newly
ship between rate of upliftm ent and rate o f ,
created landmass undergoes rapid transformation of
It may be mentioned that Mori>av/a * modeJ f* \/4Xtd
its form through exogenetic (denudational) proc
on empirical studies and not on m erely deductsf/M ,
esses. The rate o f change (transformation) of form
depends on the nature o f force and resistance. The major prem ise o f M o m a v / a * r o o d d h
that variations in landscape-; and theirdcveJop/rrjeat
Marie M orisawa first collected information
arc due to inequality of force or rc.u?>tancc, S he haa
about the results o f geomorphological studies per
attempted to explain this concept with the help o f a
taining to erosion and reliefs conducted by different
diagram (fig. 3,3). The potential energy of %ttc&rn\
geomorphologists in different parts o f the world and
with varying heights differs considerably. In fig, 3.3
then formulated the hypothesis that there is high rate
o f erosion on uplifted landm ass because potential
energy required f o r erosion increases due to greater
height (and high potential energy results in high
kinetic energy due to increased channel flow veloc
ity which ultimately accelerates erosion).
Based on the result o f the study of stream
erosion by F. Ahnert (1970) in middle latitudes
Morisawa concluded that the rate of denudation and
basin reliefs were highly positively correlated and
90 per cent of the total differences in erosion rates in
different drainage basins were due to average reliefs
o f the basins. She also cited examples of the work of
B.P. Ruxton and I. McDougall (1967) in Papua
regarding the erosion o f volcanic mountains. The Fig. 3.3 : Graphic presentation o f potential energy o f
rates of erosion on different volcanic mountains two streams o f two different height: but with
(e.g. 75 cm /1000 year over 760 m high mountain and same base level (after M.Morisawa).
8 cm/10 0 0 year over 60 m high mountain) again
the base level for tv/o stream s (S ( and S j is the same
revealed positive correlation between height of land
but they emerge from different height’s (h. and h j
mass and rate o f erosion. Similarly, T. Yoshikawa's
with the result the potential energy o f S. is more fdue
(1974) studies also revealed positive correlation
to higher height, hj) than S ] and hence the available
between the rates o f upliftment and denudation.
energy (for denudational w ork) o f S, w ould be more
According to him the rate o f denudation substan
than S r It is, thus, inferred that there is difference in
tially increased because o f Quaternary upliftment in
available energy o f stream s for denudational work if
Japan but the rate o f upliftment in drainage basins
their base level is the same but source heights arc
exceeded the rate o f denudation. He further reported
different. She also considered such situation where
higher rate of denudation on highest mountainous
base level and source height o f three stream s 'S ?, S,,
areas than the rate o f tectonic upliftment. According
S3) are same but channel gradient is different (fig -
to Yoshikawa the present rate o f denudation of
3.4). The water discharge is also same for these th r e e
0.84rn/1000 year is more or less equal to the present streams. In such situation potential energy and iLs
rate o f upliftment (0.863 m/1000 year). B. Isacksct. transformation into kinetic energy for all the three
al (1973) estimated the average rate o f upliftment of streams is same but available energy for work to be
the Himalayas as 0.3 m m /1000 year which matches done (erosion and transportion) would be different
with the rate of erosion (0.3 mm/1000 year) by the for three streams because available energy for work
rivers in South Asia as estimated by J.N. Holeman depends upon the travel distance (channel length)
t h e o r ie s o f l a n d f o r m d e v e l o p m e n t
79
covered by the stream s during transformation of
Thus, there is variation in the rate of denuda
potential energy into kinetic energy. The travel dis
tion because of unequal resistance to resultant un
tance of a stream (S 3) with gentle channel gradient is
equal or equal force (available energy). In other
longer (fig. 3.3, A D distance for S3 stream) whereas
words, if there is uniform height, base level and
it is much shorter for a stream with steep channel water discharge for different streams but there is
gradient (A B distance for stream S p fig. 3 .3). The difference in slope gradient, then the streams having
longer the travel distance, the lesser the available gentle channel gradient would have to cover longer
(kinetic) energy for erosion and transportation be distance (channel length) and hence there would be
cause there is greater loss of energy due to friction of more friction and hence more loss of energy and less
longer distance. On the other hand, if the travel available energy for work. On the other hand, the
distance is shorter, the available kinetic energy would stream having steep channel gradient would have to
be more because there would be comparatively less covercomparatively shorter travel distance and hence
loss of energy due to friction by the surface (valley there would be comparatively less loss of energy due
floor). to leaser friction but more available energy for work.
Thus, the stream with steep channel gradient and
consequent higher resultant available energy would
erode the valley at faster rate than the stream with
gentle channel gradient and lower amount o f result
ant available energy. Thus, the deduced geomorphic
model of Morisawa may be stated as follows—
‘That unequal fo r c e s o r unequal resistance to
the sam e fo rc e will result in differen t rates o f d e n u
dation. Unequal fo rc e s at work, o r u nequal resist
ance to sam e fo rc e results in individuality a n d va ri
ety o f landforms*. (M. Morisawa, 1975)
BASE LEVEL Morisawa has attempted to establish relation
ship between tectonic force and denudational force.
Fig. 3.4 : Graphic presentation o f difference in kinetic When tectonic force and denudational force are
energy when the base level and height fo r equal, then there is equilibrium condition but there
different streams is same but there is differ would be disequilibrium when tectonic force is ei
ence in channel gradient, (after M. Morisawa, ther higher or less than the denudational force. She
1975). further maintains that the state of disequilibrium is
It is, thus, evident that stream S, has highest temporary because two opposing forces (tectonic
available kinetic energy for erosional and depositional and denudational) tend towards equilibrium state.
work while stream S 3 has lowest available kinetic Relief increases at faster rate if upliftment occurs at
energy. It is further apparent that there is inequality faster rate but the rate of erosion lacks far behind the
in force (available en erg y ) o f three streams inspite of rate of upliftment. Consequently, the rate of denuda
same height, same base level and same water dis tion would go on increasing with growing reliefs
charge. Similarly, if height and channel gradient are until denudational force (rate of erosion) matches
same but discharge varies from one stream to the w'ith tectonic force (rate of upliftment). Conversely,
other, then available kinetic energy would again be if denudational force exceeds tectonic force, then the
different for different streams because kinetic en decay of landscape is slowed down because of de
ergy = 1/2 M V 2 (M = mass, here discharge i.e. water crease in reliefs and available energy and eventually
mass, V = velocity, while potential energy = M x G equilibrium state between denudational and tectonic
X H where M = mass, G = gravity and H = height). forces is attained.
Even if height, slope and relief are same for different
Morisawa has further clarified that the afore
streams, the force (available energy) would be un
said equilibrium state is possible only when either
equal for different stream s because o f unequal force
there is decrease in tectonic force and increase in
°f friction.
80 GEOMORPHOLOGY
degradation o f landscape by denudational force or plate margins arc characterized by block faulting
there is increase in tectonic force and decrease in and lava flow. The rivers draining across the upthrown
degradation. It is evident that equilibrium state may fault block resorts to active dow ncutting and deepen
not be stable (static). their valleys and form d eep gorges and canyons. As
the erosion proceeds, several gcom orphic events
The upliftment is followed by lowering of
like reversal o f drainage pattern, river capture, for
landmass by denudation and eroded materials arc
mation of w ater gaps etc. form typical landforms.
deposited in low lying areas. This leads to positive
Mountain ranges are formed becau se o f subduction
feedback mechanism i.e. there is isostatic adjust
of one plate margin below com p aratively lighter
ment following degradation o f landmass by erosion
plate margin along destructive plate margin (con
and aggradation by deposition o f sediments. C onse
vergent plate m argins;. Stream s e ro d e these uplifted
quently, the landmass degraded by erosion (lower
and folded m ountain ranges with accelerated rate
in g o f h e ig h t) ris e s w h e r e a s a g g ra d e d a r e a
because o f increase in available kinetic energy due
(depositional area) is subjected to subsidence under
to greater height, steep gradient and less frictional
the mechanism o f isostatic readjustment. Such isostatic
readjustment may be accomplished instantaneously (resistance) force and form d eep and narrow gorges,
or m ay be delayed. If there is time-lag in isostatic canyons, high altitude terraces etc. R iv e r terraces are
readjustm ent i.e. if the isostatic readjustment is deformed and long profiles o f the riv ers are punctu
delayed, then erosion is renewed. With the result ated by nick points due to co n tin u o u s intermittent
there is intermittent upward movement in the land upliftment. C ontinued upliftm ent results in the for
mass and consequently different erosion levels are mation of stepped features (like terraces and benches)
formed at different altitudes. It may be mentioned and chain of nick points. T h us, acco rd in g to M.
that this concept validates Davisian mode of evolu M orisaw a some o f the geo m o rp h ic features of the
tionary change and polycyclic reliefs or multi-level earth's surface m ay be ex plained on the basis of
erosion surfaces. On the other hand, instantaneous widespread neo-tectonic events.
or continuous isostatic feedback supports Penck's Evaluation
model of geomorphic system (continuous change in
T h e t e c t o n o - g e o m o r p h i c m o d e l o f M.
the rate o f upliftment and erosion). M orisawa has
M orisaw a is technically m ore sound and is easily
claimed that both the models may be applicable in
applicable in the explanation o f g en esis and devel
the geomorphic personality o f any region.
opment o f some, if not all, sim ple m orphological
Based on above mentioned premises Morisawa features because it is based on em pirical studies of
postulated that ‘when denudational processes (forces) different geologists and g eo m o rp h o lo g ists in differ
operate on rocks o f varying resistance then there is ent parts o f the globe. H er m odel is m ore flexible
temporary disequilibrium state between work (ero
because it acco m m o dates both the m o dels o f evolu
sion) and form (landscape) but there is a tendency
tionary change in landform s and d y n a m ic equilib
tow ards the attainment o f equilibrium o f form in
rium concept. Besides, it is based on the evidences of
relation to force and resistance. In other words, any
plate tectonics about w hich co n v in cin g evidences
stream tries to attain such slope gradient that re
have been provided by n um ero us stud ies conducted
quired energy to transport the eroded sediment
by a host o f scientists.
becom es available i.e. when the geomaterials are
resistant, there is temporary increase in energy which 7. Ep iso dic Ero sio n Model of S.A . Schum m
increases the force so that it equals the increased I he episodic erosion model o f S.A. Schumm
high resistance and equilibrium is attained. C o n is, in Iact, the m odified version o f g eo m orphic cycle
versely, when geom aterials are less resistant, there is and is related to ev o lu tio n a ry co n cep ts involving
decrease in energy so that it matches with the resist two basic concepts viz. c on cep t o f geom orphic
ance and equilibrium is attained. threshold and concept ot co m p lex response- He
M orisaw a has attem pted to explain the g en constructed his model on the argu m ents that most of
esis and developm ent o f landforms o f the earth's the geom orphic m odels are oversim plified and lack
surface on the basis o f plate tectonics. Constructive in a ccom m od atin g m inor chang es in landforms duf-
THEORIES o f l a n d f o r m d e v e l o p m e n t 81
ing short periods. According to him there is no model of cycle o f erosion the concept o f progressive
progressive change in the level of valley floor and loweirng of channel gradient appears longical but
channel gradient through geological (long) time. graded state is not attained in youth and mature
stages. Graded stage is attained in the penultimate
The reference system of Schumm's model is
(old) stage o f cyclic model. On the other hand, if the
that there is no progressive lowering or reduction of
graded state is attained then progressive reduction o f
stream gradient and altitude of valley floor because
channel gradient and valley floor cannot be possible.
there are frequent obstructions in such progressive
Schumm has suggested that one o f the concepts o f
changes due to functioning of fluvial system. The
progressive erosion and progressive reduction in
minor details in the landforms cannot be explained
channel gradient and valley floor should be dropped
on the basis of Davisian model of cycle of erosion.
in order to solve the above geo m orph ic riddle. S o,
The main goal of Schumm's model is to ex Schumm has suggested for the construction o f alter
plain minor details of landforms (stepped valley native model which instead o f envisaging progres
floor) in the channel gradient and valley floor during sive reduction of channel gradient and valley floor
the functioning of fluvial system on the basis of the includes rapid changes o f short periods w hich sepa
concepts of geom orphic thresholds and complex rate graded periods of long duration. In other words,
response involving dynam ic equilibrium model.
there is a period of rapid change (by episodic ero
His m odel/theory states that denudation is sion) of short duration between two graded periods
not gradual and continuous rather it is episodic. The of long duration.
geomorphic history of landscape development in
According to Schumm the com plexity o f land
cludes numerous periods of rapid erosion (period of
scape may be explained on the basis o f two geom orphic
instability) and deposition. Period of rapid erosion is
concepts viz. (i) the con cep t o f g eo m o rp h ic th r e sh
followed by long period of deposition (example of
olds, and (ii) the con cep t o f co m p lex resp on se.
geomorphic response). There is repetition of periods
According to the concept of geom orphic thresholds *
of erosion and deposition and thus there is complex
changes may occur in the fluvial system but these
ity in the evolution and development of landforms
changes are not occasioned by external factors (e.g.
(example of complex response).
isostatic upliftment) but are effected by inherent
R.W. Lichty and S.A Schumm (1965) first geomorphic controls o f eroding fluvial system (say
attempted to dispel controvercies regarding the models drainage basin). For exam ple, if there is deposition
of landscape development propounded by W.M. of eroded sediments in a fluvial system , these d e p o s
Davis, W. Penck and J.T. Hack on the basis of ited sediments become unstable at a critical thresh
different time spans o f landscape development e.g. old slope i.e. channel slope gradient increases due to
cyclic tim e, graded tim e and steady state tim e (see sedimentation and a limit (threshold) is attained
chapter 2, time scales, pp. 45-48). Cyclic time in when no further sediments may be accom m odated.
volves long geological period (hundreds of millions Consequently, the channel gradient b eco m es such
of years) characterized by exponential decrease in (due to deposition) that erosion o f deposited sediments
channel gradient (fig. 2.13 A). There are several begins due to increased channel flow velocity. It is
periods o f graded time and steady state time. C han evident that such changes (deposition and erosion )
nel gradient (average) almost remains constant but have not been effected by external variables o f the
there may be fluctuations (rise and fall) with time in fluvial system but have been caused by the internal
average channel gradient. Steady state has a period geomorphic controls.
of very short duration during which there is no
According to the co ncept o f co m p lex re
change (fig. 2.13 B and C). sponse when a fluvial system is re ju v e n ated (say
The basic prem ise o f Schum m 's model is that drainage basin) then the respon se o f the fluvial
the model of geom orphic cycle (as propounded by system to rejuvenation is not only re n e w e d acc e le r
W.M. Davis) cannot accom m odate both the aspects ated rate o f valley deepen in g but the resp o n se is in
°f progressive low ering (reduction) in channel gra the form o f attainm ent o f new equilibrium (it m a y b e
dient and valley floor. For exam ple, in Davisian stated that the equilibrium is distu rb e d d u e to
82 GEOMORPHOLOGY
rejuvenation) through downcutting, aggradation and effect o f w hich is reflected in the form o f accelerated
renewed erosion. If the effects o f external variables erosion at the m outh o f the river w hich represents the
o f the fluvial system (isostatic upliftment) is co m response (of rejuvenation) o f the system (in the form
bined with geomorphic thresholds and complex re o f accelerated erosion) at a particular place (river
sponse then at least during the initial stage (youth) o f mouth) and particular time. T he effect o f such change
geom orphic cycle erosion cannot be progressive by accelerated erosion due to rejuvenation is not
rather there would be complex response o f events o f immediately extended in upstream segment o f the
relative periods o f stability separated by periods o f river and by the tim e the effect o f change is extended
episodic erosion. In other words, there is repetition upstream, the fluvial system responds in the form of
o f periods o f erosion and erosionless periods (peri deposition.
ods o f stability), the response (result) o f which is Schum m has attem pted to explain his model
that, the fluvial system and the resultant landscape o f episodic erosion with the help o f graphs (fig. 3 .7).
become very complex. The main reason o f the re First, he suggested modification in the Davisian
sultant com plexity o f landscape is the fact that if any model o f cycle o f erosion (Fig. 3.5 and 3.6). Figs. 3.5
event occurs in any segment of a river, there is no (presentation o f Davis' geographical cycle by oth
instantaneous impact o f such event on the entire ers) and 3.6 (presentation by D avis him self) repre
channel length. For example, if the river is rejuve sent geographical cycle o f D avis while fig. 3.7
nated due to negative fall in sea-level, the immediate represents the geom orphic model by Schum m .
j ^ w i I inr\
f m o i n vo
BASE LAVE L
YOUTH MATURI TY
Fig. 3.5 : Graphic presentation o f Davis' geographical cycle (by others).
Fig. 3 .6 : Graphic presentation o f geographical cycle by W.M. Davis. BFHK = upper curve-swnm it o f water divide,
CEGJ = valley flo o r = lower curve ; CEG = deposition shown by dotted line.
In all the three diagrams (figs. 3.5,3.6 and 3.7) upper mature stages) are frequented by disturbances caused
line (upper curve) denotes sum m it levels or altitude by isostatic adjustment. D otted line (CEG ) in Davis’
o f w ater divides from sea-level while lower line graph (fig. 3.6) represents deposition in the valley
(low er curve) denotes altitude o f valley floor from floor. It may be noted that in Davis' graph (fig. 3.6)
sea-level. Part A o f fig. 3.7 represents youth and upper curve (sum m its o f w ater divides, BFH K) and
early m ature stages o f Davisian model (fig. 3.6) but lower curve (valley floor, C E G ) are sm ooth curves
erosion is not progressive but these (youth and early whereas in Schum m 's graph (fig. 3.7A) both the
curves (upper and low er) arc stepped ones which (upliftment). T he dotted line in fig. 3.7 denotes
represent obstructions causcd by isotatic adjustment progressive lowering o f altitude.
B
O
o ^*PPed
VF 2 ^H !J_orvo//eyw
>•
o
> Instabi/rty Episodic Erosion
c
o
“D
D
T I M E
Fig. 3 7 : Modified concept o f geomorphic cycle o f erosion. A - dotted line denotes progressive, lowering o f altitude as
envisaged in Davis'm odel while solid lines indicate stepped features as suggested by Schumm. B - portion o f
v a l le y floor C - Portion o f valley floor V F2 (as shown in B) which indicates dynamic equilibrium period
between two periods o f instability o f shorter duration. After S. A. Schumm, 1975.
Schumm maintains that divide summits un portion indicated by VF1 in fig. 3.7 A represents
d e r g o m o d e ra te c h a n g e s b e c a u se o f lim ited normal pattern o f valley floor o f river channel but
downwasting caused by surface runoff resulting when observed minutely at smaller spatial scale then
from rainfall but downwasting is more or less uni it looks stepped as is evident from fig. 3.7B where
form on all summits. The form of valley floor be real form of VF1 in fig. 3.7 A has been extended and
comes stepped because o f reduction in valley floor projected. Normally, such stepped form o f valley
but for shorter duration. It may be mentioned that the floor is explained in terms o f influences o f external
stepped form o f valley floor is because of sediment variables like upliftment, subsidence, climatic changes
storage (deposition) and sediment flushing. The etc. but according to Schum m such stepped valley
84 GEOMORPHOLOGY
floor is not of external variables rather it is because ates period o f valley deepening and the process is
of control of internal variables of the fluvial system. repeated over and again. It is, thus, evident that if the
Such model is in fact representative of dyn am ic episodes o f erosion (period o f instability, of short
m etastable e q u ilib riu m model. It may be men duration) and deposition (period o f stability, of long
tioned that in steady state equilibrium model (here is duration) are repeated then there is no need of
fluctuation around a stable average value whereas external variables to explain minor details o f land
dynamic metastable equilibrium envisages ‘a condi scapes like small terraces, alluvial fills, riffles and
tion o f oscillation about a mean value of form which pools etc. because these features are the result of
trending through time and, at the same time, is internal variables of the fluvial system. R.J. Chorley
subjected to step-like discontinuties as a threshold et. al (1985) have aptly remarked that ‘this dynamic
effect’ (R.J. Chorley et. al, 1985). According to metastable equilibrium model of episodic erosion
Shumm there is possibility of influences of external shows, in addition, that many o f the details of the
variables on system equilibrium but in terms of landscape (e.g. small terraces and recent alluvial
denudation of landmass dynamic mestastable equi fills) do not need to be explained by the influence of
librium reflects reponses of inherent geomorphic external variables because they develop as an inte
thresholds of the fluvial system i.e. internal vari gral part of system evolution’.
ables of the fluvial system influence and control Schumm has also postulated the concept of
dynamic metastable equilibrium. Forexample, depo several subcycles within a larger fluvial cycle. Ac
sition of sediments in the valley floor upsets the said cording to him the major cycle begins with denuda
equilibrium state and introduces changes in the sys tion of uplifted landmass. In the initial stage maxi
tem (e.g. increase in channel gradient due to sedi mum sediments are produced because of active
mentation) and when these changes exceed the criti vertical erosion (valley deepening) and the quantity
cal geomorphic threshold, the eroding fluvial sys and size of sediments decreases with time because of
tem i.e. fluvially originated drainage basin is rejuve decrease in the rate and magnitude o f erosion due to
nated leading to accelerated rate of erosion (valley lessening of channel gradient. Within major cycle
downcutting). Such situation of accelerated erosion second order cycles are initiated due to isostatic
is called p erio d o f episodic erosion. The period of adjustment (upliftment) in the 1 st cycle and climatic
episodic erosion, when it exceeds the geomorphic changes. Within the second order cycles third order
threshold, is succeeded by period of deposition. cycles are initiated when geomorphic thresholds in
Thus, the bedrock valley floor of the river becomes the fluvial systems are exceeded. The fourth order
step-like which denotes the period of instability cycles are initiated due to complex geomorphic
(period of episodic erosion) and period of stability responses which are the result of changes in any one
(period of dynamic metastable equilibrium). It may of the variables of the fluvial system e.g. tectonic
be pointed out that the period of instability/erosion events, isostatic adjustment (upliftment or subsid
is of short duration while the period of stability ence), climatic changes or geomorphic thresholds.
(dynamic metastable equilibrium or graded period) The fouth order cycles o f smaller magnitude are
is o f longer duration. It may be clarified that the initiated as a result of adjustment to changes in the
periods o f instability and stability are, in fact, peri 1st, 2nd and 3rd order cycles. The final or 5th order
ods of erosion and deposition respectively (fig. 3.7 C). cycles are initiated due to seasonality o f hydrologic
Schumm has further stated that during peri events or large floods.
A
ods o f stability there may be changes in the channel Evaluation
pattern because of changes in the nature of sediments The Schumm's model o f landform develop
passing through the channel, i.e. straight channel ment is, in fact, modified form o f Davisian model of
courses may be transformed to sinuous and mean geographical cycle which envisaged progressive
dering courses. Again, the sinuous or meandering changes in landforms through time. Schumm has
course of the river may be straightened during exten successfully attempted to remove the major draw
sive floods. The straightened and thus shortened backs of Davis’ decay model and has tried to blend
river course again stimulates erosion and thus initi the cyclic model with equilibrium model. His model
is nearer to m ore reality than Davisian model. He has lead us to corroborate the concept o f composite
also attempted to explain minor landscape details theory o f landscape development.
mainly in the valley floors which were obscured in Bhander plateau (24° 3’ 29" N— 24° 39' 1” N
Davis' m odel. But the concept of numerous subscycles lat. and 80° 16’ 30" E— 80° 53’ 15” E long.), located
within a m ajor or say super cycle in a fluvial system between Panna plateau in the northwest and Rewa
is difficult to digest but the effort of S.A. Schumm plateau in the east, is characterized by Vindhyan
is commendable. There is a need o f blending o f sandstones, shales and limestones generally lying in
decay and equilibrium models to build a more a horizontal manner with alternating bands o f hard
flexible model as R.J. Chorley et. al (1985) have also and soft rocks. It registers an ascent o f about 350m
opined, ‘more than this, modern studies of thresh above the general surrounding surface o f lower
olds and complex response have suggested how the uplands and is drained by the feeders o f the Tons, the
Davisian cyclic decay model and the steady state
Satna and the Ken rivers. Mean annual rainfall is
model o f Gilbert may be effectively, combined into
1137mm and mean monthly m axim um temperatures
a united vision of landform evolution.’
of January and June are 30.5°C and 45.3°C respec
8. Geomorphic Theories : In Indian Context tively whereas mean monthly temperatures o f corre
Now, the author presents geomorphic prob sponding months are 20.4°C and 23.1°C respec
lems of a typical nature from the sub-humid tropical tively. Hilly tract of the plateau has mixed vegeta
environm ent of India for critical evaluation of the tion of open and dense forests whereas low er up
landscape developm ent of the region which may lands have scattered bushes.
Fig. 3 .8 : Bhander Plateau, M.P., India (after Savindra Singh, 1974).

A well-marked zonation of three distinct topo lower and rolling upland developed over V indhyan
graphic features (fig. 3.8) from the higher plateau to basement which has been m oderately incised by
the outer margins upto the river valleys is identified shallow valleys, the depth o f which m atches with the
on three sides (fig. 3.8) viz. north, west and north thickness of alluvia (4m to 18m). This low er upland
east— (i) at the outer margins, there is significantly is dotted with flat-topped hills, the exam ples o f
86 OliOMOimiOLOOY
m e sa s and buttes (K u sh la hill, Siiuliirin paluir* line ol waterlalhi in located further inland over the
Shankargarh hill, Lai pahar, Pithaurahad liill, Nurduliit higher plateau and in n ge in height from lOrn to30m
pahar, D hark ana pahar, Patna hill, liandhnurn hill, and are characterized by deep, long and narrow
Satani hill, M utw ari hill etc.). These accordant re gorges helow their banc*, ft may be pointed out that
sidual hills having sandstone capping above and the the find category ol falls is, in fact, head* of
alternate hands ol sandstones and shales helow are em baym enls or scarp heads where water falls down
flat-topped m esas and huttes having vertical sleep the vertical walls only when there is rain, otherwise
scarps o f free-face element and rectilineal flanks of they remain dry during rnoM period o f the year.
30° to 40° slope helow and join the billowing surface Thus, these waterfalls are not true falls signifying
form ed at their base which seldom exceeds 3 to 4 heads or rejuvenation rather they arc structural in
degrees in slope; (ii)T h e second ring o f topographic character, liven this is accepted, the coexistence of
features incorporates numerous cinhaymcnts and the drainage net with graded profile of equilibrium
indentations which girdle the plateau proper from over the higher plateau and lower uplands, signifi
three sides and indicate massive breaching o f the cant breaks in slope in their middle courses and
plateau rims. The most outstanding feature o f this above all steep slopes having frcc-facc elem ent of
zone isa c re n u la te d line o f imposing and precipitous scarp faces in no case can be explained on the basis
scarps ; (iii) The third zone includes the top-surface of Davisian model and thus his model miserably
of the central plateau and lacks in pronounced reliefs fails in the present case.
cxccpt som e convexo-concave low hills having lim The region appears to be in equilibrium stage
ited flat tops but in majority o f the cases they have as there is gradual parallel retreat o f scarps and thus
round tops, some long and narrow ridges, knolls and there is no significant chang e in landscape. The
irregular and asymm etrical valleys. The major river hack wasting is the most dom inant process. Various
courses have graded profiles over the higher plateau detached hills projecting above the general rolling
and lower uplands but arc punctuated by sudden surface of lower uplands are the left-over remnants
falls when they descend through the precipitous of the recession o f the escarpm ents and thus the
scarps. The existence o f numerous waterfalls along surrounding lower flat and rolling uplands arc not
the rims o f the escarpm ent ranging between 10m and the outcome o f lateral planation by the rivers rather
60m makes the riddle o f the geom orphic history o f they are the results o f parallel retreat o f the scarps.
the region moc complex. This explanation, no doubt, goes in favour o f equi
The entire Bhandcr plateau is a maturely librium model but the existence of Sharda Pole hill
dissected plateau but the existence of waterfalls (488m), only a km away from the precipitous Naktara
cannot be accom m odated in Davisian model of g eo escarpm ent, exhibits an exam ple o f dow nwasting
graphical cycle. The heights o f the scattered hills and reduction o f relief because the recession of
standing over the lower uplands (fig. 3.8 : block scarps (of sandstone capping) is com plete, the sand
diagram ) equal the central plateau surface in height stone capping has been stripped o ff and the weaker
(accordant level) and the exposed rock beds over the shales have been exposed. T hus, the absence o f hard
escarpm ents and these hills show perfect parallel and resistant lithologic elem ent (sandstones) has
ism. Such conditions do not support any upliftment, effected d ow nw asting in D avisian style o f lowering
a necessary requirement for rejuvenation and nick of reliefs. During the sam e erosional history o f the
points as required in Davisian model o f landscape region, Sharda Pole hill has un dergo ne the reduction
development. Further, dow nw asting seem s to be of relief of at least 72m w h ereas the tops o f central
ineffective in this region. This problem can be, for plateau and flat-topped m esas (ranging in height
the time being, solved if we look at the locations and between 500m and 58 0 m ) are least affected by
nature o f these waterfalls. There arc two distinct dow nw asting though they have undergone parallel
locations o f waterfalls viz., (i) the steepest and retreat and the process is still continuing. Such
highest waterfalls (upto 60m ) are located along the conditions again support D avisian model of land
rim s o f the plateau generally at the heads o f the scape evolution and taboo H ack's equilibrium model
cmbayrncnts and small tributaries ; (ii) the second and co rrob orates the slope rep lacem en t model of
t h e o r ie s o f l a n d f o r m d e v e l o p m e n t 87
Penck due to backw asting and hillslope cycle model geomorphological evolution o f the region at least
o f L.C. King. since Cretaceous period etc. nullify the need and
Thus, both the exam ples o f steady state and o f desirability and even the authenticity o f a single
no substantial changc in the landscape on the one theory o f landscape developm ent all over the globe.
hand and effective low ering o f relief and progres I f wc p r o c e e d f u r t h e r e a s t w a r d a n d
sive change (from free face, rcctilincar hillslope to northeastward from Bhander Plateau (say towards
convexo-concave slope and reduction of height from R cw a p la te a u ) ‘t e c to n o -g e o m o r p h ic m o d e l ’
560m to 488m ) on the other hand within a distance (Morisawa, 1974 and 1975) becom es valid in ex
of one km, over a region o f uniform structure and plaining the landscape characteristics. The northern
same geological history, having no trace o f any rim o f Rewa Plateau (fig. 3.9) overlooking trans-
fossil landform apparently different from the present Yamuna plain ascends slowly from 160m to 200m
ones, no subaerial processes in the past history of the and then is characterized by an abrupt, vertical and
Fig. 3.9: Part o f Rewa scarps with indentation, valley embayments, nicks and waterfalls (after Savindra Singh, 1974)
precipitous escarpment from 200m to 260 or 280m em bayments similar to Bhander escarpm ents but o f
and is highly c ren u laied and indented having lower heights. The T on s river, the upper course o f
88 GEOMORPHOLOGY
which is graded over the eastern lower upland of (very slow) due to plate tectonics is equalled by
Bhander plateau, abruptly descends through a steep degradation and the scarps are experiencing parallel
vertical waterfall of 70m height carvcd out in hori retreat maintaining their original character (free face
zontal but massive V indhyan sandstones (24°47' N above and middle rectilinear segm ent together with
and 81°r56" E) and after draining for a distance of lower segments of concave elem ent below) but it
about 6 km downstream in a narrow, deep and should be remembered that equilibrium stage is not
vertical gorge (valley walls rise upto 60m from the static as the earth is so dynamic.
river bed) receives the Bihar river which makes the The above discussion and observation of
m ost outstanding Chachai Falls o f 127m hardly 1.5 Palmquist (that ‘only two premises are necessary to
km upstream from its confluence with the Tons river produce a reference system which allow s both for
and the gorge (1.5 km long) is very massive and has landform evolution and dynam ic equilibrium, (i)
been carved out of horizontal massive beds of Vindhyan geomorphic systems arc multivariate open systems
sandstones. Further eastward, the Mahanadi, a tribu which tend towards a steady state equilibrium and
tary of the Tons, makes a 98m falls at Kevati (only (ii) the mass of rock existing above base level con
9km cast of Sirmaur market) and drains through a stitutes an external variable to which the system is in
straight but narrow and deep gorge having a vertical constant disequilibrium’, Palmquist, 1975, p. 159)
valley-side wall o f 80m for a distance of 4 km and warrant the necessity of multiple theories. Thus, it
thence the gorge widens out further downstream. facilitates us to conclude that the landscapes are
Further in the east and northeast there is a line of complex rather than simple and these should be
waterfalls ranging between 20m and 145m in height. studied with no bias of a particular theory or model
Such conditions (nick points in the long pro but should be viewed with open mind taking into
files of major rivers of 5th to 8th order) indicate account the consideration of adjustment of landforms
rejuvenation of northern rim of the Deccan Fore to lithology, geologic history of the region, tectonic
land. The subduction of Indian plate beneath Asiatic activity and magnitude of denudational processes
plate culminated in the Himalayan orogency and and above al I minute observation of landforms in the
jerks caused by the Himalayan upliftment intro field and laboratory. Thus, the composite approach
duced rebound impact on northern rims of the Deccan envisages detailed objective description of landforms
Foreland which was responsible for relative uplift of through field observation and morphometric details,
the latter in relation to the trans-Yamuna plain. This their classification into gcnetic/non-gcnetic catego
activity accelerated the rate of denudational proc ries and their explanation highlighting their devel
esses and caused disequilibrium of action. It is to be opment whether they may be the result of progres
noted that landscape is the outcome of the relation sive change through time (as is the case of Sharda
ship between the rates of intensity of tectonic force Pole hill, referred to above), or they may be the
and denudational processes and between the force of .
outcome of the balance between continuing uplift
resistance of materials and energy. Whenever there
and erosion (as is the case of the northern rim of
is difference between these tw-o, disequlibrium re
sults and when these two equal, equilibrium condi Deccan Foreland) as a case of open-system steady-
tion is maintained. If M orisawa’s statement is fol state model of landform development or they may be
lowed, ‘denudational and tectonic forces in Japan the product of interaction between diastrophic ac
and in the Himalayas have reached an equilibrium of tivity and climate or they may be due to parallel
action at present’ (Morisawa, 1975, p. 211), equilib- retreat etc. A combination of m ore than one possi
•ium model w'orks in this case as the rate of uplift bilities may be possible in a single region.
CHAPTER 4 CLIMATIC GEOMORPHOLOGY AND MORPHOGENETIC
REGIONS 89-104
D iagnostic landforms ; geomorphological processes and climatic con

trol ; direct control of clim ate; indirect climatic control; climatic changes
and landforms ; morphogenetic regions.
4
CLIMATIC GEOMORPHOLOGY AMD
MORPHOGENETIC REGIONS
The concept o f climatic geomorphology envis D.R. Stoddart (1969), L. Wilson (1969, 1973), J.
ages that each clim atic type produces its own Tricart and A. Cailleux (1972) etc. The advocates of
characteristic assemblages of landforms and set of climatic geomorphology argue that the rate of oper
geomorphic processes which shape them. Though ation of weathering and erosional processes, vegeta
the concept o f climatic geomorphology found grcund tion type, surface runoff, nature and rate of erosion
in Germany and France by the end of the 19th and mechanisms of landform genesis and develop
century based on the works o f scientific explorers ment differ considerably from one climatic region to
like Yon Richtchofen in China, Passarge, lessen, the other but it may be pointed out that they could not
Walther, and Thorebecke in Africa, and Sapper in be able to present convincing evidences in support of
central A merica and M alanesia but certain funda their arguments as yet.
mental problems regarding this concept could not be The concept of climatic geomorphology is
solved as yet. Even W.M. Davis recognized humid based on the following three major themes (D.R.
temperate region as ‘n o r m a l ’ for landscape develop Stoddart, 1969)—
ment but ‘he treated the landforms of non-temperate
(1) Landforms differ significantly in different
climatic regions as deviants from the ‘normal’ scheme’
climatic regions.
(D.R. Stoddart, 1969). The German scientists, who
were convinced about the imposing influences of (2) Spatial variations of landforms in differ
climate on geomorphic processes and landforms ent climatic regions are because of spatial variations
resulting therefrom, propounded that in Germany in climatic parameters (e.g. temperature, humidity,
each climatic region was characterized by distinc precipitation etc.) and their influences on weather
tiv e a s s e m b la g e o f la n d fo rm s w hile French ing, erosion and runoff.
geoscientists identified climate as a major control (3) Quaternary climatic changes could not
ling factor o f landscape development. obscure relationships between landforms and cli
The concepts of climatic geomorphology and mates. In other words, there are certain diagnostic
morpho-climatic / morphogenetic landscapes and landform s which clearly dem onstrate climate-
regions were further enriched by the classical work landforms relationships.
of J. Budel (1948, 1982), L.C. Peltier (1950), C. (4) Besides, ‘not only do different levels of
Troll (1958), W.F. Tanner (1961), P. Birot (1968), magnitude and frequency of processes have differ
GEOMORPHOLOGY
90
than present climatic con ditio ns9 (D .R Stoddart,
ent geomorphic effects in different environments,
but within a single environment different attributes 1969).
of morphometry (e.g. hydraulic geomorphometry, In se lb e rg s representing steep sided residual
slope forms and divide configuration) may them hills are considered to be the representative land-
selves be formed by processes of different magni forms of hot and arid and semi-arid clim ates and the
tude and frequency’ (R. J. Chorley, ct. al, 1985). The end product o f arid cycle o f erosion but insclberg*
above mentioned themes of climatic geomorphology have been found in different parts o f the world
need explanation separately. having different ‘climatic conditions, from hurnid
subtropical in Georgia, N orth A m erica to humid
4.1 DIAGNOSTIC LANDFORMS tropical in the Guinea coastlands, south India, Bra
The advocates of climatic geomorphology zil, and to desert areas in western North America,
have attempted to collect information about the M auretania, and south-w est A fric a ’ (D.R. Stoddart,
characteristics of such landforms w'hich may be 1969). It is argued that inselbergs are structurally
regarded as diagnostic landforms to determine cli- controlled rather than clim atically controlled and
mate-landforms relationships. Such typical diag most o f the present inselbergs w ere form ed before
nostic landforms are regarded as representatives of Quaternary epoch, ‘hence present clim ates are not
a particular climate. Climatogenetic or climatically necessarily those in which the inselbergs were formed’
controlled landforms are identified and differenti (D.R. Stoddart). It may be possible that inselbergs
ated in two ways e.g. (i) general observation and might have been formed when the clim ate was arid
acquaintance of whole landscape of each climatic
or semi-arid which m ight have changed after their
region, and (ii) identification o f typical or distinctive
formation.
landforms which represent the control of a particular
climate. The typical landforms are, in fact, main P ed im en ts, characterized by low-anglerock-
tools o f climatic geomorphologists which help them cut surfaces surrounding m ountains, are considered
in determining climate - landforms relationships in to be the representative landform s o f arid (desert)
different climatic regions. Such distinctive landforms and semi-arid climates. P edim ents are also found in
are designated as diagnostic landform s. The diag a variety of climatic conditions e.g. tropical wet and
nostic landforms, identified by the climatic geomor dry climate, subtropical and tem perate climate. A
phologists so far include inselbergs, duricrusts, ped few geomorphologists (e.g. W. Penck) argue that
iments, tors etc. pediments are structurally and tectonically rather
D uricrusts are indurated hardened surfaces than climatically controlled. L.C. King has opined
of different kinds such as laterites, silcretes, cal that the process of pediplanation and pedimentation
cretes, alcretes, ferricretes etc. depending on domi is universal and it occurs in all environm ental condi
nance of constituent minerals. Normally, lateritic tions. In fact, ‘many arid zone pedim ents are clearly
crusts are supposed to have been formed in hot and polycyclic, developed during the com plex sequence
humid climate of tropical and subtropical areas and of Pleistocene pluvials (period o f prolonged rain
therefore these are indicative of hot and humid fall) and interpluvials : many appear to be being
climates. Lateritic crusts are predominantly found in distroyed under present climatic conditions, rather
Chotanagpur highlands (Patlands of Ranchi and than being form ed’ (D.R. Stoddart, 1969).
Palamau plateaus) of Bihar (India) and over many T o rs, ‘one o f the m ost controvercial land
areas o f Decean plateau (e.g. Mahabaleshwar and forms, are piles o f broken and exposed masses of
Panchgani plateaus of Maharashtra). The presence hard rocks particularly granites having a crown of
o f lateritic crusts in certain parts of Europe (e.g. rock-blocks ol different sizes on the tops and clitters
U.K., Germany etc.) clearly demonstrates the fact (trains of blocks) on the sid e s ’ (Savindra Singh,
that these are not the result o f the present climate. 1977). Tors have been considered to be o f periglacial
‘Such crusts are often interpreted as o f Tertiary age, origin by J. Palmer and R.A. Neilson (1962), of
or as having been under continuous formation since fluvial origin (humid climate, deep chem ical weath
the end o f the Mesozoic. Exposers o f silcretes and ering and exhum ation ol rock debris by running
calcretes similarly are often related to past rather water) by D.L. Linton (1955), w hereas L.C. King
CLIMATIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c r e g io n s
91
has opined that tors are the result o f universal proc
physical weathering are considerably slowed down.
ess of pediplanation in different climatic conditions
Dense vegetation covering the valley sides and even
It may be pointed out that ‘various theories of tor-
reaching the valley floors discourages lateral ero
formation have been put forth but there is no una
sion by streams and thus the processes of valley
nimity among the exponents and it must not be as
widening becomes sluggish. Dense vegetation o f
tors, as mentioned earlier, are not confined to a
humid tropics also reduces surface runoff because a
particular rock type and climate but a variety of
sizeable portion of rainfall is intercepted by forest
rocks and climates claim their existence’ (Savindra
conopy and thus rainwater reaches the ground sur
Singh, 1977). In fact, the presence of tors right from
face in the form of aerial stream lets through the
Dartmoor of England through Nicaragua to India has
leaves, twigs, branches and stems o f trees and thus
complicated the problem o f origin of tors rather than
solving it. allows more infiltration.
It may be concluded that the aforesaid repre

sen tative/diagn ostic la n d fo rm s are older than Annual R a in fa ll(in c h e s )
Pleistocene climatic changes, so they are definitely 70 60 50 U0 30 20 10
not related to present climates where they are found.
It may be pointed out that climatic relation of land-
forms at least in glacial, periglacial and desert cli
mates are undoubtedly confirmed but more mor
phometric evidences are needed to establish close
relationship between climate and landforms in other
climatic regions. ‘This is not to deny that climati
cally conrolled landform differences exist, though
morphometric confirmation o f this is scanty; but it is
to assert that the climatic inputs and geomorphic
outputs in denudation system are so litle known that
one cannot be inferred from the other’ (D.R. Stoddart,
1969).
Chemical weathering
4.2 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND CLIMATIC
CONTROLS
It is an established fact that different pro
cesses work in different climatic regions and with
climatic variations there is also variability in the
nature and mode of influences of climatic parame
ters which affect denudational (weathering and ero
sion) processes. Tem perature and humidity have
emerged as the most significant climatic parameters
of the control of geomorphological processes in
different climatic regions. High mean annual tempera
ture and rainfall (and hence perennial humid condi
tion with high temperature throughout the year)
favour deep chemical weathering in humid tropics,
but the presence of gullies on steep slopes and
canyons in the same humid tropics presents a geo 80 70 60 50 <*0 30 20 10
morphic riddle. Besides, vegetation also plays im Physical weathering
portant role in controlling geomorphic processes in
tropical humid areas, because the combination of
high mean annual temperature and rainfall favour Fig. 4.1 A Chemical weathering, B : physical weather
dense vegetation even on steeper slopes with the ing in relation to mean annual temperature
result the processes o f soil erosion, sheetwash and and rainfall (After LC. Peltier, 1950J.
92
GEOMORPHOLOGY
The areas, clearcd o f natural vegetation through o f the m id-latitude tem perate landform s. Different
h u m a n activities in the h um id tropics, are subjected rock types respond differently to the combinations
to activc vertical erosion. S apper (1935), Friece o f w ater and tem perature in different climates. For
(1 9 3 5 ) and W e n tw o rth (1928) have identified active exam ple, limestones becom e chem ically weak to
d eep ch em ical w eathering and vertical erosion in w eathering and erosion in hot and h um id climate
h o t an d h u m id clim ates due to high mean annual because chemical w eathering becom es m ore active
tem perature and rainfall. E xcessive humidity accel but these becom e resistant to chem ical weathering in
hot and arid clim ate because o f scarcity o f water and
erates the process o f landslides, soil creep and slum p
humidity. Soil creep is also m ore or less absent in
ing. D ifferent com binatio ns o f temperature and pre
arid regions because o f scarcity o f w ater (and hence
cipitation generate different types o f weathering
m e c h a n is m s (figs. 4.1), w eathering regions (fig. 4.2) undersaturation o f soils).
and effectiv en ess o f m assm ovem ent, wind action Even there is such spatial variation in the
and pluvial erosion (fig. 4.3) in different climatic climatic param eters within a single climatic region
regions. that geom orphic processes are also influenced spa
T.C. C ham berlin and R.T. Cham berlin (1910) tially by such variation. Altitude, slope aspect, di
differentiated landform s o f humid tropics from those rection, insolation, and precipitation are significant
Mean Annual Rainfall Cinches)
<JL-------- i f - r f
M od erate
M echanical^
Moderate Chemical
weathering Frist action
very
Moderate
strong C hemicol weathering
Chtmica I Weathering
Weathering
Fig. 4.2:
PeliierrÎ950)Si° nS re^ ° n l° vary‘n8 co,nbinations o f mean annual rainfall and temperature,
c l im a t ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c r e g i o n s 93
Mean A n n u a l R a i n f a l l ^ i nc he s ) variables which influence processes and landform s

80 70 60 50 U P 30 20 in resulting therefrom. For exam ple, southw ard facing
slopes o f east-west trending valleys are steeper than
northward facing slopes because the latter receive
comparately less am ount o f insolation and thus are
covered with snow for longer duration, freeze-thaw
is less effective and hence w eathering and erosional
processes are also less active while southw ard slopes
are more affected by w eathering and erosion due to
greater amount o f insolation.
Several examples may be cited which dem on
strate strong influence of climatic param eters on
geomorphological processes and landform s result
ing therefrom. This aspect will be detailed out in the
succeeding sections. Climate controls morphogenetic
processes and landforms both directly and indi
Mass mo ve ment
rectly.
r i i i i / 1 i i
Direct Controls of Climate
10 / Mi nimum -
It may be pointed out that different m orpho
20 - genetic processes operate in different climatic re
/^^Mod e r a t
gions and with climatic variation the m ode and rate
30
o U0 / y of operation of geomorphic processes also differ
from one climatic region to the other. Besides w eath
ering, climate also influences the m echanism s o f
/ t Maximum /-
transportation and deposition. A few g e o m o r
> 70
X phologists have studied in detail the m orphoclim atic
mechanisms in some climatic regions.
/ /- Temperature is a very significant climatic
/M inim um \ /Mini;
(
80 i i \i '\ \ i 11 J l . -
parameter which not only influences but also co n
E r o s i o n trols the mechanisms of different m orphogenetic
Pluvial
1 -11I 1---- 1 1 " 1 processes. It is known to all that tem perature varies
considerably in different climatic regions. I f te m
perature (mean) o f a region is below freezing point
(less than 1°C), then there is frequent and w ide
spread frosting. If there is such fluctuation in daily
temperature that it goes dow n below freezing point
during night but rises above freezing point during
day time, then there occurs diurnal freeze (during
night) and thaw (during day) cycle which leads to
alternate processes o f contration (due to freezing
during night) and expansion (due to thaw during day
time). The repetition o f this m echanism causes frost
weathering in periglacial climate (congelifraction)
80 70 60 50 to 30 20 10 during transitional periods o f sum m er and winter
Wind Action
seasons in temperate climate. Jointed rocks are shat
Fig. 4.3 :A : Nature ofmassmovement, B : pluvial erosion tered under the impact o f frost weathering w hich is
and C : wind action in different climatic
responsible for the origin o f distinctive landforms
conditions (after L C . Peltier, 1950).
GEOMORPHOLOGY
94
(m o rph og enetic) pro cesses in a variety o f ways.
like tors w here the rocks are w idely jointed. The
T here is large daily ran g e o f te m p e ra tu re (u pto 33°C)
im p act of freeze-thaw m echanism on unconsolidated
in h ot desert clim ate w ith the resu lt the ex pansion
geo -m a terials beco m es very interesting in active
and contraction co efficien t reg isters in c re ase w hich
layers of periglacial areas w here if this m echanism
ham pers d ev e lo p m e n t o f jo in ts in rocks. R o c k s are
b e c o m e s a c tiv e in clay m aterials, solifluction
shattered due to altern ate e x p a n s io n (d ue to very
(congelifluction) becom es operative as clay de
high tem perature du ring d ay ) a n d co n tra c tio n (due
posits resting on slopes are softened and loosened
d u e to frost action and slum p dow nslope when to considerable fall o f te m p e ra tu re d u r in g n ig ht) into
granular disintegration. H ig h diu rn al ra n g e o f te m
lubricated by m eltw ater (when frost thaws due to
perature leading to rep etition o f e x p a n s io n a n d c o n
rise in tem perature).
traction for longer duration c a u se s flaking in the
Fro st action also influences surface runoff
rocks w herein thin sheets o f rocks are p e e le d o ff
and undergroun d drainage. For example, there is
layer after layer, the process is called exfoliation or
m o re or less regularity in stream discharge in hot
on io n w e a th e r in g . This process is not o n ly co n fin e d
and h um id climate but there is much variation and
to hot desert areas but is also o p e ra tiv e in m o n so o n
fluctuation in the climates having frost actions as
climates. F or exam ple, the case o f flak in g and e x fo
discharge becom es m inimum during winter due to
liation w eathering can well be seen o v e r ex p o sed
freezing o f a sizeable portion o f water but there is
granito-gneissic dom es o f C h o ta n a g p u r in general
m axim um discharge o f water during sum m er due to
thaw o f frozen water. The whole o f active la y er and Ranchi plateau in particular.
lying above p e r m a f r o s t in periglacial climate freezes The regions having m a rk e d d iffe re n c e in h u
but the upper part o f it thaws during sum m er but the mid and dry conditions (i.e. clim ates h av in g sea
thawed water does not reach greater depth in active sonal variations in wet and dry c o n d itio n s) g en era te
layer and hence water flows rapidly as active surface different types o f conditions for w e a th e rin g and
runoff (though for very short duration) and the erosion. The amount, intensity and p erio d ic ity o f
streams become able to transport loads of large size rainfall are significant aspects w hich co ntro l and
even on gentle slopes but the streams soon become condition denudational processes in clim ates c h a r
overloaded and are called stone stream s. acterized by seasonality. The area having clays gives
Aeolian process is influenced by frost action birth to polygons w hen dehydrated due to h ig h
in a variety o f ways. Generally, frost discourages temperature during dry condition. M o n tm o rillo n ite
transportation o f materials in cold climates as the is subjected to largest im pact o f variation in h u m id
loose fine materials are consolidated due to frosting ity. Desiccation o f m ontm orillonites d u e to long
but some times strong winds like blizzards remove spell of dry condition results in the d e v e lo p m e n t o f
these consolidated materials but the mechanism of numerous polygons o f varying sizes and d im ension.
abrasion is not effective and hence topographic Rainwater reaches the depth o f 2-3 m th ro ugh the
features produced by deflation, abrasion, sandblast cracks o f such polygons and collects at the base
ing, and pitting in hot desert areas are not found in where the geomaterial is m ore w et and relatively
frost susceptible climates. The resultant deposits are impermeable. Thus, the w ater at the base o f p o ly
called niveo-aeolian deposits in cold climates. gons becomes sliding plane and stim ulates earth-
Coastal processes are also affected by frost flow wherein polygons ju st above the sliding plane
action. The coastal rocks are hardened due to frost move downslope. Such geo m orphic activities are
action during winter in cold climates, with the result operative in the areas o f frequent alluviation during
they protect the coasts from active erosion by sea
floods in the alluvial flood plains o f rivers in m on
waves but the sea cliffs suffer from rock disintegra
soon climate (e.g. India). M editerranean climatic
tion due to frost weathering caused by freeze-thaw
action. regions, characterized by m arked contrast in wet and
dry seasons, present ideal conditions for such geo
The changes in thermal conditions above freez
morphic mechanism i.e. slum ping and earthflow.
ing point influence and control mechanisms of weath
Conversely, clay rocks having kaolinite as major
ering and erosion by different geomorphological
constituent mineral has lowest contraction coeffi-
q j MATIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c r e g io n s
cientdue to desiccation. Clay particles, in such case

from one vegetation type to the other type. There is
are coalesced and consolidated due to raindrops and
maximum interception of rainwater in equatorial
are hardened w hen desiccated. Consequently the
rainforests o f humid tropics wherein ‘aerial streams’
impermeability o f clay rocks increases, which’dis
become most effective. Some geomorphologists (e.g.
courages infiltration o f rainw ater and encourages
surface runoff. Rougerie, 1960) have also emphasized the geomorphic
importance of surface runoff. The rainfall - intercep
Indirect Climatic Controls tion depends upon seasonal conditions in tropical
(Climate -» Vegetation —» Morphogenetic Proc and subtropical deciduous forests. Rainfall intercep
esses) tion is minimum during peak summer season with
high temperature and complete dry condition be
Climate influences and controls morphogenetic
cause most of the trees and bushes become leafless.
processes (geom orphological processes) indirectly
through (i) vegetation and (ii) soils. The world In such condition, if there is occasional rainfall,
splash erosion becomes very effective. On the other
distribution o f vegetation is azonal which is closely
hand, splash erosion is lessened during rainy season
related to climatic zones. In fact, climate and vegeta
when there is maximum interception because the
tion and climate and soils are so intimately interre
vegetation becomes lush green. The Indian monsoon
lated that these influence each other. For example,
lands come under the influence of seasonal varia
vegetation determ ines pedogenesis (soil formation)
tions in vegetation control on rainfall interception
while soils determ ine vegetation types which again
and hence resultant seasonality in the effectiveness
depend on climate. V egetation, in turn, also influ
of fluvial and weathering processes. There is least
ences floral characteristics. These interactions be
interception of rainwater and hence maxim um splash
tween climate, soils and vegetation, in turn, influ erosion (though occasionally) because of near ab
ence and control nature, type and mode of operation sence of vegetation in tropical and subtropical hot
o f different denudational processes. desert climates. Surface runoff and consequent over
The kinetic energy o f rainfall (say raindrops) land How is lessened in temperate steppe climates
and its geo m orph ic significance is greatly con because forests and grass cover protect the ground
trolled by interception capacity of vegetation. It surface from direct impact o f falling raindrops and
may be pointed out that the areas devoid of vegeta thus allow more infiltration of rainwater. It may be
tion (open areas) are directly pelted by falling rain mentioned that most of the grasslands o f temperate
drops with m a x im u m kinetic energy and causes climates in different continents (e.g. Steppe in E ura
sp lash ero sio n w herein loose particles are resettled sia, Prairies in N. America, Pam pas in S. America,
on the ground surface and form a strong cuirasse Velds in South Arica nad Downs in Australia) have
which d iscou rages infiltration o f rainwater and fa now been converted into agricultural farmlands which
vours increased surface runoff. On the other hand, have now become famous 'granaries o f the w o rld ’
densely vegetated areas m ainly o f forests are charac and thus these converted farm lands (from original
terized" by least splash erosion because o f maximum grasslands) are subjected to m a x im u m splash and
interception o f rainw ater. In fact, the kinetic energy sheet erosion resulting into im m ense loss o f rich
o f falling raindrops is consideraly reduced due to soils.
interception o f raindrops by forest canopy and con
Like rainfall, vegetation cover also affects
sequently the ground surface is protected from direct
pelting by raindrops as rainw ater reaches the ground snowfall through its interception capacity. There is
surface very slow ly through leaves, branches and maxim um interception o f snowfall by forest cover
stems o f trees in the form o f ‘aerial strea m lets’ in temperate and taiga climates.
which incourage m ax im u m infiltration o f rainwater V egetation greatly influences the soil tem per
if the surficial materials or regoliths are permeable. ature which in turn influences m icn> g eom o rp ho-
If the ground surface is im perm eable, then the rain logical processes. The variation in soil tem perature
water becomes surface runoff. during sum m er and winter, and during day and night
It may be m entioned that interception o f rain is minim ised because o f forest cover. T he ground
water by vegetation varies from season to season and surface under thick forest cover receives relatively
96
GEOMORPHOLOGY %
o p ined that ‘like c lim a te v e g e ta tio n typ e a ls o p r o
less am o un t o f insolation because about one third o f
d u ces its d istin c tiv e a sse m b la g e o f la n d fo rm s. ’ >;
insolation is used by plants in the process of p h o to
synthesis and evapo-transpiration and hence ground Climate->Vegetation->Soils and Morphogenetic
tem perature decreases resulting in low soil te m p era Processes
ture. N ight tem p eratu re o f forested areas becom es It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t c lim a te influen ces
higher than open areas even in the sam e clim atic vegetation and in turn v eg etatio n in flu e n c e s soils
zone because ground radiation is retarded in forested and thus there is in terractio n b e tw e e n soils and
areas. Thus, daily range o f tem perature becom es m o rp h o g en e tic p rocesses. It m a y b e f u rth e r pointed
high in open areas in com parison to forest-covered out that it is not nece ssary th a t c lim a te alw ays
areas. This aspect o f diurnal range o f tem perature influences m o rp h o g e n e tic p ro c e s s e s v ia veg etatio n
also increases variation in soil tem perature m ore in and soils. T h us, the f o llo w in g in te rre la tio n s h ip s
open areas than in the forested areas. Thus, the betw een these variab les m a y b e id e n tifie d viz. (i)
variation in soil tem perature in open and forest clim ate —> v eg etation —> m o r p h o g e n e tic p ro c e s s e s
covered areas even within a single climatic zone —» landform s, (ii) clim a te —>soils —» m o rp h o g e n e tic
causes spatial variations in the nature, pattern and p ro c e sse s—^landform s, an d (iii) c l im a te - m o r p h o -
intensity o f weathering. genetic p ro c e s s e s —^landform s.
Vegetation cover m inim ises variation in soil- T h ere is very clo se re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n p e
m oisture because the process of desiccation o f soil is do genesis and c h em ica l e ro sio n w h ic h is a c c e le ra te d
slowed down as forest-covered areas receive rela by infiltration o f w ater and d e c o m p o s itio n o f h u m u s .
tively less am ount o f insolation and are p rotectedby F o r exam ple, infiltrating w a te r i.e. d o w n w a r d m o v e
the shades provided by the vegetation cover. The
m ent of w ater rem o v e s m a te ria ls fro m ‘A ’ h o riz o n
desiccation o f soil, in turn, influences soil cracks
or eluviated zone o f soil p rofile th r o u g h th e m e c h a
(mud eracks), surface ru noff and groundwater.
nism o f eluviation (lea ch in g ) a n d tra n s p o r ts th e m to
It may be opined that vegetation cover m in illuviation zone (B horizon). C h e m ic a l e l e m e n t s are
imises the influences o f atm ospheric processes and further transported d o w n w a rd to C h o riz o n . T h u s ,
thus the m orphogenetic processes become sluggish. part o f soil profile abo ve C h o riz o n is s u b je c te d to
Climate, through vegetation, also influences chemical erosion. T he m e ch an ism o f elu v atio n (le a c h
transportation m echanism by different geom orphic ing) is co n tro lled by te m p e ra tu re a n d in filtra te d
processes. As mentioned earlier, dense vegetation water. L e a ch in g or e lu v iatio n b e c o m e s m i n i m u m in
cover m inim ises overland flow and m axim ises in tem p erate clim ates b e c a u se o f d e c r e a s e in m e a n
filtration o f rainwater. C onversely, open areas (u n te m p eratu re and b io log ical a c tiv itie s d u r in g w in te r
covered) generate m axim um overland flow because season w h ereas it is m a x im u m in h o t a n d h u m id
in case o f strong rainstorm s with high rainfall inten clim ates b ecause o f h igh te m p e r a tu r e , h ig h rain fall
sity rainfall am ou nt exceeds w ater absorption cap a c am o u n t and a b u n d a n t veg etal c o v e r th r o u g h o u t the
ity o f ground surface and hence instantaneous o v er year. L ea ch in g d e c re a se s in m o n s o o n c lim a te c h a r
land flow is generated and subsoil rem ains dry. It acterized by w e t an d dry s e a s o n s (b u t it b e c o m e s
may be m entioned that vegetation cover, on one active d u rin g w et m o n s o o n m o n t h s e.g. Ju n e to
hand, influences and controls the volum e, nature and S ep te m b er) w h e re a s le a c h in g b e c o m e s practically
intensity o f surface runoff, it also influences the ab sent in arid c lim ates. C h e m ic a l e r o s io n a n d w e a th
geom orphic effects o f ru n o ff on the other hand. ering in soil h o riz o n s leads to m e c h a n ic a l c h a n g e s o f
Dense grass co ver lessens surface ru n o ff and tran s various sorts in the reg o lith s. F o r e x a m p le , the solid
portation and erosion by it m ore than forest cover. In rock b e c o m e s triab le du e to su c h c h a n g e s . F riab le
fact, grass cover reduces soil erosion considerably horizo n is in d u rated an d h a r d e n e d to fo rm cuirarsses.
and protects the g rou nd surface from sheet erosion. C o llo id al h u m u s re stin g o v e r clay la y e r co n so lid ates
Trees obstruct w inds and hence reduce wind v elo c and a g g re g a te s clay p article s w ith the re s u lt clay
ity and hence aeolian erosion and transportation are b e c o m e s co h esiv e . L im e c o n te n t in th e soil protects
rem arkably reduced. C o n sid erin g the g eo m o rp h ic h u m u s from d e c o m p o s itio n a n d p r o v id e s stab le co
significance o f vegetation T ricart and C ailleaux have hesion. T h u s , c a lc a re o u s so ils m ix e d w ith hu m us
CLIMATIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c r e g i o n s 97
become resistant to m echanical erosion (i.e. abra 1969). It may be m entioned that large-scale clim atic
sion). The permeability and porosity o f geomaterials changes throughout geological history pose serious
allows more infiltration o f rainw ater and thus re problem regarding identification and substantiation
duces surface ru n o ff and overland flow considerably of climate-landforms relationship as m o st o f the
whereas soil erodibility is rem arkably reduced due evidences might have been either destroyed or o b
to increase in resistance in soil particles consequent scured by subsequent changes. Thus, it becom es
upon aggregation and cohesion o f particles. very difficult to ascertain as to w hether the landforms
The illuviation horizon (zone of deposition of found in the present climate are the result o f the sam e
materials) w hen com pacted and hardened loses its climate or of the result o f palaeo-clim ates. C onse
erodibility but obstructs further dow nw ard m ove quently, it is very difficult to find out and identify
ment (infiltration) o f water. This mechanism causes real links between climate and landforms.
over saturation o f upper soil horizon (eluviation Regarding the present landscapes and cli
zone) with the result surface runoff and overland matic changes during Quaternary the scientists are
flow increases w hich causes m ore surface erosion. It of opinion that though Q uaternary climatic changes
may be m entioned that cuirasses formed dur to were rapid and of great intensity but these could not
illuviation o f insoluble (o f different forms depend be of much geomorphological significance because
ing on the nature o f materials e.g. alcrete, silcrete, these were of shorter duration in com parison to
ferricrete, calcrete etc.) are resistant to mechanical earlier climatic changes. A few geom orphologists
erosion and hence are responsible for the develop have expressed skepticism regarding influences o f
ment of bold reliefs and protect reliefs and erosion earlier climatic changes on landform s e.g., ‘ex cep t
surfaces in tropical and subtropical humid climates. in case of ice action, it is likely that m any clim atic
Soils play m ajor role in the attainment and conditions existed for so short a time that they w ere
maintenance of equilibrium in relief, climate and morphologically significant only in areas o f w eak
vegetation. P edogenesis also helps in the recon rocks and considerable r e li e f (D.R. Stoddart, 1969).
struction of palaeo-processes and changes in topo N.M. Starkhov (1967) aftercareful study o f T ertiary
graphic features. and Quaternary climatic changes and their im pacts
on landforms has stated that, ‘in m o st areas, h o w
Following Tricart and Cailleux it may be
ever, the present landscapes are com plex m o saics
stated that landscape form ing processes are con
consisting of small areas inherited from Tertiary
trolled by tectonic forces, climate and biological
conditions, and tracts of forms developed durin g the
factors ; climatically controlled vegetation cover Quaternary complex climatic c o n d itio n s’ (quoted
produces topographic variations through the mecha by D.R. Stoddart, 1969).
nism of pedogenesis. Thus, vegetation cover, on one
It may be pointed out that m any o f the as
hand, controls chem ical erosion, on the other dis
sumptions and premises o f climatic geom orph olo gy
courages mechanical erosion. could not be substantiated. D oughlas has opined that
4.3 CLIMATIC CHANGES AND LANDFORMS climate plays insignificant role in the developm ent
of landforms. D.R. Stoddart (1969) has rem arked
Sufficient evidences have been collected to
that, ‘taken together, the evidence suggests that
substantiate m ajor climatic changes at global level
climatic changes have been so continuous in the last
throughout geological history of the earth. The cli
50 million years, and so rapid in the last 2 million
matic geom orphologists are convinced that inspite
years, that equilibrium landform s can rarely have
°f largescale climatic changes during Quaternary
been developed’. It may be concluded that unless
epoch the evidences o f clim ate-landform s rela
sufficient morphometric data o f landform s are m ade
tionships could not be obscured but the climatic available from different climatic regions and landform
changes pose a critical problem in climatic geo variations from one climatic region to other climatic
morphology, for it cannot be assum ed that the land region are not ascertained and substantiated on the
forms found in any given climate have developed in basis of these morphom etric data, concepts o f cli
response to it. How, then, can the links between matic geom orphology cannot be validated but can be
climate and landform be identified ? ’ (D.R. Stoddart, retained as a working hypothesis.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
98
4.4 MORPHOGENETIC REGIONS eters e.g. m ean annual tem perature and m ean annual
The concept o f m orphogenetic/m orpho-cli- rainfall w hich determ ine m a jo r m orph ogenetic pro
matic regions is based on the basic concept o f cli cesses. Thus, Peltier defined and classified m orpho
matic geomorphology that ‘each geom orphic proc genetic regions on the basis o f d o m in a n t processes
ess produces its own characteristic assem blage o f a n d n o t on th e b a s is o f l a n d f o r m g e o m e tr y
landforms, and each geom orphic process is the re (m orphom etric data) into 9 types e.g. (i) glacial, (2)
sult o f a particular clim ate’ and thus, ‘each climatic periglacial, (3) boreal, (4) m a ritim e, (5) selva, (6)
type produces its own characteristic assem blage of m oderate, (7) savanna, (8) sem i-arid , an d (9) arid
distinctive landform s’. According to R.J. Chorley m orphogenetic regions (fig. 4.4).
et. al (1985) ‘m o r p h o g e n e tic reg io n s are large areal J. Tricart and A. C aille u x , th o u g h strong
units w ithin w hich d is tin c tiv e asso ciatio n s o f advocates o f clim atic g eo m o rp h o lo g y , a d m itted that
geom orphic processes (e.g. weathering, frost action, researches related to asso ciatio n b etw ee n clim ate
mass movements, fluvial action and wind action) are and landform s are not a d eq u a te to su b stan tiate die
assum ed to operate, tending towards a state of concept o f climatic g e o m o rp h o lo g y b e y o n d criti
m o r p h o c l im a tic e q u i l i b r i u m w herein regional cisms. They are of the firm view th a t sin ce clim ate
landforms reflect regional clim ates’ (R.J. Chorley, influences landform d e v e lo p m e n t both directly and
et. al, 1985). indirectly and hence m o rp h o c lim a tic classification
The concept of morphogenetic regions was should not be based on clim atic d a ta alone. Thus,
initiated by Sapper (1935) and Friese (1935) and was they suggested follow ing criteria for the d e te rm in a
developed by J. Budel (1948, 1982), L.C.Peltier tion and definition o f m o rp h o g e n e tic re g io n s —
(1950), W.F. Tanner (1961), P. Birot (1968), D.R. (a) Identification and c la ssificatio n o f m ajor
Stoddart (1969), L. Wilson (1969), J. Tricart and A. m orphogenetic regions on the basis o f m a jo r cli
Cailleux (1972). matic and zoo geograp hical regions.
J. B u d el p r o p o u n d e d the c o n c e p t o f (b) Subdivision o f m a jo r m o rp h o g e n e tic re
fo r m k r e is e n (morphogenetic region) in 1944 and gions on the basis of present climatic, zoogeographical
1948 and further developed the concept in 1982. and palaeoclim atic factors.
L.C. Peltier divided the world into 9 morphogenetic
regions (1950) on the basis of two .climatic param- On the basis o f these tw o crite ria they divided
the globe into 4 m ajor m o rp h o g e n e tic re g io n s and 9
sub-regions (total, 13) as fo llo w s—
Me o n Annuol Roinfoll (finches )
1 C o ld Z o n e M o r p h o g e n e t i c R e g i o n s
Further divided into tw o s u b re g io n s on the
basis o f intensity and d o m in a n c e o f frost action.
(a) g lacial z o n e (c h a ra c te riz e d by r u n o f f in
solid form e.g. g la ciers)
( b ) p e r ig la c ia l z o n e (c h a ra c te riz e d by runoff
in liquid fo rm -w a te r d u rin g s u m m e r)
2 . F o r e s te d Z o n e M o r p h o g e n e t i c R e g i o n s
F urther divided into 3 s u b re g io n s on the basis
o f intensity o f w inter frost and e ffe c ts o f palaeocli-
mates.
(a) m a r i t i m e z o n e : n o rm al w in te r season, no
significant frost action, more
influence o f P leisto cene gla
cial and p erig la c ia l relict
features.
(b) c o n t in e n ta l z o n e : w in te r sev erely cold, effects
Fig. 4.4 : Morphogenetic regions according to L.C.
o f P leisto cen e an d present
Peltier, J950.
frost m o st do m inant.
c l im a t ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c
REGIONS 99
(c) mediterranean zone : dry summer, wet winter,
m o rp h o g en e tic regio ns and (ii) se c o n d o rd er
insignificant effects of morphogenetic regions and have identified alto
Q u a te rn a ry periglacial gether 8 morphogenetic regions e.g. ( 1 ) glacial, (2 )
relict features.
arid, (3) humid tropical, (4) tropical wet-dry, (5)
3. Semi-arid and Arid Morphogenetic Regions semi-arid, (6) dry continental, (7) humid mid-lati-
(of both low and m iddle latitudes) tude and (8) periglacial morphogenetic regions.
Further divided on the basis of aridity and (i) First-order m orphogenetic regions are
winter temperature. characterized by non-seasonal processes, low av
(A) On the basis o f aridity erage erosion rates, highly infrequent and episodic
erosional activity such as glacial surges, desert rain
(a) step p e region
storms, slope mass failures etc. They have identified
(b) x ero p h y tic region
3 morphogenetic regions under this category i.e. (1)
(c) d esert region glacial, (2) arid and (3) humid tropical morphogenetic
(B) On the basis o f w inter temperature regions.
(a) m id d le la titu d e region (ii) Second-order m orphogenetic regions
(b) su b tro p ica l region include 5 morphogenetic regions i.e. (1) tropical
(c) trop ical region wet-dry, (2) semi-arid, (3) dry continental, (4) hu
mid mid-latitude and (5) periglacial morphogenetic
4. Hum id T rop ical M orp h ogen etic Regions
regions. These morphogenetic regions are charac
(a) savanna region : dry and wet seasons, seasonal te riz e d by s e a s o n a lity o f th e o p e r a t i o n o f
rainfall, m oderate vegetation morphogenetic processes, occasional high rate o f
cover, enough overland flow, erosion in specific areas under extra-ordinary condi
active chem ical weathering tions, some consistency in erosional activity inspite
during wet season. of episodic nature, changes in response to climatic
(b) forest region : hum id tropical region, rainfall changes. Following R.J. Chorley et. al (1985) sec
throughout the year, maximum ond-order morphogenetic regions can be divided
vegetation cover, chcmical and into two groups :
bio lo g ic a l w eatherin g most ( 1 ) ‘warmer climates (tropical wet-dry and
dominant. semi-arid) where geomorphic processes differ m ost
R. J. Chorley, S.A. S chum m and D.E. Sugden significantly in terms of the length of the wet season ;
(1985) have presented classification of morphogenetic
(2 ) cooler climates (dry continental, humid
regions on the basis o f temperature, precipitation
mid-latitude, and periglacial) w hose geom orphic
and seasonality and have attem pted to integrate all
processes differ mainly in respect o f sum m er tem
the existing classificatory schem es o f morphogenetic
peratures, as well as some regard to precipitation
regions into a com m o n schem e. T hey have proposed
am ount’ (R.J. Chorley et. al, 1985).
the classification at tw o levels i.e. (1) first order
Table 4.1 : Peltier’s Morphogenetic Regions_____________ ___________________________________________

M orphogenetic M ean A nnual Mean Annual Morphological Characteristics
Regions T em perature Rainfall
(0°F) (inches)_______________________________ ________________
1. Glacial 0-20 glacial erosion, nivation, wind action;

2. Periglacial 5-30 ^-55 strong massmovement, moderate to strong
wind action, low fluvial action ;
3. Boreal 15-38 10-60 moderate frost action, moderate to low wind
action, moderate fluvial action;
100 GEOMORPHOLOG’
4. M aritime 35-70 50-75 strong m a ss m o v e m e n t, m o d e ra te to strong

fluvial action;
5. S elva 60-85 35-90 strong m a ss m o v e m e n t, low slope wash, ab
sence o f w ind action;
6. M o d erate 35-85 35-60 m a x im u m fluvial actio n , m o d e ra te m ass
m o v e m en t, m o d e ra te frost action in colder
areas, insignificant w in d action
7. S a v a n n a 10-85 25-50 except coastal areas ; s tro n g to lo w fluvial
action, m o d e ra te w ind action ;
8. S em i-arid 38-85 10-25 strong w ind action, m o d e ra te to s tro n g fluvial
action ;
9. Arid 55-85 0-15 strong w ind action, low fluvial action.
Table 4.2 : Morphogenetic Regions of R.J. Chorley, S.A. Schumm and D.E. Sugden (1985)
M o rph og enetic K oppen O ther nam es G eo m orph ic M o rp h o lo g ic a l

R egions R egion Processes F eatu re s
1. Glacial EF subglacial m ax im um frost weath- alpi ne topography, abrasion

eirng, mod. m echanical surfaces, kam es, till forms,
w eathering, min. c h e m i fluvio-glacial features.
cal w eathering, m ass
w asting and fluvial p ro
cesses except for sea
sonal m elt-w ater, max.
glacial sour and w ind ac
tion.
2. A rid BWh desert, true des min. frost w eathering dunes, playas, deflation
ert, tropical and ex cept at high altitudes, basins, angular, debris
subtropical max. m echanical w e a th co vered slopes, fossil
desert ering, m in im u m ch e m i fluvial form s (e.g. fans
cal w eathering, m ass- and arroys).
w asting and fluvial p ro
cesses, no glacialaction
and m ax. w ind action.
3. H u m id T ropical A f and selva, rainforest, no frost w eathering, min. low gradient rivers; wide,
Am intertropical m echanical w eathering, flat, o r gently undulating
zone max. chem ical w eath flood plain floors upt to
ering, m assw asting, flu s ev eral kilom eters; steep
vial processes — m o d s lo p e s ; knife-edged ridges
erate to m in im u m slope m a in ta in e d by parallel
wash and rainbeat, m ini retreat o f slope
m u m stream erosion due
to lack o f coarse debris,
maximum transport o f che
mical and suspended load,
no glaical and wind action.
CLIMATIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c r e g i o n s 101
4. Trophical AW savanna, tropino frost weathering; min. steep irregular slopes o f
Wet-Dry cal sheetwash
to moderate mechanical coarse debri s characterized
zone, moist and
weathering; seasonal by parallel retreat,
dry savanna, tro
maximum deep chemical inselbergs, pediments,
pical savanna weathering (in wet sea bajadas.
son), moderate to max.
masswasting, no glacial
scour, minimum to mod
erate wind action,
5. Semi-arid BS, peripheral or minimum frost weather pediments, inselbergs,
BW , Cs marginal hot ing ; mini, to mod, me arroys, badlands, alluvial
deserts, thorn chanical weathering and fans, local dunes.
savanna, semi- chemical weathering ;
arid steppe, med max fluvial processes (but
iterranean or episodic in the form of
summer-dry sub sheetwash, gullying and
tropical zone. ephemeral stream action ;
no glacial scour; mod. to
max. wind action,
6. Dry continental BSk steppe zone, mid- min. to mod frost weath pediments flanked by steep
BWk latitude grass ering but highly seasonal slopes, scree-covered
lands semi-arid min to mod. mechanical slopes, badlands, alluvial
steppes, degraded and chemical weathering, fans, arroys.
steppes. mod. mass wasting, mod.
to max. fluvial processes
no glacial scour, mod.
wind action.
7. Humid m id Cf, Da, temperate marine min. to max. frost weath smooth soil-coveredslopes,
latitude Db, Cs, and continental ering, min. to mod. mech ridges and valleys.
Dc zones, humid anical weathering, mod.
tem perate m ed chemical weathering,
iterranean zone. mod. to max. mass-
wasting, no glacial scour,
min. wind action,
8. Periglacial ET, D d, tundra, subpolar max. frost weathering, scree slopes, solifluction
De zone, high arctic max. mechanical w eath slopes and cryoplanation
barrens, humid ering (special nivation), surfaces, solifluction
m icro-therm al, min. chemical weathering, lobes and terraces,
boreal. max. masswasting, mod. outwash plains, patterned
fluvial processes (slope ground, loess and dunes.
wash and valley cutting
concentrated in limited
thaw season), minimum
glacial scour, mod. to
max. wind action.
Based on R. J. Chorley, e t al, 1985
GEOMORPHOLOGY
102
action, ob structio n o f vegetation an d an n u al am ount
Morphogenetic Reglone of Trlcart and Cailleux
o f precipitation periglacial m o rp h o g e n e tic region is
(1972)
As slated earlier J. Tricart and A. Cailleux div ided into several s u b re g io n s e.g. (1) hyper-
(1972) identified four m ajor (say first-order) and periglacial provinces; ( 2 ) meso-periglacial prov
nine second-order m orphogenetic regions e.g. cold ince (w hich includes barren land s o f N. A m e ric a and
zone (glacial and periglacial zones), forest-covered Eurasia, except E urasia, p e rm a fro st is w idespread;
zone (maritime, continental and mediterranean zones), vegetation c o v e r is n eg lig ib le; frost w eathering
arid and semi-arid zone (steppe, xerophytic and (congclifraction), co n g eliflu c tio n (soliA uction) etc.
desert zones), and hum id tropical (savanna and for are im portant periglacial p ro cesses; clim a te is dry
est regions) m orphogenetic regions. The following continental having severe cold seaso n ; s u m m e r is
brief descriptions o f characteristic features o f these characterized by fog; w ind action is less significant;
morphogenetic regions arc based exclusively on the m ain m o rp h o lo g ic a l featu res in c lu d e p a tte rn e d
version of Tricart and Cailleux (1972) ground, block fields, stone stream s, altiplanation
terraces etc.) ; (3) tundra region (vegetation ob
1. Cold-zone Morphogenetic Regions structs runoff, d ev elo p m en t o f d e e p ‘active la y e r’,
The boundary o f cold-zone morphogenetic solifluction and w ind action ; there are repeated
regions is dem arcated on the basis o f intensity of freeze-thaw m echanism s); (4) steppe periglacial
frost action as frost is the major m orphogenetic/ p ro v in c e (wind is m ost active, low frost action due
geomorphological process which not only gives to aridity, A lberta o f C anada, M o ngo lia, north Ice
birth to distinctive m orphogenetic processes and land etc. are typical lo c a tio n s ) ; and (5) taiga prov
their m echanism s but also influences work o f azonal ince (related to Pleistocene relic permafrost, geli Auction
processes (e.g. waves, wind, streams etc.). It may be becomes absent due to spring thaw, developed in
mentioned that zonal processes are confined to a continuous and discontinuous permafrost areas).
particular climatic region whereas azonal processes
are active with varying intensities in many (almost 2. Forested Mid-latitude Morphogenetic Region
all) climatic regions (such as sea waves, wind, streams This m orphoclim atic / m orpho genetic region
etc.). Cold zone morphogenetic regions are divided is located in the m id-latitude areas o f both the
into (a) glacial zone and (b) periglacial zone. hemispheres but it is m ore w idespread in the north
(a) Glacial morphogenetic region is charac ern hemisphere. This region extends from A tlantic
terized by low tem perature below freezing point coast in Europe to Baikal lake in A sia in a long strip
throughout the year with the result there is perm a and continues further eastw ard so as to include
nent snow cover on the ground surface and there is A m ur basin, K orea and Japan. In N. A m eric a this
region extends from F lorida to Y uko n valley, from
no thaw ing of snow and hence the ru noff is always
Texas to Labrador and from N. C alifornia to Alaska.
in solid form (ice movement). The boundary o f this
Deep regolith has developed because o f w arm and
zone coincides with glacier line. Glaciers are most
humid summer. The region is characterized by m in
dom inant agents o f erosion (abrasion, attrition, pol
imum intensity of m orphogenetic processes. G en
ishing etc.) and transportation. The morphological esis and developm ent o f m orphological features is a
features include glacial valleys (U-shaped valleys slow process. The ground surface is covered with
with han g in g valleys), cirques / corries, horn, thick litter because o f dense forest cov er and low
rochem outtonee, drumlins, moraininc ridges, eskers, mineralization o f hum us. Litter cover discourages
kam es etc. surface runoff. M echanical, chem ical and biological
(b) Periglacial morphogenetic region is d e w eathering is m inim um with the result Pleistocene
marcated on the basis o f tem perature which causes surfaces have been well preserved. M ost o f the
and controls seasonal and diurnal freeze-thaw. Ground landform s are relict features. There are spatial vari
has no perm anent ice cover i.e. ground surface is ations in the nature and intensity o f morphogenetic
covered with ice only during winter season. S um m er processes due to local variations in climatic condi
season is characterized by surface runoff o f water tions. This region is divided into (a) maritime, (b)
due to thaw-water. Based on periodicity o f frost continental and (c) warm hum id tem perate zones.
CLIMATIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y a n d m o r p h o g e n e t i c r e g io n s 103
(a) M aritim e m orphogenetic region is es because infiltration is discouraged due to absence of
sentially humid zone and is characterized by low vegetation cover and thein soil cover. Pediments,
variation in temperature range and humidity. This bajadas and playas are major landforms which are
region has most developed from Norway to Pyrenes associated with intermontane basins. Wind action is
in Western Europe but it is also found in Poland. most dominant and sand dunes most outstanding
Besides, this region has also developed in British depositional aeolian landforms. This region is di
Columbia, Chile, T asm ania and New Zealand. Frost vided into (a) subhumid steppe region, (b) semi-arid
action is moderate and o f short duration. Frost action region and (c) arid region.
does not affect bedrocks. Soil desiccation does not
(a) Sub-hum id steppe region is located to
occur due to rainfall even during summer season.
the north and south of Sahara, in eastern Africa, all
Mechanical weathering is moderate but chemical
around Kalahari, Asia minor, middle Asia, A us
weathering is m axim um (strong). Granite rocks are
tralia, Great Plains of USA, Prairies o f Canada,
easily disintegrated due to abundance of humus
Mexican plateau and Pampas o f Argentina. It may be
content in the soils.
mentioned that previously (before the conversion of
(b) C ontin en tal m orphogenetic region has temperate graslands into farmlands) mechanical ero
developed in the eastern parts of Asia and N. America. sion was retarded due to dense grass cover but now
There is m axim um seasonal variability regarding the vast areas are exposed to fluvial erosion because
climatic param eters (viz. temperature, humidity, of removal of grass cover for cultivation purposes in
precipitation etc.). W inters are severe. Precipitation all the temperate grassland areas of the world and
is characterized by high intensity, with the result thus man has emerged as the m ost significant
mechanical processes (erosion) are more active. geomorphic agent in this region. Deflation w ork was
Frost becomes m ost active during winters. Sheet previously confined to the dry beds o f rivers but now
erosion and gullying are activated during summers cultivated farmlands are also affected by deflation.
because of strong overland flow resulting from spring Major aeolian depositional activity is the formation
melt-water and ruinfall. Chem ical weathering and of loess particularly in China. Loess is easily gullied
erosion becom es m inim u m due to low infiltration of due to fluvial erosion caused by high intensity rain
water as a consequence of dom inance of frost action fall during occasional rainstorms. Leaching is not
during winters and m ax im um overland flow during effective due to relative aridity.
summers. (b) S em i-a rid reg io n is also k n o w n as
(c) W a r m t e m p e r a t e / s u b tr o p ic axerophytic
l m orphogenetic region and is character
m orphogenetic region is m axim um developed in ized by patchy distribution o f steppe vegetation.
Mediterranean climate. Frost is practically absent. Annual rainfall is low to m oderate but som e times
Landslides are com m on because of alternate dry there is occasional high intensity rainfall w hich
causes effective local overland flow. There is m ax
(su m m e r) a n d w e t ( w i n t e r ) s e a s o n b e c a u s e
imum development o f inselbergs and pedim ents.
argillaceous rocks are subjected to contraction due
Ground surface is not protected from fluvial erosion
to dehydration during dry sum m er but to expansion
due to absence of vegetation cover. Fluvial process
due to hydration during w et winters. Fluvial erosion
is main geomorphic agent. W ind action is insignif
is more active because o f high intensity rainfall icant.
resulting in m axim um surface runoff and resultant
(c) A rid region / d esert reg io n is hot desert
overland flow and thus increased discharge of streams.
area characterized by lack o f rainfall and vegetation
3. Arid Morphogenetic Region cover. Surface runoff is practically absent. G round
Arid m orphogenetic region is located be surface is sandy and rocky but is perm eable so that
tween mid-latitude forest-covered zone and humid rainwater, w henever received throug h very o cca
tropical zone. V egetation grades from steppe type to sional rainfall, quickly disappears through infiltra
desert type. T his is characterized by extrem e aridity tion. Sahara desert is typical exam ple o f this type o f
and very variable rainfall. Surface runoll in case ot region. W ind is most active geom orphic process but
occasional rainstorm s generates rapid overland flow is confined to deflation o f loose sands only. It may be
104 GEOMORPHOLOGY
m entioned that w ater and w ind are essentially is subjected to splash erosion and rillw ash when
transportational process in desert areas, thus their there is occasional high intensity rainfall. Sheet
morphogenetic importance is limited. Mechanical flood becomes m ore active in the areas o f dense
disintegration is more active. The process of landform vegetation cover. The presence o f strong cuirases
development is exceedingly slow because of ab protects the ground surface from fluvial erosion and
sence o f rainwater. generate more surface ru noff and resultant overland
flow. Deep chemical w eathering is m ore active due
4. Humid tropical Morphogenetic Region
to high mean annual tem perature and rainfall result
This region is divided into (a) savanna region
ing in the formation o f etchplains.
and (b) forest region on the basis o f humidity.
Savanna region is characterized by mean annual .(b) Humid tropical forest morpho-genetic
rainfall o f 600 mm-800 mm and clearly defined dry region— Chemical weathering is m o st dominant
and wet seasons whereas hot-humid forest zone has geomorphic process due to high tem perature and
developed in the region having mean annual rainfall rainfall throughout the year. Thus, active chemical
of more than 1500 mm and short dry season. Both the weatheing causes deep regoliths o f coarse materials.
regions are characterized by high mean annual rain Rivers are underloaded due to absence o f mechani
fall and total absence of frost and hence rock disin cal weathering. Long profiles of the rivers are char
tegration is not very active. Chemical weathering is acterized by breaks in slope (e.g. waterfalls and
most active due to high mean annual temperature rapids). J. Tricart and Cailleux (1972) have main
and rainfall. tained that there is general absence o f bare rock
(a) Savanna m orphogenetic region is char outcrops because of high rate o f infiltration due to
acterized by dry and humid seasons which effectively considerable vegetation cover even on steep slopes
influence morphogenetic processes. Ground surface and high ground surface.
CHAPTER 5 CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH'S INTERIOR 105-113
S o u r c e s o f k n o w le d g e ; artificial sources, evidences from the theories o f
th e o rig in o f th e earth, and natural sources ; evidences of seism ology ;
c h e m ic a l co m p o sitio n and layering system of the earth ; thickness and
d e p th o f different layers of the e a r th ; recent views - crust, mantle and core.
5
CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH'S INTERIOR
5.1SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE is commonly believed that the outer thinner part o f

Though the study of constitution of the inte the earth is composed of sedimentary rocks the
rior of the earth is out side the domain of geography thickness of which ranges between half a mile to one
but its elementary knowledge is necessary for the mile (0.8 km to 1.6 km). Just below this sedimentary
geographers because the nature and configura tion of layer there is the second layer of crystalline rocks,
the reliefs of the earth's surface largely depend on the the density of which ranges between 3.0 and 3.5 at
nature, mechanism and magnitude of the endogenetic different places. The average density of the whole
forces which originate from within the earth. It is earth is about 5.5. Thus, it appears that the density o f
decidedly true that it is very difficult task to have the core of the earth will be, without doubt, more
accurate knowledge of the constitution of the earth's than 5.5. Generally, the density of the core of the
interior because it is beyond the range of direct earth is around 11.0. Cavendish attempted to calcu
observation by man but recently seismology has late the average density of the earth in 1798 on the
helped to have some authenticated knowledge about basis of the Newton’s gravitational law. According
the mystery o f the earth's interior. The sources which to him the average density of the earth is 5.48.
Poynting calculated the average density o f the earth
provide knowledge about the interior of the earth
as 5.49 g cm-3 in the year 1878. Since 1950 several
may be classified into 3 groups.
attempts are being made to calculate the density of
1. A rtificial source the earth on the basis of satellites. The satellite
2. Evidences from the theories of the origin studies have revealed the following results about the
o f the earth density of the various parts o f the earth-average
density of the earth = 5.517 g c n r \ average density
3. Natural sources of the earth's surface = 2.6 to 3.3 g cm -3 and average
e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquakes and seis density of the core = 11 g cm'3
mology Thus, it is proved that (1) the density o f the
1. Artificial Sources core o f the earth is highest o f all parts o f the earth.
(I) DENSITY (II) PRESSURE
Numerous inferences can be drawn about the Now question arises, what is the reason for
constitution of the interior of the earth on the basis of very high density of the core ? previously it was
density of rocks, pressure of superincumbent load believed that very high density o f the core was
(weight of overlying rocks) and increasing trend of because of heavy pressure of overlaying rocks. It is
temperature with increasing depth inside the earth. It common principle that pressure increases the den
GEOMORPHOLOGY
106
w hich co m es in co n ta c t w ith th e asthen osphere re
sity o f rocks. Since the w eight and pressure o f rocks
m ains 1200°C w hich is q u ite n eare r to the melting
increase with increasing depth and hence the density
point. I f we believe the rate o f general increase of
o f rocks also increases with increasing depth. Thus,
tem perature with in creasing d ep th the temperature
it is proved that (2) very high density of the core of
should be aroun d 25,000°C at the d e p th o f 2,900 km
the earth is due to very high pressure prevailing
but un der such c irc u m s ta n c e s m o s t p art o f the earth
there because of superincumbent load. This infer
w ould have m elted but this has not so happened. It is
ence is proved w rong on the ground that there is a
evident from this d iscu ssio n that m o s t parts o f the
critical limit in each rock beyond which the density
radioactive m inerals are c o n c e n tra te d in the upper
o f that rock canno t be increased inspite o f increasing
m ost layer o f the earth. T h is fact e x p la in s the situa
pressure therein. It may be, thus, forwarded that (3)
very high density of the core of the earth is not tion o f high te m perature in the co n tin en ta l crust as
described above b ecau se d is in te g ra tio n and decay of
because of very high pressure prevailing there. If
the high density o f the core o f the earth is not because radioactive m inerals gen era te m o re h e a t in the crustal
o f high pressure o f overlying rocks then (4) the core areas. It, thus, app ears that the rate o f increase of
must be composed of intrinsically heavy metallic tem perature d o w n w a rd s d e c re a se s w ith increasing
materials of high density. The experiments have depth. The follow ing facts m a y be p resen te d about
revealed that the core o f the earth is made o f the the thermal condition o f the in terio r o f the earth.
m ixture o f iron and nickel. This inference is also (i) T he a sth en o sp h ere is p artially m olten. The
validated on the basis o f geocentric magnetic field. tem perature is aro und 1 100°C at the d e p th o f 100 km
T he metallic core is surrounded by a zone o f such w hich is nearer to initial m e ltin g point.
rock materials, the upper part o f which is com posed
(ii) The te m p eratu re at the d e p th s o f 400 km
o f crystalline rocks.
and 700 km (from the e arth 's su rface) has been
(Ill) TEMPERATURE estim ated to be I,500°C and 1,900°C respectively.
It is evident on the basis o f information avail (iii) T he te m p eratu re at the ju n c tio n o f mantle
able from the findings o f bore holes and deep mining and outer moiten core s ta n d in g at the d ep th o f 2,900
that temperature increases from the surface o f the km is about 3700°C.
earth dow nw ard at the rate o f 2° to 3°C for 100
(iv) The te m p eratu re at the ju n c tio n o f outer
metres. It may be pointed out that it becomes very
m olten core and inn er solid c o re stan d in g at the
difficult to find out the rate o f increase o f tem
depth o f 5,100 km is 4,300°C .
perature beyond the depth o f 8 km. The rate o f
increase o f temperature in the continental crust has Generation and Transfer o f heat inside the
been calculated based on geothermal graphs and the Earth— It may be p o in ted o u t th a t th e heat in the
follow ing generalization has been made. In the tec- interior o f the earth is g en e ra te d th r o u g h the disinte
tonically active areas (like the Basin and Range gration o f radioactiv e m in e ra ls a n d co nv ersion of
P rovince o f the U SA ) tem perature rem ains 1000°C gravity force into th erm al en erg y . It is believed that
at the depth o f 43 km from the surface o f the earth about 4.7 billion y ears ag o the initial tem perature of
w hile the tem perature remains only 500°C at the the earth generated by p la n e ta ry a c c re tio n and adi
depth o f 40 km from the surface in tectonically stable abatic co m pressio n w o u ld h a v e b e e n aro u n d lOOO^C-
areas. This inform ation provides significant k n ow l L ater on the heat o f the in terio r o f the earth would
edge about the nature and behaviour o f the continen
have gradually but s u b sta n tia lly in c re ased due to
tal crust. It is ev ident that high tem perature o f 1000°C
heat supplied by the d is in te g ra tio n o f radioactive
at the depth o f 43 km in the tectonically active areas
minerals. A bou t 4 .0 to 4.5 billion y ears ag o the core
is nearer to the initial m elting point o f the rocks o f
and m antle w ould h av e been se p a ra te d and their
low er crust and m antle mainly basalt and peridotite.
boundary w ould h av e e v o lv e d w hen the temperature
The tem perature o f the upper part o f the
w ould h av e increased to reach the m e ltin g point of
m a g m a slab representing the upper portio n -o f the
iron. T h us, due to fo u n d e rin g o f m olten iron into
oceanic crust has been estim ated to be 0°C w here as
core the gravity force e q u iv a le n t to 2 x 1037 erg (one
the tem perature o f the low er part o f the m ag m a slab
calorie = 4.9 x 107 erg) in the form o f heat energy
.tf-.v. s iM
CONSTITUTION O F T H E EA R TH 'S INTERIOR 107
might have been released. Large-scale melting and esis’ the earth was originated due to accretion and
rearrangement o f material inside the earth conse a g g reg a tio n o f solid dust p a r tic le s know n as
quent upon high thermal energy, as stated above, ‘planetesim als’. Based on this corollary the core o f
probably became responsible for the formation o f the earth should be in solid state. A c c o r d i n g to the
different zones o f the earth e.g. crust, m antle and ‘tidal h yp oth esis’ the core o f the earth should be in
core. liquid state because the earth has been taken to ave
On an average, there is gradual flow of heat been formed, according to this hypothesis, from the
from the inner part o f the earth to its outer part. It may tidal materials ejected from the p rim itive sun. A c
cording to the ‘n ab ular h y p o th e sis’ o f L ap lace the
be pointed out that the heat energy’ in the solids is in
core o f the earth should be in gaseous state. Z o e p p n tz
the form o f vibrations o f atoms. It is to be rem em
bered that the rocks are poor conductor of heat. The and Ritter have opined that the core o f the is
made of gases but this co ncept m ay not be accepted
transfer o f heat from only 10 -m thick rock layer
because if we assume the core o f the earth in gaseo u s
takes 3 years. The 100-m thick lava flow takes 300
years to cool dow n and solidify. The transfer o f heat state many more problem s will em erg e. T h e re m a y
from the low er part to the upper part o f a 400-km be only two possibilities viz. either the co re m a y be
thick layer o f rocks would take a long period of 5 in solid state or liquid state. T h is p ro b lem w o u ld be
dealt with while dealing with the ev id en ces o f se is
billion years. If we take conduction as the only
mechanism o f the cooling o f the earth, the heat from mology.
the depth o f 400 km would have not reached the 3. Natural Sources
earth's surface till new.
(I) VULCANICITY
The transfer o f heat from the interior o f the Some scientists believe on the b asis o f up-
earth towards its outer part may also not be effec welling and spread of hot and liquid lava on the
tively performed by radiation because most o f the earth's surface during volcanic erup tion th at th e re is
minerals o f the interior o f the earth are opaque. Such at least such a layer below the earth's su rface w hich
materials cannot effectively transfer or lose heat is in liquid state. Such m olten layer has been te rm ed
through radiation. The third alternative possibility as ‘m a g m a c h a m b e r ’ w hich supplies m a g m a and
for the transfer o f heat may be the process of convec lava during volcanic eruptions. It m ay be, thus,
tion but convective m echanism is more effective in surmised, on the basis o f ab ove co nno tation, that
liquid materials. some p a n o f the earth should be in liquid state bu t
The earth's surface receives heat from two this inference is refuted if one con siders the in c re a s
sources e.g. from the sun and from its interior part ing pressure with increasing depth inside the earth.
itself. The heat received from these two sources is It is known to all that increasing pressure increases
ultimately sent into the space. Solar heat drives the the melting point o f the rocks. T h us, the inn er part
atmospheric and hydrological processes and gener o f the earth m ay not be in m o lten state inspite o f very
ates denudational processes whereas the internal high temperature prevailing therein because the e n o r
heat o f the earth perform s constructive works e.g. mous weight and pressure o f the o v erly in g m aterials
formation o f mountains, plateaux, faults e t c . vul- (superincum bent load) increases the m eltin g point
canicity, seismic events and other tectonic events. o f the rocks. It, thus, appears that the core o f the earth
‘In areal sense, the earth's internal heat engine builds should be in solid state. N o w question arises, where
mountains and its external heat engine, the sun. hot and liquid lavas co m e from during volcanic
destroys them' (F. Press and R. Siever, 1974). eruption ? It may be pointed out that w hen the
pressure of su perincum bent load is released due to
2. E vidences from the Theories of the Origin of the fracturing and faulting in the crustal surface, the
Earth melting point o f underlying rocks is red u ce d (lo w
Various exponents o f different hypotheses ered) and thus the rocks are instantaneously m elted
and theories o f the origin o f the earth have assumed because required degree o f high temperature is al
the original form o f the earth to be solid or liquid or ready present there It. thus, appears that no authen
gaseous. According to the ‘p tM d w i n a l h y p o th ticated knowledge about the com p osition o f the
108 GEOM ORPHOLOGY
earth's interior is obtained from the evidences o f trem o rs.’ After a brief interval the ‘secon d p r e lim } ,
volcanic activities. nary trem o rs’ are recorded and finally the ‘main
trem o rs’ o f strong w aves are recorded (fig. 5.1).
(II) EVIDENCES OF SEISMOLOGY
Seism ology is the science which studies var
L
ious aspects o f seismic w aves generated during the
occurrence o f earthquakes. Seism ic waves are re
corded w ith the help o f an instrum ent known as
seism ograp h . It may be pointed out that seismology
is the only source w hich provides us authenticated
inform ation about the com position o f the earth's
interior. T he place o f the occurrence o f an earth
quake is called ‘fo c u s’ and the place which experi
Fig. 5 .1 : Recorded seismic waves by a seismograph.
ences the seismic event first is called ‘ep icen tre’,
w hich is located on the earth's surface and is always The nature and properties o f the composition
perpendicular to the ‘fo cu s’. On the other hand, the o f the interior o f the earth m ay be successfully
focus or the place of the origin o f an earthquake is obtained on the basis o f the study o f various aspects
always inside the earth. The deepest focus has been o f seismic w aves m ainly the velocity and travel-
measured at the depth o f 700 km from the earth's paths o f these w aves while passing through a ho
surface. The different types o f tremors and waves m ogeneous solid body but these w aves are reflected
generated during the occurrence o f an earthquake and refracted while passing through a body having
are called ‘seism ic w a v es’ which are generally di heterogenous composition and varying density zones.
vided in 3 broad categories e.g. primary waves, If the earth would have been co m p o sed o f homog
secondary waves and surface waves. enous solid materials the seism ic w av es should have
reached the core o f the earth in a straight path but this
(i) P rim ary w aves— also called as longi
is not the case in reality. In fact, the recorded seismic
tudinal or com pressional waves or simply ‘P ’ waves,
waves denote the fact that these w aves seldom fol
are analogous to sound waves wherein particles
low straight paths rather they adopt curved and
m ove both to and fro from the 1i ne o f the propagation
refracted paths. Thus, it becom es obvious that the
o f the ray. P w aves travel with fastest speed through
solid materials. T hough these also pass through earth is not com posed o f h o m o g e n o u s materials
liquid materials but their speed is slowed down. rather there are variations o f density inside the earth.
The seismic waves are refracted at the places of
(ii) S econ d ary w aves— are also called as
density changes. A regular chang e o f density inside
transverse or distortional or simply S waves. These
the earth causes a curved path to be followed by the
are analogous to w ater ripples or light waves wherein
seismic waves. Thus, the seism ic w aves become
the particles m ove at right angles to the rays. S
concave tow ards the earth's surface (fig. 5 .2 ).
waves cannot pass through liquid materials.
As stated earlier S w aves cann ot pass through
(iii) S u rface w aves— are also called as long
liquid. A fter indepth study o f seism ic waves Oldhum
period waves or simply L waves. These waves
dem onstrated in the year 1909 that S w aves disap
generally affect only the surface o f the earth and die
pear at the angular distance o f 120 ° from the epicen
out at sm aller depth. These waves covcr longest
tre and P waves are w eakened. It is evident from fig-
distances o f all the seismic waves. Though their
5.2 that S waves are totally absent in the core of the
speed is slow er than P and S waves but these are most
earth. It appears from this observation that there is a
violent and destructive.
core in liquid state w hich is located at the depth of
When an earthequake occurs the seismic waves more than 2900 km from the earth's surface and
are recorded at the epicentre with the help o f seism o surrounds the nucleus o f the earth. Based on this
graph. In the beginning a few small and weak swings finding the scientists have estim ated that the iron and
are recorded. Such tremors are called ‘p r e li m i n a r y nickel o f the core o f the earth m ay be in liquid state
CONSTITUTION O F TH E EA RTH S INTERIOR 109
and 3.3 km per second respectively in the upper part

of the earth. The density o f the rocks through w hich
these waves travel is about 2.7. It is proved on this
basis that the upper layer is com posed o f granitic
rocks.
(2) Interm ediate L a y e r — Conard identified
another set o f seismic waves term ed as P -S waves
on the basis of the study of Tauern earthquake o f
1923. The velocities of these waves are interm ediate
between P-S and Pg-Sg sets of w aves. P and S
waves travel at the rate o f 6-7 km and 3-4 km per
second respectively in the middle zone o f the earth.
It has been inferred on the basis o f interm ediate
velocity of these waves that there is an interm ediate
layer with average density o f 3 inside the earth.
There is difference of opinion about the nature and
type of the rocks o f this intermediate layer. A cco rd
ing to Daly and Jeffreys the intermediate layer c o n
sists of glassy basalt whereas W egener and H olm es
Fig. 5.2 : Paths follow ed by seismic waves through the have identified amphibolite as constituent ro ck o f
earth's interior. this layer. But most of the scientists are o f the view
Not only this, if we study the nature, charac that the intermediate layer is com posed o f basalt.
teristics and velocity of seismic waves, we may find (3) L o w er L a y e r — P and S waves penetrate
the presence o f several density zones inside the upto greatest depth inside the earth. T he velocity o f
earth. Detailed studies of seismic waves of different P and S waves is 7.8 km and 4.5 km per second
epicentres all over the world have revealed the fact respectively. The highest velocity of seismic waves
that there are extra sets of seismic waves which are in the innermost part of the earth indicates an inner
similar to P and S waves but with slower rate of or lower layer of heavier materials, most probably
velocity. It is a known fact that the velocity of peridotite or dunite. It is also possible that materials
seismic waves changes only when there are changes may be in non-crystalline, glassy state. The depth of
in the density o f rocks. On the basis of velocity this layer is estimated to be about 2900 km from the
seismic waves are divided in three sets of waves e.g. earth's surface.
(i) first set of P-S waves o f maximum velocity, (ii)
second set of Pg-Sg waves of minimum velocity and 5.2 CHEM ICAL COM POSITION AND LA Y E R IN G
(iii) third set o f P*-S* waves of medium velocity SYSTEM O F T H E EA R TH
falling between the first and the second sets of According to S u e ss
waves. Thus, on the basis o f changes of velocity of E. Suess has thrown light on the chem ical
seismic waves it is proved that there are major composition of the earth’s interior. T h e crust is
changes in the velocity o f waves at three places covered by a thin layer o f sedim entary rocks o f very
inside the earth and hence it can be safely inferred low density. This layer is com po sed o f crystalline
that there are three distinct zones or layers o f varying rocks, mostly silicate matter. The do m in an t m inerals
densities inside the earth below the outer thin layer are felspar and mica. The upper part o f this layer is
°f sedimentary rocks. composed of light silicate m atter w hile heavy sili
(1) Upper L ayer— Jeffreys discovered a difcate matter dominates in the low er part. S uess has
ferent set of seismic waves termed as Pg-Sg waves identified three zones o f different m atter below the
on the basis of the record of the earthquake of the outer thin sedimentary cover.
Kulpa valley in Croatia in the year 1909. On an (i) Sial layer located just below the outer
average Pg and Sg waves travel at the rate of 5.4 km sedimentary cover is com posed o f granites. This
OEOMORPHOtOOY
110
(if) Intermediate layer is composed of the
layer is dominated by silica and aluminium
mixture o f iron and silicate*. A verage density it
(SIAL=SI+AL). The average density of this layer js
2.9 whereas its thickness ranges between 50 to 300 from 4.5 to 9 and the th ickness is 1,280 km.
km. This layer is dominated by acid materials and (iii) C e n t r a l z o n e is m ade o f iron and is i
silicates of potassium, sodium and aluminium are solid state. A verage den sity and diam eter are 11.6
abundantly found. Continents have been formed by and 7,04 0 km resp ectively.
sialic layer. (2) ACCORDING TO HAROLD JE F F R E Y S
(ii) S im a is located ju st below the sialic layer. Jeffreys has id en tified , on the basis of the
This layer is com posed o f basalt and is the source o f study o f seism ic w aves, four layers in the earth e.g.
m agm a and lava during volcanic eruptions. Silica
(i) outer layer o f sedim entary rocks, (ii; second layer
(S i-Silica+m a-m agnesium ) and m agnesium are the
o f granites, (iii) third layer o f thach ylyte or diorite
dom inant constituents. Average density ranges be
and (iv ) fourth layer o f dunite, pcridotite or eclogiie.
tw een 2.9 to 4.7 w hereas the thickness varies from
1,000 km to 2,000 km. There is abundance o f basic (3) ACCORDING TO HOMLE8
matter. The silicates o f m agnesium , calcium and A rthur H o lm e s has r e c o g n i /^ d tw o major
iron are m ost abundantly found. layers in the earth. T h e u p p e r la y e r is te rm e d as crust
w hich is co m p o sed o f w h o le o f S u e s s ’ sialic layer
and upper portion o f ‘s im a ’. T h e lo w e r layer has
been nam ed by H olm es as a s u b stra tu m which rep
resents low er portion o f S u e s s ’ sima.
H om les has d eterm in e d the th ick n ess o f sial
below the continental su rface on the basis o f differ
ent sources and ev id en ces as given below .
( i)O n the basis o f therm al co n d itio n s - 20 km
or less.
(ii) On the basis o f su rface seism ic waves (L
waves) - 15 km or more.
(iii) On the basis o f lo n g itu d in a l (P waves)
waves— 20-30 km.
(iv) On the basis o f s u b sid e n c e o f the deepest
geosynclines - 20 km o r m ore.
(4) ACCORDING TO VAN DER GRACHT
Van der G rach t has identified 4 - layersystem
Fig. 5.3 : Layering system o f the earth according to E.
Suess. C - crust. o f the com position o f the interior o f the earth. He has
sum m arized the various p ro p erties o f the earth’s
(iii) N ife is located just below ‘sim a’ layer.
interior in the fo llow ing m an ner.
This layer is com posed of nickel (NI) and ferrium
(Fe). It is, thus, apparent that this layer is made of L ayer T h ick n ess D ensity
heavy metals which are responsible for very high (i) O uter sialic 60 km 2.75 to 2.9
density (11) of this layer. The diameter of this zone crust (u n d er continents)
is 6880 km. The presence o f iron (ferrium) indicates 20 km
the magnetic property o f the earth's interior. This (und er A tlantic
property also indicates the rigidity of the earth (fig. 5.3). O cean)
A bsent
5.3 THiCKNESS AND DEPTH OF DIFFERENT (u n d er Pacific
LAYERS OF THE EARTH O cean)
(1) ACCORDING TO DALY (li)Inner-silicate 6 0 -1 1 4 0 km 3. 1 t o 4.75
Daly has recognized three layers of different mantle
density in the earth. (iii) Zone of mixed 1,140-2,900 km 4.75 to 5.0
metals and
(i) O uter zone is com possed o f silicates.
silicates
Average density is 3.0 and the thickness is 1,600 km.
(iv)Metallie nucleus 2,900-6371 km H-0
CONSTITUTION O F T H E E A R T H S INTERIOR 111
It appears from the foregoing discussion that

obsolete. The scientific study and analysis o f various
there is difference o f opinions about ttic number,
aspects o f seismic waves (mainly velocity and travel
thickness and various properties o f the layers o f the
paths) o f natural and man-induced earthquakes have
earth. In order to avoid confusion the following
enabled the scientists to unravel the m ystery o f the
generalized pattern o f the layering system of the
earth's interior based on authentic information. Three
earth's interior is com m only accepted by majority o f zones o f varying properties have been identified in
the scientists.
the earth on the basis o f changes in the velocity o f
(i) L ith osp here with a thickness of about 1 00 seismic waves while passing through the earth (fig.
km is mostly com posed o f granites. Silica and alu 5.4) e.g. cru st, m antle and core. It m ay be pointed
minium arc dom inant constituents. Average density out that there is still difference o f pinions about the
is 3.5. thickness of these zones, mainly abo ut the thickness
(ii) P yrosp h ere stretches for a thickness of o f the crust. Various sources put the thickness o f the
2780 km having an average density of 5.6. The crust between 30 km and 100 km. On the basis o f the
dominant rock is basalt. change in the velocity o f seism ic w aves crust is
further divided into (i) upper cru st and (ii) lo w er
(iii) B arysphere is com posed o f iron and crust because the velocity o f P w aves suud en ly
nickel. Average density ranges between 8 and 11 and increases in the lower crust. For exam ple, the av er
this layer stretches from 2800 km upto the nucleus o f age velocity of P waves in the upper crust is 6 .1 km
the core. per second while it becomes 6.9 km per second in the
lower crust. Fig. 5.4 depicts the different velocities
5.4 R EC EN T V IEW S of Pand S waves in different parts o f the earth an d the
The aforesaid views about the composition relationship between velocities o f seism ic w aves
and structure o f the earth's interior have now become and different zones o f the earth.
. i waves from the crust o f the earth to its interior and relationships between
Fit . S.4 " «,*d d f r r L t o . ' , o l ,H, ,a r,k M ' r K.E. B u ,M .
t ve ocines ^ that in the beginning vast difference between the
(1) CRUST ^ ^ outer and lower structure and composition of the upper and low er
crust is 2.8 and 3.0 respectively. It may uc pointed
The average density o ^ crust was reported by the scientists but now the
112 GEOMORPHOLOGY
evidences of seismology have revealed almost iden or simply ‘M oh o d isco n tin u ity ’. The mantle hav
tical structure and composition o f these two sub ing mean density o f 4 .6 g cm -3 extends for a depth of
zones of the crust. The difference o f density between 2900 km inside the earth. It m ay be mentioned that
the upper (2.8) and lower crust (3.0) is because o f the the thickness o f the mantle is less than half o f the
pressure of supperincumbent load. The formation of radius o f the earth (6371 km ) but it contains 83 per
the minerals of the upper crust was accomplished at cent of the total volum e and 68 per cent o f the total
relatively lower pressure than the minerals o f the mass of the earth. Previously the m antle was divided
lower crust. into two zones on the basis o f changes in the veloci
ties o f seismic waves and density e.g. (i) upper
m antle from M oho discontinuity to the depth of
D en sity
1000 km and (ii) low er m an tle from 1000 km to
2-90 2900 km depth but now the mantle is divided on the
3-3
basis o f the information received from the discovery
of the International Union o f G eodesy and G eophys
ics into 3 sub-zones e.g. (i) first zone extending from
4-3
Moho discontinuity to 200 km depth, (ii) second
zone extending from 200 km to 700 km depth and
(iii) third zone extending from 7 00 km to 2900 km
depth. The velocity o f seismic waves relatively
slows down in the upermost zone o f the upper mantle
5-5 for a depth of 100 to 200 km (7.8 km per second).
10-0 This zone is called the zone o f low velocity. Mantle
is believed to have been formed largely o f silicate
minerals rich in iron and magnesium.
(3) CORE
The core, the deepest and most inaccessible
zone of the earth, extends from the lower boundary
12-3 of the mantle at the depth o f 2900 km to the centre o f
13-3 the earth (upto 6371 km). The mantle-core boundary
is determined by the ‘W eich ert-G u ten b erg D is
continuity’ at the depth of 2900 km. It is significant
13-6 to note that there is pronounced change o f density
form 5.5 g cm"3 to 10.0 g cm"3 along the Gutenberg
Discontinuity. This sudden change in density is
Fig. 5.5 : Diagramatic presentation o f different zones indicated by sudden increase in the velocity o f P
o f the earth, their densities and thicknesses on waves (13.6 km per second) along the mantle-core
the basis o f the information o f International boundary or Gutenberg Discontinuity. The density
Union o f Geodesy and Geophysics. further increases from 12.3 to 13.3 and 13.6 with
(2) MANTLE increasing depth o f the core. It, thus, appears that the
There is sudden increase in the velocity of density o f the core is more than twice the density of
seismic waves at the base of lower crust as the the mantle but the volume and mass o f the core are
velocity of seismic waves is about 6.9 km per second 16 per cent and 32 per cent o f the total volume and
at the base of lower crust but it suddenly becomes 7.9 mass of the earth respectively.
to 8.1 km per second. This trend of seismic waves The core is further divided into two sub-zones
denotes discontinuity between the boundaries of e.g. outer core and inner core, the dividing line
lower crust and upper mantle. This discontinuity being at the depth o f 5150 km. S waves disappear in
was discovered by A. Mohorovicic in the year 1909 this outer core. This means that the outer core should
and thus it is called as ‘Mohorovicic discontinuity’ be in molten state. The inner core extends from the
CONSTITUTION O F T H E E A R T H S INTERIOR 113
depth o f 5150 km to the centre o f the earth (6371 asthen osphere, the lower part o f the lithosphere
km). This lowerm ost zone o f the interior o f the earth (crust) is in partially molten condition wherein m ol
is in solid state, the density o f which is 13.3 to 13.6. ten (fluidj magma is in motion. The lithosphere
p waves travel through this zone with the speed o f (crust; above hard mantle is characterized by a
1 1 .23 km per second. It is generally believed that the network o f deformable m agm a ch a n n els which
core is com posed o f iron and nickel but according to have been termed as surge ch an n els. These surge
the second view point the core may be formed of channels are. in fact, conduits through which fluid
silicates. It is also believed that after disintegration magma moves upward from asthenosphere to upper
on high pressure the electronic structures have changed part of the lithosphere. W hen the asthenosphere
into heavy metallic materials, thus the density of the becomes too weak to support the lithosphere dy
core has increased. A ccording to the third view point namically, the latter collapses into the former. The
initially the core was com posed of hydrogen but surge channel system, fluid m agm a and the collapse
later on hydrogen was transformed into metallic o f lith o s p h e r e in to d y n a m i c a l l y w e a k e n e d
materials due to excessive pressure (over 3 million asthenosphere, are parts o f ‘glob al g ia n t h yd rau lic
atmosphere). This possibility is questioned on the press system ’.
ground that though the transformation of silicate or
Strictly speaking, surge tectonics m eans up
hydrogen due to very high pressure in the core may
ward motion of fluid m agm a in surge channels
be believed tentatively but this process cannot in
fmagma conduits), rise in tem perature o f regional
crease the density o f the core as high as it is at
oceanic water and consequent decrease in pressure
present. For exam ple, the planet Mercury is smallest
and shift in regional gravity field o f oceanic crust.
of all the planets o f our solar system but its density
The motions in the surge channels are caused by
is highest o f all the planets. It may be argued that earth s rotation. Magma, while rising through the
least compression and pressure cannot generate highest surge channels, undergoes its transform ation (defor
density in the core o f M ercury. Most of the present- mation; i.e. it becomes lighter (decrease in density)
day geophysicists and geochemists believe that the and less compact and hence expands. This co n se
core is made o f metallic materials mainly iron and quent expansion in magma reduces gravitational
nickel. attraction in the surge channels and w eakens the
regional gravity fields. The increase in seismic ac
5.5 S U R G E T E C T O N IC S
tivity along East Pacific Rise (ridge), increase in sea
Surge tectonics refers to the genesis of global
level in the Pacific Ocean due to shift in regional
surge waves caused by changes (weakenings in the
regional gravity fields due to upward movement of gravity field and increase in tem perature o f ocean
deformable m agm a in the s u rg e ch an nels in the waters surrounding Indonesian archipilago etc. due
lithosphere (crust, 100-200 km thick upper layer of to surge tectonics have been associated w ith El N ino
the earth) lying above mantle. Recently, surge tec phenomenon. Thus, it is concluded that El Nino
tonics involving tectonic activity within the crust phenomenon is related to surge tectonics and in turn
has been related to climatic phenomena including El the former affects weather and climate. This has
Nino. Infact, there is paradigm shift from traditional been termed as a Gravitationally Earth Teleconnected
modelling o f climate change based on ocean-at- Global Oscillation System (G E T G O S ) w hich con
mosphere interactions’ to ‘earth dynamics (surge trols climatic fluctuation (D own to Earth, N ov 30
te c to n ic s)-o ce an -atm o sp h e re interactions . The 1999).
CHAPTER 6 CO N TIN EN TS AND OCEANS
I n tr o d u c tio n ; te tra h e d ra l hyp o th esis ; continental drift theory o f T ay lo r ;
c o n tin e n ta l d rift th eo ry o f W eg en er ; plate tectonic theory.
6
CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS
6.1 INTRODUCTION w ould be ‘land h em isp h ere’ w h ile th e southern

Continents and ocean basins being fundamental hem isphere as ‘w ater h e m isp h ere’. T h u s, th e land
relief features o f the globe are considered as ‘relief hem isphere w ould rep resen t 83 p er cen t o f th e total
featu res o f the first o rd er’. It is, therefore, desir land area o f the globe w hile the w ater h em isp h ere
able to inquire into their m ode o f possible origin and w ould carry 90.6 per cent o f the total o cean ic areas
evolution. D ifferent view s, concepts, hypotheses of the globe.
and theories regarding the origin of the continents (2) C ontinents are arranged in ro u g h ly tria n
and ocean basins have been put forth by the scientists gular shape. M ost o f the co n tin en ts h av e th e ir bases
from tim e to tim e. B efore exam ining these views (of triangle) in the north w hile th eir ap ices are
about their origin we should know the characteristic pointed tow ards south. If w e take N o rth and S outh
features o f the distributional patterns and arrange A m ericas together, they rep resen t eq u ilateral tria n
m ent o f the continents and ocean basins as seen at gles, the base o f w hich w ould be alo n g the arctic sea
present. A bout 70.8 per cent o f the total surface area w hile the apex w ould be rep resen ted by C ap e H orn.
o f the globe is represented by the oceans w hereas If we take these tw o co n tin en ts sep arately , again
rem aining 29.2 per cent is represented by the conti they form tw o separate triangles. S im ilarly , E u rasia
nents. Even the distribution o f different continents also assum es the form o f a trian g le the base o f w hich
and oceans in both the hem ispheres is not uniform . is along the arctic sea w hile its ap ex is n ear E ast
T he follow ing characteristic features o f the distribu Indies. The base o f A frican trian g le is to w ard s north
w hile its apex is the C ape o f G ood H ope. A ustralia
tional pattern o f the continents and the occean basins
and A ntarctica are the ex cep tio n s to this rule.
m ay be highlighted-
(3) R oughly, the oceans are also trian g u lar in
(1) T here is overhw elm ing dom inance o f land
shape. C ontrary to the co n tin en ts th e b ases o f oc-
areas in the northern hem isphere. M ore than 75 per ceans are in the south w hile th e ir ap ices are in the
cen t o f the total land area o f the globe is situated to north. T he base o f the A tlan tic O cean ex tends be
the north o f the equato r (i.e. in the northern hem i tw een C ape H orn and C ape o f G o o d H o p e w hile its
sphere). C ontrary to this w ater bodies dom inate in apex is located to the east o f G reen lan d . T he base o f
the southern hem isphere. If we divide the globe in the Indian O cean is in the so u th bu t its tw o apices are
tw o such hem ispheres w here the north pole stands located in the Bay o f B engal and the A rabian Sea.
located in the E nglish C hannel and the south pole T he apex o f the P acific O cean is near A leutian
near N ew Z ealand, then the northern hem isphere Islands w hile its base lies in the south.
115
(4) The north pole is surrounded by oceanic is situated diam etrically opposite to water bodies.
water while south pole is surrounded by land area (of There are only two cases o f exceptions to this gen
the Antarctic continent). eral rule e.g. (i) Patagonia is situated diametrically
opposite to a part o f north C hina and (ii) New
(5) There is antipodal arrangement (situation)
Zealand is situated qpposite to Portugal and Spain
of the continents and oceans. Only 44.6 per cent
oceans are situated opposite to oceans and 1.4 per (the Iberian Peninsula)
cent of the total land area o f the globe is opposite to (6) The great Pacific Ocean basin occupies
land area. M ore than 95 per cent of the total land area almost one-third of the entire surface area of the globe.
Fig. 6.1: Different geometrical shapes which were used to postulate the hypotheses o f the origin o f the continents and
ocean basins. The last one is a tetrahedron.
The validity and authenticity o f any hypothe tions. In fact, all the previous hypotheses and theo
sis or theory dealing with the origin and evolution of ries dealing with the origin o f the continents and
the continents and the ocean basins would be de ocean basins have faded away after the postulation
termined in the light o f aforesaid characteristics of of plate tectonic theory. We will exam ine here only
the distributional pattern o f the continents and ocean the concepts o f Lowthian G reen, F.B. Taylor, A.G.
basins. The presence o f the great Pacific Ocean basin W egener and o f course plate tectonic theory.
and island arcs and festoons o f the Pacific Ocean are
6.2 TETR A H ED R A L H Y P O TH ESIS
teething problem s before scientists who venture in
the precarious field o f the postulation o f the relevant A few scientists have attem pted to solve the
theory of the origin o f the continents and ocean problems o f the origin o f the continents and ocean
basins. Keeping the above facts in mind Lowthian basins on the basis o f fundam ental principles o f
Green postulated his ‘tetrahedral hypothesis’ to geometry. The patagonal dod ecah ed ral hypoth
explain the intricate problem s o f the origin o f the esis (dodeca is a Greek word w hich means tw elve) o f
continents and oceans and characteristic features o f Elie dc Beaumont is considered to be the first at
their distributional pattern. Besides, Lord Kelvin, tempt in this field but the tetrahedral hypothesis o f
Sollas, Love etc. have also attem pted to explain the Lowthian Green is m ost significant o f all the hypoth
origin of the continents and ocean basins but their eses based on geom etrical principles. ‘An attractive
views are not discussed here because they are based hypothesis which has enjoyed a considerable vogue
on discarded and obsolete arguments and assump was initiated by Lowthian Green in 1875’ (S.W .
11 6 GEOMORPHOLOGY
W ooldridge and R.S. M organ, 1959). H is hypotehsis C onsequently, the upper part collapsed on the inner
is based on the characteristics o f a tetrahedron w hich part and ultim ately the earth began to assume the
is a solid body having four equal plane surfaces, each shape o f a tetrahedron. L ow thian G reen has further
o f w hich is an equilateral triangle (fig. 6. 1 ). m aintained that th e earth has not been as yet changed
into a com plete tetrah ed ro n rath er as it is being
Low thian G reen postulated his hypothesis
cooled, it is pro ceed in g tow ards attaining the true
after considering the characteristics o f the distribu
shape o f a tetrahedron. H e has fu rth er opined that the
tional pattern o f land and w ater over the globe.
earth cannot be in the sh ap e o f a real tetrahedron
Barring a few draw backs and defects the tetrahedral
because o f its structural variatio n s and thus it is
hypothesis successfully explains the follow ing char
natural that there m ay be som e d ev iatio n s from a true
acteristics o f the continents and ocean basins.
tetrahedron.
(1) D om inance o f land areas in the northern
hem isphere and w ater areas in the southern hem i In a tetrahedron a plane face rem ains always
sphere ; (2 ) triangular shape o f the continents and opposite to an apex or coign. T he apex o r coign is
oceans ; (3) situation o f continuous ring o f land m ore sharpened in the case o f a real tetrahedron. In
around north polar sea and location o f south pole in the case o f the earth the oceans rep resent the plane
land area (A ntarctica) surrounded by water from all faces o f the tetrahedron and land m asses represent
sides; (4) antipodal arrangem ent o f the continents the apices or coigns but in the case o f the earth the
and oceans ; (5) largest extent o f the Pacific Ocean coigns are not m uch sharpened, rath er they are flat
covering one third area of the globe and (6) location and convex. A ccording to L ow thian G reen oceans
of chain o f folded m ountains around the Pacific were created on the plane faces o f the terrestrial
Ocean. tetrahedron w hereas the coigns becam e continental
m asses (fig. 6.2 )
The hypothesis of Lowthian Green propounded
in the year 1875 is based on the com m on character
istics o f a tetrahedron. He based his hypothesis on
the follow ing two basic principles of geom etry.
( 1 ) 4A sphere is that body which contains the
largest volum e with respect to its surface area’.
(2 ) ‘A tetrahedron is that body which contains
the least volum e with respect to its surface area’.
A fter many experim ents Low thian Green
opined that a sphere if subjected to uniform pressure
on all its sides would be transform ed into the shape
o f a tetrahedron. He applied this principle in the case
o f the earth. A ccording to him when the earth was
originated it was in the form o f a sphere. In the
beginning the earth was very hot but it gradually
began to cool dow n due to loss o f heat. First, the
outer part o f the earth cooled down and thus was
form ed the crust but inner part o f the earth continued Fig. 6.2 : Distribution o f land and water on a tetrahe
to cool dow n. C onsequently, the inner part o f the dron.
earth was subjected to m ore contraction due to
Four oceans (e.g. the P acific O cean, the A t
continued cooling and thus there was marked reduc lantic O cean, the Indian O cean and the A rctic ocean)
tion in the volum e o f the inner part o f the earth. Since were created on the four plane faces o f the terrestrial
the upper part, the crust, was already cooled and tetrahedron. T hese plane faces could retain water
solidified and hence it could not be subjected to because o f the fact that these w ere low er than the
further contraction. This resulted into possible gap level o f the apices o r coigns o f the terrestrial tetrahe
between the upper and inner parts o f the earth. dron. C ontinents w ere form ed along the apices or
CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 117
coigns o f the tetrahedron. T his fact may also be characteristic features o f the distributional pattern of
proved on the basis o f an experim ent. If we sub the present-day continents and ocean basins but
merge a tetrahedron in a h em isphere o f water, the because o f certain basic defccts and errors the hy
flat surface o f the tetrah ed ro n w ould retain w ater pothesis is not acceptable to the m odern scientific
while the edges or apices or coigns will project com m unity. It is argued that the balance o f the earth
above the w ater. L o w th ian G reen claim ed to see a in the form o f a tetrahedron w hile rotating on an apex
tetrahedral arran g em en t in the distribution o f the cannot be m aintained. S econdly, the earth is rotating
continents and o cean s in such a way that the earth so rapidly on its axis that the spherical earth cannot
was linked to a tetrah ed ro n having to u r flat faces and be converted into a tetrahedron w hile co n tractin g on
standing on one p o in t (fig. 6.2). T he upper flat face cooling. Thirdly, this hypothesis believes m ore or
represents the A rctic O cean w hile the rem aining less in the perm anency o f con tin en ts and ocean
three faces represen t the Pacific O cean, the A tlantic basins w hile the plate tectonic theory has validated
Ocean and the Indian O cean. S im ilarly, three verti the concept o f continental drift.
cal m eridional edges represent N orth and South
Amrica, E urope and A frica and A sia w hile the lower 6.3 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY OF TAYLOR
point is represented by A ntarctica. Thus, the pres F. B. T aylor postulated his co n cep t o f ‘h o ri
ence o f w ater around north pole and the location of zontal displacem ent o f the co n tin e n ts’ in the y ear o f
south pole in land area (A ntarctic continent) are very 1908 but it could be published only in the y ear 1910.
well explained on the basis o f tetrahedral hypoth The main purpose o f his hypothesis w as to explain
esis. T hree coigns o ut o f four coings o f four equilat the problem s o f the origin o f the folded m ou n tain s o f
eral triangles are located in the northern hem isphere. Tertiary period. In fact, F.B. T ay lo r w an ted to solve
Only the fourth coign is located in the southern the peculiar problem o f the d istrib u tio n al pattern o f
hem isphere. T hese three coigns present the oldest Tertiary folded m ountains. T he north -so u th a rra n g e
rigid m asses around w hich the present continents ment o f the R ockies and the A ndes o f the w estern
have grow n. T hese three ancient shields are the m argins o f the N orth and S outh A m ericas and w est-
Laurentian or C anadian Shield, Baltic Shield and east extent o f the A lpine m o untains (A lps, Cauca
Siberian Shield. T he fourth coign or the pivot o f the sus, H im alayas etc.) posed a serious problem before
tetrahedron represents the Antarctic shield. The present Taylor which needed careful exp lan atio n . H e could
continents have grow n out o f these four ancient not find any help from the ‘co n tra ctio n th e o r y ’ to
shields represented by four coigns o f the tetrahe explain the peculiar distribution o f T ertiary folded
dron. All the contin en ts developed along the edges m ountains and hence he p ropounded his ‘d rift or
of the tetrahedron taper southw ard and thus triangu displacem ent theory. The concept o f T aylor, thus,
lar shape o f the continents is proved. The location of is considered to be first, attem p t in the field o f
the oceans along four plane faces and the continents continental drift though A ntonio S n id er presented
along the edges or coigns o f the plane faces o f the his views about ‘d r ift’ in the year 1858 in France.
tetrahedron proves antipodal position o f land and Main purpose behind the po stu latio n o f ‘d rift h y
water. poth esis’ o f S nider was to ex p lain the sim ilarity o f
T hough G regory accepted the tetrahedral hy the fossils o f the coal seam s o l C arb o n ifero u s period
pothesis o f L ow thian G reen but he suggested certain in North A m erica and Europe.
m odifications. A ccording to G regory due to shrink T aylor started from C retaceo u s period. A c
age o f the earth because o f contraction on cooling
cording to him there w ere tw o land m asses during
‘the portion o f the vertical tetrahedral edges should
Cretaceous period. L auratia and G ondw analand w ere
be fairly constant, but three edges around the polar
depression m ight develop som etim es in the northern located near the north and south poles respectively.
and at others in the southern h em isp h ere’. He further assum ed that the con tin en ts w ere m ade o f
sial w hich was practically absent in the oceanic
Criticism crust. A ccording to T ay lo r co n tin en ts m oved to
Though the tetrahedral hypothesis throws light w ards the equator. T he m ain d riv in g f o r c e 'o f the
on the problem s of the continents and ocean basins continental drift w as tidal force. A cco rd ing to T ay lo r
and to m ajor extent it successfully explains the continents w ere displaced in tw o w ays e.g. ( 1 ) eq u a
118 GEOMORPHOLOGY
tor ward m ovem ent and (ii) w estw ard m ovem ent but force nor any external force can d rift the continents
the driving force responsible for both types o f m ove apart and can help in the form ation o f mountains
ment was tidal force o f the m oon. T he responsible force m ust com e from within the
L auratia started m oving aw ay from the north earth. T hough the co n cep t o f F.B. T aylor is not
pole because o f enorm ous tidal force o f the moon acceptable but his hypothesis is considered to be
tow ards the equator in a radial m anner. This m ove significant on the ground that T aylor raised his voice
ment o f landm ass resulted into tensional force near very forcefully through deductjve postulation against
the north pole w hich caused stretching, splitting and the prevalent concept o f the perm anency of the
rupture in the landm ass. C onsequently, B affin Bay, continents and ocean basins and forcefully objected
Labrador Sea and D avis S trait w ere form ed. S im i to the ‘con traction th eo ry ’ and show ed a new
larly, the displacem ent o f the G ondw analand from direction to solve the problem o f the origin o f the
the south pole tow ards the equator caused splitting continents and ocean basins. A. holm es has rightly
and disruption and hence the G ondw analand was rem arked, ‘but T aylor m ust be given credit for
split into several parts. C onsequently, G reat A us m aking an independent and slightly an earlier start in
tralian Bight and R oss Sea w ere form ed around this precarious field ’.
A ntarctic continent. A rctic sea was form ed betw een
6.4 CONTINENTAL DRIFTTHEORYOF WEGENER
G reenland and Siberia due to equatorw ard m ove
m ent o f Lauratia. A tlantic and Indian coeans were Aim of the Theory
supposed to have been form ed because o f filling of Professor A lfred W egener o f G erm any was
gaps betw een the drifting continents with water. prim arily a m eteorologist. He propounded his con
T aylor assum ed that the landm asses began to m ove cept on continental drift in the year 1912 but it could
in lobe form w hile drifting through the zones o f not com e in light till 1922 w hen he elaborated his
lesser resistance. T hus, m ountains and island arcs concept in a book entitled ‘D ie E n tstehung der
w ere form ed in the frontal part o f the m oving lobes. K ontinente and O zea n e’ w hich w as translated in
The H im alayas, C aucasus and A lps are considered English in 1924. W egener's displacem ent hypoth
to have been form ed during equatorw ard m ovem ent esis w as based on the w orks and findings o f a host
o f the L auratia and G ondw analand from the north o f scientists such as geologists, palaeo-clim atolo-
and south poles respectively w hile the Rockies and gists, palaeontologists, geophysicists and others.
A ndes w ere form ed due to w estw ard m ovem ent of The main problem before W egener, w hich needed
the landm asses. explanation, was related to clim atic changes. It may
be pointed out that there are am ple evidences which
Criticism s indicate w idespread clim atic changes throughout
Since F.B. T alor's m ain aim was to explain the past history o f the earth. In fact, the continental
the origin o f the Tertiary folded m ountains and drift theory o f W egener ‘grew out o f the need of
hence he m ade the continents to m ove at a very large explaining the m ajor variations o f clim ate in the
scale. In fact, som e sort o f horizontal m ovem ent of p ast’. The clim atic changes w hich have occurred on
the landm asses w as essential for the origin o f m oun the globe may be explained in tw o w ays.
tains but the displacem ent o f landm asses upto 32-64
km would have been sufficient enough for the pur (1) If the continents rem ained stationary at
pose. C ontrary to this, T aylor has described the their places .throughout geological history of the
displacem ent o f the landm asses for thousands of earth, the clim atic zones m ight have shifted from one
kilom etres. Secondly, the m ode of drift as suggested region to another region and thus a particular region
m ight have experienced varying clim atic conditions
by Taylor has also been erroneous. If the tidal force
of the moon was so enorm ous during C retaceous from tim e to time.
period that it could displace the landm asses for (2) If the clim atic zones rem ained stationary, I
the landm assesm ighthavebeendisplacedanddrifted. j
thousands o f kilom etres apart then it m ight have also
put a break on the rotatory m otion o f the earth and W egener opted for the second alternative as
thus the rotation o f the earth m ight have stopped he rejected the view o f the perm anency o f c o n t i n e n t s
within a year. A ccording to A. H olm es neither tidal and ocean basins. Thus, the main o f Wegener
o b j e c t i v e
119
behind his displacement hypothesis9 was to ex geological, clim atic and floral records, he claimed
plain the global clim atic changes w hich are reported that all the present-day continents could be joined to
to have taken place during the past earth history. form Pangaea. The following evidences support the
Basic Prem ise of th e Theory concept o f the existence o f Pangaea during C arbon
iferous period.
Follow ing E dw ard Suess, W egener believed
in three layers system o f the earth e.g. outer layer o f (1) A ccording to W egener there is geographi
‘sial’, interm ediate layer o f ‘s im a ’ and the lower cal sim ilarity along both the coasts o f the Atlantic
layer o f n ife . A ccording to W egener sial was Ocean. Both the opposing coasts o f the A tlantic can
considered to be lim ited to the continental masses be fitted together in the sam e way as tw o cut off
alone w hereas the ocean crust was represented by pieces o f wood can be refitted (jig-saw fit) (fig. 6.3).
the upper part o f sim a. C ontinents or sialic masses (2) Geological evidences denote that the C al
were floating on sim a w ithout any resistance offered edonian and Hercynian m ountain system s o f the
by sima. He assum ed, on the basis o f evidences of western and eastern coastal areas o f the A tlantic are.
palaeo-clim atology. palaeontology, palaeobotany, similar and identical (fig. 6.4). The A pplachians o f
geology and geophysics, that all the landmasses the north-eastern regions o f N orth A m erica are com
were united together in the form of one landmass, patible with the mountain system s o f Ireland, W ales
which he nam ed P a n g a e a , in C arboniferous period. and north-western Europe.
There were several sm aller inland seas scattered
over the Pangaea w hich was surrounded by a huge
water body, w hich w as nam ed by W egener as
‘P a n th a la s a ’, representing primaeval Pacific Ocean.
Lauratia consisting o f present North America, Eu
rope and A sia form ed northern part o f the Pangaea
while G ondw analand consisting of South America,
Africa, M adagascar (now M alagasy), Peninsular
India, A ustralia and A ntarctica represented the south
ern part o f the Pangaea. South pole w as located near
present D urban (near N atal in southern Africa) dur
ing C arboniferous period. Thus, W egeners theory
of continental drift begins from Carboniferous pe
riod, he does not describe the conditions during pre-
Carboniferous tim es ‘but the postulation of a Car
boniferous Pangaea does not mean that he disbe
lieves in p r e - C a r boniferous drift; events before this
time are know n w ith m uch less certainty, and the
distribution o f plants and anim als can largely be
explained by m ovem ents which have taken place
since the C arboniferous’ (J.A . Steers. 1961. p. 160).
The Pangaea was disrupted during subsequent peri Fig. 6.3: Jig-saw fitting (juxtaposition) o f South
ods and broken landm asses drifted away from each America and Africa,
other and thus the present position o f the continents (3) Geologically, both the coasts o f the Atlan
and ocean basins became possible. tic are also identical. Du Toit, after detailed study o f
the eastern coasts o f South America and western
Evidences in Support of The Theory coast o f Africa, has said that the geological struc
W egener has successfully attempted to prove tures of both the coasts are more or less similar.
the unification o f all landmasses in the form of a According to Du Toil both the landmasses (i.e.
single landmass, the Pangaea, during Carboniferous South America and Africa) cannot be actually brought
period. On the basis o f evidences gathered from together but near to each other because a gap o f 400-
120 GEOMORPHOLOGY 1
800 km w ould sep arate them d u e to the ex isten ce o f lan d m asses w ere u n ited in th e a n cien t tim es and the
continental shelves and slopes o f th ese tw o land- an im als used to m ig rate to far o f f places in the
m asses. w estern d irectio n .
(7) T h e d istrib u tio n o f g lo sso p teris flora in
India, S outh A frica, A u stralia, A n tarctica, Falkland
islands etc. p ro v es the fact that all the landm asses
w ere prev io u sly united an d co n tig u o u s in the form of
P angaea.
(8) T h e ev id en ces o f C a rb o n ife ro u s glacia
tion o f B razil, F alk lan d , S o u th A frica, Peninsular
India, A u stralia and A n tarctica fu rth er prove the
u n ific a tio n o f all la n d m a sse s in o n e landm ass
(P an g aea) durin g C a rb o n ife ro u s p eriod.
P r o c e s s of th e T heory
A s stated earlier the m ain aim o f W egener
behind the p o stu latio n o f his ‘d rift th e o ry ’ was to
explain m ajor clim atic ch an g es w hich are reported
to have taken p lace in the p ast geo lo gical history o f
the earth, such as C arb o n ifero u s glaciation o f m ajor
parts o f the G o n d w an alan d . B esides, W egener also
attem pted to solve o th er p ro b lem s o f the earth e.g.
origin o f m o u n tain s, island arcs and festoons, origin
an ev olution o f continenLs and ocean basins etc.
(1) F o rc e R esp o n sib le fo r th e D rift—
cording to W eg en er the co n tin en ts after breaking
aw ay from the P an ag aea m oved (d rifte d ) in two
directio n s e.g. (i) cq u ato rw ard m o v em en t and (ii)
w estw ard m ovem ent. T h e eq u ato rw ard m ovem ent
o f sialic blocks (co n tin en tal blo ck s) w as caused by
gravitational differen tial force and force o f buoy
Fig. 6.4 : Geological similarity on the eastern coast o f ancy. A s already stated the co n tin ental blocks, ac
South America and the western coast o f A f cording to W egener, w ere fo rm ed o f lighter sialic
rica. m aterials (silica and alu m in iu m ) and were floating
(4) T here is m arked sim ilarity in th e fossils w ithout any friction on relatively denser ‘sima’.
and vegetation rem ain s found on the eastern co ast o f T hus, the equ ato rw ard m o v em en t o f the sialic blocks
South A m erica and the w estern coast o f A frica. (continental b lo c k s) w ould d ep en d on the relation of
(5) It has been reported from geodetic ev i the cen tre o f gravity and the cen tre o f buoyancy of
dences that G reenland is d riftin g w estw ard at the the floating con tin en tal m ass. G en erally, these two
rate o f 20 cm p er year. T h e evid en ces o f sea floor types o f forces o perate in o p p o site directions. ‘But
spreading after 1960 have co n firm ed the m o v em en t because o f the ellip so id al form o f the earth, these
o f landm asses w ith resp ect to each other. forces are not in d irect o p p o sitio n , but are so r e la t e d
(6) T h e lem m ings (sm all sized an im als) o f the that, if the buoyancy p o int lies u nder the centre of
northern part o f S can d in av ia have a tendency to run gravity, the resultant (fo rce) is directed towards the
w estw ard w hen th eir p o p u latio n is en o rm o u sly in e q u a to r’ (J.A., Steers, 1961, p. 164).
creased but they are foundered in the sea w ater due The westward m ovem ent o f the continents ;
to absence o f any la n d beyond N o rw ag ian coast. was caused by the tidal force o f the sun and the j
This behaviour o f lem m ings proves the fact that the moon. According to W egener the attractional force |
c 0 MTINENTS a n d o c e a n b a s i n s 121
of the sun and the m oon, w hich was m axim um when tion, rifting and displacem ent (d riftin g )o f continen
the moon was nearest to the earth, dragged the outer tal blocks continued from C arboniferous period to
sialic crust (continental blocks) over the interior of Pliocene period w hen the present pattern and ar
the earth, tow ards the w est. It m ay be pointed out that rangem ent o f the continents and ocean basins was
in any drift theory the w eak est point and the m ost attained (fig. 6.5). T here have been frequent changes
difficult problem is related to the com petent force in the positions o f the equator and the poles as given
responsible for the m o v em en t o f the continents. in table 4.1.
‘Such a force (tidal fo rce/ attractional force o f the
Table 6.1 : Shifting of the Position® of the Poles
sun and the m oon) is extrao rd in arily sm all, but, as in
the case o f other forces, the question o f time is all Period N orth Pole S ou th Pole
important; given su fficien t tim e, it is claim ed that Silurian 14°N latitude to the n orth-w est o f
even these very sm all forces are able to cause m ove 124°W Ion- M ad ag ascar
ments’ (J.A. S teers, 1961, p. 164).
gitude
(2) A ctual D riftin g o f the C ontinents— The C arboniferous 16°N latitude near D urban in
disruption, rifting and ultim ately drifting o f the
147°W Ion- N atal
continental blocks began in C arboniferous period.
The m ovem ent o f the continental blocks away from gitude
the poles w as dram atically called by W egener as Tertiary 51^N latitude near 53®S latitude to
‘the flight from the p o les’. Pangaea was broken 153°W Ion- the south o f A frica
into two parts due to differential gravitational force gitude
and the force o f b u o y an cy . The northern part became Equator was located at the m ost northerly
Lauratia (A n garalan d ) w hile the southern part was location during Silurian period as it passed north o f
called by W egener as G ondw analand. The inter Norway. It passed through London during C arbon
vening space betw een these tw o giant continental iferous period and through present locations o f the
blocks was filled up w ith w ater and the resultant European Alpine m ountains during T ertiary period
water body was called T ethys Sea. This phase o f the (fig. 6.6). T h e south Pole and E quator obviously
disruption o f P angaea is called ‘O pening o f T ethys’. moved into accordant positions. The prevailing w est
G ondwanaland was disrupted during Cretaceous ward and equatorw ard m ovem ents jnust be referred
period and Indian peninsula, M adagascar, Australia to these positions’ (J.A. Steers, 1961, p. 166).
and A ntarctica broke aw ay from Pangaea and drifted
apart under the im pact o f tidal force o f the sun and (3) M ountain B uilding— A .G . W eg en eralso
the m oon. N o rth A m e ric a b ro k e aw ay from attempted to solve the problem o f the origin o f
Angaraland and drifted w estw ard due to tidal force. folded m ountains o f Tertiary period on the basis o f
Similarly, South A m erica broke away from Africa his continental drift theory. The frontal edges o f
and m oved w estw ard under the im pact o f tidal force. westward drifting continental blocks o f N orth and
Due to northw ard m ovem ent o f Indian Peninsula South Americas were crum pled and folded against
Indian O cean was form ed while the Atlantic Ocean the resistance o f the rocks o f the s e a -flo o r (sim a) and
was form ed due to w estw ard m ovem ent of two thus the western C ordilleras o f the tw o Americas
Americas. It may be m entioned that N orth and South (e.g. Rockies and A ndes and other m ountain chains
Americas w ere drifting w estw ard at different rates associated with them ) were form ed. Sim ilarly, the
and hence ‘S ’ shape o f the A tlantic Ocean could be A lpine ranges o f E u rasia w ere fo ld ed due to
possible. A rctic and N orth Sea were lorm ed due to equatorward m ovem ent o f E ruasia and Africa to
flight of the continental blocks from north pole. The gether with Pennisular India (equator was passing
size of the Panthalasa (prim itive Pacific Ocean) thorough Tethys sea at that tim e). Here, W egener
was rem arkably reduced because o f the movement postulated contrasting view points. According to
of continental blocks from all sides towards Panthalasa. W egener sial (continental blocks) w as floating upon
Thus, the rem aining portion o f Panthalasa became sim a w ithout any friction and resistance but during
the Pacific Ocean. It may be mentioned that disrup the later part of his theory he pointed out that mountains
g eo m o rph o lo g y
122
Fig. 6.5 : Disruption o f Pangaea and drifting o f continents. The dotted lines denote the present position o f continents
and ocean basins.
CONTINENTS a n d o c e a n b a sin s
123
Jertiury N p -JS
C a r l j o n i le r oa s N V
• Silurian S Pole
ertiary V
C arboniferous
S Pole /
• Tertian* S Pole
Fig. 6.6 : Different positions o f Poles and Equator.

were form ed at the frontal edges o f floating and Australia, Antarctica etc. were extensively glaci
drifting continental blocks (sialic crust) due to fric ated. According to W egener all the continental blocks
tion and resistance offered by sima. How could it be were united together in the form o f one landm ass
possible ? The question rem ains unansw ered. Inspite called as Pangaea. South Pole was located near the
of this serious flaw in the continental drift theory of present position of Durban in Natal. Thus, south
W egener, S.W . W ooldridge and R.S. M organ have pole was located in the middle o f Pangaea. Conse
remarked, ‘certainly the problem o f m ountain build quently, ice sheets might have spread from south
ing is one in w hich the hypothesis o f continental drift pole outward at the time o f glaciation and the afore
solves m ore difficulties than it creates’. said land areas, which were closer to south pole,
(4) O rigin o f Island A rc s — W egener has might have been covered with thick ice sheets. At
related the process o f the origin o f island arcs and much later date, these land areas m ight have parted
festoons (o f eastern A sia, W est Indies and the arc of away due to disruption o f Pangaea and related con
the southern A ntilles betw een Tierra del Fugo and tinental drift. G lossopteris flora m ight have also
A ntarctica) to the differential rates o f continental been distributed over the aforesaid areas when these
were united together.
drift. W hen the A siatic block (part of Angaraland)
was m oving w estw ard, the eastern m aigin of this Evaluation of the Theory
block could not keep pace w ith the westward m ov It may be pointed out that W egener’s conti
ing m ajor landm ass, rather lagged behind, conse nental drift theory widely departed from the con
quently the island arcs and festoons consisting of temporary orthodox geological ideas o f the nine
Sakhalin, Kurile, Japan, P h ilippines etc. were formed. teenth century and the tim e-honoured thermal con
Similarly, some portions of N orth and South Am eri traction theory o f the m ountain building and thus it
cas, while they w ere m oving w estward, were left was obvious that the believers of contraction theory
behind and the island arcs o f W est Indies and south should not only critisize the new theory o f horizontal
ern A ntilles were formed. displacement of the continents but should also
(5) C arboniferous Glac;itation— There are discard it. ‘It is now widely agreed that he (W egener)
ample evidences to dem onstrate that there was large- handled his case as an advocate rather than as an
scale glaciation during Carboniferous period when impartial scientific observer, appearing to ignore
Brazil, Falkland, Southern Africa, Peninsular India, evidences unfavourable to his ideas and distort other
124 GEOMORPHOLOGY
ev id en ces in harm o n y w ith the th e o ry ' (S.W . pre-C arboniferous tim es. M any questions remain
W ooldridge and R.S. M organ, 1959, p. 40). The unansw ered such as, W hat kept P angaea together till
critics o f W egener’s continental drift theory fall in its disruption in M esozoic e ra ? ’ W hy did the process
tw o broad categoreis e.g. (i) the critics and w riters o f continental drift not start before M esozoic era ?
who alw ays attem pted to search errors and dis etc. Som e w riters argue that 4it is not a fair criticism
crepancies in W egener's original synthesis and (ii) to say that any pre-C arboniferous m ountain building
the scientists w ho attem pted to m odify, enlarge and cannot be explained on W egener's hypothesis merely
correct the original theory o f W egener w hile retain because he does not develop his schem e in earlier
ing its basic tenet. T he follow ing flaw s and defects geological tim es’ (J.A. Steers, 1961, pp. 161-161).
have been pointed out by different scientists in It may be concluded that ‘even if all the m atter
W egener's theory o f continental drift. of his theory is w rong, geologists and others can but
(1) The forces applied by W egener (differen rem em ber that it is largely to him that we ow e our
tial gravitational force and the force o f buoyancy and more recent view s on w orld te cto n ic s’ (J.A . Steers,
tidal force of the sun and the m oon) are not sufficient 1961, p. 174). Though m ost p o in t o f W egener's
enough to drift the continents so apart, T h e tidal theory was rejected but its central them e o f horizon
force as invoked by W egener to account for the tal displacem ent was retained. In fact, the postula
supposed w esterly drift o f the continents would need tion o f plate tectonic theory after 1960 is the result o f
to be 10,000 m illion tim es as pow erful as it is at this continental drift theory o f W egener. W egener is,
present to produce the required effects, and, if it had thus, given credit to have started th inking in this
such a value, it w ould stop the earth's rotation com precarious field.
pletely in a year’ (S.W. W ooldridge and R.S. M organ,
1959, p. 40). Sim ilarly, the differential gravitational 6.5 P LA T E T EC T O N IC T H E O R Y
force and the force o f buoyancy are also not adequate The rigid lithospheric slabs o r rigid and solid
to cause equatorw ard m ovem ent o f the continents, crustal layers are te ch n ic a lly called ‘p la tes’. The
instead the force, if so enorm ous, m ight have caused whole m echanism o f the evolution, nature and m o
the concentration o f the continents near the equator. tion of plates and resultant reactions is called ‘plate
te c to n ic s ’. In other w ords, the w hole process o f
(2) W egener has described several contrast
plate motions is referred to as plate tectonics. ‘M ov
ing view points. Initially, sialic m asses (continents)
ing o v er the w eak a s th e n o s p h e re , in d iv id u a l
w ere considered by W egener as freely floating over
lithospheric plates glide slow ly ov er the su rfa c e o f
‘s im a ’ w ithout any friction offered by ‘s im a ’ but in
the globe ; much as a pack o f ice o f the A rctic Ocean
later part o f his theory he has described forceful
drifts under the dragging force o f currents and w inds’
resistance offered by ‘sim a’ in the free m ovem ent of
(A.N. Strahler and A.H. S trahler, 1978, p. 373).
sialic continents to explain the origin o f m ountains
Plate tectonic theory, a great scientific ach iev em en t
along the frontal edges o f floating continents. M oreo
o f the decade o f 1960s, is based on tw o m ajor
ver, ‘it is difficult to show how the sial blocks, in
scientific concepts e.g. (i) the c o n c e p t o f continental
their passage through the sim a, would crum ple at
d rift and (ii) the concept o f s e a -flo o r spreading.
their frontal edges and produce m ountains’ (J.A.
L ithosphere is internally m ade o f rigid p lates (fig.
Steers, 1961, p. 195). A ccording to W ills no com
6.7). Six m ajor and 20 m inor plates hav e been
pression could be possible to form the Rockies and
identified so far (Eurasian p late , In d ian -A u stralian
the A ndes if the ‘sim a’ is m ore rigid than the ‘sial’.
Bow ie has m aintained that sim a has no strength to plate, A m erican plate, Pacific Plate, A frican plate
crum ple sial to form m ountains. and A ntarctic p late , fig. 1 1 . 1 ).
(3) Both the coasts o f the A tlantic O cean It m ay be m entioned th at the term ‘plate’ was
* cannot be com pletely refitted. Thus, the concept o f first used by C anadian g eo physicist J.T. Wilson in
juxtaposition’ or ‘jig-saw fit’ cannot be validated. 1965. M ckenzie and P arker discu ssed in detail the
(4) Wegener has not elaborated the direction m echanism o f plate m otions on the basis of Eulers
and chronological sequence of the displacement of geom etrical theorem in 1967. T hey postulated **
the continents. He did not describe the situations of paving stone’ hypothesis w herein the oceanic crust
C0NTINENTS a n d OCEAN b a s i n s
125
CONVERGENCE DIVERGENCE
Sub duct ion Mid oceanic
zone Trench
Ridge
TraTisform*—
rjo u tt^
:ontine
ntol pfc
oceanic
plate
lA sth en o sp h e re l | L ith o sp h e re r
Fig. 6.7 : Diagramatic presentation o f main aspects o f plate tectonics (based on A.N. Strahler 1971).
was considered to be new ly form ed at mid-oceanic (1) Constructive Plate M argins— These are
ridges and destroyed at the trenches. Isacks and also called as ‘divergent plate m argins’ or‘accreting
Sykes confirm ed the ‘paving stone hypothesis’ in plate margins’. C onstructive p late m arg in s (bounda
1967. W.J. M organ and Le Pichon elaborated the ries) represent zones o f div erg en ce w h e re there is
various aspects o f plate tectonics in 1968. Now the continuous upw elling o f m olten m aterial (la v a ) and
continental drift and displacem ent are considered a thus new oceanic crust is c o n tin u o u sly fo rm e d . In
reality on the basis o f plate tectonics. fact, oceanic plates split apart along the m id -o c ea n ic
ridges and m ove in opposite d ire c tio n s (fig. 6 . 8).
It may be highlighted that tectonically plate (2) Destructive Plate M argins— These are
boundaries or plate m argins are m ost important also called as ‘consum ing plate m argin s’ or ‘co n
because all tectonic activities occur along the palte vergent plate m argins’ b ecau se tw o plates m ove
margins e.g. seism ic events, vulcanicity, mountain tow ards each other or tw o plates co n v e rg e along a
building, faulting etc. Thus, the detailed study of line and leading edge o f one p late o v e rrid es the other
plate margins is not only desirable but is also nec plate and the overridden plate is su b d u cted or thrust
essary. Plate m argins are generally divided into into the m antle and thus part o f the c ru st (plate) is
lost in the m antle (fig. 6 .8 ).
three groups, as follow s :
DIVERGENCE
^ , V?hC2.nn’C CONVERGENCE Sea flo o r
Continental chain T,oor
cr ust Trench Dceamc crust (basalt)/ ---- ------------------ K
LITHOSPHERE
x-v
V-a ; Magma
- \ \ r *v A. Soft layer ^
Rising
ASTHENOS ASTHENOSPHERE m antle
PHERE S u b d u c tio n rock
Melting
M A N T L E
Fig. 6.8:Diagramatic presentation o f different types o f plate margins.

126 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(3) Conservative Plate M argins arc also

called as shear plaic margins. Here, two plates pass
or slide past one another along transform faults and
thus crust is neither created nor destroyed.
H. Hess postulated the concept of ‘plate tec
tonics’ in I960 in support of continental drift. The
continents and occans move with the movement of
these plates. The present shape and arrangement of
the continents and ocean basins could be attained
because of continuous relative movement of differ
ent plates of the second Pangaea since Carbonifer
ous period. Plate tectonic theory is based on the
evidences o f ( 1 ) sea-flo o r spreading and (ii)
palaeomagnctism.
Sea-Floor Spreading
The concept o f sea floor spreading was first
propounded by professor Hary Hess of the Princeton
University in the year 1960. His concept was based
on the researcn findings of numerous marine geolo
gists, gcochcmists and geophysicists. Mason of the
Scripps Institute of Oceanography obtained signifi
cant information about the magnetism of the rocks of
sea-floor of the Pacific Ocean with the help of
magnetometer. Later on he surveyed a long stretch
of the sea-floor of the Pacific Ocean from Mexico to
British Columbia along the western coast of North
Amrica. When the data of magnetic anomalies ob
tained during the aforesaid survey were displayed on
a chart, there emerged well defined patterns of
stripes (fig. 6.9). Based on these information Hary
Fig. 6.9 : Patterns o f positive magnetic anomalies off
Hess propounded that the mid-oceanic ridges were the coast o f Sanfransisco.
situated on the rising thermal convection currents
profiles ot magnetic anomalies plotted on the basis
coming up from the mantle (fig. 6.10). The oceanic
of actual data obtained during the survey, he found
crust moves in opposite directions from mid-oceanic
sizeable difference between the two profiles. When
ridges, 'l’hese molten lavas cool down and solidify to
he plotted the magnetic profiles on the basis of
form new crust along the trailing ends of divergent
alternate bands of normal and reverse magnetism in
plates (oceanic crust). Thus, there is continuous
separate stripes o f 20 km width on either side of the
creation of new crust along the mid-oceanic ridges
ridge, he found com plete parallelism between the
and the expanding crusts (plates) are destroyed along
computed profiles and observed profiles.
the oceanic trenchcs. These facts prove that the
Vine and M attheus have opined on the basis
continents and ocean basins are in constant motion.
ol the evidences of temporal reversal in the geo
W.G. Vine and M attheus conducted the mag magnetic field and the concept o f sea-floor spreading
netic survey of the central part of Carlsberg Ridge in as propounded by Deitz and Hess that when molten hot
the Indian Ocean in 1963 and computed the magnetic lavas come up with the rising thermal convection
profiles on the basis of general magnetism. When he current along the mid-oceanic ridges and get cooled
compared the computed magnetic profiles with the and solidified, these (lavas) also get magnetized, at
CONTINENTS A N D O C E A N BA SIN S 127
the sam e tim e , in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e then o f the earth (known as geocentric d ipole m agnetic
geom agnetic field and thus altern ate bands or stripes field), (ii) normal and reverse m agnetic am om alies
of m agnetic an o m alie s are form ed on either side o f are found in alternate manner on either side o f the
m id-oceanic ridges, (iii) there is com plete parallel
the m id-oceanic ridge. In o th er w ords, when m olten
ism in the magnetic anom alies on either side o f the
lavas are u p w elled along the m id-oceanic ridges,
mid-oceanic ridges and (iv) there is parallelism in
these divide th e e arlier b asaltic layer into two equal the time sequence o f palaeom agnetic epochs and
halves and these basaltic layers slide horizontally on events calculated for 4.5 m illion years on the basis o f
either side o f the m id -o cean ic ridges. The findings of magnetism o f basaltic rocks or sedim entary rocks.
Cox, D oell and D alrym pal (1964). O pdyke (1966) Fig. 6.11 depicts the position o f m agnetic stripes on
and H eritzler (1966) have validated the following either side o f the m id-oceanic ridge along the tim e-
facts - (i) there is rev ersal in the m ain m agnetic field scale o f their formation.
Mid-Oceanic
ridge
Ascending
c u rre n ts
Fig. 6.10 : P attern o f therm al convective currents and pla te movements.

It m ay be co n clu d ed , on the basis o f above
discussion, that there is c o n tin u o u s sp re a d in g o f sea-
floor. N ew basaltic cru st is c o n tin u o u sly formed
along the m id-oceanic ridges. The n ew ly formed
basaltic layer is div id ed into tw o eq u a l halves and is
m i i T ] thus displaced aw ay from the m id -o c e a n ic ridge.
A lternate stripes o f p o sitiv e an d n e g a tiv e magnetic
anom alies are found on e ith e r sid e o f the mid-
oceanic ridges. S u ch m ag n etic a n o m a lie s (positive
and negative) ‘are form ed b ecau se o f temporal re
versal in the g eo m ag n etic field. The ro c k s formed
during reverse p olarity (re v e rse d geom agnetic field)
denote negative m ag n etic a n o m a lie s ’.
The age of magnetic stripes* the rate o f sea-
Fig. 6.11 : Diagramatic presentation o f magnetic stripes floor spreading and the time o f drifting o f different
on either side o f the mid-oceanic ridges continents are calculated on the basis o f above facts.
according to Vine and Matthe us. The periods The dating o f the magnetic stripes formed upto 4.5
o f the formation o f these stripes have been million years before present has been com pleted on
named after known scientists (e.g. Gilbert. the basis of information obtained from the survey o f
Gass, Matuyama and Bruhnes). palaeomagnetism o f the sea-floors o f different oceans.
128 GEOMORPHOLOGY
The rate o f sea-floor spreading is calculated on two netism and sea-flooi spreading is available only for
bases e.g. (i) on the basis o f the age o f isochrons the last 200 m illion years but on the basis o f general
(isochrons are those lines which join the points o f m echanism o f plate tectonics and the evidences
equal dates o f the m agnetic stripes plotted on the from the continents the sequence o f earlier events
m ap) and (ii) on the basis o f distance between two may be reconstructed. V alentine and M oors (1970)
isochrons. Thus, the rates o f spreading (drifting) o f and H allam (1972) have attem pted to reconstruct the
different oceans have been determ ined on the basis chronological sequence o f the continents and ocean
of above principles. The Atlantic and Indian O ceans basins from the beginning to the present tim e. About
are spreading (expanding) very sluggishly i.e. at the 700 million years ago all the landm asses w ere united
rate o f 1.0 to 1.5 cm per year while the Pacific Ocean
is expanding at the rate o f 6.0cm per year. It m ay be
pointed out that the rate o f seafloor spreading
alw ays m eans the rate o f expansion only on one side 000 000 years B P (Before Present)
o f the m id-oceanic ridge. For exam ple, if the rate of
sea-floor is reported to be 1.0 cm per year, the total
spreading of the concerned ocean would be 1 + I =
2 cm per year. The recent studies have shown that (i)
the maximum spreading o f the Pacific Ocean is 6 to
9 cm per year (total expansion 12 to 18 cm /year) f t Hercynian
along the eastern Pacific ridge between equator and Mountain
30°S latitude, (ii) the southern A tlantic Ocean is Pangaea I % Caledonian Pangaea II present
CDn linents
spreading along the southern Atlantic ridge at the Mountains
rate of 2 cm per year (total expansion 4 cm /year) and
(iii) the Indian Ocean is expanding at the rate o f 1.5 Fig. 6.12 : The probable pattern o f continental move
to 3 cm per year (total expansion being 3 to 6 cm/ ment during the last 700 million years (based
year). on Valentine and Moors. 1970).
Plate Tectonics and Continental Displacement together in the form o f one single giant landmass
known as ‘P a n g a e a I ’. A bout 600-500 m illion years
On the basis of the evidences of palaeomag-
before present first Pangaea was broken because of
netism and sea-floor spreading it has been now
thermal convective currents com ing from w ithin the
validated that the continents and ocean basins have
earth, most probably from the m antle and different
never been stationary' or perm anent at their places
rather these have always been mobile thorughout the landmasses drifted apart. These landm asses were
again united together due to plate motions*in one
geological history' of the earth and they are still
land mass known as ‘P a n g a e a I I ’ about 300-200
m oving in relation to each other. The scientists have
discovered ample evidences to demonstrate the open million years before present. A ccording to A. Hallam
ing and closing of ocean basins. For exam ple, the Second P an g aea began to break during early Jurassic
M editerranean Sea is the residual of once very vast period and N. W. A frica broke away from N. America
ocean (Tethys Sea) and the Pacific Ocean is continu and drifted away. The zone o f sea-floor spreading
ously contracting because o f gradual subduction of continued to extend tow ards north and south. The
A m erican Plate along its ridge. On the other hand, separation o f South A m erica and A frica was accom
the Atlantic Ocean is continuously expanding for the plished during m iddle C retaceous period, and North
last 200 million years. Red Sea has started to open (to A m erica and Europe began to m ove aw ay from each
expand). It may be mentioned that continental masses other (fig. 6. 1 2 ).
com e closer to each other when the oceans begin to The opening of N orth A tlantic was accom
close while continents are displaced away when the plished in many phases. A fter the separation of
oceans begin to open (expand). North A m erica from Africa, Europe and Greenland
Though the sequence o f events o f continental broke away from Labrador during late Cretaceous
displacem ent based on the evidences o f palaeomag- period (about 80 million years before present) and
CONTINENTS AND O CEA N BASINS 129
thus Labrador sea was formed. This newly form ed

Na Fault
” America J Africa/ Europe sea continued to remain for som e time as northern
extension o f the A tlantic O cean. Rockall plateau
was separated from G reenland during Tertiary pe
riod (about 60 million years before present). L abra
dor Sea and North A tlantic continued to expand
between Europe and G reenland upto m iddle M iocene
period because the European and A m erican plates
continued to move eastw ard and w estw ard respec
tively. The spreading o f Labrador Sea stopped by
middle M iocene period (about 47 m illion years
before present) but North A tlantic continued to ex
Granite pand.
Indian Ocean did not exist before C retaceous
period. Indian plate began to m ove tow ards A siatic
plate through ‘Tethys S ea’ and A ustralian-A ntarctic
4
plates after breaking away from African plate began
to move southward during C retaceous period. Dan
M ackenzie and John Sclater have presented the
Atlantic
chronological sequence of the evolution o f Indian
Ocean on the basis of the study o f m agnetic anom a
5
lies. According to them Indian plate began to move
northward at the rate of 18 cm per year during early
Tertiary period but the m ovem ent stopped during
Eocene period. At the same time A ntarctica broke
Mi E| M2 E2 Atlantic away from Australia. Thus, the Pacific O cean began
to shrink in size because o f expansion of the A tlantic
and Indian Oceans. Fig. 6.13 depicts the chronologi
Mlogeocline (M) cal events of the Atlantic O cean during past 700
Eugeocline (E)
million years. The A tlantic O cean began to open
about 700 million years before present because o f
Fig. 6.13 Evolutionary' history o f the Atlantic Ocean
breaking o f F irs t P an g aea when the A m erican and
during the past 700 million years. 1. Forma
Africa-European plates began to m ove in divergent
tion o f new ocean basins 700 million years
ago. 2. D eposition o f m iogeocline and directions and thus the A tlantic continued to expand
eugeocline on the margins about 500 million till 400 million years before present when the A tlan
years ago. 3. Closing o f the Atlantic Ocean tic again began to close. Because o f the closing o f the
and the form ation o f part o f the Applachians A tlantic Ocean A pplachian m ountains o f N orth
due to convergence o f Eurasian and Ameri A m erica were formed. The A tlantic O cean again
can plates about 400 million years ago. 4. began to open up about 150 m illion years before
Atlantic closed completely and the formation present when Second Pangaea was broken into sev
o f the Applachians o f North America and eral landm asses and it still continues to expand
Hercynian mountains o f Europe was com because o f the m ovem ent o f A m erican and E uro
pleted about 300 million years ago. 5. Reo
pean plates in opposite directions. It m ay be pointed
pening o f the Atlantic due to plate motion
out that the A tlantic O cean is continuously expand
about 150 million years ago. 6. Present situ
ation, beginning o f the form ation o f new ing for the past 200 m illion years but the Pacific
geosync lines (After Dietz, 1973). O cean is contracting in size because o f w estw ard
130 GEOMORPHOLOGY
A n ta rc tic a
Fig. 6.14 The evolution o f the continents and ocean basins on the basis o f plate tectonics since Triassic period and the
probablefuture pattern ofevents uplo 50 million years hence. I. Triassic period, 200 million years ago, 2. Late
Triassic period, I HO million years ago, 3. Late Jurassic period, 135 million years ago, 4. Late Cretaceous
period, 65 million years a%o, 5. Present position and 6. 50 million years hence Arrows indicate the directions
of movement o f the continents (after Dietz and Holden, 1973).
movement of the A mericas Fig. 6.14 depicts the veyed magnetic anom alies in this area show, as
probable situation of (he continents and ocean observed by A.W. G irdler, the pattern o f stripe and
basins during 50 million years hence. these arc sim ilar to the m agnetic anom alies of the
'Die following examples demonstrate the trends ocean basins. F.J. Vine calculated the rate of the
and patterns of continental displacem ent, sea-floor spreading of the Red Sea on the basis o f the data of
spreading and contraction in ihe si/e of the oceans. magnetic anom alies in the year 1966. A ccording to
him the Red Sea is spreading at the rate of one
Red Sea and the G ulf o f Aden— Red Sea is centimetre per year (total spreading 2 cm /year) since
an example o f axial trough which is located between the past 3-4 million years. Alen and M orelli calcu
Africa and Arabian peninsula (fig. 6.15). I he sur lated the spreading rate in 1969 as 1.1 cm /year (total
131
plate. Nubian and Somali plates arc separated by

Ethiopian fault. Fig. 6 . 15 denotes the location o f Red
Sea, G ulf of Aden, A rabian, Nubian and Somali
plates and the pole o f rotation.
The G ulf o f C alifornia— The Pacific Ocean
is a waning ocean because it is continuously being
contracted in its size because of gradual encroachm ent
o f westward moving A m erican plates. It is believed
that like m id-Atlantic ridge there might have been a
mid-oceanic ridge in the Pacific Ocean but it has
now been remarkably deform ed due to plate m ove
ment. The magnetic survey of the G u lf o f C alifornia
revealed the presence of stripped m agnetic anom aly.
This situation validates two facts viz. (i) East Pacific
Rise (ridge) is also located in the G u lf o f C alifornia
and there has been continuous spreading o f the g u lf
along the ridge since the past four million years and
(ii) Baja, the Californian peninsula, was previously
united with the mainland of North A m erica but later
on it broke away from the continent due to spreading
o f sea floor.
Fig. 6.15 : Diagramatic presentation o f separation o f
Africa and Arabia due to spreading o f Red Evaluation
Sea and g u lf o f Aden. Arrows indicate direc It is commonly agreed by the m ajority o f the
tions ofthe movement ofthe plates and spread scientists that plate tectonics has validated the con
ing o f Red Sea and G ulf o f Aden. A and B cept o f continental drift, rather continental drift has
denote the poles o f rotation (after A.M. now become a reality. The only point of argum ent
Quennel, 1958). and question is related to the com petent force re
spreading 2.2 cm/year). Similarly, the rate of spreading sponsible for the drifting of the continents. M ost of
of the G ulf o f Aden has been calculated on the basis the scientists still rely on the thermal convective
o f stripped m agnetic anom alies as 0.9 to 1.1 cm /year currents com ing from the mantle as the probable
(total spreading 1.8 to 2.2 cm /year). The Red Sea and adequate force to move the plates (continents) in
the G ulf o f Aden are located at the junction of three different directions. See chapter 1 1 for detailed
plates viz. N ubian plate, Somali plate and Arabian description on plate tectonics.
CHAPTER 7 : TH EO RY OF ISO STA SY
132-139
In tro d u c tio n ; d isc o v e ry o f th e c o n c e p t ; c o n c e p t o f A iry ; c o n c e p t o f
P r a t t ; c o n c e p t o f H ay fo rd a n d B o w ie ; c o n c e p t o f J o ly ; c o n c e p t o f
H o lm e s ; g lo b a l iso sta tic a d ju stm e n t.
7
THEORY OF ISOSTASY
7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 D IS C O V E R Y O F T H E C O N C E P T

D ifferent relief features o f varying m agnitudes T hough the co ncept o f isostasy cam e in the
e.g. m ountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, seas and m ind o f geologists all o f sudden but its concept grew
oceans, faults and rift valleys etc. standing on the out o f gradual thinking in term s o f gravitational
earth’s surface are probably balanced by certain attractio n o f g ian t m o u n tain o u s m asses. Pierre
difinite principle, otherw ise these w ould have not B ouguer during his expedition o f the A ndes in 1735
been m aintained in their present form. W henever found that the tow ering volcanic peak o f Chim borazo
this balance is disturbed, there start violent earth was not attracting the plum b line as it should have
m ovem ents and tectonic events. Thus, ‘isostasy sim done. He thus m aintained that the gravitational at
ply m eans a m achanical stability between the up traction of the A ndes ‘is m uch sm aller than that to be
standing parts and low lying basins on a rotating expected from the m ass represented by these m oun
earth ’. tain s’. Sim ilar discrepencies w ere noted during the
geodetic survey o f the Indo-G angetic plain for the
T he word isostasy, derived from a German determ ination o f latitudes under the supervision of
w ord ‘isostasios’ (m eaning thereby ‘in equipoise’), Sir G eorge Everest, the then Surveyor G eneral of
w as first proposed by A m erican geologist Dutton in India, in 1859. The difference oflatitu d e o f Kalianpur
1859 to express his view to indicate ‘the state o f and K aliana (603 km due northw ard) was deter
balance w hich he thought m ust exist between large m ined by both direct triangulation m ethod and astro
upstanding areas o f the earth's surface, m ountain nomical m ethod. K aliana was only 96 km away from
ranges and plateaus, and contiguous low lands, etc.’ the H im alayas. The difference betw een two results
(S.W . W ooldridge and R.S. M organ, 1959). A ccord am ounted to 5.23 seconds as given below —
ing to D utton the upstanding parts o f the earth Result obtained through triangulation = 5° 23' 42.294”
(m ountains, plateaus, plains and ocean basins) must Result obtained through
be com pensated by lighter rock m aterial from be astronomical method = 5° 23' 37.058”
neath so that the crustal reliefs should rem ain in Difference = 5.236"
m echanical stability. A ccording J.A. Steers (1961), This discrepancy betw een tw o m ethods was
‘this doctrine states that w herever equilibrium exists attributed to the attraction o f the H im alayas due to
on the earth's surface, equal mass m ust underlie which the plum b-bob used in the astronom ical deter
equal surface area s.’ m ination of latitude was deflected.
THEORY o f is o s t a s y
133
This interpretation, thus, brought the fact be (4) It was suggested ‘that there is such a level
fore the scientists that the enorm ous m ass o f the
below the surface o f the earth below which there is
Himalaya w as responsible, through its attractional no change in the density o f the rocks’, density varies
force, for the difference in the results of two m eth only above this level. Thus, all colum ns have equal
ods. Later on the m atter w as referred to Archdeacon mass along this level. It was therefore suggested on
Pratt for further investigation and clarification. He this basis that ‘bigger the colum n, lesser the den
attempted to estim ate the am ount o f attraction o f the sity, and sm aller the colum n, greater the density.9
Himalayas on the basic assum ption that all the m oun
Thus, the debate on the discrepancies o f the
tains had the average density o f 2.75. Thus, Pratt
gravitational deflections o f the plum b-line and nu
based on m inim um estim ate of the mass o f the
merous explanations for these discrepancies resulted
Himalayas calculated the gravitational effects on the
into the postulation o f the concept o f isostasy by
plumbob at two places (K aliana and Kalianpur) and
different scientists, the views o f a few o f them are
to his dism ay he discovered that the difference was
presented below.
surprisingly m ore than actually worked out during
the survey. 7.3 THE CO N CEPT O F SIR G E O R G E A IRY
Gravitational deflection at Kaliana = 27.853" According to Airy the inner part o f the m oun
tains cannot be hollow, rather the excess w eight o f
Gravitational deflection at Kalianpur = 11.968”
the mountains is com pensated (balanced) by lighter
difference = 15.885" materials below. A ccording to him the crust o f
relatively lighter material is floating in the substra
Thus, the difference of 15.885" was in fact
tum of denser material. In other words, ‘siaP is
more than 3 tim es the observed deflection o f 5.236"
floating in ‘sim a ’. Thus, the H im alayas are floating
during the survey. Pratt's calculation of the differ
in denser glassy magma. A ccording to A iry ‘the
ence of the gravitational deflections brought another
great mass of the Him alayas was not only a surface
fact before the scientists that the Himalaya was not phenomenon : the lighter rocks o f which they are
exerting the attraction according to its enormous
composed do not merely rest on a level surface o f
mass. This interpretation gave birth to another prob- denser material beneath, but, as a boat in water, sink
lem-What reason is behind low attractional force of into the denser m aterial’ (J.A. Steers, 1961). In other
the H im alayas ? The follow ing explanations were words, the Himalayas are floating in the denser
offered for this question. magma with their maximum portion sunk in the
(1) The H im alayas are hollow and are com magma in the same way as a boat floats in w ater with
posed o f bubbles and not the rocks. Due to this fact its maximum part sunk in the water. This concept in
the weight and density o f the Himalayas would be fact involves the principle of floatation. For exam
low and thus their gravitational force would also be ple, an iceberg floats in w ater in such a way that for
low. This was the reason for the difference in the every one part to be above w ater-level, nine parts q f
results o f tw o locations as referred to above. This the iceberg remain below w ater level. If we assume
explanation cannot be accepted because such a high the average density of the crust and the substratum to
mountain, if com posed of bubbles, cannot stand on be 2.67 and 3.0 respectively, for every one part o f the
the earth's surface. crust to remain above the substratum , nine parts of
(2) If the m ountains are not hollow, the visible the crust must be in the substratum . In other words,
mountain m ass m ust be com pensated by defficiency the law of floatation dem ands that ‘the ratio o f
of mass from below. In other words, the density of freeboard to draught is 1 to 9 .’ It may be pointed out
the rocks o f the m ountains ‘must be relatively low
that Airy did not mention the exam ple o f the floata
down to considerable depth.’ Thus, the total weight
would be low and consequently the attractional tion of iceberg. He simply m aintained that the crustal
force would also be low. parts (landm asses) were floating, like a boat, in the
m agma of the substratum .
(3) The rocks o f the Himalayas are o f low
density in them selves and thus their attraction is also If we apply the law o f floatation, as stated
low. above, in the case o f the concept o f A iry, then we
134 GEOMORPHOLOGY
have to assum e that for the 8848 m height o f the

H im alaya there m ust be a root, 9 tim es m ore in
length than the height o f the H im alaya, in the sub
stratum. Thus, for 8848-m part o f the H im alaya
above, there m ust be dow nw ard projection o f lighter
m aterial beneath the m ountain reaching a depth o f
79,632 m (roughly 80,000 m).
Joly applied the principle o f floatation for the
crust of the earth taking the freeboard to draught
ratio as 1 to 8. A ccording to him ‘for every em ergent
part o f the crust above the upper level o f the substra
tum there are eight parts subm erged1 (J.A. Steers,
1961). If we apply Joly's view o f flotation to the
concept o f Airy, there would be dow nw ard projec
tion of the H im alaya upto a depth of 70,784 m (8848 Fig. 7. J : Illustration o f the concept o fA iry on isostasy.
m x 8) in the substratum . freeboard to draught ratio as 1 to 9) or 70,784 m (if
Thus, according to Airy the H im alayas were the freeboard to draught ratio is taken as 1 to 8). It
exerting their real attractional force because there would be w rong to assum e that the H im alaya would
existed a long root o f lighter material in the substra have a dow nw ard projection o f root o f lighter mate
tum which com pensated the m aterial above. Based rial beneath the m ountain reaching such a great
on above observation Airy postulated that 4if the depth o f 79,632 m or 70,784 m because such a long
land column above the substratum is larger, its root, even if accepted, w ould m elt due to very high
greater part would be subm erged in the substratum temperature prevailing there, as tem perature increases
and if the land colum n is lower, its sm aller part with increasing depth at the rate o f 1°C per 32 m.
would be subm erged in the substratum .’ A ccording “Q uite recently, how ever, the fundamental
to A iry the density o f different colum ns o f the land
concept o f A iry, the continental m asses floating as
(e.g. m ountains, plateaus, plains etc.) rem ains the
lighter (sial) blocks in a h eav ier (sim a) substratum,
same. In other words, density does not change with
has been rejuvenated, largely through the influence
depth, that is, ‘uniform density w ith varying thick
o f H eiskanen's w ork, so that it is now probably true
n ess.’
to say that m ost geologists favour A iry's explana
This m eans that the continents are made o f tion” (J.A. Steers, 1961, p. 75).
rocks having uniform density but their thickness or
length varies from place to place. In order to prove 7.4 T H E C O N C E P T O F A R C H D EA C O N PRATT
this concept A iry took several pieces o f iron o f W hile studying the differen ce o f gravitational
varying lengths and put them in a basin full of deflection o f 5.236 seconds d u rin g the geodetic
m ercury. These pieces o f iron sunk upto varying survey o f K aliana and K alianpur A rchdeacon Pratt
depths depending on their lengths. The same pattern calculated the g ravitational force o f the Himalaya
m ay be dem onstrated by taking w ooden pices o f after taking the average den sity o f the H im alaya as
varying lengths. If put into the basin o f w ater these 2.75 and cam e to know that the d ifference should
w ould sink in the w ater according to their lengths have been 15.885 seconds. H e, then, studied the
(fig. 7.1). rocks (and their d en sities) o f the H im alaya and
• T hough the concept o f S ir G eorge Airy co mneighbouring
plains and found that the density of
m ands great respect am ong the scientific com m u each h igher part is less than a lo w er part. In other
w ords, the density o f m ountains is less than the
nity but it also suffers from certain defects and
density o f p lateaus, that o f plateau is less than the
errors. If we accept the A iry's view s o f isostasy, then
density o f plain and the density o f plain is less than
every upstanding part m ust have a root below in
the density o f oceanic flo o r and so on. This means
accordance with its height. Thus, the H im alaya would
that there is inverse relatio n sh ip betw een the height
have a root equivalent to 7 9 ,6 3 2 fn (if we accept the
o f the reliefs and density.
THEORY o f is o s t a s y
135
A ccording to P ratt there is a level o f com pen
sation above w hich there is variation in the density
of different colum ns o f land but there is no change in
density below this level. D ensity does not change
within one colum n but it changes from one column
to other colum ns above the level o f com pensation.
Thus, the central them e o f the concept of Pratt on
isostasy may be expressed as ‘uniform depth with
varying density. A ccording to Pratt equal surface
area must underlie equal m ass along the line of
com pensation. T his statem ent may be explained
with an exam ple (fig. 7.2).
Fig. 7.3 : Explanation o f the concept o f Prat ton isostasy.
Bowie has opined that though Pratt does not

believe in the law of floatation, as stated by Sir
George Airy but if. we look, m inutely, into the
concept of Pratt we certainly find the glim pse o f law
of floatation indirectly. Sim ilarly, though Pratt does
not believe directly in the concept o f ‘root form a
L in e o f C om pensation tion’ but very close perusal of his concept on isostasy,
does indicate the glimpse of such idea (root form a
tion) indirectly. W hile m aking a com parative analy
Fig. 7.2: Line o f compensation according to Archdea sis of the views of Airy and Pratt on isostasy Bow ie
con Pratt. has observed that ‘the fundam ental difference be-
There are tw o colum ns, A and B, along the
line o f com pensation. Both the colum ns, A and B, Uniform Density V arying Density
have equal surface area but there is difference in
their height. Both the colum ns m ust have equal mass
along the line o f com pensation, so the density of
column B should be m ore than the density of column
A so that the w eight o f both the colum ns become Density
equal along the line o f com pensation. Thus, the
3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Pratt's concept o f inverse relationship between the
height o f different colum ns and their respective
densities m ay be expressed in the follow ing m an Line of Compensation
ner— ‘bigger the colu m n , lesser the density and SUB S T R A T U M
sm aller the colu m n , g rea ter the d en sity.’ A ccord
ing to Pratt density varies only in the lithosphere and
not in the pyrosphere and barysphere. Thus, P ratts PR A T T
concept o f isostasy w as related to the ‘law o f com AIRY
pensation’ and not to ‘the law o f floatation .’ A c
Fig. 7.4 : Comparison o f the views o f Airy and Pratt on
cording to Pratt d ifferen t re lie f features are standing
isostasy.
only because o f the fact that their respective m ass is
equal along the line o f com pensation because o f tw een A iry's and Pratt's view s is th at the form er
their varying densities. T his co n cep t may be ex p ostulated a u niform d ensity w ith varying thick*
plained w ith the help o f fig. 7.3. ness, and the latter a u n iform d ep th w ith varying
136 GEOMORPHOLOGY
d e n s ity .’ Fig. 7.4 explains the fundam ental d iffer they exert equal dow n w ard pressu re at the level of
ence betw een the concepts o f Airy and Pratt on com pensation and thus b alance one another (S.W.
isostasy. W ooldridge and R.S. M organ, 1959). Fig. 7.6 ex
plains the above concept. It is ap p aren t from fig. 7.6
7.5 T H E C O N C E P T O F H A YFO RD AND BOW IE that different colum ns o f equal cross-section cut
H ayford and Bowie have propounded their from various m etals and ores having varying densi
concepts o f isostasy alm ost sim ilar to the concept of ties are seen floating in a basin o f m ercury but all of
Pratt. A ccording to them there is a plane w here there them reach the sam e line (level o f com pensation)
is com plete com pensation of the crustal parts. D en and thus exert equal w eight along the line o f com
sities vary with elevations o f colum ns o f crustal pensation.
parts above this plane o f com pensation. The density B ow ie m ade a co m p arativ e study o f the views
o f the m ountains is less than the ocean floor. In other
o f Airy and Pratt on isostasy and concluded that
w ords, the crust is com posed of lighter material
there was a great deal o f sim ilarity in their views. In
under the m ountains than under the floor of the
fact, ‘both the view s appeared to him sim ilar but not
oceans. There is such a zone below the plane of
the sam e’. Bowie could observe a glim pse of the
com pensation where density is uniform in lateral
concept of root form ation and law o f floatation of
direction. Thus, according to Hayford and Bowie
Airy, though indirectly, in the view s of Pratt. The
there is inverse relationship between the height of
concept of H ayford and B ow ie, that the crustal parts
colum ns of the crust and their respective densities
(various reliefs) are in the form o f vertical columns,
(as assum ed by A rchdeacon Pratt) above the line of
is not tenable because the crustal features are found
com pensation. The p lan e of co m p en sa tio n (level of
in the form of horizontal layers.
com pensation) is supposedly loeated at the depth of
about 100 km. The colum ns having the rocks of
lesser density stand higher than the colum ns having
the rock o f higher density. This statem ent may be
understood with the help of fig. 7.5.
•o
CJ 3m\
OJ c c
©
Im U&
N 1 C
‘,
CJ c 1 L
z U I
Level o f C c> m p en sa tio ii^ ^ ^ J ^ - : ^ ^ j ; -
Fig. 7.6 : Illustration o f the concept o f Bowie on isostasy.
7.6 TH E C O N C E P T O F J O L Y
Fig. 7.5 : Explanation o f views o f Hayford and Bowie Joly, while presenting his view s on isostasy in
on Isostasy. The densities mentioned in the 1925, contradicted the concept of Hay ford and Bowie.
different columns (e.%. inland plain, plateau, He disapproved the view o f H ayford and Bowie
coastal plain and off shore region) are imagi about the existence o f level o f com pensation at th*
nary. depth of about 100 km on the ground that the tem
There are four im aginary colum ns (interior perature at this depth w ould be so high that it would
plain, plateau, coastal plain and off shore region) in cause com plete liquefaction and thus level of com
fig 7.5 which reach the level o f com pensation. pensation w ould not be possible. He further refuted
Their height varies but they are balanced by their the concept of H ayford and Bowie that ‘denisity
varying densities. ‘The assum ption is that the vary varies above the level o f com pensation but remain*
ing volume of m atter in the several colum ns is uniform below the level o f co m pensation’ on the
com pensated by their density, in such a fashion that ground that such condition w ould not be possible in
THEORY o f i s o s t a s y 137
practice because such condition would be easily

disturbed by the geological events and thus the level
of com pensation w ould be disturbed. A ccording to £ M ountain
Joly there exists a layer o f 10-m ile (16 km) thickness
Sea Level
below a shell o f uniform density. The density varies
in this zone o f 10-mile thickness. It, thus, appears
that Joly assum ed the level o f com pensation as not a Sea F lo o r . */.#
linear phenom enon but a zonal phenom enon. In SIM A Density 3.0.
other words, he did not believe in a ‘line (level) of
com pensation9 rather he believed in a ‘zone of - — —_ — ^
com pensation’ (o f 10-mile thickness). Thus, we

also find a glim pse o f the law o f floatation (it may be
remembered that Joly did not m ention this, we only
Fig. 7.8: Diagramatic presentation o f the earth's crust
infer the idea o f floatation from Joly's concept) in
and the upper part o f the mantle to illustrate
Joly's concept w hich is closer to the Airy's concept
the relationship between surface features and
rather than the concept o f H ayford and Bowie.
crustal structure and the concept o f isostasy
‘This is in close agreem ent with floatation (based on A. Holmes and D .L Holmes , 1978).
idea; the areas of low density in the 10-mile layer
A. Holmes and D.L. H olm es (1978) have
correspond w ith dow nw ard projections of the light
tried to explain and illustrate the concept o f isostasy
continental crust, w hile those of high density repre
through a diagram (fig. 7.9) w hich show s ch aracter
sent the intervening areas filled with material of the
istic exam ples of crustal colum ns, each o f w hich has
heavier understratum ’ (S.W . W ooldridge and R.S.
the same area and extends dow nw ard to the sam e
M organ, 1959). (Fig. 7.7).
depth below sea-level, the sam e depth at w hich the
weight of each colum n exerts approxim ately the
pressure on the underlying m aterial, irrespective o f
its surface elevation’ (A. H olm es and D .L. H olm es,
1978, P. 21). They have taken the depth o f 50 km for
isostatic com pensation in those areas w hich have not
/ *.*.• * Uniform Density Zone-
been disturbed by geological events fo r fairly longer
16 kilom etre Compensation Zone duration. A Holmes and D.L. H olm es have attem pted
to explain and illustrate the concept o f equal w eight
Fig. 7.7: Compensation zone o f 10-mile thickness (af
along the ‘level o f e q u a l p ressu re’ through the
ter Joly). Finer dots indicate lighter materials exam ples o f 4 colum ns of equal cross-section through
while larger dots represent denser materials. characteristic parts of the continents and ocean floor
(fig. 7.9). T hese four colum ns are (i) p lateau, 4 km
7.7 THE CONCEPT OF HOLMES high ; (ii) plateau, 1 km hig h ; (iii) p lain at sea level
The view s o f A rthur H olm es on isostasy, to a
and (iv) ocean, 5 km deep. Each colum n has a
greater extent, are com patible with the views of
thickness of 50 km. The figures to the right o f each
Airy. Follow ing A iry H olm es has also assum ed that
colum n d en o te d en sity (a v e ra g e ). M indicates
upstanding crustal parts are m ade o f lighter m ateri
M ohorovicic D iscontinuity. T he w eight o f each co l
als and in order to balance them m ajor portions o f
umn along the level o f equal pressure is alm ost the
these higher colum ns are subm erged in greater depth
sam e, ranging betw een 150.00 to 151.2. According
of lighter m aterials (o f very low density). A ccording
to H olm es and H olm es the total w eight o f each
to Holmes the higher colum ns are standing because
of the fact that there is lighter m aterial below them colum n along the level o f equal p ressure can be
for greater depth w hereas there is lighter material obtained by sum m ing up the product o f the density
below the sm aller colum ns upto lesser depth (fig. and corresponding thickness dow n to the depth o f 50
7.8). km as given below .
138 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(i) For the plateau (4 km high from sea level adjustment does not occur at local level, it does exist
(fig. 7.9 A V 5 4 x 2.8 (average density) = 151.2 at extensive regional level. It is necessary that th a t
must be balance at local level, it maybe and it may
(the whole section is continental crust)
not b e. The endogenetic forces and resultant tectonic
(ii) For the plateau (1 km high) (fig. 7.9B)- 36 events cause disturbances in the ideal condition of
x 2.8 (continental crust) + 15.33 (m antle sima, isostasy but nature always tends towards the isostatic
probably basaltic rock) = 150.3 adjustment.
(iii) For the plain near the sea level (fig. 7.9 C)- For exam ple, a new ly form ed m ountain due to
30 x 2.8 (continental crust) + 20 x 3.3 (mantle tectonic activities is subjected to severe denudation.
sima) = 150.0 C onsequently, there is continuous low ering o f the
height o f the m ountain. On the other hand, eroded
(iv) For the ocean (5 km deep. fig. 7.9 D)-
sedim ents are deposited in the oceanic areas, with
5 x 1.03 (sea water) + 1 x 2 . 4 (sediments) + 5 the result there is continuous increase o f weight of
x 2.9 (crustal sima, probably basaltic rock) + 39 x 3.3
sedim ents on the sea-floor. Due to this mechanism
(mantle sima)
f = 150.75. the m ountainous area gradually becom es lighter and
7.8 G LO B A L ISO STATIC ADJUSTMENT the oceanic floor becom es heavier, and thus the state
It may be pointed out that there is no com plete o f balance or isostasy betw een these two areas gets
isostatic adjustment over the globe because the earth disturbed but the balance has to be maintained. It
is so unresting and thus geological forces (endogenetic may be stated that the superincum bent pressure and
forces) com ing from within the earth very often weight over the m ountain decreases because of con
disturb such isostatic adjustment. M oreover, recently tinuous removal o f m aterial through denudational
a few scientists have even questioned the concept of processes. This m echanism leads to gradual rise in
isostasy. Even there is disagreement among the the mountain. On the other hand, continuous sedi
scientists about local or regional nature o f isostasy. mentation on the sea-floor causes gradual subsid
It appears from the result of various expeditions, ence o f the sea-floor. Thus, in order to maintain
experiments and observations that if the isostatic isostatic balance between these two features there
A B
Ploteou
Thickness k km high Ploteou Ploin neor Oceon
1 km high
sea level 5km deep Seo level
27 5 1 03
1 2 U
Av 4 2 9 . m — 10
28
— 20
2-9
M 39 33 — 30
— 1*0
33
/Vpprox
Hi Level of
Equol Pressure
Fig. 7.9: Columns o f equal cross section through characteristic parts o f the continents and ocean floor. White portion
(unshaded) denotes continental crust while larger dots represent mantle sima. Broken line shows sea **tur>
dense tiny dots reveal sediments and sparse tiny dots indicate crustal sima. probably basaltic rock. After A- I
Holmes and D.L. Holmes, 1978.
t h e o r y o f ’is o s t a s y 139
must be slow flow age o f relatively heavier materials

Denunciation of M ountain Range
of substratum (from beneath the seafloor) towards
the lighter m aterials o f the rising column o f the
mountain at or below the level o f compensation (fig.
7.10). Thus, the process o f redistribution of materi
als ultim ately restores the disturbed isostatic condi
tion to com plete isostatic balance. Commenting on
the validity o f the above mechanism of the isostatic
adjustm ent, W ooldridge and M organ (1959) have
remarked, “that som e such mechanism operates is
indeed very likely ; geologists have irrefutable evi
dence that sedim ents can depress the floor of a
loaded sea to a lim ited extent, and some species of
sub-crustal flow has been invoked on many other
grounds. But clearly we are not justified in regarding
the crust as com posed of columns, moving up and Fig. 7.10 : Mechanism o f isostatic adjustment at global
scale (based on A. Holmes).
down independently ; such a conception flouts the
example, extensive parts o f North A m erica and
facts of observation, and even it did not, it would, on
Eurasia were subsided under the enorm ous w eight o f
the geological side, create many more problems than
accumulation o f thick ice sheets during Pleistocene
it solved’ (S.W. W ooldridge and R.S. Morgan, 1959,
glaciation but the landmasses began to rise suddenly
p. 26).
because of release of pressure o f superincum bent
Some times the endogenetic forces act so thick load of ice sheets due to deglciation and conse
suddenly and violently that the state of isostatic quent melting of ice sheets about 25,000 years ago
balance is thrown out o f gear all of sudden and hence and thus the isostatic balance was disturbed. A c
the isostatic adjustment through the process of flowage cording to an estimate major parts o f Scandinavia
o f materials from the substratum is not maintained. and Finland have risen by 900 feet. The land masses
Similarly, some times climatic changes occur at are still rising at the rate of one foot per 28 years
such an extensive global scale that there is accumu under the process of isostatic recovery. The isostatic
lation of thick ice sheets on the land surface and thus adjustment in these areas could not be achieved till
increased burden causes isostatic disturbance. For now.
CHAPTER 8 ROCKS 140-157
I n tr o d u c tio n ; c la s s if i c a t io n o f r o c k s ; i g n e o u s r o c k s ; s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ;
m e tm o r p h ic r o c k s .
9
8
ROCKS
8.1 INTRODUCTION am m onium , table 8.1) co n stitu te 99 p e r c e n t o f the

The m aterials o f the crust or lithosphere are total m ass o f the earth w h ereas o n ly fo u r elem en ts
generally called as rocks. T he word lithosphere, in (iron, oxygen, silicon and m a g n esiu m ) a c c o u n t for
fact, m eans ‘r o c k s p h e re ’ as the literal m eaning o f 90 per cent o f total m ass o f the earth. O n the o th er
‘lith o s’ is rock. The sm allest com ponent o f the crust hand, the eight m o st ab u n d an t elem en ts w h ich co n
or the lithosphere is elem ent. As regards the whole stitute 99 per cent o f total m ass o f the c ru s t are
earth eight m ost abundant elem ents (iron, oxygen, oxygen, silicon, alum inium , iron, m ag n esiu m , c a l
silicon, m agnesium , nickel, sulphur, calcium and cium, potassium and sodium (tab le 8. 1 ).
Table 8.1 : Important Elements of the Whole Earth and the Crust
W hole Earth Earth's C rust

Elements Percentage Elem ents P ercen tag e
1.. Iron 35 1. Oxygen 46
2. Oxygen 30 2. Silicon 28
3. Silicon 15 3. A lum inium 8
4. M agnesium 13 4. Iron 6
5. Nickel 2.4 5. M agnesium 4
6. Sulphur 1.9 6. C alcium 2.4
7. Calcium 1.1 7. Potassium 2.3
8. A lum inium 1.1 8. Sodium 2 .1
Others, less than 1.0 O thers, less than 1.0
M ore than one elem ent o f the earth's crust are (1) T he silica te m in era ls are very im portant
organized to form com pounds w hich are know n as rock m aking m inerals. T he m o st o u tstan d in g rock-
m inerals and m inerals are organized to form rocks. form ing silicate m ineral g ro u p s are q u artz, feldspar,
The im portant m ineral groups are silicates, carbon-, and ferrom agnesium . Q u artz is co m p o sed o f two
ates, sulphides, m etal oxide etc. elem ents viz. sillicon and o x y g en and is generally a
rocks
141
hard and re sista n t m in e ra l. T h e m o st ab u n d an t and
books o f earth history and fo ssils are the p a g e s’.
most im p o rtan t ro c k fo rm in g silicate m ineral is S. W . W o o ld rid g e and R .S. M o rg an (1 9 5 9 ) have
feldspar w h ich is a lso very im p o rta n t eco n o m ically aptly rem arked, ‘R ocks w h eth er igneous or sedi
because it is u sed in c e ra m ic s and g lass industry. m entary, co n stitu te on the one hand the m anuscripts
F eldspar is very w e a k m in e ra l and is easily broken o f the past earth history, on the other, th e basis for
down and d e c o m p o se d d u e to ch em ical w eathering co ntem porary sc en ery .’
and is c h a n g e d in to c la y s as h y d rate d alum ino
silicates. W h en silic o n an d o x y g en co m bine w ith 8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
iron and m a g n e siu m , ferro m a g n esiu m m inerals are The crustal rocks are classified on several
form ed. F e rro m a g n e siu m m in erals are easily w eath grounds e.g. m ode o f form ation, physical and chem ical
ered and e ro d e d aw ay and are easily altered and properties, locations etc.
rem oved. T he rock s having abundant ferrom agnesium C lassification on th e b asis o f m o d e o f fo r
m inerals p ro v id e w eak stru ctu re fo r the construction m ation — T he rocks are d iv id ed into th ree broad
of b u ild in g s, ro a d s , d a m s, re serv o irs, tunnels etc. categories on the basis o f th eir m o d e (m eth o d ) o f
(2) C a r b o n a te grou p o f m in erals is very form ation.
m uch su c c e p tib le to ch em ical w eathering and ero (i) Ign eou s rocks, form ed due to coolin g,
sion in h u m id areas. C alcite is the m ost im portant solidification and cry stalization o f m o lten earth m a
m ineral o f th is group. L im esto n es and m arbles hav terials know n as m agm a (below th e earth 's surface)
ing a b u n d a n t calcite are co rro d ed by the surface and and lava (on the earth's surface), e.g. b asalt, granites
g ro u n d w ater and ex ten siv e caves are form ed below etc.
the gro u n d surface. S u ch areas provide very w eak (ii) S ed im en tary rock s, fo rm ed th ro u g h the
structures for construction sites e.g. construction of lithification and com pression and cem en tatio n o f the
buildings, roads, dam s, reservoirs, air-strips, tunnels etc. sedim ents deposited in a p articu la r p lace m ainly
(3) S u lp h id e m in era ls include pyrites, iron aquatic areas, e.g. sandstones, lim esto nes, co n g lo m
su lp h id es etc. W hen these m inerals com e in contact erates etc.
w ith w ater o r air, th ese form ferric hydroxides and (iii) M etam orp h ic ro ck s, fo rm ed due to
sulfuric acids w hich cau se serious environm ental change either in the form or co m p o sitio n o f either
problem s. igneous or sedim entary rocks pro v id ed that there is
no disintegration o f p re-existing rocks, e.g. slate,
(4) M eta llic elem en ts like iron, alum inium
quartzite, m arble etc.
etc. after re ac tin g w ith atm ospheric oxygen form
m etal oxides w h ich are co m m ercially very im por 8.3 IGNEOUS ROCKS
tant. The w ord igneous has been derived from a
R ocks, th u s, rep resen tin g the geom aterials o f Latin Word ‘ig n is’, m eaning there by fire. It does not
the earth's crust, are co m p o sed o f tw o or m ore m ean that the origin o f igneous rocks is associated
m inerals. R o ck s play very im portant role in d eter w ith fire in any way. In fact, the igneous rocks are
m ining the c h ara cteristic features o f several types of form ed due to cooling, solid ificatio n and crystaliza
erosional lan d fo rm s b ecau se the nature and m ag n i tion o f hot and m olten m aterials know n as magmas
tude o f ero sio n largely d ep en d s on the structure and and lavas. Since the m agm as and lavas are so hot that
com position o f rocks. T h e fu ndam ental dictum o f they look like red pieces o f fire but this is not the
fam ous A m erican g e o m o rp h o lo g is t W .M . D avis that case. Igneous rocks are also called as prim ary rocks
‘the landscape is a fu n ctio n o f stru ctu re, process and because these w ere originated first o f all the rocks
tim e (stag es)’ lays m o re em p h asis on the dom inant d uring the form ation o f upper crust o f the earth on
role o f rocks in the ev o lu tio n o f landform s. A cco rd cooling, solidification and crystallization o f hot and
ing to A .K . L o b eck ‘a rock sh o u ld be conceived as a liquid m agm as after the origin o f the earth. Thus, all
product o f its en v iro n m en t. W hen the environm ent the subsequent rocks w ere form ed, w hether directly
is changed, the rock c h a n g e s’. R ocks are also very or indirectly, from the igneous rocks in one way or
helpful in dating the age o f the earth as ‘rocks are the the other. T his is why ig n eo u s rocks are also called
GEOMORPHOLOGY
142
as p a re n t ro ck s. It is believed that the igneous rocks ering and thus the ro ck s are easily d isin tegrated and
were formed during each period o f the geological decom posed.
history of the earth and these are still being form ed. (5) Igneous rocks d o not co n tain fossils be
cause (i) w hen the an cien t igneous ro ck s w ere formed
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks due to cooling and so lid ificatio n o f m olten rock
(1) In all, igneous rocks are roughly hard m aterials at the tim e o f the o rigin o f the earth, there
rocks and water percolates with great difficulty was no life on new ly born earth and (ii) since the
along the joints. Some tim es the rocks becom e so igneous rocks are form ed due to co o lin g and solidi
soft, due to their exposure to environm ental co n d i
fication o f very hot and m olten m aterials and hence
tions for longer duration, that they can be easily dug
any rem ains o f plants or an im als (fo ssils) are de
out by a spade (e.g. basalt).
stroyed because o f very high tem p eratu re.
(2) Igneous rocks are granular or crystalline
(6) The num ber o f jo in ts in creases upw ard in
rocks but there are much variations in the size, form
any igneous rock. The jo in ts are fo rm ed due to (i)
and texture of grains because these properties largely
cooling and contraction, (ii) ex p an sio n and contrac
depend upon the rate and place of cooling and
tion during m echanical w eathering, (iii) decrease in
solidification o f m agmas or lavas. For exam ple,
superincum bent load due to rem oval o f m aterials
when the lavas are quickly cooled down and solidi
through denudational processes and (i v) earth m ove
fied at the surface o f the earth, there is no sufficient
ment caused by isostatic d isturbances. W henever
time for the developm ent of grains/crystals. C onse
these joints are plugged by m inerals, the rocks be
quently, either there are no crystals in the resultant
come quite hard and resistant to w eathering and
basaltic rocks or if there are some crystals at all, they
are so minute that they cannot be seen without the erosion.
help of a microscope. Contrary to this, if magmas are (7) Igneous rocks are m ostly asso ciated with
cooled and solidified at a very slow rate inside the the volcanic activities and thus they are also called as
earth, there is sufficient time for the full develop volcanic rocks. Igneous rocks are generally found in
m ent of grains, and thus the resultant igneous rocks the volcanic zones.
are characterized by coarse grains.
Classification of Igneous R ocks
(3) Igneous rocks do not have strata like
There are vast variations in the igneous rocks
sedimentary rocks. W hen lava flows in a region
in terms of chem ical and m ineralogical characteris
occur in several phases, layers after layers of lavas
tics, texture of grains, form s and size o f grains, m ode
are deposited and solidified one upon another and
of origin etc. Thus, the igneous rocks are classified
thus there is some sort of confusion about the layers
on several grounds in a variety of w ays as follow s—
or strata but actually these are no strata rather these
are layers of lavas. Such examples may be seen (1) The m ost traditional m ethod o f the classi
anywhere in the W estern Ghats where several lava fication of the igneous rocks is based on the am ount
flows during Cretaceous period resulted into the of silica ( S i0 2). Thus, the igneous rocks are divided
formation of thick basaltic cover having numerous into two broad categories e.g. (i) acidic igneous
layers of lavas of varying compositions. One can see rocks having more silica, e.g. granites, and (ii) basic
igneous rocks having low er am ount o f silica, e.g.
such lava layers near Khandala or along the deeply
gabbro. It may be pointed out that silica content is
enterenched valleys of the Koyna river, the Krishna
not a m easure of acidity.
riv er, the S arasw ati riv er etc. in and around
M ahabaleshw ar plateau. (2) On the basis o f the chem istry and minera
logical com position (light and dark m inerals) the
(4) Since water does not penetrate the rocks igneous rocks are classified into two dom inant groups
easily and hence igneous rocks are less affected by e.g. (i) felsic igneous rocks com posed o f the domi
chem ical w eathering but basalts are very easily nant m inerals of the light group such as quartz and
weathered and eroded away when they come in feldspar having rich content o f silica. The word
constant touch with water. Coarse grained igneous ‘felsic’ has been derived from fell(s), feldspar plus
rocks are affected by mechanical or physical weath ic, m eaning thereby the dom inance o f feldspar min-
rocks 143
cral, (ii) m afic ign eou s rocks com posed o f the into two m ajor groups o f plutonic intrusive igneous
dominant m ineral o f dark group such as pyroxenes, rocks and hypabyssal intrusive igneous rocks on the
amphiboles and olivines, all o f w hich have rich basis o f the depth o f the place o f cooling o f magmas
contents o f m agnesium and iron. The word ‘m afic’ from the earth's surface. W hen the m agm as are
has been derived from m agnesium and f (ferrous) for cooled and solidified very deep w ithin the earth, the
iron and ic m eaning thereby the dom inance o f m ag resultant rocks becom e plutonic but w hen the m ag
nesium and ferrous (iron) and (iii) ultram afic ign e mas are cooled ju st below the earth's surface, the
ous rocks are characterised by the abundance of rocks are called as hypabyssal igneous rocks.
pyroxenes and olivine minerals, examples, periodotite (i) Plutonic igneous rocks are formed due to
(rich in pyroxene and olivine), dunite (rich in olivine) cooling o f m agm as very deep inside the earth. Since
etc. the rate o f cooling o f m agm as is exceedingly slow
(3) because o f high tem perature prevailing there and
T he igneous rocks are also classified on
the basis o f texture o f grains into 5 m ajor groups— hence there is sufficient tim e lo r the full develop
(i) P egm atitic igneous rocks (very coarse ment of large grains. Thus, the plutonic igneous
grained igneous rocks) include very large crystals rocks are very coarse-grained (pegm atites) rocks.
several m etres across. Exam ples, granites. Granite is best representative exam ple o f this cat
egory.
(ii) P haneritic igneous rocks (coarse grained
igneous rocks). The word phaneritic has been de (ii) H ypabyssal igneous rocks are formed
rived from G reek w ord ‘phanero’, meaning thereby due to cooling and solidification o f rising m agm a
visible. during volcanic activity in th e cracks, pores, crev
ices, and hollow places ju st beneath the earth ’s
(iii) A phanitic igneous rocks (fine grained
surface, the resultant rocks are called as hypabyssal
igneous rocks). The word aphanitic has been derived
igneous rocks. The m agm as are solidified in differ
from the G reek word, ‘aph an ’, meaning thereby
ent forms depending upon the hollow places such as
invisible, that is the grains of the aphanites are so
batholiths, loccoliths, phacoliths, lopoliths, sills,
m inute that they cannot be seen by bare eyes.
dikes etc. It should be rem em bered that these should
(iv) G lassy igneous rocks (w ithout grains of not be taken as the types o f igneous rocks because
any size). these are different shapes of solidified m agm as.
(v) Porphyritic igneous rocks (mix-grained (A) Batholiths are long, irregular and undu
igneous rocks). lating forms of solidified intruded m agmas. They are
(4) The igneous rocks are more commonly usually dom e-shaped and their side walls are very
classified on the basis o f the m ode of occurrence into steep, almost vertical. The upper portion of batholiths
two m ajor groups. are seen when the superincum bent cover is rem oved
due to continued denudation but their bases are
(i) Intrusive Igneous Rocks
(a) Plutonic igneous rocks
(b) Hypabyssal igneous rocks
(ii) E xtrusive Igneous Rocks
(a) Explosive type
(b) Q uiet type
1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks

W hen the rising m agm as during a volcanic
activity do not reach the earth s surface rather they
are cooled and solidified below the surface of the
earth, the resultant igneous rocks are called intrusive Fig. 8.1 : D iagram atic presentation o f a granitic
igneous rocks. T hese rocks are further subdivided batholith.
144 GEOMORPHOLOGY
never seen because they are buried deep w ithin the

IMiucolitli Anticline
earth. W hen exposed to the surface they are sub
jected to intense w eathering and erosion and hence
their surfaces becom e highly irregular and corru
gated. N um erous batholithic dom es w ere intruded in
the the D harw arian sedim entaries in m any parts of
the peninsular India during pre-C am brian period. S y n c lin e
M any o f such batholithic dom es have now been

Fig. 8.3 : An example o f phacoliths.
exposed well above the surface in m any parts o f the
C hotanagpur plateau o f India m ainly Ranchi plateau (D) L op olith s— The w ord lopolith has been
w here such batholithic dom es are called as R anchi derived from G erm an w ord ‘lo p a s’ m ean ing thereby
a shallow basin or bow l shape body. W hen m agm a
B atholiths. M urha pahar near Pithauriya village, to
is injected and solidifed in a co n cav e sh allow basin
the north-w est o f Ranchi city, is a typical exam ple o f
w hose central part is sagged d o w nw ard, the resultant
exposed Ranchi batholithic dom es.
form o f solidified m agm a is called a lopolith. The
(B) L accoliths— The w ord laccolith has been rocks of lopoliths are generally co arse-g rain ed be
derived from German word, ia c c o s ’ m eaning thereby cause o f slow process o f co o lin g o f m agm as.
‘lith o s’ or rocks. Laccoliths are form ed due to injec
(E ) Sills— The w ord ‘s ills ’ has been derived
tion (intrusion) o f m agm as along the bedding planes
from an A nglo-Saxon w ord ‘sy F m eaning thereby a
ledge. The sills are usually parallel to the bedding
planes o f sedim entary rocks. In fact, sills are formed
due to injection and solidification o f m agm as be
tween the bedding planes o f sendim entary rocks.
Thick beds o f m agm as are called sills w hereas thin
beds of m agm a are term ed as ‘s h e e ts ’. The thickness
o f sills ranges betw een a few centim etres to several
m etres. W hen sills are tilted to g eth er w ith the
sendim entary beds due to earth m ovem ents and are
exposed to exogenous denudational processes, they
form significant landform s like cuesta, hogbacks
Fig. 8.2 : Diagramatic illustration o f a typical laccolith. and ridges (fig. 8.4).
o f horizontally bedded sendimentary rocks. Laccoliths
are o f m ushroom shape having convex sum m ital
form . T he ascending gases during a volcanic eru p
tion force the upper starta o f the flat layered sedi
m entary rocks to arch up in the form o f a convex arch
o r a dom e. C onsequently, the gap between the arched
up or dom ed upper starta and the horizontal low er
starta is injected w ith m agm a and other volcanic
m aterials (fig. 8.2 ).
(C ) Phacoliths are form ed due to injection o f Intrusion of Lavu
m agm a along the anticlines and synclines in the
Fig. 8.4 : Intrusion o f sills between the horizontal bed
regions o f folded m ountains (fig. 8.3).
ding planes o f sedimentary rocks.
rocks
145
(F) D y k es rep resen t w all-like form ation of
when filled up with w ater, is called a ‘d y k e la k e ’
s o lid i f y m agm as. T h ese are m ostly perpendicular
(fig. 8 .5 ); (ii) If the rocks o f dykes are more resistant
to the beds o f se d im e n ta ry ro ck s. T he th ic k
than the country-rocks, upstanding ridges and hills
ness o f dykes ran g es from a few centim etres to
are formed because o f m ore erosion o f the country-
rocks (fig. 8.6) and (iii) If the rocks o f dykes and
R esistant
E ro sio n country-rocks are of uniform resistance, both are
uniformly dissected and hence no significant landform
is developed but the height is gradually reduced (fig.
8.7).
2. Extrusive Igneous rocks

The igneous rocks form ed due to co oling and
solidification of hot and m olten lavas at the earth’s
surface are called extrusive igneous rock s. Gener
ally, extrusive igneous rocks are form ed during
fissure eruption o f volcanoes resulting into flood
b asalts. These rocks are also called as voican ic
Fig. 8.5 : The resultant feature on dyke after erosion

(the rocks o f dykes being less resistant than
the surrounding country-rocks).
several h u n d r e d m e tr e s but the length extends from
a few m e tre s to se v era l k ilom etres. A well defined
dyke is o b s e rv a b le a c ro ss the palaeochannel and
valley o f the N a r m a d a riv e r n ear D hu n w a d h ar Falls
(B heraghat) n e a r J a b a lp u r city. T h e relative resist
ance o f d y k e s in c o m p a ris o n to the surrounding
c o u n tr y - r o c k s g iv e s b irth to a few in te resting
landform s e.g. (1) I f the ro ck s o f dykes are w eaker
and less r e s is ta n t th an the country rocks, the upper Fig. 8.6 : Form o f a dyke after erosion (when the rocks
portion o f d y k e s is m o re ero d e d than the country- o f dyke are more resistant than the country -
rocks, w ith the resu lt a de p re ssio n is formed, which, rocks).
Erosion
Fig. 8 .7 : Form o f a dyke after erosion {when the rocks o f dyke and country-rocks are o f uniform resistance).
rocks; E xtrusive igneous rocks are generally fine- lidified due to com paratively extrem ely low tern-
g r a i n e d basalts because lavas after com ing
o r g l a s s y perature of the atm osphere and thus there is no
over the earth's surface are quickly cooled and so- enough time lor the developm ent o f grains or
146
GEOMORPHOLOGY
crystals. B asalt is the m ost sig n ifican t rep resen tativ e (i) A cid ign eou s rocks are those which carry
ex am p le o f ex tru siv e igneous rocks. G ab b ro and silica co ntent betw een 65 to 85 per cent. T he average
obsidian are the o th e r im p o rtan t ex am p les o f this density varies from 2.75 to 2.8. Q uartz and white and
group. E xtrusive igneous ro ck s are fu rth er divided pink feldspar are the do m in an t m inerals. Acid igne
into tw o m a jo r su b catc g o ries on the basis o f the ous rocks generally lack in iron and m agnesium . On
nature o f the ap p earan ce o f lavas on the earth's an average acid igneous rocks are hard and relatively
surface e.g. (i) ex p lo siv e ty p e and (ii) q u iet type. resistant to erosion. G ranite is the m ost significant
exam ple o f this group o f rocks. T hese rocks are light
(i) E x p lo s iv e T y p e — T h e ig n e o u s ro ck s in w eight and are used as building m aterials because
form ed due to m ix tu re o f volcan ic m aterials ejected o f their less erosivity.
d u rin g ex p lo siv e ty p e o f v io len t volcanic eruptions
(ii) B asic ign eou s rock s contain silica content
are called expolosi ve type o f extrusive igenous rocks.
betw een 45 to 60 per cent. T h eir average density
V olcanic m aterials include ‘b o m b s’ (big fragm ents
ranges from 2.8 to 3.0. Such igneous rocks are dom i
o f ro ck s), i a p i l l i ’ (fragm ents o f the size o f a peas)
nated by ferro-m agnesium m inerals. T here is very
and volcanic dusts and ashes. Fine volcanic m ateri
low am ount o f feldspar. T he rock is heavy in weight
als, when d ep o sited in aquatic co ndition, are called
and dark in colour because o f the dom inance o f iron
‘tu ffs ’. T he m ixture o f larg er and sm aller particles content. Basic igneous rocks are easily eroded away
after deposition is called ‘b r e c c ia ’ or ‘ag g lo m er when these com e in regular co n tact with water. These
a te .’ T hese are m ore susceptible to erosion because rocks are fine-grained igenous rocks. B asalt, gabbro,
these are not w ell con solidated. dolerite etc. are the typical exam ples o f this group.
(ii) Q u iet T yp e— T h e ap pearance o f lavas (iii) Iterm ediate ign eou s rocks are those in
th rough m inor cracks and o penings on the earth's which silica content is less than the am ount present in
surface is called ‘lava flo w ’. T hese lavas after being the acid igneous rocks but m ore than the basic igne
cooled and solidified form basaltic igneous rocks. ous rocks. The average density ranges betw een 2.75
F lood basalts resulting from several episodes o f lava and 2.8. D iorite and andesite are the representative
flow d u ring fissure flow s o f volcanic eruption form exam ples o f this group o f rocks.
ex ten siv e ‘la v a -p la te a u ’ and ‘la v a -p la in s’ w herein (iv) U ltra-basic ign eou s rocks carry silica
several layers o f basalts are deposited one upon content less than 45 per cent but their average density
another. varies from 2.8 to 3.4. P eridotite is the typical exam
T he thickness o f lavas o f the C olum bia pla ple o f this group o f rocks.
teau o f the states o f W ashington and O regon (U SA ),
Classification of Igneous Rocks on the Basis of
spread over an area o f about 6 .4 5 ,0 0 0 km 2 (2,50,000
The Texture of Grains
square m iles), m easures ab o u t 1,216 m (4,000 feet).
The texture o f the cry stals (grains) o f igneous
T he ex ten siv e lava flow s during C retaceous period
rocks depends on 3 basic factors viz. (i) source
co vered an area o f about 7 ,7 4 ,0 0 0 km 2 (3,00,000
region o f the origin o f m ag m as and lavas and places
sq uare m iles) o f P en in su lar India. Several beds o f
of their cooling and so lid ificatio n ; (ii) rate o f cool
basaltic lavas are clearly observable all along the
ing and so lidification o f m ag m as and lavas and (iii)
exposed sectio n s o f the W estern G hats m ainly near
quantity o f w ater and gases (vapour) w ith hot and
K handala (betw een B om bay and Pune) and over
m olten m agm as and lavas. If m ag m as and lavas are
M ah ab alesh w ar plateau.
cooled slow ly and g radually the g rains are well
Classification of Igneous Rocks on the Basis of developed but if they are co o led and solidified at a
Chemical Composition very faster rate, grains are not w ell developed. The
T hough the chem ical com position o f igneous rate o f co o lin g o f m agm as and lavas also depends
rocks varies significantly from one group to another upon several factors viz. (i) W hen magmas are
group but each type o f igneous rock contains som e cooled deep w ithin the earth, the rate o f cooling is
am ount o f silica. T hus, on the basis o f silica content, exceedingly slow because o f very high temperature
igneous rocks are divided into the follow ing four prevailing there and hence very large and coarse
types. grains are form ed, (ii) If lavas are cooled at the
rocks 147
surface o f the earth, the rate o f cooling is very fast rocks and (6) fragm ental igneous rock s (consisting
because o f very low tem perature (in com parison to .o f bom bs, lapilli, breccia, volcanic dusts and ashes,
the tem perature of lavas) of outside environm ent tuffs etc.).
and hence either grains are not formed at all, or if It is desirable to discuss in b rief the major
they are form ed, they are so minute that they cannot characteristics o f granites and basalts w hich repre
be seen w ithout the aid o f a m icroscope, (iii) If sent the intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks re
magmas and lavas are associated with larger propor spectively.
tion o f w ater vapour and gases, the rate o f their
cooling and consequent solidification is slowed down Granites
and hence larger grains are formed. G ranites are the m ost significant exam ple o f
the plutonic intrusive igneous rocks w hich are form ed
On the basis of the size o f grains (texture)
deep within the earth. Since the rate o f cooling and
igneous rocks are generally divided into (i) coarse
solidification of m agm as inside the earth is very
grained igneous rocks (plutonic igneous’rocks come
slow because of very high tem perature prevailing
under this category, grainite is the exam ple), (ii)
underground and hence granites becom e co arse
fine-grained igneous rocks (extrusive igneous rocks
grained due to full developm ent o f large-sized grains.
fall under this group, basalt is the exam ple) and (iii)
Granites are com posed essentially o f the m inerals o f
m edium -grained igneous rocks (hypabyssal rocks
quartz, feldspar, and m ica but the m ost abundant
are generally m edium grained igenous rocks).
mineral is feldspar, mainly orthoclase. Som e tim es,
A lternatively, igneous rocks are divided into the minerals are uniform ly distributed and all o f
six sub-types on the basis of textural characteristics them are almost o f the sam e size. B esides, albite,
o f the rocks e.g. ( 1 ) pegm atitic igenous rocks (or biotite, m uscovite and hornblende are also found in
very coarse-grained igneous rocks ; examples : plu granite rocks.
tonic igneous rocks e.g. pegmatitic granites, pegmatitic
The granite family includes num erous types
diorite, pegm atitic sym te e tc .) ; (2 ) phaneritic igne of rocks. These granitic rocks are differentiated on
ous rocks (or coarse-grained igneous rocks ; plu the basis o f their texture and m ineral com position,
tonic igenous rocks ; exam ples, granites, diorties for example, hornblende granite (w hen hornblende
e tc .) ; (3 ) aphanitic igneous rocks (or fine-grained mineral is most dom inant), rhyolite granite, pum ice
igneous rocks ; grins are so minute that they cannot granite, absidian granite, pitch-stone granite etc.
be seen w ithout the help o f a m icroscope ; examples: From the standpoint o f chem ical com position gran
basalt, felsite and the rocks of sills and dykes) ; (4) ites are acidic rocks wherein silica content ranges
glassy igenous rocks (or grainless igneous rocks; between 65 to 85 per cent. G ranites are generally
usually there is general absence of grains; examples: light in weight as their density varies from 2.75 to
pitch stones, obsidians, pumice, perlite etc.) ; (5) 2.8. Table 8.2 denotes percentage com position o f
porphyritic igneous rocks (or mix-grained igneous different minerals in granites.
Table 2 : Mineral Composition of Granites
Minerals Feldspar Quartz Mica Hornblende Iron others

Percentage 52.3 31.3 11.5 2.4 2.0 0.55
There is also wide range of colour variation in Granites are generally resistant to erosion but when
different types of granites. The colour variation is the rocks are well jointed, they are easily weathered
caused mainly because o f the number ol different and a very peculiar landform , ‘t o r \ is formed.
minerals present in the rocks and the size of grains.
Basalts
Generally, granites are of light colour but if orthoclase
mineral is present in abundance, the granites become Basalt is a very fine-grained, dark-coloured
pink to yellow or slightly reddish in colour. If dark extrusive igneous rock w hich is form ed due to co o l
coloured hornblende or biotitc is a dominant mineral, ing and solidification o f m olten lavas at the surface
the granites bccomc of dark black or dark grey colour. o f the earth. Some tim es, the cooling o f lavas takes
148 GEOMORPHOLOG'
place so rapidly that no tim e is available for the and cones. T he fo llo w in g are th e m ain characteris
crystallization o f basalt and hence no grains are tics o f sed im en tary rocks.
form ed, with the result the rock becom es glassy (1) Sedim entary rocks are form ed o f sediments
b a s a lt. B asalts having grains, though very sm all derived from the o ld er ro ck s, p lan t an d anim al re
rather m inute, are called ap hanitic basalts. C hem i m ains and thus these ro ck s co n tain fo ssils o f plants
cally, basalts contain 45 to 65 per cent o f silica and anim als. T he age o f the fo rm atio n o f a given
content. T hough the rock is heavy in w eight but is sedim entary rock m ay be d eterm in e d on the basis of
m ore susceptible to chem ical w eathering and fluvial the analysis o f the fossils to be found in th at rock.
erosion. T he dark colour o f basalts is because o f the (2) S ed im en tary ro ck s are fo u n d o ver the
abundance o f iron. F eldslpar is the m ost dom inant largest surface areas o f the g lo b e. It is b eliev ed that
m ineral (46.2 per cent). B esides, augite (36.9 per about 75 p er cent o f the su rface area o f th e globe is
cent), olivine (7.6 per cent), m ineral iron (9.5 per covered by sedim entary ro ck s w h ereas ig n eo u s and
cent) etc. (others - 2.4 per cent) are other constituent m atam orphic rocks co v er the rem a in in g 25 per cent
m inerals o f basalts. Som e tim es, polygonal cracks area. Inspite o f th eir larg est co v era g e the sedim en
are developed in basalts due to contraction on co o l
tary rocks co n stitu te only 5 p e r c e n t o f th e com posi
ing o f lavas. C olum nar jointings in basalts give birth
tion o f the crust w h ereas 95 p e r c e n t o f the crust is
to peculiar landform s characterized by uneven ter
com posed o f igneous and m e tam o rp h ic ro ck s. Thus,
rain surfaces.
it is obvious that ‘the sed im en tary ro ck s are im por
8.4 SED IM EN TA R Y R O C K S tant for extent, not for dep th in the ea rth 's c ru s t.’
Sedim entary rocks, as the w ord im plies, are (3) T he d ep osition o f sed im en ts o f various
form ed due to ag g reg atio n and com paction o f types and sizes to form sed im en tary ro ck s tak e place
sedim ents. The w ord ‘sed im en ta ry ’ has been de in certain sequence and system . T h e size o f sedim ents
rived from Latin word ‘sed im en tu m ’ which means decreases from the littoral m arg in s to th e centre of
‘settlin g d ow n ’. Sedim entary rocks are also called the w ater bodies or sed im en tatio n b asin s. D ifferent
as stratified or layered rocks because these rocks sedim ents are co nsolidated and co m p a c te d by d if
have different layers or strata o f different types of ferent types o f cem enting elem en ts e.g . silica, iron
sedim ents. Som e tim es, layers are absent in some com pounds, calcite, clay etc.
sedim entary rocks, for exam ple loess. The sedim ents (4) S edim entary rocks co n tain sev eral layers
and debris derived through the disintegration and or strata but these are seldom cry stallin e rocks.
decom position o f the rocks by the agents of w eath
(5) L ike igneous rocks sed im en tary ro ck s are
ering and erosion are gradually deposited in w ater
not found in m assiv e form s such as b atholiths,
bodies. Thus, layers after layers o f sedim ents and
laccoliths, dykes etc.
debris are regularly deposited. C ontinuous sedim en
tation increases the w eight and pressure and thus (6) L ayers o f sed im en tary ro ck s are seldom
different layers are consolidated and com pacted to found in original h o rizo n tal m anner. S edim entary
form sedim entary rocks. la y e rs are g e n e ra lly d e fo rm e d d u e to la te ra l
com pressive and tensile forces. T h e b ed s are folded
A ccording to P.G. W orcester (1948) ‘sedi
and found in an ticlin al and sy n clin al form s. Tensile
m entary rocks, as sedim ent im plies, are com posed
and co m p ressiv e forces also create fau lts due to
largely o f fragm ents o f older rocks and m inerals,
dislocation o f beds.
that have been m ore or less thoroughly consolidated
and arranged in layers and strata.’ (7) S ed im en tary ro ck s m ay be w ell consoli
dated, poorly co n so lid ated and ev en unconsolidated.
Characteristics of Sedimentary R ocks The com p o sitio n o f the ro ck s d ep en d s upon the
Though m ost o f sedim entary rocks are d ep o s nature o f cem en tin g elem en ts and ro ck forming
ited due to continuous deposition o f sedim ents in m inerals.
w ater bodies (lakes, ponds, basins, rivers and seas)
(8) S edim entary rocks are ch aracterized by
but som e tim es these are also form ed at the land
d illeren t sizes o f jo in ts. T h ese are g en erally perpen
surface, e.g. loess, rocks o f sand dunes, alluvial fans
dicular to the b edding planes.
rocks 149
(9) T h e connecting plane betw een two con

inclined layers are called cross lam ination or cross
secutive beds or layers o f sedim entary rocks is called bedding.
‘bedding p lan e’. T he uniform ity o f tw o beds along (11) Soft m uds and alluvia deposited by the
a bedding plane is called conform ity (i.e. when beds rivers during flood period develop cracks w hen
are sim ilar in all respect). W hen tw o consecutive baked in the sun. T hese cracks are generally o f
beds are not uniform or conform al, the structure is polygonal shapes. Such cracks are called as m ud
called u n con form ity. In fact, ‘an unconform ity is a
cracks or sun cracks.
break in a stratigraphic sequence resulting from a
(12) M ost o f the sedim entary rocks are p er
change in conditions that caused deposition to cease
m eable and porous but a few o f them are also non-
for a considerable tim e’ (J.D. C ollison and D.B.
porous and im perm eable. The porosity o f the rocks
Thom pson, 1 9 8 2 ). T h ere are several types o f
depends upon the ratio betw een the voids and the
unconform ity e.g. (i) non-conform ity (where sedi
volume o f a given rock mass.
mentary rocks succeed igneous or matamorphic rocks),
(ii) angular un con form ity (w here horizontal sedi Classification of sedimentary rocks
mentary beds are deposited over previously folded
1. ON THE BASIS OF THE NATURE OF SEDIMENTS
or tilted strata), (iii) disconform ity (where two
(1) M echanically form ed or clastic rocks
conform able beds are separated by mere changes o f
sedim ent type), (iv) paraconform ity (where two (i) Sandstones
sets o f conform able beds are separated by same (ii) Conglom erates
types o f sedim ents) etc. (iii) Clay rock
(iv) Shale
(v) Loess
(2) Chem ically form ed sed im en tary rocks
(i) Gypsum
(ii) Salt rock
1— T T— T
(3) O rganically form ed sedim entary rocks
U nconform ity j (i) Lim estones
(ii) Dolomites
(iii) Coals
D isconform ity
1 (iv) Peats
2. ON THE BASIS OF TRANSPORTING AGENTS

Fig. 8.8: (A ) d isc o n fo rm ity and (B) angular
unconformity.
(1) Argillaceous or aqueous rocks
(10) Sedim entation units in the sedim entary (i) M arine rocks
rocks having a thickness o f greater than one centi (ii) Lacustrine rocks
metre are called beds. The upper and lower surfaces (iii) Riverine rocks
of a bed are called bedding planes or bounding (2) Aeolian sedim entary rocks
planes. Som e tim es, the low er surface o f a bed is (i) Loess
called sole w hile the upper surface is known as (3) Glacial sedim entary rocks
upper bedding surface. There are further sedim en (i) Till
tary units w ithin a bed. The units having a thickness (ii) M oraines
of more than one centim etre are called as layers or
strata w hereas the units below one centim etre thick Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
ness are known as lam inae. Thus several strata and Previously form ed rocks are subjected to m e
laminae m ake up a bed. W hen the beds are deposited chanical or physical disintegration and thus the rocks
at an angle to the depositional surface, they are are broken into fragm ents o f different sizes. T hese
called cross beds and the general phenom ena o f are called fragm ental rock m aterials o r clastic m ate
150 GEOMORPHOLOGY
rials which becom e source m aterials for the form a (2) C o n g lo m era tes— C o n g lo m erate s are
tion o f clastic sedim entary rocks. These m aterials form ed due to cem entation and consolidation of
are obtained, transported and deposited at suitable pebbles o f various sizes together with sands. ‘The
places by different exogenous processes (geological term conglom erate is applied to cefnented fragmen
agents) like running w ater (rivers), wind, glaciers, tal rocks containing rounded fragm ents such as peb
and sea waves. T hese m aterials are further broken bles and boulders; if the fragm ents are angular or sub
dow n into finer particles due to their mutual colli angular, the rock is called b re c c ia ’ (A. Homes and
sion during their transportation. These materials D.L. H olm es, 1978). P olished and rounded frag
after being deposited and consolidated in different m ents are called pebbles having a diam eter upto 4
w ater bodies (sedim entation basins, lakes, seas, riv mm while those fragm ents w hich have the diameter
ers etc.) form sedim entary rocks known as clastic upto 256 mm are called boulders. The rock frag
sedim entary rocks. Sandstones, conglom erates, silt, ments after being cem ented by clay form gravels.
shale, clay etc. are im portant m em bers o f this group. Though gravels are found in layers but there is
(1) S a n d sto n es— S andstones are form ed general absence o f uniform ity. W hen the rounded
m ostly due to deposition, cem entation and consoli fragm ental m aterials are cem ented by quartz, the
dation o f sand grains. Sand grains are divided into resultant rocks becom e conglom erates. If conglom
five categories on the basis of their size. W hen sand erates are form ed due to their cem entation by silica,
Table 8.3 : Classification of Sands by Grain size they becom e very hard rocks and resistant to erosion.
Sand Types Grain Size (3) C lay R ock a n d S h ale— C lay rocks are
formed due to deposition and cem entation of fine
(mm)
sedim ents. The rocks form ed o f the sedim ents hav
(i) Very coarse sand 1.0 to 2.0
ing the grain size o f 0.03 mm to 0.004 m m are called
(ii) Coarse sand 0.5 to 1.0
silts w hereas clays are form ed when the sediments
(iii) Medium sand 0.25 to 0.5 o f the grain size o f 0.004 mm to 0.00012 mm are
(iv) Fine sand 0.125 to 0.25 cem ented and consolidated. Silt and clay are soft and
(v) Very fine sand 0.0625 to 0.125 weak rocks but they are definitely im pervious. Clay
grains are deposited in w ater bodies and are aggre rocks are form ed exclusively o f kaolin minerals.
gated and consolidated by cem enting elem ents (e.g. Since clay rocks are not soluble and hence these are
silica, calcium , iron oxiae, clay etc.), sandstones are least affected by chem ical w eathering but these are
formed. The colour o f sandstones varies according easily eroded away. Pure clay rocks are o f white
to the nature and am ount o f cem enting elem ents and colour but they change in colour w hen they are
m inerals. Sandstones becom e red or gray when ce mixed with the im purities o f other m aterials. Shales
mented by iron oxides but these becom e white or are formed due to consolidation o f silt and clay.
gray when calcium carbonate dominates. Sandstones Shales are form ed o f thin lam inae w hich are easily
becom e hard and resistant to erosion when ce separated. Shales are im perm eable rocks and there
mented by silica. On an average sandstones are fore they hold m ineral oil above them.
porous rocks and w ater easily percolates through
them. On the basis of textural and m ineralogical Chem ically Formed Sedimentary R ocks
characteristics sandstones are classified into (i) quartz Running w ater contains chem ical materials
arenites (arenite from Latin word arena, m eaning in suspension. W hen such chem ically active water
thereby sand) com posed entirely of quartz grains, com es in contact w ith the country rocks in its way,
(ii) arkose sandstones (feldspar being the dom inant soluble m aterials are rem oved from the rocks. Such
mineral), (iii) lithic arenites (com posed o f fine m aterials are called chem ically derived or formed
grained rock fragm ents, m ostly derived from shales, sedim ents. These chem ical m aterials after being
slates, schists and volcanic rocks) and (i v) graywacke settled down and com pacted and cem ented form
sandstones (com posed o f quartz, feldspar and rock chem ical sedim entary rocks such as gypsum and salt
fragments surrounded by a fine-grained clay wttftrix). rocks.
ROCKS
151
Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
structure and hence these are not affected by differ
The sedim ents derived from the disintegra ential expansion and contraction due to tem perature
tion or decom position o f plants and animals are changes. The rocks having the carbonates o f both
called organic sedim ents. These sedim ents after calcium and m agnesium are known as dolom ites
being deposited and consolidated form organic sedi which are less soluble than limestones. These car
mentary rocks. On the basis o f lime and carbon bonate rocks, after w eathering and chem ical erosion,
content these rocks are divided into 3 categories e.g. give birth to karst topography-C halk is another
(i) clacareous rocks, (ii) carbonaceous rocks and (iii) form of carbonate rocks but it is softer and m ore
siliceous rocks.
porous than limestone. Chalks are form ed due to
(1) C a lc a re o u s ro ck s are formed due to depo precipitation of carbonate materials which are de
sition and consolidation of sedim ents derived from rived from m icro-organism s like foram inifera.
the skeletons and rem ains o f those animals and (2) Carbonaceous rocks are dom inated by
plants w hich contain larger portion o f lime. Lim e carbonic materials which represent vegetation re
stone is the m ost significant characteristic example mains. These rocks are formed due to transform ation
of calcareous rocks. Lim estones are formed in the of vegetations because of their burial during earth
following m anner— movements and consequent weight and pressure o f
(i) Calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with water overlying deposits. The initial form o f carbonaceous
(H20 ) to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) rocks is peat which is o f a dark gray colour. Vegeta
tion remains canT>e seen with the help o f m icro
CaO + H 20 —» C a(O H )2
scope. The other subsequent forms o f carbonaceous
(ii) Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon di sedimentary rocks are lignite, bitum inous and an
oxide ( C 0 2) to form calcium carbonate (C aC 0 3) thracite coals with greater proportion o f carbon and
C a(O H )2 + C 0 2 —> Ca CO 3 (limestone) + H20 darker colour. Coals are also found in stratified form
The calcareous rocks are collectively called wherein coal layers are known as coal seam s.
as c a rb o n a te ro ck s or simply carb o n ates. Lime Carbonaceous rocks are more im portant econom i
stones (C aC O ,) or calcium carbonate, magnesium cally than geomorphologically.
carbonate (M g C O ,) and dolom ite (CaMg (C 0 3)2) (3) Siliceous rocks are form ed due to dom i
are im portant carbonate rocks. Limestones are found nance of silica content. Siliceous rocks are formed
in both the form s-thinly bedded and thickly bedded. due to aggregation and com paction of wastes de
They are form ed o f both fine sedim ents as well as rived from sponge and radiolarian organism s and
coarse sedim ents. The most dominant minerals are diatom plants. Geyserites are also deposits o f silica
calcite (o f hexagonal shape) and argonite (of around geysers. Geyserites have different colours
orthorhom bic shape). Since limestones are formed e.g. white, gray or pink due to im purities o f deposi
of chem ically soluble m aterials and hence these are tion of various types of sediments.
most susceptible to chem ical weathering as fol
Classification on the Basis of Transporting Agents
lows—
Sedimentary rocks are aiso classified on the
(i) Carbon dioxide ( C 0 2) after being dissolved
basis of transporting agents or geological agents
in water form carboric acid (H2 CO 3)
(e.g. running water or rivers, wind, glaciers, oceanic
c o 2 + h 2 o ^ h 2c o 3 currents and sea waves). These agents o f transporta
(ii) Carbonic acid reacts with limestone (C aC 03) tion obtain different types o f sedim ents and deposit
to form calcium bi-carbonate (C a(H C 0 3)2) them in suitable places where sedim ents are consoli
H2C 0 3 4- C A C 0 3 -> Ca (H C 0 3)2 dated and cem ented to form sedim entary rocks of
Though lim estoens are very weak rocks in various sorts. Based on m ajor transporting agents,
humid regions because these easily dissociate when sedimentary rocks are divided into argillaceous,
they com e in contact with w ater but these become aeolian and glacial rocks.
resistant rocks in hot and dry clim ate because of the (1) A rgillaceous rocks are also called as
fact that lim estones have uniform and homogeneous aqueous rocks because these are formed in water
152 GEOMORPHOLOGY
areas. Aqueous word has been derived from Latin due to m echanical w eathering in the hot and dry
word ‘aq u a’ which m eans ‘w a ter’. A queous rocks regions. This process results in the form ation of
are called as argillaceous rocks because o f the d om i im m ense quantity o f sands o f d ifferent sizes. Winds
nance of clay in the rocks. In fact, the word argillaceous pick up these sands and deposit them at various
has been derived from Latin w ord ‘a rg y ll’ or ‘a rg ill’ places. The particles are further com m inuted into
meaning thereby clay. A rgillacous rocks are charac finer particles due to attrition w hile they are being
terized by their general softness. T hese are essen transported from one place to another. Continuous
tially im pervious rocks. A rgillaceous rocks are fur deposition o f sands results in the form ation o f differ
ther divided into 3 sub-types on the basis o f the ent layers but these layers are not w ell consolidated
places o f their form ation, (i) M arine argillaceous as is the case with the argillaceous rocks. Som e
sedim entary rocks are form ed due to deposition tim es, there is com plete absence o f layers in the
and consolidation o f sedim ents in the oceans and airborn or aeolian sedim entary rocks. Loess is the
seas mainly in their littoral zones. The process o f m ost im portant m em ber o f this group. L oess is, in
sedim entation in m arine environm ent is well or fact, the heaps o f unconsolidated fine materials.
dered and sequential in character. In other w ords, the There is general absence o f lam inae and layers in the
size of particles deceases progressively from the loessic formation. These are soft and porous rocks.
coastal lands tow ards the seas or the oceans e.g. the W ater can easily infiltrate in the loessic deposits.
order of the particles from the coast lands tow ards Thus, loess is easily eroded away. Thus, m ost out
the sea is of boulders, cobbles, pebbles, granules, standing characteristic feature o f loess is that the
sands, silts, clay and lime. It is evident that as we go entire loessic m ass may stand like a vertical c liff or
away from the coast lands tow ards the sea, the size wall. The best exam ple is observable on the left and
of sedim ents becom es so fine that they are kept in right banks o f the palaeochannel and valley o f the
suspension with oceanic water. Sandstones, lim e N arm ada river at D hunw adhar falls (B heraghat)
stones, dolom ites and chalk are the m ost im portant near Jabalpur (M .P.) where the loessic banks rise 20
exam ples of marine argillaceous sedim entary rocks, to 25 m from the valley floor and form com plete
(ii) Lacustrine argillaceous sedim entary rocks vertical free-face cliff section. The sedim ents are so
are formed due to deposition and consolidation o f loosely arranged that they can be rem oved even by
sedim ents in lake en v iro n m en t. G enerally, the using fingers. The m ost extensive loessic deposits
sedim ents are deposited at the floor o f the lakes. The are found in north C hina w here the thickness of
lacustrine rocks may be seen in 3 conditions viz. (a) sedim ents is o f several hundred m etres. The deposits
if the lake becom es dry, (b) if the floor o f the lake is are of yellow colour and are rich in lim e and hence
raised due to earth m ovem ents and (c) if the whole these look like fine loam soils. T he Y ellow river
lake'is filled up w ith sedim ents. It may be pointed out (form erly Hwang Ho) and its tributaries easily erode
that there is no ordering in the size o f sedim ents as is the loessic deposits and hence the river becomes
the case with the seas and the oceans, (iii) R iverine overloaded and causes frequent severe floods. It
argillaceous sed im entary rocks are those which may be pointed out that the Y ellow river o f China
are form ed due to deposition o f sedim ents in the carries the largest am ount o f sedim ents (1640 m il
riverine environm ent. The sedim ents m ay be depos lion tonnes per year) in the w orld. T he river is called
ited in the beds o f the rivers and in the flood plains. ‘Y ellow ’ because o f the yellow colour o f the sediments
Such deposition includes alluvia w hich are dom i w hich are derived through the erosion o f yellow
nated by clay. A lluvia are deposited on either side o f coloured C hinese loess.
the alluvial rivers during floods. It may be pointed (3) G lacial rocks— T he m aterials deposited
out that alluvial deposits are renewed alm ost every by glaciers are called glacial drifts w hich are depos
year. Alluvial deposits develop polygonal cracks ited in four conditions and therefore there are four
due to their exposure to insolation. types o f m orainic deposits viz. (i) laterlal m o r a in e
(2) A eolian sedim entary rocks are formed
w hen glacial m aterials are deposited on e i t h e r side of
due to deposition o f sands brought down by the a glacier, (ii) m edial m oraines, when glacial sedi
wind. Pre-existing rocks are greatly disintegrated mentary materials are deposited along the joining
rocks 153
glaciers ( ‘The lateral m o rain es o f jo in in g ice stream s and the w eight and pressure o f o v erlying rocks
merge and form a sin g le m ed ia l m o ra in e in the becom es enorm ous due to oro g en etic m ovem ents.
middle o f larger flo w s— ’ F. Press and R. Siever, W hen the rocks are m etam orphosed to the greatest
1978), (iii) g rou n d m o ra in es, w hen the glacial intensity, the process is know n as in ten se m etam or-
materials are d ep o sited in th e bed o f the g lacier and phism . D harw arian sedim entary rocks o f peninsular
îv) term inal m o ra in es (th ese are form ed w hen the India have suffered intense m etam orphism .
elacier is ablated an d m aterials are deposited therein) The change in the form o f th e rocks d u rin g the
(fig. 8.9). process o f m etam orphism takes p lace in tw o w ays
viz. (i) physical m e ta m o rp h ism pertaining to changes
in textural com position o f the rocks and (ii) ch e m i
M edial M oraine cal m e ta m o rp h ism , leading to ch an g es in the c h em i
C cal com position o f the rocks. S om e tim es, b o th the
processes o f m etam orphism beco m e o p erativ e to
gether. It m ay be pointed out again that du rin g the
03 process o f m etam orphism there m ay be co m p lete
C
alteration in the form o f the rocks, the form and
I
V nature o f m inerals m ay change, old m in erals m ay be
H
L a tera l M oraine rearranged and changed in new m in erals, new m in
erals may be added, p re-existing m in erals m ay be
Fig. 8.9 : Different types o f moraines. transform ed into other form s due to m eltin g cau sed
by very high tem perature, p re-ex istin g c ry stallin e
8.5 M ETAM O RPHIC R O C K S rocks may be recrystallized but th ere w ould be no
Meaning and C h a ra cteristics disintegration and decom position o f th e ro ck s in any
‘M etam orphic rocks include rocks that have circum stance.
been changed eith er in form or com position w ithout Some times, the form o f the rocks is so changed
disintegration’ (P.G . W orcester, 1948). M etam or- due to intense m etam orphism that it b ecom es d iffi
phic rocks, as the w ord ‘m etam o rp h ism ’ im plies, are cult to find out the original form o f the rocks. S om e
formed due to chan g es in the form s o f other rocks. rocks, after m etam orphism , becom e h ard er than
Originally, the w ord m etam orphism has been de their original form s, such as m arb les from lim e
rived from the w ord ‘m e ta m o r p h o s e ’ which means stones and quartzites from sandstones. M arb les and
change in form . In fact, m etam orphic rock means quartzites are relatively m ore resistan t to ero sio n
complete alteration in the appearance o f pre-existing than their parent rocks, lim estones and san d sto n es.
rocks due to change in m ineral com position and Fossils o f sedim entary rocks are also d estro y ed
texture through tem p eratu re and pressure. M etam or during the process o f m etam orphism .
phic rocks are generally form ed due to change in ‘U nlike igneous rocks, the tex tu re o f m e ta
form o f sedim entary and igenous rocks. Som e times, m orphic rocks is the result o f recry sta llizatio n o r
even previously form ed m etam orphic rocks are again conversion o f one m ineral to an o th er in the solid
m etam orphosed. state* (Press and Siever, 1978). F o lia tio n , d efined as
It may be m entioned that the process o f m eta streaking or parallel arrangem ent o f the co n stitu en t
morphism sim ply m eans change in form but in crystals (o f the m etam orphic rocks) w hich generally
geology this is used for specific m eaning and condi ‘cut the rocks at an angle to the bedding planes o f the
tion. For exam ple, the form and com position o f a original sedim ents o f the p aren t ro c k s’ is the m ost
rock may change during the process o f m etam or com m on characteristic feature o f m etam orphic rocks.
phism but there is no disintegration and decom posi The coarse-grained m etam oprhic rocks are im per
tion of the rock. W hen already form ed m etam orphic fectly foliated (e.g. gneisses from g ran ites) w hile
rocks are again m etam orphosed, the process is known fine-grained m etam orphic rocks are perfectly fo li
as rem etam orphism . T his becom es possible only ated (e.g. schists from shales). T he property o f
when the tem perature becom es exceedingly high m etam orphic rocks to part o r split along the bedding
154 GEOMORPHOLOGY
planes is known as ftattilUy. The structure o f the (ii) Regional metamorphism (involving
presence o f numerous closely spaced parallel planes larger area)
o f splitting is known as cleavagc. In fact, cleavage (3) C om posite classification
is a special type o f foliation which denotes the
(i) Contact or thermal metamorphism
tendency o f a rock to cleave or break or split into
moderately thin sheets or laminae. Schistocity reef (ii) Dynamic and regional metamorphism
ers to the growth o f larger crystals and segregation o f (iii) H ydro-m etam orphism
some minerals into lighter and darker bands. (iv) H ydro-therm al m etam orphism
Agents of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
(i) H eat is the most im portant factor for the C ontact m etam orphism takes place w hen the
■development o f m etam orphic rocks from pre-exist mineral com position o f the surrounding rocks known
ing parent rocks. It may be pointed out that mineral
as aureoles is changed due to intense h eat o f the
com position is entirely changed due to intense heat
intruding m agm as. This process o f m etam orphism is
but the rocks are seldom melted. The required heat
called contact m etam orphism because o f the fact
for m etam orphism is available during vulcanicity
that m etam orphism occurs w hen the rocks com e in
w hen hot and m olten m agm as ascend through the
crustal rocks. contact with the intruding m agm as. This process is
also called as therm al m etam orphism because the
(ii) C om pression resulting from convergent
rocks are changed in their form s due to high tem
horizontal m ovem ents caused by endogenetic forces
perature of the introduing m agm as. Such m etam or
causes folding in rock beds. Thus, the resultant
pressure from com pressive forces and consequent phism occurs during volcanic activity w hen the
folding changes the form and com position of parent physical properties o f the surrounding rocks are
rocks. This factor becom es operative during m oun changed due to intense heat o f the rising m agm as o f
tain building. dykes (fig. 8.10). Som e tim es, the rocks com ing in
contact with the intruding m agm as are also changed
(iii) Solution— Chem ically active hot gases
in their chem ical com position due to som e water and
and water while passing through the rocks change
their chem ical com position. M agmatic w ater and water vapour associated w ith the intruding m agm as.
w ater confined in the beds o f sedim entary rocks also Lim estones are changed to m arbles due to contact
help in introducing chem ical changes in the rocks. metam orphism .
Types of Metamorphisms
The agents and factors of metamorphism some
tim es operate separately and some times work to
gether. The processes of m etam orphism may be
classified on the bases o f (i) the nature o f the agents
o f m etam orphism and (ii) place and area involved in
m etam orphism .
(1) On the basis o f the nature o f agents
(i) Therm al m etamorphism (due to heat)
(ii) D ynam ic m etamorphism (due to pres
sure)
(iii) H ydro-m etam orphism (due to hydro
static pressure)
(iv) H ydro-therm al-m etam orphism (due to
water and heat) Fig. 8.10 : Illustration o f contact or thermal metamor
(2) On the basis o f place or area phism.
(i) Contact metamorphism (localized in As stated above, the rocks surrounding the
area) igneous intrusions are altered due to intense heat o f
rocks 155
magmas. The m argins o f the altered rock around characteristic feature o f m ountainous area. Regional
igneous intrusions are called aureoles the w idth of m etam orphism is further divided into tw o sub-types
which (i.e. the dim ension o f m etam orphosed rocks) viz. (i) D ynam ic regional m etam orphism , when
depends upon m ainly tw o factors e.g. (i) tem pera the rocks are m etam orphosed due to com pressive
ture of intruding m agm a, and (ii) the depth o f m agm a forces and resultant high pressure caused by conver
intrusions in the curst. gent horizontal m ovem ents (fig. 8.11), and (ii) Static
regional m etam orphism , when the rocks are m eta
Regional Metamorphism m orphosed at greater depth due to intense pressure
W hen the rocks are altered in their forms in and w eig h to f overlying rocks (superincum bent load)
extensive area the process is called regional m eta
(fig. 8.12).
morphism. Such m etam orphism is also known as
dynam ic m etam orp h ism because pressure plays
dominant role in the alteration o f the form o f the
rocks though tem perature is also an im portant factor.
The sedim entary rocks are folded due to com pressive
forces during the period o f m ountain building. This
process results in intense pressure and heat which
ultim ately alter the original form of the concerned
rocks. Dynamic metamorphism leads to crystallization
Fig. 8.12 : Example o f static regional metamorphism.

Hydro-Metamorphism
S edm im entary Rock
The alteration in the com position o f the rocks
C om pression C om pression due to hydrological factor takes place in.a num ber o f
ways e.g. (i) W hen the chem ically active w ater
(solvent) passes through the country rocks, there
occur several chem ical changes in the rocks due to
varied chem ical reactions, (ii) T he storage o f im
mense volum e o f w ater in big reservoirs exterts high
pressure on the underlying rocks and thus the rocks
are altered in their form s due to pressure o f overlying
huge volum e o f water. Such type o f m etam orphism
is known as h ydrostatic m etam orp h ism .
Hydro-Thermo-Metamorphism
The m inor alteration in the physical and chem i
cal com position o f the rocks cau sed by the w eight
and pressure o f w ater m ass and chem ically active
hot gases and w ater vapour is called hydro-therm o-
m etam orphism w hich is, in fact, geographically less
Metainorpliisiii im portant.
Fig. 8.11 : Example ofdynamic regional metamorphism. Classification of Metamorphic R o ck s

in the rocks and if the rocks are already crystallized Theclassification o f metamoprhic rocks is easier
they are recrystallized. R egional m etam orphism is a and less com plicated because generally these are
GEOMORPHOLOGY
156
the Narmada river at Bheraghat near Jabalpur (M .P.)
classified on the basis o f those original o r parent rocks
show different grades o f colour though w hite and
from which they have been formed. It is obvious that
the parent rocks in relation to m etam orphic rocks are pink colours dom inate.
sedimentary and igneous rocks. Som e tim es, the D o lo m ites and ch alk s are also m etam orphosed
process of m etam orphism becom es so intense and the to m arbles due to ex cessiv e h eat b u t th ese have only
parent rocks are so greatly m etam orphosed that it local im portance. M arb les are m o re resistan t to
becom es very difficult to trace the true nature o f the erosion than th eir p aren t lim esto n e s. B esides, they
rocks before their m etam orphism . Besides such con are econom ically v alu ab le ro ck s b ecau se they are
ditions, m etam oprhic rocks are divided into 2 broad used as bu ild in g m aterials for the c o n stru ctio n o f
categories. very' im portant b u ild in g s as m o n u m en ts. F o r ex am
(1) M eta-sedim entary or para-m etam or- ple, T ajm ahal o f A g ra and D ilw ara te m p le o f M ount
phic rocks are those m etam orphic rocks w hich are A bu (R ajasthan) have been bu ilt o f m arbles.
form ed due to alteration o f the form s o f sedim entary
S chists are fin e-g rain ed m e tam o rp h ic rocks
rocks, e.g. m arbles from lim estones, quartzites from
and are ch aracterized by w ell d ev elo p ed foliation .
sandstones, slates from shales and clays etc.
The w’ord schist has been d eriv ed from F ren ch w ord
(2) M eta-igneous or ortho-m etam orphic ‘sch iste’ and G erm an w ord ‘s c h is to se ’ w hich means
rocks represent these m etam orphic rocks which are to split. W hen shale sed im en tary ro ck s are subjected
form ed due to changes in the form o f igneous rocks, to intense com pressive force and co n seq u en t fo ld
e.g. gneisses from granites, serpentine from gabbro, ing and pressure, the clay and o th er m in erals o f the
basic granulites from am phibolites, eclogite from original shale rocks are ch an g ed to m ica minerals
basaltic rocks etc.
due to high pressure and tem p eratu re and thus shales
M etam orphic rocks are also classified on the are changed to schists. D uring the p ro cess o f re
basis of foliation into (i) foliated m etam oprhic gional m etam orphism the schists get foliated. S chists
rocks e.g. slates, gneisses and schists and (ii) n o n are nam ed on the basis o f d o m in an t m inerals, e.g.
foliated m etam orphic rocks, e.g. quartzites, m ar m ica-schists, h orn b len d e sch ists, q u a rtz sch ists
bles, serpentines etc. etc. M ica schist is the co m m o n est type o f sch ist
Important Metamorphic R ocks rocks because it is form ed from arg illac eo u s shale
sedim entary rock w hich is a very co m m o n rock and
M a rb le s are generally formed due to changes
in lim estones because o f tem perature changes. Lim e is abundantly found on the earth 's su rface. M ica-
stones are transform ed into m arbles due to contact schist is com posed o f m uscovite, biottle, p lag io clase
therm al m etam orphism during volcanic activity. and some tim es garnet. H ornblend sch ists are form ed
L im estones are also m etam orphosed due to dynamic from b a s a ltic ro c k s an d c o n ta in h o rn b le n d e ,
regional m etam orphism wherein calcium carbon plagioclase and som e q u artz m inerals. G r een sch ists
ates and other finer particles are changed into cal- are com posed o f green m in erals such as hornblende
cite. In fact, the m etam orphism o f lim estones to and chlorites, provided that the ro ck s are w ell foli
m arble involves a num ber o f changes in the minera- ated. If the schists rich in green m in erals are poorly
logical characteristics o f lim estoens. For exam ple, foliated, they are called g ree n sto n es. The term
the reaction between calcium carbonate o f lim estone m etabasite is used to nam e th o se sch ists w hich are
during the process o f m etam orphism produces a new form ed from basalts or d o lerites.
m ineral known as w ollastonite or calcium silicate. Slates are form ed d ue to d y n am ic regional
The colour o f m arbles depends upon the nature o f m etam orphism o f shales and o th er argillaceous rocks.
parent lim estones. If the original lim estones are Slates are ch aracterized by the ‘p resen ce o f num er
devoid o f any im purities, the resultant m arbles be ous closely-spaced parallel p lan es o f splitting or
com e pure white in colour. The colour changes due cleavage but the splitting planes o f slates are not
to im purities o f other m aterials in the parent lim e parallel to the bedding planes rath e r they form angle
stones. The m arbles o f C arrara region o f Italy are
w ith the bedding planes. S om e tim es, the angle
pure w hite w hile the m arbles exposed along both the
betw een the sp littin g planes and b edding planes
banks o f the m agnificent and stupendous gorge o f
becom es obtuse angle. Such structure o f slates is
ROCKS 157
known as slaty clea v a g e (fig. 8.13) w hich is form ed granites (igneous). F eldspar is the m ost dom inant
due to com pressive p ressu re exerted on the rocks. m ineral o f gneisses. Like schists, gneisses are also
foliated rocks but the foliation is open and is som e
tim es absent. T here are several types o f banded
gneisses, w hich som e tim es pass into au gen gneiss.
The process o f gran itization or gran itification
m eans the transform ation o f m ica-schist to gneiss.
G neissic rocks produce, after w eatheirng and ero
sion, rounded topography.
Q u a r tz i te s are g e n e ra lly fo rm e d fro m
sandstones w hich are dom inated by the abundance
o f quartz m ineral. D uring the p rocess o f m e tam o r
phism the voids w ithin the san d sto nes are co m
pacted due to excessive com pression and h eat and
Ilc(l(lini> i ’lu nc are also filled with silica, with the resu lt q u artzites
becom e very hard and resistant to erosion. W hen
Fig. 8.13 : Relationship between cleavage planes and quartzites lie over w eaker sed im en tary rocks like
bedding planes o f slates. shales or lim estones as c a p ro c k s , they form stu p e n
The clavage is alw ays at right angle to the direction dous wall-like escarpments. K aim ur escarpm ent along
of com pression. Slates, if subjected to further in the left bank o f the Son river (in M .P. and B ihar),
B hander escarpm ents (S atna and P anna d istricts o f
tense m etam orphism due to im m ense com pression,
M .P.), Rew a escarpm ents facing the G an g a p lain s
are changed to phyllites or fine-grained m ica-schist,
etc. have been form ed due to resistan t cap ro ck s o f
‘Slates, in fact, m ay be regarded as a special type of
quartzitic snadstones resting over shale lithology.
fine-grained sch ist’ (S.W . W ooldridge and R.S.
‘The term quartzite is also exten d ed to sandy ro ck s
Morgan). Slates are not as m uch resistant to erosion
which have been subjected to cem en tation by silica
as are schists and gneisses. They are o f varied deposited from solution. Such rocks are gen erally
colours. softer than the true m etam orphic q u artzites and
G n eisses are coarse-grained m etam orphic often behave m ore like norm al san d to n es, b reaking
rocks which are form ed due to m etam orphism of down into sandysoils’ (S.W . W oold ridge and R.S.
conglomerates (sedim entary rocks) and coarse gained M organ, 1959).
CHAPTER 9 EARTH'S MOVEMENT 158-169
Introduction ; endogenetic forces (sudden forces and m ovem ents,
diastrophic forces and movements - epeirogenetic movements, orogenetic
m o v e m e n ts); folds ; faults ; rift valleys ; exogenetic forces.
9
EARTH'S MOVEMENT
9.1 INTRODUCTION earth's surface (e.g. m o u n tain s, p la teau s, p lain s, lakes,

T h e stu d y o f fo rc e s affe c tin g th e cru st o f th e fau lts, fo ld s etc.). V o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s an d seism ic
e a rth o r o f g e o lo g ic a l p ro c e sse s is o f p aram o u n t ev en ts are also th e e x p re ssio n s o f e n d o g e n e tic fo rces.
sig n ific a n c e b eca u se th e se fo rces an d resu ltan t m o v e S u ch m o v e m en ts are ca lle d s u d d e n m o v e m e n ts and
m e n ts a re in v o lv e d in th e c re a tio n , d estru ctio n , re c th e fo rces re sp o n sib le fo r th e ir o rig in a re called
re a tio n and m a in te n a n c e o f g eo m a te ria ls and n u m e r su d d en fo rce s. W e d o n o t k n o w p re c ise ly th e m o d e
o u s ty p e s o f re lie f featu res o f v ary in g m ag n itu d es. o f o rig in o f th e e n d o g e n e tic fo rc e s an d m o v e m e n t
T h e se fo rc e s very o ften a ffe c t an d ch an g e the earth 's b ecau se th ese are re la te d to th e in te rio r o f th e earth
su rface. In fact, the c h a n g e is law o f n ature. T he a b o u t w h ich o u r sc ie n tific k n o w le d g e is still lim ited .
g e o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s are g en era lly o f tw o ty p es e.g. (i) O n an av erag e, th e o rig in o f e n d o g e n e tic fo rc e s is
lo n g p e r io d c h a n g e s an d (ii) sh o rt-p e rio d ch a n g es. related to th erm al c o n d itio n s o f th e in te rio r o f the
L o n g -p e rio d c h a n g e s o c c u r so slo w ly th at m an is earth . G en erally , the e n d o g e n e tic fo rces a n d re la te d
u n a b le to n o tice su ch c h a n g e s d u rin g his life-p erio d . h o rizo n tal and v ertical m o v e m e n ts are c a u s e d d u e to
O n th e o th e r h an d , sh o rt-p e rio d ch an g es take place co n tra ctio n an d e x p a n sio n o f ro c k s b e c a u se o f v a ry
so su d d e n ly th a t th e se are n o ticed w ithin few se c ing th erm al co n d itio n s an d te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e s
o n d s to few h o u rs, e.g. seism ic ev en ts, v o lcan ic in sid e th e earth . T h e d isp la c e m e n t an d re a d ju stm e n t
e ru p tio n s etc. T h e fo rces, w h ich a ffe c t the cru st o f o f g eo m aterials so m e tim e s ta k e p la c e so rap id ly that
the e a rth , are d iv id e d in to tw o b ro ad categ o ries on e arth m o v e m en ts are c a u se d b e lo w th e cru st. T h e
the b asis o f th e ir so u rces o f o rigin e.g. ( l ) en d o g en etic en d o g en e tic fo rces and m o v e m e n ts a re d iv id e d , on
fo r c e s and (ii) e x o g e n e tic fo r c e s (fig. 9 . 1). the b asis o f in ten sity , in to tw o m a jo r c a te g o rie s viz.
( I ) d ia stro p h ic fo rces an d (2) su d d e n fo rces.
9 .2 ENDOGENETIC FO RCES
T h e fo rces c o m in g fro m w ith in th e earth are (1) SUDDEN FO R C ES AND MOVEMENTS
called as e n d o g e n e tic fo rces w h ich cau se tw o ty p es S u d d e n m o v e m e n ts , c a u s e d by s u d d e n
o f m o v e m en ts in the e arth viz. ( l ) h o riz o n ta l m o v e e n d o g e n e tic fo rc e s c o m in g fro m d e e p w ithin the
m en ts and (ii) v e rtica l m o v e m e n ts. T h e se m o v e earth , ca u se su ch su d d en an d ra p id ev en ts that these
m e n ts m o to red by th e e n d o g e n e tic fo rces in tro d u ce c a u se m a ssiv e d e stru c tio n s at an d b elow the earth's
v ario u s ty p e s o f v e rtic a l irre g u la ritie s w h ich give su rfaces. S u ch ev e n ts, lik e v o lc an ic eru p tio n s and
b irth to n u m e ro u s v a rie tie s o f re lie f featu res on the e a rth q u a k e s, are calle d ‘e x tr e m e e v e n ts ’ and be-
g^gTffSMOVEMENT
159
FORCES WHICH AFFECT THE EARTH'S CRUST
ENDOGENETIC FORCES
EXOGENETIC FORCES
DIASTROPH 1C FORCES
SUDDEN FORCES
EPEIROGENETIC FORCES OROGENETIC FORCES VOLCANIC ERUPTION EARTHQUAKES
UPWARD MOVEMENT DOWNWARD MOVEMENT

(EMERGENCE) (SUBMERGENCE)
TENSIONAL FORCES COMPRESSION AL FORCES
CRUSTAL FRACTURE CRUSTAL BENDING
FAULTING WARPING FOLDING

CRACKING
(FAULTS) (FOLDS)
UPWARPING DOWNWARPING
Fig. 9 1 : Schematic presentation o f forces (endogenetic) affecting the earth's crust.

(2) DIASTROPHIC F O R C E S AND M O VEM ENTS
com e d isa stro u s h aza rd s w hen they o ccu r in densely
p opulated lo c alities. T h ese forces w ork very quickly D iastrophic forces include b o th v ertical and
and th e ir re su lts are seen w ithin m inutes. It is horizontal m ovem ents w hich are cau sed d ue to forces
im portant to n o te th a t th ese fo rces are the result o f deep w ithin the earth. T h ese d ia stro p h ic fo rc e s o p e r
long-period p re p aratio n d eep w ith in the earth. O nly ate very slow ly and th eir effects b eco m e d iscern ib le
their cu m u lativ e effects on the earth s surface are after thousands and m illio n s o f y ears. T h ese forces,
quick and s u d d e n ’ (S a v n d ra S ingh, 1991, E n v iro n also term ed as co n stru ctiv e fo rces, affect la rg e r
m ental G eo g rap h y , p. 6 8 ). G e o lo g ic a lly , these su d
areas o f the globe and p ro d u ce m e so -lev el reliefs
den forces are term ed as ‘c o n s t r u c t i v e fo rc e s b e
(e.g.) m ountains, p lateau s, plain s, lak es, b ig faults
cause these create certain re lie f features on the
earth's surface. F o r ex am p le, volcanic eruptions etc.). T hese d iastro p h ic fo rces and m o v e m en ts are
result in the form ation o f volcanic cones and m o u n f u r th e r s u b d iv id e d in to tw o g r o u p s v iz . ( i)
tains w hile fissure flow s o f lavas form extensive lava epeirogenetic m ovem en ts and (ii) o ro g en etic m ove
plateaus (e.g. D eccan p lateau o f India, C olum bian m ents.
plateau o f the U SA etc.) and lava plains. E arth (i) E p eiro g en etic M o v em e n ts— E p e iro g e n
quakes create faults, fractures, lakes etc.
etic w ord co n sists o f tw o w o rd s viz. ‘epiros* (m e a n
160 GEOMORPHOLOGY
ing thereby continent) and ‘g e n e sis’ (m eaning thereby a ffects larger areas o f the crust w herein the crustal
origin). E p eirogen etic m ovem en t cau ses upliftm ent parts are either warped (raised) upward or downward.
T he upward rise o f the crustal part due to com pressive
and su bsid en ce o f continental m asses through up
force resulting from con vergen t horizontal m ove
ward and dow nw ard m ovem en ts resp ectively. B oth
m ent is called u p w a r p in g w h ile the bending o f the
the m ovem ents are, in fact, vertical m ovem en ts.
crustal part dow nw ard in the form o f a basin or
T h ese forces and resultant m ovem en ts affect larger
depression is called d o w n w a r p in g . W hen the proc
parts o f the continents. T h ese are further divided into esses o f upwarping or d ow n w arp in g o f crustal rocks
tw o types viz. (i) u p w a r d m o v e m e n t and (ii) d o w n affect larger areas, the resultant m ech an ism is called
w a r d m o v e m e n t . U p w a rd m o v e m e n t c a u s e s b ro a d w a r p in g . W hen the co m p ressiv e horizontal
upliftm ent o f continental m asses in tw o w ays e.g.(a) forces or con vergent fo rces and resultant m ovem ents
the upliftm ent o f w h o le continent or part thereof and cause buckling and sq u eezin g o f crustal rocks, the
(b) the upliftm ent o f coastal land o f the continents. resultant m echanism is ca lled fo ld in g w hich causes
Such type o f upliftm ent is called em er g en ce. several types o f folds.
D ow nw ard m ovem en t causes subsidence o f
F o ld s
continental m asses in tw o w ays viz. (i) subsidence o f
W a v e-lik e bends are form ed in the crustal
land area. Such type o f downward m ovem ent is
rocks due to tangential c o m p ressiv e force resulting
called as su b sid en ce , (ii) A lternatively, the land
from horizontal m ovem en t cau sed by the endogenetic
area near the sea coast is m oved downward or is
force originating d eep w ithin the earth. Such bends
subsided b elow sea-level and is thus subm erged
are called ‘f o ld s ’ w herein so m e parts are bent up and
under sea water. Such type o f downward m ovem ent
som e parts are bent d ow n . T h e upfolded rock strata
is called as su b m erg en ce.
in arch-like form are ca lled ‘a n t ic lin e s ’ w hile the
(ii) O r o g e n e tic M o v e m e n t— T he w ord
dow n folded structure form in g trou gh -lik e feature is
orogenetic has been derived from two Greek words,
called ‘s y n c lin e ’ (fig . 9 .3 ). In fact, fold s are minor
‘o r o s’ (m eaning thereby m ountain) and ‘g e n e sis’
forms o f broad w arping. T h e tw o sid es o f a fold are
(m eaning thereby origin or form ation). O rogenetic
called lim b s o f the fold. T he lim b w h ich is shared
movement is caused due to endogenetic forces working
betw een an an ticlin e and its co m p a n ion syn clin e is
in horizontal manner. Horizontal forces and m o v e
called m id d le lim b . T he plane w h ich b isects the
m ents are a lso ca lled as ‘t a n g e n tia l f o r c e s .’
angle betw een the tw o lim bs o f the anticline or
O rogenetic or horizontal forces work in tw o w ays
m iddle lim b o f the sy n clin e is ca lled the a x is of fold
viz. (i) in opposite directions and (iii) towards each
other. This is called ‘ten sio n a l fo r c e ’ when it oper
ates in opposite directions. Such types o f force and
m ovem ent are also called as d iv er g en t fo rces and
m o v em en ts. Thus, tensional forces create rupture,
cracks, fracture and faults in the crustal parts o f the
earth. The force, when operates face to face, is called
co m p ressio n a l fo r c e or co n v e r g e n t fo rce. C om -
pressional force causes crustal bending leading to
the formation o f fold s or crustal warping leading to
local rise or subsidence o f crustal parts.
C ru stal B en d in g — W hen horizontal forces
work face to face the crustal rocks are bent due to
resultant com pressional and tangential force. In other
words, when crustal parts m ove towards each other
under the influence o f horizontal or convergent forces
and m ovem ents, the crustal rocks undergo the proc Synclinal Plane
ess o f ‘crustal bending’ in tw o w ays e.g. (i) w a rp in g
and (ii) fold in g. The process o f crustal warping Fig. 9.2 : Different components o f a fold.
EARTH S m o v e m e n t
m
or axial plane (fig. 9.2). On the basis of anticline and
d irectio n o f any ho rizo n tal line along a bedding
syncline these axial planes are called as axis of
p la n e ’ (A. H olm es and D .L. H olm es). The direction
anticline and axis o f syncline respectively.
o f d ip is alw ays at right an g le to the strik e (fig. 9.4).
Anticlines— T he upfolded rock beds are called
Anticline an ticlin es. In sim p le fold the rock strata o f both the
lim bs dip in op p o site d irectio n s. S om e tim es, fold
ing becom es so acute that the d ip angle o f the
an ticlin e is accen tu ated and the fold b ecom es alm ost
vertical. W hen the slopes o f both the lim bs or sides
o f an an ticlin e are uniform , the an ticlin e is called as
‘symmetrical anticline’ but w hen the slopes are
unequal, the an ticlin e is called as ‘asymmetrical
anticline’. A nticlines are div id ed into tw o types on
the basis o f dip angle e.g. (i) g entle an ticlin e w hen
the dip angle is less than 40°, som e tim es 10 or 2° and
Fig. 9.3 : Anticlines and synclines. (ii) steep anticline w hen the dip an g le ran g es be
It is d e s ira b le to e x p la in th e ch a ra c te ristic s o f tw een 40° and 90°.
‘d ip ’ a n d ‘s t r i k e ’ as it b e c o m e s a b so lu tely n ece s S y n clin es— D ow nfolded rock beds d ue to
sary to u n d e rs ta n d th e m in o rd e r to u n d erstan d the com pressive forces caused by ho rizontal tangential
s tru c tu ra l fo rm . T h e in c lin a tio n o f ro ck beds w ith forces are called synclines. T hese are, in fact, tro u g h
re s p e c t to h o riz o n ta l p la n e is term ed as ‘d ip ’ (fig. like form in w hich beds on eith er side ‘incline
9 .4 ). It is a p p a re n t th a t w e d e riv e tw o in form ation to g e th er’ tow ards the m iddle part. I f folded in
a b o u t th e d ip e .g . (i) th e d ire c tio n o f m ax im u m slope tensely, the syncline assum es the form o f a canoe.
d o w n a b e d d in g p la n e an d (ii) th e an g le betw een the A n tic lin o riu m — A nticlinorium refers to those
m a x im u m s lo p e an d th e h o rizo n tal plane. T he d irec folded structures in the reg io n s o f folded m ountains
tio n o f d ip is m e a s u re d by its tru e b earin g in relation w here there are a series o f m in o r anticlines and
to e a s t o r w e s t o f n o rth , e.g. 6 0 ° N .E .; w h ile the angle synclines w ithin one exten siv e an ticline (fig. 9.5).
o f d ip is m e a s u re d w ith an in stru m e n t called clin o m A n tic lin o riu m is fo rm e d w h en th e h o riz o n ta l
eter. F o r e x a m p le , if an y ro c k bed is in clin ed at the com pressive tangential forces do not w ork reg u
an g le o f 60° w ith re s p e c t to h o rizo n tal p lan e and the larly. C onsequently, due to differen ce in the in ten
d ire c tio n o f s lo p e is N , th en th e d ip w o u ld be ex sity o f com pressive forces such structures are form ed.
p re sse d as 6 0° N . ‘T h e s trik e o f an in clin ed bed is the Such type o f folded structure is also called as fan fold.
Fig. 9.5 : Illustrationofanticlinoriurnandsynclinorium.

Synclinorium— Synclinorium represents such
a folded structure which includes an extensive syncline
having numerous minor anticlines and synclines.
Such structure is formed due to irregular folding
Fig. 9.4 : D ip a n d strike. consequent upon irregular compressive forces (fig. 9.5).
GBOMQRnnijoerr
162
Types of Folds p o ssib ility for th e sp littin g o f the lim b s o f su ch folds

T he nature o f fo ld s depends on several factors b ecause o f in tense fo ld in g . S p littin g o f lim b s gives
e.g . the nature o f rocks, the nature and intensity o f birth to the form ation o f faults. It is a lso op in ed that
com p ressive forces, duration o f the operation o f m onoclinal fo ld s are a lso form ed due to unequal
com p ressive forces etc. T he elasticity o f rocks largely horizontal co m p ressiv e fo rces co m in g from both the
affects the nature and the m agnitude o f fold in g sides.
p rocess. The softer and m ore elastic rocks are sub (4) I s o c lin a l f o ld s are form ed w hen the
jected to intense fold in g w h ile rigid and less elastic co m p ressiv e forces are so strong that both the limbs
rocks are on ly m oderately folded. The difference in o f the fold b eco m e parallel but not horizontal.
the intensity and m agnitude o f com p ressive forces (5 ) R e c u m b e n t fo ld s are form ed when the
also cau ses variations in the characteristics o f folds. com p ressive forces are s o stron g that both the limbs
N orm ally, both the lim bs o f a sim p le fold are more o f the fold b eco m e parallel as w ell as horizontal.
or le ss o f equal inclination but in m ost o f the cases o f
(6) O v e r tu r n e d fo ld s are th ose fold s in which
different fold s the inclinations o f both the lim bs are
o n e lim b o f th e fo ld is th ru s t upon another fold due
different. Thus, based on the inclination o f the lim bs,
to in ten se c o m p re s s iv e fo rc e s. L im b s are seldom
fold s are d ivid ed into 5 types (fig. 9.6).
h o riz o n ta l.
(7) P lu n g e fo ld s are form ed w h en the axis o f
th e fo ld in ste a d o f b e in g parallel to the horizontal
p la n e b e c o m e s tilte d a n d fo rm s p lu n g e angle which
is th e a n g le b e tw e e n th e ax is and the horizontal
p lan e.
(8) F a n fo ld s r e p re s e n t an ex ten siv e and
b ro ad fo ld c o n s is tin g o f s e v e ra l m in or an ticlin es and
sy n clin es. S u ch fo ld re s e m b le s a fan. S u ch feature is
also called as a n ticlin o riu m o r synclinorium (fig. 9.5).
Fig. 9.6 : Types o f fo ld s -1, sym m etrical folds, 2. asym
(9) O p en fo ld s are th o se in w h ich the angle
m etrical folds, 3. m onoclinal folds, 4. isocli
nal fo ld s and 5. recum bent folds.
b etw een th e tw o lim b s o f th e fo ld is m ore than 90^
(1) S y m m etric a l fo ld s are sim ple folds, the
lim bs (both) o f w hich incline uniform ly. T h ese folds
are an exam ple o f open fold. Sym m etrical folds are
form ed w hen com p ressive forces work regularly but
with m oderate intensity. In fact, sym m etrical folds
are very rarely found in the field.
(2) A sy m m e tr ic a l fo ld s are characterized by
unequal and irregular lim bs. Both the lim bs incline
at different an gles. O ne lim b is relatively larger and Closed Fold
the inclination is m oderate and regular w hile the
other lim b is relatively shorter with, steep in clin a
tion. Thus, both the lim bs are asym m etrical in terms
o f inclination and length.
(3 ) M onoclinal folds are those in w hich one
lim b in clin es m oderately with regular slo p e w hile
the other lim b lin clin es steep ly at right angle and the
slo p e is alm ost vertical. It m ay be pointed out that
vertical force and m ovem ent are held responsible for O pen Fold
the form ation o f m on oclinal fold s. There is every Fig. 9.7 : (A) Closed fo ld s and (B) open folds.
EARTWS movement
Pit, ■" ' 163
but less than 180° (i.e. obtuse angle between the
o f overriding nappe, the resultant open structure is
limbs o f a fold). Such open folds are formed due to
called ‘structural window*. Several examples o f
wave-like folding because o f moderate nature o f
com pressive force (fig . 9 .7 ). ‘com plete w indow ’ have been discovered in the
eastern A lp s.
(10) C losed fold s are th o se fo ld s in w h ich the
angle b etw een th e tw o lim b s o f a fo ld is acute angle
Such folds are form ed b eca u se o f in tense com p ressive Direction of Force
force.
Overturned Lrnt^
Nappes
. N a p p e s a re th e r e s u lt o f c o m p le x fo ld in g
m ech an ism c a u s e d b y in te n s e h o riz o n ta l m o v e m e n t
and re s u lta n t c o m p r e s s iv e fo rc e . B o th th e lim b s o f a
re c u m b e n t fo ld a re p a ra lle l an d h o riz o n ta l. D ue to
fu rth er in c re a s e in th e c o n tin u e d c o m p re ss iv e force
one lim b o f th e re c u m b e n t fo ld s slid e s fo rw ard and
o v errides th e o th e r fo ld . T h is p ro cess is called ‘thrust’
and th e p la n e a lo n g w h ic h o n e p a n o f the fold is
th ru st is c a lle d ‘th ru st p lan e’. T h e u p th ru st p art o f a -------------------
th e f o ld is c a lle d ‘o v e r th r u s t f o ld '. W h en th e Overturned Fold
c o m p re s s iv e fo rc e b e c o m e s so acu te th at it cro sses
th e lim it o f th e e la s tic ity o f th e ro ck b ed s, the lim bs
o f th e fo ld are so a c u te ly fo ld ed th a t th ese break at
th e a x is o f th e fo ld and the lo w er rock b ed s com e
u p w a rd . T h u s , th e re s u lta n t stru c tu re b eco m es re
v e rse to th e n o rm a l s tru c tu re . D ue to co n tin u ed
h o riz o n ta l m o v e m e n t an d c o m p re ss iv e force the
b ro k e n lim b o f th e fo ld is th ro w n sev eral k ilo m etres
aw ay fro m its o rig in a l p la ce an d o v e rrid e s the rock
b ed s o f th e d is ta n t p la c e . S u ch ty p e o f stru ctu re
b e c o m e s u n c o n to rm a l to the o rig in a l stru ctu re o f the
p lace w h e re th e b ro k e n lim b o f the fold o f the o th er
p lace o v e rrid e s th e ro c k b ed s. S u ch b ro k en lim b o f
the fo ld is c a lle d ‘n apple' (fig . 9 .8 ). Fig. 9.8 : Formation o fn a p p le : (A) stage o f overturned
S everal e x a m p le s o f nappe are traceable in fold, IB) Overriding o f one limb o f the fo ld on
the other limb.
the present fo ld ed m ountains. The nappes o f the
Alps have b een m ore sy stem a tica lly studied. Four A few exam ples o f nappes have also been
major nappes h ave b een id en tified in the A lp s m oun traced out in the H im alayas. T he ex isten ce o f nappes
tains. The structure has b eco m e very' m uch com p lex has been d isco v ere d by W ad ia from K ashm ir
because o f su p erim p o sitio n o f on e nappe upon an H im alaya, by Pilgrim from S im la H im alaya, by
other nappe. T he four m ajor groups o f A lp in e nappes A uden from Garhwal H im alaya and by H eim and
from b elow upward are (i) H e lv etic nappe, (ii) P en G ansser from Kumaun H im alaya. It is desirable to
nine nappe, (iii) A ustride n ap pe and (iv ) D inaride m ention som e facts about nappe structure. W hen the
nappe. In fact, th ese nappes are located like a series broken lim b o f a fold overrides the other fo ld near to
of earthwaves. In m o st o f the lo c a lities the overrid the broken fo ld , the resu ltan t nappe is c a lle d
e s nappes h ave been eroded aw ay b ecause o f d y autochthonous nappe. On the other hand, w hen the
namic w h eels o f denudational p ro cesses and thus lim b o f a fold, after being broken, overrid es the other
burned basic structure has b een ex p o sed . W hen the fold at 3 distant place (several kilom etres away), the
Portion o f lo w er nappe is seen b ecau se o f denudation resultant nappe is called exotic nappe.
164 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(2) F au lt dip is the angle betw een the fault

Crustal Fracture
plane and horizontal plane (fig. 9.9).
Crustal fracture refers to displacem ent o f rocks
along a plane due to tensional and com pressional (3) U p th ro w n sid e rep resen ts th e upperm ost
forces acting either horizontally o r vertically or block o f a fault.
som e tim es even in both w ays. C rustal fracture (4 ) D o w n t h r o w n s id e r e p r e s e n ts the
depends on the strength o f rocks and intensity o f low erm ost block o f a fault. S o m e tim es, it becom es
tensional forces. T he crustal rocks suffer only cracks difficu lt to find out, w h ich b lo c k h as really m oved
w hen the tensional force is m oderate but w hen the along the fault p lan e ?
rocks are subjected to intense tensional force, the (5) H a n g in g w a ll is th e u p p er w all o f a fault.
rock beds are subjected to dislocation and d isplace
(6) F oot w a ll rep resen ts the lo w er wall, of a
m ent resulting into the form ation o f faults. G ener
ally, fractures are divided into (i) jo in ts and (ii) fault.
fau lts. A jo in t is defined as a fracture in the crustal
rocks w herein no appreciable m ovem ent o f rock
takes place, w hereas a fracture becom es fault when
there is appreciable displacem ent o f the rocks on
both sides o f a fracture and parallel to it.
Faults
A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks wherein
the rocks are displaced along a plane called as fault
plane. In other w ords, when the crustal rocks are
displaced, due to tensional m ovem ent caused by the
endogenetic forces, along a plane, the resultant struc
ture is called a fault. T he plane along w hich the rock
blocks are displaced is called fault plane. In fact,
there is real m ovem ent along the fault plane due to
w hich a fault is form ed (fig. 9.9). A fault plane may
be vertical, or inclined, or horizontal, or curved or o f
any type and form. T he m ovem ent responsible for
Fig. 9.9 : Different components o f a fault.
the form ation o f a fault may operate in vertical or
(7) F a u lt s c a r p is th e steep w all-lik e slope
horizontal or in any direction. D uring the form ation
caused by faulting o f the cru stal ro ck s. S om e tim es,
o f a fault the vertical displacem ent o f rock blocks
the fault scarp is so steep th a t it resem b les a cliff. It
may occur upto several hundred m etres and ho rizo n
tally the rock blocks m ay be displaced upto several may be po in ted o u t th a t scarp s are n o t alw ays form ed
kilom etres but it does not m ean that the total d is due to faulting alo n e, rath e r th e se are also form ed
placem ent occurs at a single tim e. In fact, fault- due to ero sio n , b u t w h e n e v e r th e se are form ed by
m ovem ent or the displacem ent o f rocks occurs only faulting (tecto n ic fo rces), th e se are called ‘fault-
upto a few m etres only at a tim e. Fault, in fact, sc a rp ts.T y p e s o f F a u lts - T h e d iffe re n t types o f fault
represents w eaker zones o f the earth w here crustal ing o f the cru stal ro ck s are d e te rm in e d by the direc
m ovem ents becom e operative for lo n g er duration. A tion o f m o tio n alo n g th e fra c tu re p lan e. G enerally,
few term s regarding an ideal fault should be u n d er the rela tiv e m o v e m e n t or d isp la c e m e n t o f the rock
stood before going into the d etails o f the m ode o f blo ck s or the slip o f th e ro ck b lo c k s o ccu rs approxi
form ation o f various types o f faults. m ately in tw o d ire c tio n s viz. (i) e ith e r to the direc
(1) tion o f th e d ip o r (ii) to th e d irec tio n o f the strike o f
Fault plane is that plane along w hich the
rock blocks are displaced by tensional and co m p res th e fau lt plan e. T h u s, th e d isp la c e m e n t o r movem ent
sional forces acting vertically and horizontally to o f ro ck b lo c k s m ay b e d istin g u ish e d as (a) dip slip
form a fault. A fault plane m ay be vertical, inclined, m o v em en ts an d (b) strik e-slip m o v em en ts. Thus,
horizontal, curved o r o f any o th er form . on th e b asis o f th e d irec tio n o f slip o r d isp lacem en t
EARTH'S MOVEMENT
165
faults are divided in to (i) d ip -slip fa u lts and (ii)
area. It is, thus, also obvious th at som e sort o f
strike-slip fau lts. A g ain , the d isp lacem en t o f rock
com pression is also involved in the form ation o f
blocks m ainly upper b lo c k s m ay be eith er dow n the
reverse faults. R everse faults are also called as
direction o f the dip (then the resu ltan t fault is called thrust faults. Since the reverse fault is form ed due
Do rm al fault) or up th e dip (the resu ltan t fault
to com pressive force resulting from horizontal m ove
becomes reverse or th ru st fa u lt). In the case of m ent and hence this is also called as com p ression al
strike-slip m o v em en t and fault, the relative d is fault. W hen the com pressive force exceeds the
placement o f the ro ck b lo ck s m ay be eith er to the strength o f the rocks, one block o f the fault overrides
right (then the re su lta n t fau lt w ill be right-lateral or the other block and the resultant fault is called as
dextral fault) or to the left side (the resultant fault overthrust fault w herein the fault plane becom es
becomes left-la tera l or sin istra l fau lt). Strike slip alm ost horizontal.
faults are also calle d as w ren ch fa u lts, tear faults or
transcurrent fa u lts. T h e co m b in atio n s o f normal
A B
and wrench faults or rev erse and w rench faults are
called as ob liq u e slip fau lts.
(i) N orm al fa u lts are form ed due to the dis
placement o f both the ro ck blocks in opposite direc
tions due to fracture co n seq u en t upon greatest stress.
The fault plane is u sually betw een 45° and the
vertical. T he steep scarp resulting from norm al faults
is called fault-scarp or fau lt-lin e scarp the height of
which ranges betw een a few m etres to hundreds of
metres. It m ay be m en tio n ed that it becom es very Normal Fault
difficult to find out the exact height of the fault-
scarps in the field b ecau se the height is rem arkably
reduced due to c o n tin u ed denudation (fig. 9.10). Fig. 9.10 : (A) Normal fault and (B) reverse fault.
(ii) R everse fa u lts are form ed due to the (iii) Lateral or strike-slip faults are form ed
movement o f both the fractured rock blocks towards when the rock blocks are displaced horizontally
along the fault plane due to horizontal m ovem ent.
each other. T he fault plane, in a reverse fault, is
These are called left-lateral or sinistral faults when
usually inclined at an angle betw een 40 degree and
the displacem ent of the rock blocks occurs to the left
the horizontal (0 d egree). T he vertical stress is m ini
on the far side o f the fault and right-lateral or
mum w hile the h orizontal stress is m axim um . It may
dextral faults when the displacem ent o f rock blocks
be m entioned that in a reverse fault the rock beds on
takes place to the right on the far side o f the fault (fig.
the upper side are displaced up the fault plane rela
9.11). In m ajority of the cases there are no scarps in
tive to the rock beds below . It is apparent that reverse
such faults, if they occur at all, they are very low in
faulting results in the shortening o f the faulted area
height.
while norm al faults cause extension o f the faulted
Fig. 9.11 : Formation o f strike-slip or transcurrentfaults- (A) right-lateral or dextral fault and (B) left-lateral or sinistral
fault {after A. Holmes and D.L. Holmes, 1978).
GEOMORPHOLOGY
166
(iv) S tep fa u lts- W hen a series o f faults o ccur

in any area in such a w ay that the slopes o f all the S im p le G r a b e n S im p le H orst
fault planes o f all the faults arc in the sam e d irectio n
H /iv. • I
the resultant faults are called as step faults (fig. • —W t j ** V
■" **1 W w i
9.12). It is a prereq u isite con d itio n for the form ation
o f step faults that the d o w n w ard d isp lacem en t o f all IW """%
the dow nthrow n blocks m u st o ccu r in the sam e
direction.
*■*. *'1 w -".T*A"**1* 'T **
• t:'? : •• .*
•. c / . Vv - * /'- • ‘ • <’
• • • •
Fig. 9.13 ■ Illustration o f rift valley a n d graben.

A rift v alley m ay be fo rm e d in tw o w ays viz.
(i) w hen the m id d le p o rtio n o f th e c ru s t betw een tw o
norm al faults is d ro p p e d d o w n w a rd w hile the tw o
b locks on e ith e r sid e o f th e d o w n dro p p ed block
rem ain stab le or (ii) w h en th e m id d le portion b e
tw een tw o n o rm al fau lts re m a in s stab le and the tw o
side b lo ck s on e ith e r sid e o f th e m id d le portion are
raised upw ard.
N o rm ally , a rift v alley is lo n g, narrow but
very d eep. R h in e rift v alley is th e b e st ex am p le o f a
Fig. 9.12 : Illustration o f step faults.
w ell d efin ed rift v alley . It stre tc h e s fo r a distance of
Rift Valley and Graben 320 km h av in g an a v e ra g e w id th b e tw e e n the cities
Rift valley is a m ajo r re lie f feature resulting o f B asal and B in g en . T h e o n e sid e o f th is g reat rift
from faulting activities. R ift valley rep resen ts a valley is b o u n d ed by V o sg e s an d H a rd t m ountains
trough, depression or basin betw een tw o crustal (block m o u n ta in s-h o rst) an d th e o th e r side is bor
parts. In fact, rift valleys are long and narrow troughs dered by B lack F o re st an d O d e n w a ld m ountains.
bounded by one or m ore parallel norm al faults caused T h e ex am p le o f the lo n g e st rift v a lle y is the valley
by horizontal and vertical m ovem ents m otored by that runs from th e Jo rd o n riv e r v a lle y th ro u g h Red
endogenetic forces. R ift v alley s are actually form ed S ea b asin to Z a m b ezi v alley fo r a d ista n c e o f 4,800
due to displacem ent o f crustal parts and subsidence km . A few o f the rift v a lle y s a re so d e e p th at their
o f m iddle portion betw een tw o norm al faults. R ift b o tto m /flo o r is b elo w the s e a -le v e l. D eath V alley o f
valleys are generally also called as ‘g r a b e n ’ w hich the so u th ern C a lifo rn ia (U S A ) is a g o o d ex am p le of
is a G erm an word w hich m eans a trough-like d ep res such g rab en . D ead S ea o f A sia p re se n ts an ideal
sion. T hese two term s are syno n y m o u sly used in
ex am p le o f ty p ical rift v alley . T h e flo o r o f the D ead
various parts o f the w orld. ‘T ensional crustal forces,
S ea is ab o u t 867 m b elo w s e a -le v e l. T h e flo o rs o f the
literally puling the crust apart, are resp o n sib le for
Jo rd o n rift v alley an d D eath V a lle y are also 433 m
these dow n dropped fault b lo c k s’ (F. P ress and R.
Siever, 1974) (fig. 9.13). A few scien tists have belo w sea-lev el. T h e N a rm a d a v a lle y , the D am odar
attem pted to differentiate a graben from a rift valley valley an d so m e stre tc h e s o f th e S o n V alley , the Tapi
on the basis o f size and d im ension. T hey believe that valley etc. are c o n sid e re d to b e e x a m p le s o f rift j
a graben is relatively sm aller in size than a rift valley v alley s but th is v iew is still c o n tro v e rsia l and is not
but this m inor differen ce o f size is not accep tab le to acc ep tab le to all g eo lo g ists.
others. Thus, both the term s, graben and rift valley
It may be m entioned that the rift valleys are
should alw ays be co n sid ered as synonym.
not only con fin ed to the continental crustal surfaces
EARTH'S m ovem ent 167
but they are also found on sea-floor. In fact, the crustal blocks. If this process is acceptcd then the
deepest grabens are found in the form o f ‘ocean form ation o f the rill valley m ust be follow ed by
ijeeps’ and tre n c h e s . T h e B o rtlet T rough located to volcanic activities because the displaced magma
the south o f C uba is 4.8 km d eep w hile Java D eep is would try to ascend through the laults. Som e tim es,
6.4 km deep from the sea-floor. T he central plain of the m echanism may be so sudden that there may be
Scotdand. S pencer B ay o f south A ustralia etc. are sudden violent volcanic eruption, but the observa
examples o f rift valleys. tions o f several deep rift valleys denote the fact that
rift valley formation is not necessarily alw ays asso
Origin of Rift V alleys
ciated with volcanic eruptions. The observations
The riddle o f the problem o f the origin o f the
and several experim ents have revealed the lact that
rift valleys and graben s, typical topographic expres
already existing volcanic activities and active volca
sions o f faulting, still rem ains a m ystery. Though
noes ceased to operate at the time ol the lorm ation ol
many scientists have propounded their views re
rift valleys. It might have becom e possible only
garding the origin o f the rift valleys based on their
when the exit o f the ascent ol m agm a would have
studies of respective rift valleys but their concepts
been plugged due to faulting activity. This explana
and theories are still co n trovercial and no commonly
tion is also refuted on the ground that il wc accept the
acceptable theory could be propounded as yet. The mode of formation o f a rift valley due to horizontal
hypotheses regardin g the origin o f the rift valleys are tensional forces and resultant pulling ol bounding
generally grouped in tw o categories e.g. (1) ten- faulted side blocks of two normal faults apart, then
sional h y p o th e sis and (2) co m p re ssio n s! h y p o th the upwelling of magma in the form ol lava cannot
esis. be stopped, rather the pouring o f lava can be stopped
(1) T e n s io n a l H y p o th e sis— The earlier hy
due to com pressive forces. Thus, the tensional hy
pothesis o f the origin o f the rift valleys was based on pothesis of the origin o f the rift valleys is rejected on
the basic concept o f the ‘d ro p p e d keystone o f the this ground.
a r c h ’ o f a building. A ccording to this concept the rift (2) Com pressional H ypothesis— In order to
valleys w ere related to the hollow space created by remove the difficulties o f the tensional hypothesis o f
the dropping of the keystone o f an arch o f a building the origin of the rift valleys com pressional hypoth
dow nward. In otherw ords, an open space is formed esis was postulated by a num ber o f scientists e.g.
at the m iddle portion of an arch o f a building when Wayland, Baily Willis, Warcn D. Smith, E.C. Bullard
the keystone or keybrick falls dow nward due to etc. W ayland through his studies o f Lake A lbert and
cracks developed in the arch. Similarly, when two Ruwenzori section and Baily W illis based on his
parallel cracks develop in the crustal surface due to studies of Dead Sea have postulated the concept that
tensional forces and when the bounding side blocks the rift valleys are not formed by tensional forces but
on either side o f the two cracks or fractures are are formed due to com pressional forces at greater
pulled apart due to tensional forces, the middle depth. Due to intense com pression the side blocks
portion betw een tw o parallel normal faults moves
are thrown up along the thrust faults in the form of
dow nward and thus an open space is formed. This
horsts. These upthrown blocks are called over-
open space becom es a rift valley.
thrusting rift blocks. The m iddle portion is forced
This ‘key sto n e h y p o th e sis’ was severely
to slip downward because o f the pressure resulting
criticized because it was based on erroneous con
from the rising side blocks. Thus, the dow nw ard
cepts and beliefs. For exam ple, there is wide open
space below the arch o f a building and hence the slipping middle portion betw een tw o faults is called
keystone or keybrick, after the arch develops cracks, as rift block which is narrow upw ard but broader
can easily fall down but there is no open space downward. In other words, the rift block gradually
beneath the crustal rocks and thus there would be broadens out dow nw ard. Thus, the rift valleys are
difficulty for the middle block between the two formed due to slipping o f m iddle block or rift block
parallel normal faults to slip downward. The faulted dow nward between tw o rising side blocks caused by
middle block can only be slipped downward when it thrust faulting under the impact o f convergent
would be able todisplace the magma lying below the com pressional forces.
168 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(3) H ypothesis o f E .C . Bullard— E.C. Bullard, S eco n d S ta g e, d ue to the form ation o f a crack
w hile conducting the gravity survey, p o stu lated his (at A place, fig. 9 .1 4 ), one po rtio n overrides the
new concept o f the origin o f the rift valleys in 1933- oth er portion. T his p ro cess is called as ‘th ru stin g .’
34. A ccording to him th e rift block cannot slip On the other hand, the second part is throw n down
dow nw ard under the im pact o f gravity, like a k ey w ard relative to the first part. T h is pro cess is called
stone o f an arch o f a building. T hus, the rift valley ‘d o w n th ru stin g .’ A -C part (fig. 9 .1 4) has gone
can be form ed only due to com pression com ing from upw ard bccausc of o v crth ru stin g . D ue to upthrusting
tw o sides. A ccordin g to B ullard the form ation o f a o f the side block (A -C ) upto a h eig ht o f a few
rift valley is not com pleted during a single phase but thousand m etres the dow n th ru st block (A -D ) dev el
is com pleted through a series o f sequential phases. ops crack at a place (B) due to resu ltan t com pressive
First Stage, there is com pression in the crustal rock force. The place o f the crack is lo eated at the highest
beds o f the rigid part o f a plateau due to active point o f dow nthrust block. T his new ly form ed crack
horizontal m ovem ent. T he horizontal com pressive continues to increase gradually.
forces w ork face to face from both the sides o f the T h i r d S t a g e , th e c r a c k d e v e lo p e d in
land. This lateral com pression causes buckling o f dow nthrust block al B place (fig. 9 .1 4) becom es
the crustal rocks. As the com pressive forces co n enlarged due to increased co m p ressio n w ith the
tinue to increase, the buckling and squeezing o f the result B-D part o f the dow nthrust block o v errid e s its
crustal rocks also continue to increase. W hen the other part (A-B). Thus, the p o sition o f d o w n th ru st
com pression becom es so enorm ous that it exceeds A-B part betw een the two upthrust blocks (A -C and
the strength o f the rocks, a crack is developed at a B-D) becom es a rift valley. A -B in fig. 9.14 d enotes
the width o f the upper portion o f the rift valley.
place (A in fig. 9.14) in the crustal rocks. This crack
is gradually enlarged due to continuous increase in A ccording to E.C. B ullard the w idth o f the rift
the com pressive force. valley (A -B) depends upon the elasticity o f the
rocks, depth o f the rift valley and the density o f the
substratum . II the density o f the su b stratum is taken
I) to be 3.3, then the w idth o f the rift valley w ould be
iiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 40 km if the depth o f the valley is 20 km . Sim ilarly,
iiiiiiiiimiiiiiiMiiimiiminniimiiiiiiiiiiintiiniiiHiiniiiiii for a 40-km deep valley the w idth w ould be 65 km.
iiiiiiiniiiiiiihiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiitHitiijjjiijjjjjjjjjjjjlljifjjjjjjj}!
iitiiiiiiiiiiii'jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiu It may be concluded that n eith er the tensional
iiiiiiiiiiiinjiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim iiim iiiiifniiiim iiiiiiiiiiiniii hypothesis nor the co m p ressio n al hy p o thesis could
be able to solve m any o f the in tricate problem s of the
It origin o f the rift valleys.
D
3&
ii 111.1111111111 m im m i n 1 1 1 1n nfTnTTTTTr*
iiiniiiiiimiiiiimiN
iimminniiiiniiMinnni«iinnimnmn»imnnnmniunni. 9.3 EXOGENETIC FORCES
The exogenetic forces or processes, also called
* IILLJjj|]TTT| as denudational p ro c e sse s, or ‘d estru ction al forces
o r p ro c e s s e s ’ are o rig in ated from the atm osphere.
T hese forces are co n tin u o u sly en g ag ed in the de
n stru ctio n o f th e r e lie f fe a tu re s c re a te d by the
miiiiimiimiiiiiin n fe?!niinrin7fm^ endogenetic forces through th eir w eathering, ero
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiMiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifi nnmiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii sional and dep o sitio n al activ ities. E x o genetic proc
Ijlllillthllimiilll IIIiliiiiiliillliiiillllliili liMilllinillllllilll esses are, th erefo re, plan atio n p rocesses. Denuda
iHmjtiimiiiBH ninnnm)iinnninmintimnnmnnimm
îiiiiiiii!n»* m iintiifiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiinr.” a iu iiiin n i" tion includes both w eath erin g and erosion where
w eathering being a static p ro cess in clu d es the disin
tegration and d eco m p o sitio n o f ro ck s in situ whereas
erosion is d y n am ic p ro cess which includes both,
Fig. 9.14 . Formation o f a rift valley according to E C removal o f materials and their transportation to
Bullard. different destinations. W eathering is b asically o f
EARTH’S MOVEMENT
K9
three types viz. (i) physical or mechanical weather periglacial processes and wind. These erosional proc
ing, (ii) chemical weathering and (iii) biological esses erode the rocks, transport the eroded materials
weathering. Weathering is very important for the (except periglacial processes) and deposit them in
biospheric ecosystem because weathering of parent suitable places and thus form several types o f ero
rocks results in the formation of soils which are very sional and depositional landforms of different
magnitudes and dimensions. The description of the
essential for the sustenance o f the biotic lives in the
mechanisms of these exogenetic processes and re
biosphere. The erosional processes include running sultant landforms would be attempted in the suc
water or river, groundwater, sea-waves, glaciers, ceeding 14th and 16th chapters of this book.
CHAPTER 10 : STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 170-184
G eo m o rp h ic ex p ressio n s o f uniclinal stru ctu re ; to p o g rap h ic ex p ressio n s
o f fau lt stru ctu re (fault g eo m o rp h o lo g y ) ; to p o g ra p h ic ex p ressio n s o f
folded structure (fold g eo m o rp h o lo g y ), in v ersio n or relief, fluvial cycle
o f erosion on folded structure ; to p o g rap h ic e x p re ssio n s o f dom ed
stru ctu re, fluvial cy cle o f erosion on d o m ed stru ctu re.
10
STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
T he in flu en ce o f tectonic m ovem ents and m ovem ents, are included in broader term o f tecton
resultant structural features on landform s is o f so ics.
param ount im portance that several term inologies E m phasising the sign ifican t role o f structural
sig n ify in g tecton ics-land form s, structure-landform s features in the d ev elo p m en t o f erosion al landform s
relation sh ip s have been floated e.g. ‘geological A .L . B loom has m aintained that, ‘It co u ld b e argued
geomorphology’ (R.J. C horley, et. al, 1985), ‘struc that no subaerial re lie f can occu r until crustal uplift
tural geomorphology’ (J. Tricart, 1974), ‘tectonic has raised land ab ove se a -le v e l and that therefore all
lan d form s’ ( A .B lo o m , 1 9 7 8 ), tectonic subaerial landscapes are “tecto n ic” u n less they are
geomorphology’ etc. The g eo lo g ica l controls o f c o n s tr u c te d b y d e p o s it io n a l ( v o lc a n i c or
landform d evelopm en t have been d iscu ssed in chap sedim entational) p ro cesses. H o w ev er, it is co n v en
ter 2 (con cep t 2) briefly but these w ill be elaborated ient to restrict the term to th ose lan d form s that are
in this chapter. su fficien tly undissected by erosion so that the shape
B efore describ ing the association s betw een o f the fractured or deform ed surface can be d is
tectonics and landform s and structure and landform s cerned. A ll d egrees o f transition are found betw een
it is necessary to explain a few term s related to this purely tectonic and totally erosional landform s’ (A.L.
aspect o f geom orp h ology. A ccord in g to C .D . O ilier B lo o m , 1978). B ut here w e are not con cerned with
(1981) ‘tectonics is concerned w ith the form , pat either pure tecton ic landform s (w h ich m ay not be
tern and evolu tion o f the globe's major features such older than Quaternary as m ost o f the tecton ic fea
tures o f the past have been greatly m od ified by
as m ountain ranges, plateaus, fold belts and island
denudational p ro cesses) or pure denudational (ero
arcs. Structural geology concerns sm aller struc
sion al or d ep o sitio n a l) landform s rather w e are con
tures such as anticlines, faults and joints. Tectogenesis
cerned w ith geom orp h ic ex p ressio n s of tectonic
m eans the study o f d eform ation .’ J. Tricart (1974)
divided tecton ics into tw o categories e.g . tectostatic m ovem en ts and resultant structural features, say
and dectodynamic types. ‘Tectostasy refers to the disposition of rocks (su ch as tabular or horizontal,
actual d isp osition o f existin g strata (tabular, faulted uniclinal, faulted, domal, folded etc. structures) in
or folded) and tectodynamism to the deform ations response to denudational processes. Mode of gen
that the rocks underwent at the given tim e p eriod’ (J. esis, nature and ch aracteristics of pure tectonic fea
Tricart). Thus, both disp osition o f actual strata and tures resulting from diastrophic movements have
subsequent deform ation s by earth's en d o g en etic been described in the preceding chapter (9).
STRUCTURAL GEOM ORPHOLOGY 171
J .T ric a rt( 1974) has rem a rk ed that, ‘the p ro c stream s d evelop on the less re sista n t ro ck s. T h u s,
e s s e s of d issectio n , w h atev e r th e clim ate, are in flu lines o f asym m etrical cu esta featu res h av in g steep e r
enced by the n atu re an d d isp o sitio n o f the rocks, and landw ard facing scarp slo p es and g e n tle r seaw ard
by the general te cto n ic ev o lu tio n o f any given re facing dip slopes are fo rm ed p arallel to the co ast
gion. M o rp h o clim atic ero sio n is su b o rd in ate to re lines (fig. 2.10). T rib u taries jo in th e m a ster c o n se
lief produced by stru ctu re , and this su b o rd in atio n is quent or strike stream s alm o st at rig h t angle. T h e
partly a m atter o t s c a le .... In g en eral, it m ay be said stream s flow ing dow n th e d ip slo p e s are called d ip
that structural in flu en ces p red o m in ate w hen an area s tre a m s w hile the stream s flo w in g in an ti-d ip d ire c
is viewed on a sm all scale, and m orphoclim atic tion are called a n ti- d ip s tr e a m s (fig. 10.1). It m ay
influences w hen it is seen on a larg er scale’ (J. be pointed out that dip stream s d rain on resistan t
Tricart, 1974). •» rock beds w hile anti-dip stream s are d e v e lo p e d on
less resistant (soft) rocks. T h e rela tiv e le n g th s o f dip
10.1 G EO M O R PH IC E X P R E S S IO N S OF and anti-dip stream s d ep en d on the an g le o f d ip p in g
UNICLINAL STRUCTURE
strata. If the dip angles are rela tiv e ly g en tle, th e
U niclinal or h u m o clin al stru ctu res are those slope lengths becom e lo n g er and h en ce stream s
which rep resen t in clin ed rock strata (o f sedim en draining on dip slope (dip stream s) are o f lo n g e r
tary) at u niform dip an g le cau sed by general regional lengths than the trib u taries d rain in g in o p p o site
tilt. ‘T hese stru ctu re s are form ed in tw o main w ays, direction (anti-dip stream s). T he d rain a g e d en sity on
either by the u p lift o f a seq u en ce o f off-lapping dip slope and anti-dip slope is also v aria b le as a n ti
coastal plain sed im en ts or as part o f one lim b of a dip side o f the ridges is ch aracterized by c lo sely
large dom e or fo ld ’ (R .J. C horley et. al, 1985). spaced stream s o f relatively sh o rter len g th s (h ig h e r
A ccording to R.J. Sm all (1970), ‘U niclinal struc density) w hile relatively low d rain ag e d en sity due to
tures (so m etim es referred to as ‘h o m o clin aF ) are relatively o f longer length b u t w id ely sp aced stream s
those in w hich a g en eral regional tilt has been given
by gentle earth m o v em en ts to the co n stituent ro ck s’.
S t r i k e Strtam
Such stru ctu res in v o lv e both resistan t and soft rocks
and som e tim es th ere are altern ate bands o f soft and
resistant rocks and hence these are subjected to
d iffe re n tia l e ro s io n w h erein resistan t rocks are less
eroded than soft rocks.
T he d iffere n tial ero sio n o f dipping strata o f
varying resistan c e gives birth to tre llis d ra in a g e
pattern and a few typical to p o g rap h ic features such
as s c a r p and v ale to p o g r a p h y , c u e s ta and h o g b a c k
ridges etc. Fig. 10.1 : D evelopm ent o f structurally controlled
R ivers form th eir v alleys along soft rock beds streams on dipping strata, after C.D. Oilier,
due to co m p arativ ely m ore erosion than the resistant 1981
rock beds giving birth to the form ation o f s tr ik e on dip slope. It is, thus, ev id en t th at ‘the stru ctu ral
vales (fig. 2.10, ch ap ter 2) w hile resistant rock beds control ot tilted strata im poses a p o w erfu l asy m m e
are less eroded and hence bccom e lines o f asy m try on drainage n etw orks. E scarp m en t stream s are
metrical ridges or hills know n a s c u e s ta s having one steep, short and have h ig h grad ien ts. D ip slo p e
side of steeper scarp slopes w hile opposite side stream s are likely to have m ore g entle grad ien ts,
represents gentle slope. H om oclinal structure form ed larger w atersheds, m ore trib u taries, and m o re su s
due to general tilting o f sedim entary beds o f coastal tained flo w ’ ( A .B loom , 1978). It m ay be poin ted out
plains and retreat of sea w ater presents ideal co n d i that due to d ifferen tial but co n tin u ed ero sio n the
tion for the developm ent o f trellis drainage pattern m aster stream s d ev elo p ed betw een tw o cu esta s (fig..
having consequent and subsequent stream s, The 10.2) m igrate laterally fo llo w in g the d irec tio n o f d ip
consequent stream s drain seaw ard across resislanl slope. ‘T he en tire ridge and valley sy stem m ig rates
and weak rock beds alike but the lateral consequent laterally as w ell as d o w n w ard w ith tim e in a p ro cess
172
GEOMOR PHOLOOY
termed hom oclinal shifting (m onoclinal shifting Cuesta is the m ost significant landform re
by G .K .G ilbert, 1877) (A .L . B lo o m , 1 9 7 8 )’. sulting from continued erosion o f uniclinal/homiclinal
sedim entary structures alternated by resistant and
soft rock beds. ‘A s in the case o f m any summits in
fold ed rocks, cuesta landform s are a half-inverted
relief. In essen ce they d ev elo p in tabular, weakly
dipping beds under the action o f differential dissec
tion w hich erodes the w eak beds on the high points
Resistant o f folds, the resistant beds at a low er structural level
Rock
p re sen t
persistin g’ (J.Tricart, 1974).
S u rf a ce A s regards the m orphology o f cuestas, they
vary greatly spatially depending on local conditions,
‘but in their sim p lest form they com p rise a steep
scarp face, often exceed in g 30° in an gle and som e
F utur e
tim es displaying bare rock faces, and a lon g and
Surface
gen tle d ip -slo p e (o cca sio n a lly referred to as a
‘back slop e’ when the gradient o f the surface does
Homoclinal Shif t not exactly con cide with the angle o f d ip )’ (R.J.
Sm all, 1970).
Fig. 10.2 : D evelopment o f asymmetric drainage on There is also variation in the d im en sion (scale)
humoclinal strata and homoclinal shifting o f and form (shape) o f cuestas. The continuity o f cuestas
ridge crests and valleys— after A.L. Bloom, is maintained w hen the anti-dip stream s are not
1978). eroding actively but it is broken w hen these actively
Fig. 10.3. Development o f double cuestas (escarpments)—after J. Tricart, 1974.
erode the cuestas (escarpm ents) resulting in the d isc o n tin u o u s c u e sta s p u n ctu ated by frequent
developm en t o f num erous em baym ents. K aim urhill em baym ents.
ranges and m argins o f Bhander plateau (M .P .) hav J. Tricart has described tw o d istin ctive types,
ing sandstone capping and alternate bands o f vary b esides a general sim p le type, o f cu estas e.g. twin
in g com binations o f sh ales, sandstones and lim e cuestas and double cuestas. ‘T w in cuestas appear
stones present fin e exam p les o f continuous and w hen, in order to reach the subjacent weaker sub-
structural g e o m o r p h o l o g y
173
Stratum, the s tr e a m b e c o m e s fairly d eep ly incised
into the b ack slop e. T h is prod u ces tw o parallel asvm sim ply tw o superposed cuestas (fig . 1 0 .3 ), sin g le
metrical slo p es co m p o sed o f the sam e strata the slope being m ade up o f tw o pairs o f beds. The
scarp face proper and the slo p e o f the d evelop in g existen ce o f a double cuesta im p lies differential
valley w hich fa ces u p s lo p e .... T w in cuestas m ust scarp retreat’ (J. Tricart, 1974). T he progressive
not be co n fu sed w ith double cuestas w hich are
dissection o f twin cuestas results in the form ation o f
Fig. 10.4 : D evelopm ent o f butte due to dissection o f cuesta (scarp)—after J. Tricart, 1974.
isolated flat-top p ed (by resistant caprock) buttes developm ent o f ‘con cave profile o f a cuesta, w ith a
(fig. 10.4) T h e escarp m en ts or ridges having sym w ell marked escarpm ent crest in the resistant bed
m etrical slo p e s on both sid es are called hogback and long regular slopes with a parabolic curvature in
ridges or sim p ly hogbacks. the weak bed’ (fig. 10.4).
T he h eigh t, d im en sio n , reliefs and cross-sec (2) Dip angle o f the resistant cap-rock con
tional form s o f cu esta are controlled by the fo llo w trols the height o f cuestas. Gentle dip angles (less
ing factors— than 5°) o f rock beds are associated w ith cuestas w ith
(1) Lithological factors— T w o aspects greater
of height w hile greater dip an gles produce lo w
lithology viz. (a) relative thickness o f rock beds in cuestas. It may be m entioned that the height o f
general and o f caprock in particular and (2) varia cuestas is determined by the m ode o f d issection and
tions in the relative resistance o f rock strata are dow nw asting w hich is controlled by dip angles.
important. T he relative thickness o f caprock and W hen the dip angles exceed 45°. the cuestas have
underlying beds determ ines the nature o f cuesta sym m etrical slopes on both sides and thus grade into
profile, and relative altitude. Thicker beds o f caprock hogbacks. ‘The dip o f cuesta form ation has also
generally produce b old and high cuesta. It is not only been shown to influence the m orphom etry o f its dip
the thickness o f the resistant caprock but also the slope and on C linch m ountain, a cu esta o f quartzite,
thickness o f underlying weak rock strata w hich also sandstones and shales in the fold ed A pplachians,
control the height o f cuesta because the thicker the stream lengths, basin areas and hypsom etric inte
underlying w eak rock strata, the greater the d issec grals bear significantly negative relationships to the
tion at the foot o f the scarp and hence higher w ill be dip w hich varies from less than 20° to more than 60°’
entire cuesta. The resistance or durability o f caprock (R.J. Chorley et. al, 1 9 8 5 ).’
determines the nature and m agnitude o f dissection. (3) The am ount o f scarp retreat (recession)
The relative resistance o f rock strata (resistant caprock determ ined by the nature and rate o f m assm ovem ent
and weak underlying beds) favours differential ero on the cuesta slope, spring sapping, d issection by
sion wherein underlying weak rock beds arc eroded streams at the foot o f the scarps, w eathering at scarp-
more than the overlying caprock resulting in the foot etc. determ ines the developm en t o f scarp-vale
topography in a region characterized by uniclinal T he tectonic expressions (reliefs) of faulting -
structures. Besides, uniclinal shifting of streams in include different typ es of fault scarps e.g. (t)
down-dip direction results in the undercutting of original or active fault scarps, (2 ) residual fault
scarp base which accentuates cuesta profile. scarps and (3 ) co m p o site fault scarps. T he scarps
(4) Long continued erosion results in the representing the fault plane o f upthrown block is
b ev ellin g o f p reviously form ed cuestas in a scarp- called original or active fault scarp. It m ay be
and-vale topography. R.J. S m all has observed that, pointed out that the tecto n ic reliefs or tectonic ex
‘In an area o f h eterogen eou s gen tly dipping rocks p ression s o f faults are the direct result o f faulting
w h ich has recently been planed by erosion and then activity in v o lv in g relative d isp la cem en t of crustal
rocks. ‘B y d efin ition , all a ctiv e fault scarps are
a ffected by lim ited stream in cision , all the escarp
m ents w ill d isp lay sum m it b ev els and, irrespective original, so it is not necessary to add the adjective
o f rock th ick n ess, durability (resistan ce) or angle o f ‘a ctiv e’ (J. Tricart, 1974). On the other hand, a
dip, w ill reach approxim ately the sam e elevation s. residual fault scarp is that w h ich is form ed after the
W ith the p assin g o f tim e, h ow ever, th ese latter form ation o f original or a ctiv e fault scarp and the
factors w ill reassert th em selv es, and diversification renew al o f faulting activity after a period o f no
in the form and h eigh t o f the individual cuesta w ill tectonic activity (period o f q u iescen ce). S o m e scien
gradually o ccu r’ (R.J. Sm all, 1970). tists m aintain that residual scarps are denudational
as they are form ed after erosion during period o f
1 0.2 TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSIONS OF FAULT relative calm (q u iescen ce). ‘D uring the a ctiv e p e
STRUCTURE (FAULT GEOMORPHOLOGY) riod, the scarps m ay be the faults fu n ction as true
A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks wherein fault scarps, w h ile during the q u iet periods erosion
the rocks are d isp laced along a plane called as ‘fault converts these into residual scarp s’ (J. Tricart, 1974).
p la n e’ (fig . 9 .9 ). In other w ords, w hen the crustal If the tecton ic activity is reactivated, fresh scarp is
rock s are d isp laced due to tensional forces caused by generated b elo w residual fault scarp due to upward
the en d o g en etic m o v em en ts alon g a plane, the re m ovem ent o f upthrown b lock , thus the resultant
sultant structure is ca lled a fault. In fact, ‘faulting entire scarp is ca lled composite fault scarp. ‘A
in v o lv e s d ifferential m ovem en t o f strata on either co m p o site fault scarp is thus a scarp due to a fault
sid e o f fau lt-p lan e (in v o lv in g a sin g le plane o f shear that has been interm ittently a ctiv e, so that the forms
in g) or fau lt-zon e (in v o lv in g a num ber o f clo sely o f erosion have varied b etw een th ose associated
spaced fau lt-p lan es) as a result o f either com p res w ith active fault scarps and th ose o f residual fault
sion al or tensional forces in the earth's crust. The scarps’ (J. Tricart, 1974).
differential m ovem en t m ay be upwards, dow nw ards,
G eom orph ic ex p ressio n s resu ltin g from dif
horizontal, ob liq u e or even rotatory’ (R.J. Sm all,
ferential erosion o f fault scarps and upthrown and
1 970).
dow nthrow n fault b lo ck s in clu d e d ifferen t types o f
T he study o f fault geomorphology in v o lv es fault-line scarps e.g . (1 ) norm al or consequent
3 a sp ects o f faulting e.g . (1) types o f d isp lacem ent o f fault-line scarps, (2) reversed or o b seq u en t or oppo
rock b lo ck s and thus reusltant fault types, (2) tec site fau lt-lin e scarps, (3 ) reseq u en t fau lt-lin e scarps,
ton ic ex p ressio n s o f faulting and (3 ) geom orphic (4) subdued fa u lt-lin e scarps, (5 ) ex h u m ed fault-line
e x p ressio n s o f faulting. scarps, (6 ) exaggerated fa u lt-lin e scarps etc.
B ased on d ifferen t typ es o f m o v em en ts, as (1) Normal or original fault-line scar
referred to a b ove, d ifferent typ es o f faults are cre know n as con seq u en t fault scarp is form ed due to
ated in the crustal rocks viz. normal and reverse erosion o f w eak rocks o f d ow n th row n b lock s. Such
faults, (fig . 9 .1 0 ), lateral or strike-slip faults (fig. fau lt-lin e scarps are oriented tow ards the direction
9 .1 1 , a lso know n as transverse, tear or transcurrent o f original fault scarps (fig . 1 0 .5 (1 )). T h is type o f
fau lts) d ivid ed in to tw o su b typ es— right lateral or fau lt-line scarps results due to p rolon ged erosion o f
dextral fault and left lateral or sinistral fault, step less resistant beds o f dow n th row n b lock w hen the
fau lts (fig . 9 .1 2 ) etc., the characteristic features and p rocess o f the form ation o f faults has practically
m o d e o f form ation o f w h ich have been d iscu ssed in cea sed and fault rem ains in a ctiv e for lon g period of
the p reced in g chapter (9). tim e.
Normal Original
Fault Scarp
ime Stone
opposed
Fig 10 5 • D evelo p m en t o f different types o f fa u lt line s c a r p s -( 1) normal or original fa u lt scarp, actual fa u lt indicated
by A -B is concealed under scree cover derived through the erosion o f fa u lt scarp ; (2) dissection o f original
fault scarp due to prolonged erosion resulting in the segmentation o f scarp fa ces— s 1, s2, s3, s4 an d thinning
o f m arl cover on downthrown block; (3) opposed or reversedfault-line scarp developed on dow nthrow n block,
and separation o f original fa u lt scarps (b u ttes)-a fter J. Tricart (1974, slightly modified).
(2) O p p o s e d f a u lt- lin e s c a r p s are also known opm ent than a con seq u en t scarp, th ou gh th is is not
as reversed or ob seq u en t scarps w hich d ev elo p in invariably the ca se . .. the reversal o f the fa u lt-lin e
opposite direction to the original fau lt-line scarps scarp is p o ssib le on ly b eca u se a fall in b a s e -le v e l has
due to no further fau ltin g and erosion o f w eaker exp osed to denudation the w eak rocks on the upthrown
strata o f upthrown b lo ck s o f the faults. Such fault- sid e o f the fau lt’ (R.J. S m a ll, 1 970). ‘S u ch o p p o se d
line scarp s are fo rm e d at m uch later date at relatively fault scarps are a lw a y s due to lith o lo g ic a l con trol o f
low er height (fig . 10.5 (3 )). ‘A n obsequent fault-line denudation and in the nature o f th in g s th ey are fau lt-
scarp w ill norm ally re p re s e n t a later stage o f d ev el- line scarp s’ (J. Tricart, 1 9 7 4 ). It m ay b e m en tio n ed
that it is not necessary that before the form ation o f
ob seq uent fau lt-line scarps the original or normal
fault scarps are le v elled down due to continued
erosion. T he on ly condition is that the fault has
b ecom e in active and the w eaker rocks have been
su fficien tly exp osed due to su fficien t recession o f
original scarp so that stream s m ay excavate their
v a lley s on the exp osed w eaker rocks (as is seen in
fig. 10.5 (3 ) w here marl bed lying under lim eston e
cover has been su fficien tly exp osed as the original
scarps have receded too far and new stream has
eroded the marl outcrop at the ed ge o f original fault
scarp).
(3 ) R e s e q u e n t fa u lt-lin e sc a r p s are form ed
due to renew ed dow nw ard erosion caused by further
fall in b a se-lev el o f erosion. In fact, resequent scarps
result from the reversal o f obsequent scarps and are
oriented in the direction o f the original or normal
(con seq u en t) scarps but are m uch older than the
latter (fig. 2.8 (3).
(4) C o m p o site fa u lt-lin e s c a r p s are those
w hich o w e their origin partly due to faulting and
partly due to erosion. T h ese represent tw o situations
viz. (i) upper portion o f fault scarp due to faulting
and low er portion form ed by erosion , and (ii) upper
portion form ed due to erosion and low er portion o f
fault origin. A ccord in g to C .A . C ctton such fault-
lin e scraps are form ed w hen fault activity b ecom es
inactive and dow nthrow n b lock having greater thick
n ess o f relatively w eaker form ation is eroded dow n
to con sid erab le depth, with the result original fault
scarp is exten d ed dow nw ard. T hus, the resultant
fau lt-line is characterized by upper faulted segm en t
and lo w er eroded segm en t. A ltern atively, fault scarp
is form ed due to faulting (fig . 10.6 (1 )). A fter pro
lon ged erosion original fault scarp disappears and
the faulted region is le v elled (fig . 10.6 (2 )). Fall in
base level renew s vigorou s erosion o f d ow nthrow n
b lock and thus is form ed resequent fa u lt-lin e scarp
(fig. 10.6(3). Fault again b eco m es active and the Fig. 10.6 , Stages o f the fo rm a tio n o f com posite fault-
downthrow n block is further thrown dow nw ard along line scarps—(1) fo rm a tio n o f original fa u lt
the original fault plane and thus the resultant fault- scarp, (2) obliteration o f fa u lt scarp due to
lin e scarp b ecom es co m p o site the upper part o f erosion, (3) form ation o f resequent fa u lt—
w hich is erosional w h ile the lo w er part is faulted line scarp due to renew ed erosion, and {4)
form ation o f fa u lt scarp due to fu r th e r fault
(fig . 10.6(4).
ing— based on C.A. Cotton).
STRUCTURAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
177
<5)I, ReSUZ * Cted 0r fault-line portion o f the fault scarp is buried under thick cover
g O j f S — It m ay be p oin ted out that in so m e situa-
o f eroded m aterials (fig. 10.7(2)). T he renew ed
dons the fault scarp s, after the fault becomes inac
erosion o f deposited materials uncovers the buried
tive, are eroded d ow n to su ch ex ten t that the low er
fault scarp w hich is called as exhum ed or resur
rected fault scarp (fig. 10.7(3)). ‘E xhum ed fault
scarps w hich are but a variety o f the faultline scarp,
are usually subdued features o f m uch sm aller d im en
sion than the throw o f the fault’ (J. Tricart, 1974).
J. Tricart has opined that, ‘O ne important
factor controls the evolution o f all faultline scarps,
and that is the relation betw een the throw o f the fault
and the thickness o f the hard and so ft strata...
faultline scarps present one other d ifferen ce from
original fault scarps. S in ce they are product o f d if
ferential erosion, they can on ly occu r w here the
rocks offer sharp contrasts in resistan ce, as on the
continental platform s’ (J. Tricart, 1974). P rolonged
erosion o f graben results in inversion o f relief w herein
Fig. 10.7: Stages o f the form ation o f resurrected fault-

line scarp : I. form ation o f original fa u lt
scarp, 2. fa u lt scarp covered under eroded
materials, 3. reappearance o f fa u lt scarp due
; to removal o f deposited materials through ’
renewed erosion. Fig. 1 0 .8 : Stages o f inversion o f r e lie f in a graben.
178 GEOMORPHOLOGY H
' ~ 'r'
primary horsts are eroded dow n w hile original rift fold ed structure is the d e v e lo p m e n t o f in v ersio n o f s
va lley is less eroded and hence the valley rises above r e lie fs i.e. in v e r te d r e lie f characterized by anticli. I
the eroded horsts thus inversion o f relief is the result n al v a lle y s and s y n c lin a l rid g e s.
(fig. 10.8).
Inversion of Relief
10.3 TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSIONS OF FOLDED I n v e r s io n o f r e lie f in fold ed structure is an
STRUCTURE (FOLD GEOMORPHOLOGY) im portant but unique p h en om en on w hich causes
Sedim entary rock beds are squeezed and buck reverse seq u en ce o f top ographic features. Inversion
led and fold ed into an ticlin es and syn clin es due to o f re lie f occu rs in the fo ld ed structure having sym
lateral com p ressive forces. T he folded structure m etrical fold s h avin g alternate seq u en ce o f anti
ranges from sim p le fold s (figs. 9.2 and 9 .3 ) to clin es and sy n clin es and sim p le form ation (fig.
co m p lex fo ld s (i.e. recum bent fold s) depending on 10.9). W ith the initiation o f flu v ia l ero sion under the
intensity o f co m p ressiv e forces. Sim ple folded struc p rocess o f c y c le o f ero sio n after the folding of
ture is characterized by sequ en ce o f anticlines and sedim entary rocks lo n g itu d in a l m a s te r co n seq u en t
sy n clin es (fig. 9 .2 ). s tr e a m s (s tr ik e s tr e a m s ) and tributary consequent
stream s fo llo w in g slo p e d irection are originated in
The g e o m e tr y o f folded structure includes
the sy n clin es and dip slo p e s o f the a n ticlin es respec
an ticlin e, syn clin e, lim bs, axis o f fold or axial plane,
tively. T he m aster co n seq u en t flo w s in the syncline
ax is o f syn clin es, dip, strike etc. T he upfolded rock
from higher slo p e tow ards le sser gradient. The
strata in arch-like form are called a n tic lin e s w hile
stream s origin atin g on the flanks o f the anticlines
the d ow n folded structure form ing trough-like fea
(dip slo p es) jo in the m aster c o n seq u en ts as tributary
ture is called s y n c lin e (fig. 9 .3 ). The tw o sid es o f the
stream s. T h ese tributaries are ca lled as tra n sv erse
fold are called lim b s o f the fold. The plane w hich
c o n s e q u e n ts or la te r a l c o n s e q u e n ts w h ich develop
bisects the angle b etw een the tw o lim bs o f the
their v a lley s through headw ard ero sio n o f the anti
anticline or the m id d le lim b o f the sy n clin e is called
the a x is o f fo ld or a x ia l p la n e (fig . 9 .2 ). On the basis clin es. W ith m arch o f tim e the crests o f anticlines
o f anticline and sy n clin e these axial planes are called are breached and s u b s e q u e n t s tr e a m s d ev elo p along
as a x is o f a n tic lin e and a x is o f s y n c lin e resp ec the axes o f a n ticlin es. T h e se su b seq u en t streams
tively. The inclination o f rock beds with respect to con tin u e to d eep en their v a lle y s d ue to m axim um
horizontal plane is term ed as d ip (fig . 9 .4 ) w h ile ‘the vertical erosion o f an ticlin al crests b eca u se o f m axi
s tr ik e o f an in clin ed bed is the direction o f any m um tension on crests w ith the resu lt synclinal
horizontal line along a bedding p la n e’ (A . H olm es m aster con seq u en t stream s are e lim in a ted and anti
and D .L . H olm es). A n tic lin o r iu m refers to those clin al stream s b e co m e m aster stream s. T h is process
fo ld ed structures in the regions o f folded m ountains results in the form ation o f v a lle y s in the place of
w here there are a series o f m inor an ticlin es and a n ticlin es and rid ges in the p la ce o f s y n c lin e s. Thus,
sy n c lin e s w ithin on e ex ten siv e anticline (fig . 9 .5 ) the p reviou s top ograp h ic featu re (fig . 1 0.9 vl and 2))
w h ile s y n c lin o r iu m represents such a fold ed struc o f origin al a n ticlin es and s y n c lin e s are reversed by
ture w h ich in clu d es an ex ten siv e sy n clin e havin g the form ation o f s y n c lin a l r id g e s (in place of
num erous m inor an ticlin es and sy n clin es. F old s are original a n ticlin es) and a n t ic lin a l v a lle y s (in the
o f d ifferent typ es viz. sym m etrical fo ld s, a sy m p lace o f origin al a n tic lin e s, fig . 1 0 .9 (5 )) due to
m etrical fo ld s, m on o clin a l fo ld s, iso clin a l fo ld s, p ro lo n g ed d en u dation and th e p r o c e ss o f inversion
recum bent fo ld s, overturned fo ld s, plu n ge fo ld s, fan o f r e lie f is co m p leted .
fo ld s, open fo ld s, c lo se d fo ld s etc. w h ich h ave al
Fluvial Cycle of Erosion on Folded Structure
ready been d iscu ssed in the precedin g chapter (for
I n itia l S ta g e — T h e fo ld e d structure, here,
d etails se e chapter 9, fig s. 9 .6 , 9 .7 and 9 .8 ).
im p lies norm al structure ch aracterized by regular
F o ld g e o m o r p h o lo g y in clu d es the d e v e lo p
arrangem ent o f alternate a n ticlin es and sy n clin es. In
m en t o f drainage pattern and topographic features
other w o rd s, fo ld e d m ou n tain is co n sid ered to have
d u e to d enudational p ro cesses on fo ld ed structure. b een form ed d ue to fo ld in g o f sed im en tary rocks by
O n e o f th e resultant features o f p rolon ged ero sio n o f c o m p r e ssiv e fo rce. S u ch structure is sim p le and is
STRU CTU RA L G E O M O R P H O L O G Y 179
Fig. 10.9 : Stages o f inversion o f relief.

streams begins w ith the upliftm ent and folding o f
ch aracterized b y o p en fo ld s an d a b se n c e o f recu m
rocks. It is hypothesised that the region after folding
bent fo ld in g , o v e rth ru s t fo ld s, n ap p es and th ru sts
remains stable for long g eo lo g ica l period and thus
T here is re g u la r a rra n g e m e n t o f a n tic lin e s an d
synclines which are devoid o f com p lexity. e ° e the cy cle o f erosion passes through su ccessiv e stages
o f youth, mature and old resulting in the sequential
strata in c lu d e b e d s o f re sis ta n t an d w eak ro ck s
changes in landform s through tim e.
Fluvial e ro sio n w ith th e in itia tio n o f co n seq u en t
Limestone
sy n clin e
Fig. 10.10: Inversion o f relief— after J. Tricart, 1974
Y o u th fu l S ta g e — C onseq u en t stream s o rig i o f the a n ticlin es (d ip s lo p e s ) . L a teral con seq u en ts

nate on the fo ld s in clu d in g both a n ticlin es and ex ten d their c o u r se s u p s lo p e th ro u g h h ead w ard ero
sy n clin es. M aster con seq u en t stream s o r i g in a t e d sio n and e sta b lish th eir v a lle y s o n a n tic lin a l a x es and
the syn clin al troughs. T h ese are ca lled s y n c lin a l or form g o r g e s. L ater o n , strea m s a ls o d e v e lo p on the
lo n g itu d in a l c o n s e q u e n ts , the channel gradient o f anticlinal a x es, w h ich are c a lle d as su b seq u en t streams.
w h ich is determ ined by the slo p e o f sy n clin es. C o n T h e head w ard e r o sio n at th e a n tic lin a l cre sts results
sequent stream s also originate on the dip slo p e s o f in river capture w ith the r e su lt s e v e r a l s m a ll stream s
the anticlines and jo in the m aster consequent synclinal d e v e lo p e d on a n ticlin a l cr e sts are in tegrated and
stream s as tributaries, w h ich are a lso ca lled as t r a n s an ticlin al a x ia l strea m s f o llo w in g th e strik e d irec
v e r se or la te r a l c o n s e q u e n t s tr e a m s . A l these tion d e v e lo p at the a n tic lin a l c r e sts ( A stream on fold
streams flo w d ow n the slo p e o f the structure and thus 3 in fig . 1 0 .1 1 ). T h e p r o c e s s o f r iv er cap tu re co n tin
fall under the category o f s e q u e n t s tr e a m s . In fig. u es and all the tra n sv erse (la ter a l) strea m s are cap
10.11 A stream d en otes m aster co n seq u en t w h ile B tured and the se c o n d m a ster strea m s d e v e lo p at the
and C represent lateral or transeverse co n seq u en t anticlinal a x es and flo w p arallel to th e origin al m aster
tributary stream s. T he n ew ly esta b lish ed stream s syn clin al stream s. T h e se stream s are c a lle d as subse
start to erode their valleys. Lateral consequent stream s quent stream s (S stream on fo ld 4 in fig . 1 0 .1 1 ), w hich
(B and C ) erode at faster rate than the m aster c o n s e d eepen their v a lle y s at the a n ticlin a l crests and try to
quent (A ) b ecau se o f the steeper slo p es o f the flanks adjust them w ith the u n d erly in g fo rm ation s.
Fig. 10.11: D evelopment o f flu via l cycle o f erosion on fo ld e d structure (after Von Engeln).
STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
1ii
Mature Stage— The o n s e t o f m a tu re stag e is
nal stream (A ) d ev elo p ed in th e o rig in al sy n clin e b u t
heralded by a c c e le r a te d ra te o f v alley d e e p e n in f b v
it flo w s at m u ch lo w e r elev atio n an d is o ld er than the
stream s d e v e lo p e d o n a n tic lin a l crests. T h e su b se
o rig in al co n seq u en t stream . T his stream is called
qUent s tre a m s (S o n fo ld 5 in fig. 10 .1 l)or a n ticlin ai
reseq u en t stream (R in fig. 10.11). R eseq u en t sim
streams e ro d e th e ir v a lle y s m o re th an m a ste r synclinal
p ly m ean s new co n seq u en t.
consequent s tre a m s (A in f i g . 1 0 .H ) b e c a u se (i) the
anticlinal s tre a m s a re re la tiv e ly at h ig h e r h e ig h t and O ld S ta g e is h erald ed by th e cessatio n o f
have ste e p e r c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t th a n sy n c lin a l stream s activ e ero sio n and reliefs are su b d u ed and m o st o f
and (n ) s o ft r o c k b e d s u n d e r re s is ta n t c a p -ro c k o f them are o b literated d u e to p ro lo n g ed d en u d atio n .
anticlines a re r e la tiv e ly at h ig h e r h e ig h t th an in the T he en tire fo ld ed m o u n ta in o u s reg io n b eco m es fe a
tu reless p la in -p en ep lain . S tream s are n o t a d ju sted to
syncline. T h u s , th e s o f t ro c k b e d s o f th e an ticlin es
stru ctu re as th e o rig in al stru ctu ra l featu res are c o v
are ero d ed m u c h b e fo re th e s o ft ro c k b ed s o f the
ered u n d er th ick d ep o sits o f allu v ia.
synclines. C o n s e q u e n tly , a n tic lin a l stream s d eep en
the a n tic lin e s d u e to v ig o ro u s d o w n c u ttin g and thus I f the p en ep lain e d fo ld ed m o u n ta in o u s reg io n
the v alley s d e v e lo p e d o n a n tic lin e s b eco m e d eep e r is again up lifted th e seco n d cy cle o f flu v ia l ero sio n
than th e v a lle y s d e v e lo p e d in th e sy n clin es. F u rth er, m ay be in itiated w ith re ju v e n a te d stre a m s a n d p a ra l
the a n tic lin a l s tr e a m s a lso c a p tu re th e sy n clin al lel ridges and v alleys are fo rm ed .
m aster c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s (A ) an d h e n c e the p re v i T h ere is co n tro v ersy re g a rd in g th e o rig in o f
ous m a s te r s tre a m o f th e fo ld e d s tru c tu re is d ism e m reseq u en t stream s in term s o f flu v ial c y cle o f ero sio n
bered (fig . 1 0 .1 1 ). T h is re s u lts in th e rev ersal o f o v er folded stru ctu re. S o m e g e o m o rp h o lo g ists in
previous to p o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s as an ticlin es are eroded clu d in g S.W . W o o ld rid g e and R .S . M o rg an (1 9 6 0 )
dow n to fo rm a n tic lin a l v a lle y s an d sy n clin al v al are o f the op in io n th at rese q u e n t stream s d ev elo p
leys, b e in g h ig h e r in e le v a tio n th an th e an ticlin al du rin g second cycle o f ero sio n w h ile o th e rs in c lu d
valleys, b e c o m e s y n c lin a l rid g e s (5 and 6 in fig. ing A .K . L o b e c k (1939) b eliev e th a t th e se o rig in ate
10.11). T h is is c a lle d as in v e r s io n o f relief. It is d uring the 1st cy cle o f ero sio n , ev en d u rin g m atu re
ev id en t th a t in v e rs io n o f r e lie f is th e re su lt o f d iffe r stage. It m ay be su g g ested th a t w h e th e r th e rese q u e n t
ential e ro s io n c a u s e d b y a v a rie ty o f facto rs viz. (a) stream s w ill o rig in ate d u rin g first o r seco n d c y cle o f
elev atio n d if f e r e n c e , (b ) re la tiv e re sista n c e o f ro ck erosion d epends on rela tiv e resistan c e o f ro c k beds
beds, an d (c ) g r a d ie n t/s lo p e d iffe re n c e b etw een an and local co n d itio n s.
ticlin al a n d s y n c lin a l c o n s e q u e n t stream s and (d) T o p o g ra p h ic ex p ressio n s o f c y c le o f e r o
m a x im u m te n s io n a l fo rc e at th e a n tic lin a l crests sio n o v er fo ld ed stru ctu res in c lu d e in v e rte d re
w hich c a u s e s a n d a c c e n tu a te s c ra c k s an d th u s a u g liefs, an ticlin al rid g es, sy n clin al rid g es, h o m o c lin al
m ents w e a th e r in g a n d e ro s io n a l p ro c e sse s. ridges, synclinal valleys, anticlinal valleys, hom oclinal
valley s etc. (fig. 10.12).
T h e v e rtic a l e r o s io n a n d v a lle y d ee p e n in g by
s u b se q u e n t s tr e a m s (a n tic lin a l s tre a m s) b eco m e less (1) A n tic lin a l rid g e s are, in fact, stru ctu ra l in
sig n ific a n t w h e n th e u n d e rly in g re s is ta n t ro c k beds c h a ra c te r and re p re se n t u p fo ld ed ro c k beds. T hese
are fu rth er acc en tu ated b eca u se o f m o re ero sio n o f
are e x p o se d d u e to r e m o v a l o f o v e rly in g b ed s th ro u g h
ad jacen t ro ck b ed s. T h e a n ticlin al rid g e s o f ero sio n al
p ro lo n g ed e ro s io n . T h u s , th e s u b s e q u e n t stream s are
o rig in are d ev elo p ed at th e end o f flu v ial cy cle o f
d ev elo p ed a n d e s ta b lis h e d o v e r a rid g e o resistan
ero sio n w h en re sista n t b ed s a re e x p o se d to atm o s
rocks. N o w , th e r iv e r s in s te a d o f e ro d in g t e re sjs
p h eric p ro cesses (7 in fig. 10.11 re p re se n ts anticlinal
ant beds, are s u b je c te d to u n ic lin a l/h o m o c lm a l shift
rid g e o f e ro sio n a l o rig in w h ile 1 d e n o te s structural
ing along th e d ip s lo p e o f re la tiv e ly re s is ta n t rid g e s an ticlin al rid g e).
Thus, the su b se q u e n t stre a m s easily ero d e e :sy
(2) S y n c lin a l rid g es are o f ero sio n a l origin
ridges b e c a u s e th e y a re o f w e a k lith o lo g y (so ft ro ck
and are fo rm ed d u e to m o re ero sio n o f an ticlin al
beds). G ra d u a lly , th e s u b s e q u e n t stre a m s reac h he
rid g es (6 in fig. 10.11 re p re se n ts sy n c lin a l ridges).
synclinal r id g e s th ro u g h u n ic lm a l sh iftin g
(3) Homoclinal ridges are fo rm ed on th e
niately fo rm th e ir v a lle y s in th e s y n c 1 .
u n iclin al b ed s (u n ifo rm a lly in c lin e d ) o f re sista n t
(originally s y n c lin a l v a lle y s ). N o w , is
ro ck s h av in g u n ifo rm slo p es on b o th sides.
sim ilar to th e o rig in a l m a s te r c o n s e q u e n t lo n g itu
GEOMORPHOLOGY
182
s u p e rin c u m b e n t m a te ria l is re m o v e d d u e to pro
lo n g e d e ro sio n an d th e u n d e rly in g s tru c tu re is ex
p o se d to th e s u rfa c e an d few d is in c tiv e fe a tu re s like %
c u e s ta , h o g b a c k a n d rid g e s a re fo rm e d . D om es
fo rm ed d u e to u p w a rp in g a re c h a ra c te riz e d by the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f r a d ia l o r c e n tr ifu g a l d r a in a g e p at
te r n h a v in g a se t o f s e q u e n t s tre a m s w h ic h follow
s l o p e g rad ie n t e.g. c o n se q u e n t, s u b se q u e n t, obsequent
an d re s e q u e n t s tre a m s (fig . 2 .9 ).
Fluvial Cycle of Erosion on Domed Structure

M o st o f th e p re s e n t d a y d o m e s h a v e p assed
th ro u g h sev eral p h a s e s o f flu v ia l c y c le o f e ro sio n
an d h e n c e th e r e lie f fe a tu re s d e v e lo p e d on d o m e s
d u e to d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s a re p o ly c y c lic re lie fs .
It, th u s, b e c o m e s d iffic u lt to sp e ll o u t th e in itia l fo rm
o f d o m ed stru c tu re fo r th e in itia tio n o f f lu v ia l c y c le
o f ero sio n . It is a ssu m e d th a t firs t a d o m e is fo rm e d
du e to u p w a rp in g an d it is c o m p o s e d o f a lte rn a te
seq u en ce o f re sis ta n t an d so ft ro c k b e d s w h e re a s th e
co re o f th e d o m e c o n s is ts o f c ry s ta llin e ig n e o u s r o c k
o f re la tiv e ly h ig h d e g re e o f r e s is ta n c e in re la tio n to
Fig. 10.12 : Development o f morphological features on ero sio n . T h e ro ck b e d s a re n o rm a lly d is p o s e d w ith
anticlines and synclines o f folded structure o u t any fa u lt o r re c u m b e n t fo ld .
due to fluvial erosion. (1) Y o u th f u l s ta g e is c h a ra c te riz e d b y e m e
(4) S y n clin a l v a lley s are o f stru ctu ral o rig in g en ce o f stre a m s w ith th e fo rm a tio n (d o m in g o f
and rep resen t stru ctu ral valley s fo rm ed d u e to d o w n o v e rly in g ro c k s d u e to e n d o g e n e tic fo rc e ) o f d o m e .
fo lding o f rock beds. T h e ero sio n al sy n clin al v alleys S tream s d e v e lo p on th e s lo p e s o f th e d o m e a n d d ra in
also called as re se q u e n t v alley s are fo rm ed d u e to d o w n th e slo p e a n d th u s th e s e a re c o n s e q u e n t
e ro sio n o f sy n clin al rid g es at th e en d o f c y cle o f stream s. B e c a u se o f r o u n d e d s h a p e o f d o m e c re st,
erosion o r d u rin g late m atu re stag e (v alley o f R in stre a m s ra d ia te in all d ire c tio n s . In o th e r w o rd s,
fig. 10.11). c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s a fte r o rig in a tin g o n d o m e c re s t
ra d ia te in all d ire c tio n s a n d flo w d o w n s lo p e . T h e
(5) A n ticlin a l v a lley s are o f ero sio n al o rig in
re s u lta n t d ra in a g e p a tte rn b e c o m e s r a d i a l o r c e n
as they are fo rm ed d u e to activ e d o w n c u ttin g o f
tr i f u g a l d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n w h ic h is in d ic a tiv e o f
a n ticlin al crests by su b se q u e n t stream s. T h e se in d i
y o u n g d o m e s. Y o u n g c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s d ra in
cate in v e rsio n o f reliefs.
d o w n slo p e o n th e fla n k s o f th e d o m e s fo llo w in g dip
(6) H o m o c lin a l v a lley s are o f ero sio n a l o ri
a n g le o f ro c k b e d s (fig . 1 0 .1 3 A ). V e ry fe w trib u ta ry
g in and d e v e lo p b etw een h o m o c lin a l rid g e s and
stre a m s are d e v e lo p e d . C o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s a re ac
re sista n t beds o f a n ticlin es. In fact, th e situ a tio n o f
tiv ely e n g a g e d in v a lle y d e e p e n in g th ro u g h v ertical
re la tiv e ly so ft ro ck b ed s b etw ee n tw o b ed s o f re s is t e ro s io n . Y h ey e x te n d (le n g th e n ) th e ir c o u rs e s th ro u g h
an t ro ck s le ad s to ero sio n o f so ft b ed s an d h e n c e th e h e a d w a rd e ro s io n a n d try to r e a c h j h e c re s t o f the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f such valley s. d o m e . H e a d w a rd e ro s io n is a s s is te d b y w e a th e rin g ,
slu m p in g a n d m a s s m o v e m e n t. G ra d u a lly a n d g ra d u
10.4 TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSIONS OF DOMED
ally c o n s e q u e n t stre a m s re a c h th e d o m e c re sts, breach
STRUCTURE
th e m an d fo rm d e p re s s io n s (fig . 1 0 .1 3 B ) a n d b asin s
D o m ed structure results eith er due to upw arping
w h ic h a re o f s m a lle r d im e n s io n in th e b e g in n in g b ut
o f cru sta l s u rfa c e e ffe c te d by d ia stro p h ic fo rce o r
c o n tin u o u s ly th e y g ro w in s iz e d u e to c o n tin u e d
d u e to in tru sio n o f m a g m a into su rfic ia l ro ck s. T h e e ro s io n a n d w e a th e rin g . I t m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t
f K -V https://telegram.me/UPSC_CivilServiceBooks
SfHOCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 183
ex posing u nderlying so ft ro ck b ed s (fig. 10.13 B).

A T he eroded and ex p o sed p arts o f u p p er resistan t rock
beds, o v erlooking the b asin s d ev elo p ed at th e d om e
crest, form sca rp s w hich are su b jected to gradual
recession tow ards b ack slo p e b ecau se o f continued
b ack w astin g through w eath erin g and erosion. T his
results in gradual in crease in the size o f th e basin.
A ctive dow n cu ttin g by the riv ers resu lts in the d eep
ening o f the basin. T h e steep en ess o f scarp s d ep en d s
on relative resistan ce o f th e ro ck b ed s as steep scarps
are associated w ith resistan t beds w h ile soft beds
give birth to scarps o f g en tle g rad ien t. D o w n w ard
erosion o f the basin d ev elo p ed at th e d o m e c rest
continues till all the so ft ro ck beds are n o t e ro d e d and
resistan t cry stallin e co re is n o t ex p o sed .
(2) M atu re S ta g e— V alley d e e p e n in g sto
with the b eginning o f m atu re stag e as by th is s ta g e all
the soft rock beds o v erly in g re sis ta n t c o re o f the
dom e have been ero d ed and rem o v ed . R iv e rs e x te n d
their co u rses on cry stallin e core. T h e re is m a x im u m
relief in the early m atu re stag e. N u m ero u s trib u ta rie s
C
as su b seq u en t stream s d ev elo p an d jo in c o n se q u e n t
stream s alm o st at rig h t angle. H ead w ard e ro s io n by
these tributaries resu lts in sev eral c ases o f riv e r
capture. C o n seq u en tly , a n n u la r d r a in a g e p a ttern
develops on the b reach ed d o m e crest. D iffe re n tia l
erosion o f altern ate b ed s o f re sista n t and so ft ro ck s
results in the fo rm atio n o f rid g es o f v a ry in g sizes and
shapes. T h e ridges, h av in g steep slo p es an d u n ifo rm
g rad ien t on both sides, are called h o g b a c k s w h ile
asy m m etrical rid g es w ith g en tle slo p e are k n o w n as
cu esta s. S trik e v a lley s are d ev e lo p e d o v e r so ft ro ck
beds betw een h o m o clin a l rid g e s a n d h o g b a c k s. A
n etw o rk o f su b se q u en t, o b se q u e n t and reseq u en t
stream s d ev elo p d u rin g late m a tu rity . A fte r the d is
sectio n and rem o v al o f all the o v e rly in g so ft rock
beds the w ell d ev elo p ed stre a m s ero d e the re sista n t
cry stallin e ro ck s o f th e co re o f th e d o m e. T h e fe a
tures o f ero d ed co re d ep en d on its size and lith o lo g ical
ch a ra c te ristic s. T h e co re h av in g la rg e r n u m b e r o f
re sista n t b ed s is less e ro d e d an d h e n c e upper surface
b eco m es u n d u la tin g a n d th e ero d e d d o m e appears as
% 10.13 : Stages o f developm ent o f flu via l cycle o f ero
sion on dom ed structure, A-initial, B-youth. a d isse c te d p lateau . O n th e o th e r h an d , th e ce n tra l
C-maturity and D -old stages. part o f the d o m e s b e c o m e s a b ro ad basin ifth e d o m e
the top rock co v er o f the d om e h as been sh o w n to be is o f sm all size and is co m p o sed o f le ss re s is ta n t
o f resistant rock w h ich is d eep ly cut by the stream s beds.
184 GEOMORPHOLOGY
3. h o m o c lin a l rid g e s. T h e e n tire d o m e is e ro d e d down

Old Stage is c h a ra c te riz e d by m a rk e d re
d u c tio n in v e rtic a l e ro s io n b u t p h e n o m e n a l in c re ase to fe a tu re le s s p la in a n d u ltim a te ly th e d o m e is
in la te ra l e ro s io n w ith th e re su lt th e re is g rad u al c o n v e rte d in to a p e n e p la in a n d th u s o n e phase
d e c re a s e in th e re lie fs d e v e lo p e d d u rin g m a tu re o f flu v ial c y c le o f e ro s io n is c o m p le te d provided
s ta g e (fig . 10.13 C ). T h e c e n tra l p art o f cry sta llin e th a t th e re g io n re m a in s s ta b le fo r th e d esired
ro c k s is a lso e ro d e d . C o n tin u o u s lateral ero sio n le n g th o f tim e (fo r th e c o m p le tio n o f c y c le o f ero
c a u s e s d is a p p e a r a n c e o f c u e s ta s, h o g b a c k s an d sio n ).
CHAPTER 11 : PLATE TECTONICS
M e a n in g a n d c o n c e p t ; p la te m a r g in s ; p a l a e o m a g n e t i s m - s o u r c e o f
g e o m a g n e tic fie ld , re m a n e n t m a g n e tis m , r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
p a la e o m a g n e tis m , re v e rs a l o f p o la rity ; s e a - f lo o r s p r e a d i n g ; p l a t e m o
tio n ; c a u s e s o f p la te m o tio n ; p la te te c to n ic s a n d c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t ; p l a t e
te c to n ic s a n d m o u n ta in b u ild in g ; p la te te c to n ic s a n d v u l c a n i c i t y ; p l a t e
te c to n ic s a n d e a r th q u a k e s .
11
PLATE TECTO N ICS
N e w c o n c e p ts a n d th e o rie s b a s e d o n e v i P la te te c to n ic th e o ry , a s ig n if ic a n t s c ie n tif ic
d e n c e s a n d in te r p r e ta tio n o f s e a -flo o r s p re a d in g and a d v a n c e m e n t o f th e d e c a d e 1 9 6 0 's, is b a s e d o n tw o
p a la e o m a g n e tic f ie ld h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d a fte r 1960 m a jo r s c ie n tific c o n c e p ts e .g . (1 ) th e c o n tin e n ta l
in t h e f i e l d o f g e o l o g y , g e o p h y s i c s a n d d rift an d (2) th e c o n c e p t o f s e a - f lo o r s p re a d in g .
g e o m o rp h o lo g y , o f w h ic h th e o ry o f p la te te c to n ic s L ith o sp h e re is in te rn a lly m a d e o f r ig id p la te s (fig .
in m o s t s ig n if ic a n t. T h e p r e s e n t c h a p te r d eals w ith 6 .7 ). S ix m a jo r a n d 2 0 m in o r p la te s h a v e b e e n
v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f p la te te c to n ic s v iz. m e a n in g an d id e n tifie d so fa r (E u ra s ia n p la te , I n d ia n - A u s tr a lia n
c o n c e p t, p a la e o m a g n e tis m , s e a -flo o r sp read in g , p late p la te, A m e ric a n p la te , P a c ific p la te , A f ric a n p la te ,
m a rg in s , p a te m o v e m e n ts a n d re s u lta n t g eo lo g ic an d A n ta rc tic p la te ) (fig . 1 1.1). I t m a y b e m e n tio n e d
e x p re s s io n s u c h a s c o n tin e n ta l d rift, v u lc a n ic ity , th a t th e te rm ‘plate’ w a s f ir s t u s e d b y C a n a d ia n
g e o p h y s ic is t J. T u z o W ils o n in 1 9 6 5 . Mackenzie
s e is m ic a c tiv ity , m o u n ta in b u ild in g etc.
an d Parkar d is c u s s e d in d e ta il th e m e c h a n is m of
11.1 MEANING AND CONCEPT p la te m o tio n s o n th e b a s is o f Euler's geometrical
T h e r ig i d lith o s p h e r ic s la b s o r rig id a n d so lid theorem in 1967. T h e y p o s tu la te d a ‘paving stone
c ru s ta l la y e r s a r e te c h n ic a lly c a lle d p la te s (fig . 6 .7 ). hypothesis’ w h e re in th e o c e a n ic c r u s t w a s c o n s id
T h e s tu d y o f w h o le m e c h a n is m o f e v o lu tio n , n atu re e re d to b e n e w ly fo rm e d at m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s a n d
a n d m o tio n s o f p la te s , d e fo rm a tio n w ith in p la te s a n d d is tro y e d a t th e tre n c h e s . Isacks a n d sykes c o n
in te rra c tio n s o f p la te m a rg in s w ith e a c h o th e r is firm e d th e ‘p a v in g s to n e h y p o th e s is ’ in 1 967. W J .
c o lle c tiv e ly c a lle d a s plate tectonics. In o th e r w o rd s, Morgan a n d Le Pichon e la b o r a te d the v a rio u s
th e w h o le p ro c e s s o f p la te m o tio n s a n d re s u lta n t asp e c ts o f p la te te c to n ic s in 1 9 6 8 . I t m a y , th u s ,
d e fo rm a tio n s is re fe r r e d to as p la te te c to n ic s. ‘M o v b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e th e o ry o f p la te te c to n ic s
in g o v e r t h e W e a k a s th e n o s p h e r e , in d iv id u a l is n o t re la te d to an y in d iv id u a l s c ie n tis t ra th e r
lith o s p h e ric p la te s g lid e s lo w ly o v e r th e s u rfa c e o f a h o s t o f s c ie n t is ts o f v a r io u s s c ie n t if ic d i s
th e g lo b e ; m u c h as a p a c k o f ic e o f th e A rc tic O c e a n c ip lin e s a n d r e s e a r c h g r o u p s a n d e x p e d i tio n s
d rifts u n d e r th e d ra g g in g fo rc e o f c u rre n ts an d w in d s ’ h a v e c o n trib u te d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th is v a lu a
(A .N . S tra h le r a n d A .H . S tra h le r, 1978). b le c o n c e p t of th e s e c o n d h a l f o f the 20th
186 GEOMORPHOLOGY
c e n tu ry . N o w th e co n tin en tal d rift and d isp la c e P lates a re c la ssifie d in to 3 ty p e s viz. oceanic
m e n t is c o n sid e re d a reality on th e basis o f plate p lates (h av in g o cean ic cru st), co n tin en tal p lates (hav
te cto n ic s. ing co n tin en tal cru st) an d co n tin en ta l-o cea n ic plates.
Euraision
Amerio iP ° ! c !
^ ia te
,3 l.p o cific African
/ : plate • X P ja U .
Antarctic plate
' s ' s ' s '. . .
Destructive margin Constructive margin
Fig. 11.1: Distribution o f plates. The names o f 6 major plates have been shown on the map and 5 m inor plates have been
indicated by numbers viz. 1- Nasca plate, 2. Scotia plate, 3. Phillippine plate, 4. Caribbean plate, and 5.
Arabian plate.
1 1 .2 PLATE MARGINS o p p o site d ire c tio n s (fig . 6 .8 ). D iv e rg e n t p la te m ar

It m a y b e h ig h lig h te d th a t te cto n ic ally p late g in s are c o n s tru c tiv e in th e s e n s e th a t th e re is co n
b o u n d a rie s o r p la te m a rg in s are m o st s ig n ific a n t tin u o u s fo rm a tio n o f n e w c ru s t a lo n g th e s e m arg in s
b e c a u se all te c to n ic a c tiv itie s o c c u r alo n g th e p la te b e c a u se o f c o o lin g a n d s o lid ific a tio n o f b a s a ltic lava
m a rg in s e.g . s e is m ic e v en ts, v u lc a n ic ity , m o u n ta in w h ich c o m e s u p as m a g m a d u e to riftin g o f plates
b u ild in g , fa u ltin g etc. T h u s, th e d e taile d stu d y o f alo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s . D iv e rg e n t m o v e m en t
p la te b o u n d a rie s is n o t o n ly d e s ira b le b u t is also o f p la te s (i.e. m o v e m e n t o f tw o p la te s in o pposite
n e c e ss a ry . P la te m a rg in s are g e n e ra lly d iv id e d into d ire c tio n s ) re s u lts in (i) v o lc a n ic a c tiv ity o f fissu re
th re e c a te g o rie s as fo llo w s (fig . 6 .7 ). flo w o f b a sa ltic m a g m a , (ii) c re a tio n o f n e w oceanic
(1 ) C o n s tr u c tiv e p la te m a r g in s are also c ru sts, (iii) fo rm a tio n o f s u b m a rin e m o u n ta in ridges
c a lle d a s ‘d iv e r g e n t p la te b o u n d a r ie s ’ o r ‘a ccr etin g a n d rise s, (iv ) c re a tio n o f tra n s fo rm fa u lts , (v ) o ccu r
p la te b o u n d a r ie s ’. I t m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t a re n c e o f s h a llo w fo c u s e a rth q u a k e s , (v i) d riftin g o f
d is tin c tio n m a y be d ra w n b etw ee n p la te m a rg in s an d o c e a n ic p la te s etc.
p la te b o u n d a rie s e .g . p la te m a rg in re p re s e n ts m a r (2 ) D e s tr u c tiv e p la te m a r g in s a re a
g in a l p a r t o f th e p la te w h e re a s p la te b o u n d a ry re p re te rm e d as ‘c o n v e r g e n t p la te b o u n d a r ie s ’ o r ‘con
s e n ts ‘su rfa c e tra c e o f th e zo n e o f m o tio n b e tw e e n s u m in g p la te m a r g in s ’ b e c a u s e tw o p la te s m ove
tw o p la te s .’ C o n s tru c tiv e p la te b o u n d a rie s re p re s e n t to w a rd s e a c h o th e r (fa c e to fa c e ) o r tw o plates
z o n e s o f d iv e rg e n c e w h e re th e re is c o n tin u o u s c o n v e rg e a lo n g a lin e a n d c o llid e w h e re in leading
u p w e llin g o f m o lte n m a te ria l (la v a ) an d th u s new e d g e o f o n e p la te ( o f re la tiv e ly lig h te r m aterial)
o c e a n ic crust is c o n tin u o u s ly fo rm e d . O c e a n ic p la te s o v e rrid e s th e o th e r p la te ( o f re la tiv e ly d e n s e r m ate
sp lit a p a rt a lo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s an d m o v e in ria l) a n d th e o v e rrid d e n p la te is s u d u c te d o r th ru st
PLATE TECTONICS
187
into upper m a n tle a n d th u s a p a rt o f th e cru st (p late) (3) C o n serv a tiv e p la te m a r g in s are a
is lost in th e m a n tle (fig . 6 .8 ), th is is w hy co n v erg e n t called as sh ea r p la te m a rg in s and p a r a lle l/tr a n s
plate m arg in s a re c a lle d d e s tru c tiv e m arg in s. T he fo rm fa u lt b o u n d a ries w h ere tw o p la tes p ass or
zone o f co llisio n o f c o n v e rg e n t p la tes is also called slid e past each o th e r alo n g tran sfo rm fau lts. T h ese
as ‘collision z o n e ’, ‘s u b d u c tio n z o n e ’ and ‘B e n io ff are called c o n serv ativ e b ecau se cru st is n e ith e r c re
zone’ (afte r th e s c ie n tis t H u g o B en io ff). C o n v e r ated nor d estro y ed . T h e sig n ifican t te cto n ic e x p re s
gence, c o llisio n a n d re s u lta n t s u b d u c tio n o f h eav ier sion o f such situ a tio n is th e creatio n o f tran sfo rm
plate m arg in u n d e r lig h te r p la te m a rg in resu lts in (i) faults w hich m o v e, on an av erag e, p arallel to the
occurrence o f ex p lo siv e ty p e o f volcanic eruptions, (ii) d irectio n o f plate m o tion. T ran sfo rm fau lts o ffse t
deep focii earthquakes, (iii) form ation o f folded m oun m id-oceanic ridges. B esides ocean ic transform faults,
tains, island arcs an d festo o n s, o cean ic trenches etc. there are also co n tin en tal tran sfo rm fau lts e.g. S an
P la te c o llis io n s a re o f th ree ty p es viz. (i) A n d reas fault (C alifo rn ia, U S A ), A lp in e fa u lt (A f
ocean— o c e a n c o llis s io n (c o llis io n o f tw o ocean ic rica) etc. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at S an A n d re a s fau lt
plates), (ii) c o n tin e n t-c o n tin e n t co llisio n (co llisio n ‘is rid g e to rid g e tran sfo rm fa u lt.’ T h e o th e r m a n i
of tw o c o n tin e n ta l p la te s ) an d (iii) o c e a n -co n tin e n t festatio n s o f c o n serv ativ e p late m a rg in s in c lu d e no
collision (c o llis io n o f o cea n ic a n d co n tin en tal plates). v olcanic activ ity , seism ic ev en ts, c re a tio n o f rid g e
O c ea n -o c ea n c o llis io n in v o lv e s c o llisio n o f tw o and valley, fractu re zone etc.
co n v erg e n t p la te s h a v in g o c e a n ic cru sts w here one
oceanic c ru s t h a v in g re la tiv e ly d e n se r m aterial is 11.2 PALAEOMAGNETISM
su b d u cted in to u p p e r m a n tle . S u ch co llisio n and P alaeo m ag n etism refers to th e p re s e rv a tio n
su b d u ctio n o c c u rs a lo n g e a s t A sia and th e resu ltan t o f m agnetic p ro p erties in th e o ld e r ro ck s o f th e e arth .
tectonic e x p re s s io n o f p la te c o llisio n and su b d u ctio n It m ay be m en tio n ed that w hen an y ro ck , w h e th e r
includes d e fo rm a tio n in cru sta l area, v u lcan ism , sed im en tary o r igneous, is fo rm ed it g ets m a g n e tis e d
m e ta m o rp h ism , fo rm a tio n o f o cea n ic trench es, is d ep en d in g on the p resen ce o f iron c o n te n t in th e ro c k
land arcs a n d fe s to o n s etc., an d o c c u rre n c e o f e a rth and is p reserv ed (frozen at te m p e ra tu re b e lo w C u r i e
q u ak es. O c e a n -c o n tin e n t c o llis io n in v o lv es co lli p o in t, w hich is g en erally 600°C ). It w as th e y e a r
sion o f o n e o c e a n ic p la te h a v in g o cea n ic cru st and 1600 A .D . w hen W illiam G ilb ert, th e p h y s ic ia n o f
o th er o n e o f c o n tin e n ta l p la te h av in g co n tin en tal Q ueen E lizab eth , p o stu la ted th a t th e e arth b e h a v e d
cru st a lo n g B e n io f f z o n e (s u b d u c tio n zone) and the like a g ia n t m a g n e t and m a g n etism o f th e e a rth w as
re su lta n t te c to n ic e x p re s s io n s are d efo rm a tio n o f p ro d u ced in the in n er p art o f th e earth . T h e m a g n e tic
cru stal ro c k s , m e ta m o rp h ism , v o lcan ic eru p tio n s, field o f the earth is like a g ia n t b a r m a g n e t o f d ip o le s,
fo rm a tio n o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s an d o ccu rren c e o f located in th e cen tre (co re) o f th e e a rth an d is a lig n e d
d e e p -fo c u s e a rth q u a k e s . C o llis io n o f A m erican and ap p ro x im ately alo n g th e axis o f ro ta tio n o f th e e a rth .
P acific p la te s is a ty p ic a l e x a m p le o f this categ o ry W hen the long axis o f d ip o le b ar m a g n e t is e x te n d e d
and fo rm a tio n o f m a je stic w estern co rd ille ra o f N. it intersects the e a rth ’s su rface at tw o c e n tre s w h ic h
are called no rth and so u th m a g n etic p o le s. It m a y be
A m e ric a a n d A n d e s o f S. A m e ric a is sig n ifican t
p o in ted o u t th at m ag n etic so u th p o le o f th e e a rth is
re s u lta n t te c to n ic e x p re s s io n o f su ch situ atio n . It
near its (earth 's) g eo g rap h ical n o rth p o le an d v ic e-
m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t o n e o l the m a n ifestio n s o f
v ersa (i.e. m ag n etic n o rth po le is lo c a te d n e a r g e o
c o n tin e n t-o c e a n ic p la te c o llisio n is th e ex p o su re o f
g rap h ical so u th p o le). I f an o rd in a ry sm all m a g n e t is
d eep o c e a n ro c k s th ro u g h th e ir th ru stin g in resu ltan t freely su sp en d ed at th e ea rth 's su rfa c e th e n th e
m ountain m asses. T h is process is called obduction earth 's so u th m a g n etic p o le attra c ts n o rth p o le o f
w hich is o p p o site to su b d u ctio n as the fo rm er im plies sm all m ag n et and ea rth 's n o rth m a g n e tic p o le a t
thrusting up w h ile th e latter m ean s thrusting dow n. tracts so u th po le o f sm all m ag n et. It m ay be cla rifie d
C o n tin e n t-c o n tin e n t c o llis io n in v o lv es c o l that as p er general ru le w h en tw o m ag n ets are b ro u g h t
lisio n o f tw o c o n tin e n ta l p la te s alo n g B e n io fl zone to g eth er, th en th e ir sim ila r p o les rep el e a c h o th e r but
and is re sp o n sib le fo r c re a tio n o f fo ld ed m o u n tain s o p p o site p o les attra c t e a c h o th er.
and o c c u rre n c e s o f e a rth q u a k e s o f v a r y in g A freely su sp e n d ed m ag n et on th e e a rth 's
m a g n itu d es. T h e co llisio n o f A sia tic -In d ia n plates, su rface d o es not in d ic a te g eo g ra p h ic a l n o rth an d
and E u ro p ea n -A fric an p la tes is ty p ical ex am p le o f so u th p erfectly b eca u se th e ax is o f m a g n e tic n o rth
su ch situ a tio n and th e fo rm a tio n s o f A lp in e and and so u th p o les is not p erfectly a llig n ed alo n g th e
H im a la y a n m o u n t a in o u s c h a i n s a r e m a jo r axis o f g eo g ra p h ic a l n o rth an d s o u th p o le s. T h is
m a n ife stio n s c au ses an g u lar in c lin a tio n b etw ee n th e m a g n e tic an d
188 GEOMORPHOLOGY
g e o g ra p h ic a l axes. T h is a n g u lar in c lin atio n is calle d T h e re q u ire d en e rg y to m a in ta in geo m ag n etic
m a g n e tic d eclin a tio n w hich, in fact, d en o tes an g u field is b e lie v e d to c o m e fro m th re e p o ssib le sources:
la r in c lin a tio n b etw ee n th e d irec tio n o f freely su s (1) h e a t en erg y re le a s e d fro m th e d isin te g ra tio n o f
p e n d e d m a g n e t at an y p a rt o f th e earth 's su rface and ra d io a ctiv e e le m e n ts o f th e c o re o f th e earth . It is
th e d ire c tio n o f earth 's g eo g rap h ical n o rth -so u th a rg u ed th a t th is so u rc e o f en erg y fo r th e generation
p o le axis. O n th e o th e r h and, an g u la r in c lin atio n o f c o n v e c tiv e c u rre n ts (e le c tric a l c u rre n ts) m ay not
b etw ee n freely su sp e n d ed m ag n etic n eed le and h o ri be p o s sib le b e c a u se if w e a c c e p t th is prop o sitio n
zo n tal p la n e o f th e earth 's su rface is called m a g n etic th en d iffic u lty a rise s in th e p ro c e s s o f co o lin g o f the
in c lin a tio n o r m a g n e tic d ip. I f a m ag n etic n eed le is c ru st o f th e e a rth b e c a u se su c h situ a tio n (generation
freely su sp e n d ed at th e n o rth p o le o f th e earth, th e o f h e a t en erg y fro m ra d io a c tiv e e le m e n ts) w ould
n o rth p o le o f the m a g n e t bein g c lo se r to the so u th also p rev ail in th e m a n tle a n d h e n c e th e c ru st cannot
m a g n etic p o le o f th e earth (w hich is, in fact, near co o l b e c a u se th e re w o u ld b e c o n s ta n t su p p ly o f heat
g e o g ra p h ic a l n o rth p o le) w ould be attracted m ore en erg y fro m b e lo w (fro m th e m a n tle ). (2 ) T h e d o w n
a n d m a g n e tic n eed le b eco m es p erp en d icu lar. C o n w ard tran sfer o f ferro m a g n esian m aterials from m antle
se q u e n tly , n o rth p o le o f th e su sp en d ed m ag n etic in to co re re su lts in th e re le a s e o f g ra v ity fo rc e in the
n eed le d ip s d o w n w a rd vertically . T h e situ atio n is c o re w h ich in tu rn p ro d u c e s e n e rg y . (3 ) T h e m o v e
re v e rse d in th e so u th ern h em isp h ere. T h u s, m a g m en t o f m a te ria ls fro m in n e r c o re to th e o u te r core
n etic d ip beco m es 90° on g eo g rap h ical north and resu lts in th e h e a tin g o f o u te r c o re th ro u g h heat
so u th p o les o f the earth. M ag n etic dip b eco m es zero en erg y re le a se d fro m in n e r c o re (fo r d eta ils see
w h erev er freely susp en d ed m ag n etic needle becom es c h a p te r 5, g e n e r a tio n a n d t r a n s f e r o f h e a t in sid e
h o rizo n tal at th e earth 's su rface. T h e im ag in ary line th e e a r th ) .
jo in in g p la ces o f zero m ag n etic dip angle is called
m a g n etic eq u ator. T h e m ag n etic dip angle increases R em a n en t M a g n etism
p o lew ard . It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at th ere m ay be T h e g e o c e n tric a x ial d ip o le m a g n e tic field
spatial and tem p o ral variatio n in the in ten sity o f re p re se n ts 95 p e r c e n t o f th e e a rth ’s to tal m ag n etism .
sim p le d ip o le m a g n etic field. T h e re m a in in g p o rtio n is re p re s e n te d by irregular,
scattered an d w eak m a g n e tic field s. It m ay be pointed
S o u r c e o f G e o m a g n etic Field o u t th a t th e re is n o su ch g ia n t b a r m a g n e t in sid e the
T h e o rig in o f g eo m ag n etic field is in no case earth b u t th e re is m o re c o n c e n tra tio n o f m ag n etism
re la te d to m an tle ra th e r it is related to th e o u ter co re in th e ro ck s o f th e c o re o f th e e a rth in th e sh a p e o f a
o f th e earth b eca u se o f the fact th at th ere is gradual b ar m ag n et. T h e h o t a n d liq u id la v a a n d m a g m a w ith
w e stw a rd m ig ratio n o f g eo m ag n etic field at the rate h ig h fe rro m a g n e sia n c o n te n ts , w h e n c o o le d and so
o f 0.18° p e r y e a r w h ich p ro v es th a t the ro tatio n o f lid ifie d to fo rm ig n e o u s ro c k s , g e t m a g n e tis e d , the
g e o m a g n e tic field is slo w er than the ro tatio n o f the reco rd s o f w h ic h are p re s e rv e d in th e ro c k s. Such
earth . T h is in d ire c tly p ro v es th at th e co re o f th e earth m a g n e tism p re s e rv e d (fro z e n ) in th e ro c k s a re called
ro ta te s at slo w e r rate than th e o v erly in g m an tle. It r e m a n e n t o r p a l a e o m a g n e tis m . It is to b e rem em
m a y b e s ta te d th a t ‘th e m ag n etic field can n o t be a b ered th a t th e n e w ly fo rm e d ro c k s a re m a g n e tise d in
p e rm a n e n t p ro p e rty o f th e m aterial o f the c o r e ........ th e d ire c tio n o f e x istin g g e o m a g n e tic fie ld , a n d thus
m u s t th e re fo re b e c o n tin u o u sly p ro d u ced and m a in th e m a g n e tic in c lin a tio n /d ip o f n e w ly fo rm e d rocks
ta in e d ’ (A . and D o ris L. H o lm es, 1978). I f p e rm a is th e s a m e as th a t o f th e g e o m a g n e tic fie ld at the
n e n t g e o m a g n e tic fie ld is n o t p o ssib le th en th e c o n tim e o f th e fo rm a tio n o f s a id ig n e o u s ro c k s. T hus, it
tin u o u s p ro d u c tio n an d m a in te n a n c e o f g eo m ag n etic is e v id e n t th a t th e o rie n ta tio n an d m a g n e tic inclina
field m ay be p o s sib le o n ly w h en th e re w o u ld be tio n o f p a la e o m a g n e tis m p re s e rv e d in th e rocks is
p re s e n c e o f m a te ria ls o f h ig h e le c tric a l c o n d u c tiv ity alw ay s in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e p re v a ilin g m agnetic
in th e c o re so th a t e le c tric a l cu rre n ts m ay be g e n e r in c lin a tio n o f g e o m a g n e tic fie ld . T h e in ten sity o f
ated . It is fu rth e r p o in te d o u t th a t th e g en e ra tio n o f su ch p a la e o m a g n e tism /re m a n e n t m a g n e tism depends
e le c tric a l c u rre n ts is p o ssib le o n ly in m e tallic liq u id on th e c o m p o sitio n o f m in e ra ls o f la v a an d m a g m a at
th e tim e o f c o o lin g an d s o lid ific a tio n an d on the
m a te ria ls and su c h situ a tio n is fo u n d in th e o u te r co re
in ten sity o f g e o m a g n e tic fie ld o f th a t p e r i o d (w hen
o f th e e a rth w h ic h fu n c tio n s as s e lf ex c itin g d y
th e c o n c e rn e d ig n e o u s ro c k s w e re fo rm e d ). Simi"
n a m o . T h u s, th e e n e rg y c o m in g o u t o f th e co re is larly , s e d im e n ta ry ro c k s , a t th e tim e o f th e ir fo rm a
tra n s fo rm e d in to e le c tric a l c u rre n ts w h ich in a sso tio n , are a lso m a g n e tis e d , th e in te n s ity o f w hich
ciation w ith m e ta llic liq u id s u b sta n c e s p ro d u c e g e o d e p e n d s o n th e a m o u n t o f fe rro m a g n e sia n m inerals
c e n tr ic d ip o le m a g n e tic fie ld . p re s e n t th e re in . S o m e tim e s, th e m a g n e tis m (w ealf^ j
pi^ tb t e c t o n ic s
189
o f sedimentary rocks is destroyed due to chem ical
C en o zo ic lavas. B lack ett an d his asso ciates d e te r
c h a n g e Rem anent m agnetism preserved in the rocks m ined the position o f p oles b efo re 2 0 0 m illio n y ears
is recorded w ith the help o f g a lv a n o m eter . in B ritish Isles on the basis o f p alaeo m a g n etic re c o n
stru ctio n o f san d sto n es. T h e study rev ea led c o n s id
Reconstruction of Palaeomagnetism erab le ch an g es in the p o sitio n s o f p o le s in th e p ast.
T h e re c o n s tru c tio n o t p alaeo m a g n etism in T h is study, thus, rev ealed th e fact, ‘th a t m agnetic
volves th e c o lle c tio n o f ro c k sa m p le s o f th e sam e age poles have changed their position s a n d there has
from d iffe re n t p la c e s an d d e te rm in a tio n and reco rd been considerable w andering in the p o sitio n o f
ing o f th e ir o rie n ta tio n . It m ay be p o in ted o u t that poles. ’ O n the basis o f this rev elatio n tw o in fere n ces
som e c h a n g e s m a y ta k e p la ce in th e o rig in al o rien may be d raw n —
tation o f m a g n e tis m d u e to te cto n ic ev en ts. Any (1) T he p o les m u st h av e c h a n g e d th e ir p o s i
w ay, a f te r th e d e te r m in a tio n o f o rie n ta tio n o f tions and the co n tin en ts and o cean b asin s m ig h t h av e
p a laeo m a g n etism , th e m a g n itu d e , d eclin atio n and rem ained statio n ary at th e ir p laces th ro u g h o u t g e o
inclination o f lo c a l fo rc e are m e asu re d w ith the help logical tim e.
o f m a g n e to m e te r . It is a ssu m ed th a t g en erally at the
(2) P o lar w an d erin g has o c c u rre d d u e to c o n
tim e o f m a g n e tis a tio n o f ro c k s (p alaeo m ag n etism )
tinental drift i.e. co n tin en ts c h an g e d th e ir re la tiv e
the g e o m a g n e tic fie ld is d ip o la r in sh ap e and th ere is
positions w hile m agnetic p o les re m a in e d sta tio n a ry .
a p p r o x im a te c o i n c i d e n c e b e tw e e n a v e r a g e
g eo m ag n etic fie ld (a v e ra g e , b eca u se it varies tem P o lar w an d erin g cu rv es are p re p a re d fo r d if
porally) an d c o n te m p o ra ry g eo g rap h ical poles. B ased ferent co n tin en ts on the basis o f d ata d e riv e d th ro u g h
on this a s s u m p tio n a v e ra g e p a laeo m a g n etic in clin a p alaeo m ag n etic reco n stru ctio n . A s p e r ru le i f th ere
tion/dip o f ro c k s o f a c e rta in p la ce and o f a certain
has not been continental drift, then the p o la r w an
tim e is d e te rm in e d , o n th e b asis o f w h ich the latitude
dering curves o f different continents a t a certain
time p eriod (sam e tim e f o r a ll the co n tin en ts) sh a ll
o f th a t p la c e e x is tin g at th a t tim e is d eterm in ed on the
be the same, but i f the contin en tal d rift has o c
basis o f th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n —
curred then these p o la r w andering curves w o u ld be
tan I = 2 tan X different fo r each continent. T h e m a g n e tic p o la r
w hen I = m a g n etic inclination w andering curves, w hen p lo tted fo r d iffe re n t c o n ti
nents for sam e perio d , d iffe r fro m e a c h o th er. T h is
A, = latitu d e clearly show s that p o les h av e n o t c h a n g e d th e ir
T h u s , th e la titu d e , so d eterm in e d helps in p ositions rath er c o n tin en ts h av e c h a n g e d th e ir p o s i
d e te rm in in g th e d is ta n c e o f p o les and the d irection tions. T hus, it is co n clu d ed th a t ‘the con cepts o f
o f p o le s is d e te rm in e d on th e basis o f palaeo m ag n etic perm anency o f continents an d ocean basins a n d
d ec lin a tio n (D ). O n th e b asis o f d ista n ce and d irec p o la r w andering stand autom atically rejected a n d
tion o f g e o g ra p h ic a l p o le s fro m th e selected place continental displacem ent an d d rift becom es a rea l
(from w h e re th e ro c k sam p les are co llected ) the ity. ’ It is, thus, valid ated th a t if the re la tiv e p o sitio n s
p o sitio n o f p o le s o f th e g lo b e , at th e tim e o f the o f co n tin en ts have ch an g ed , th e p o sitio n o f m a g n etic
fo rm atio n o f th e s a m p le ro ck s, is d eterm in e d . T here po le d eterm in ed on the b asis o f c o n te m p o ra ry ro ck s
m ay b e s o m e e rro rs in th e afo resaid p ro cess o f o f a co n tin en t w ould d iffe r fro m th e p o sitio n o f
d e te rm in a tio n o f th e p o sitio n o f th e g lo b e, viz. (i) at m ag n etic p o le (o f sam e p erio d ) o f th e o th e r c o n ti
the tim e o f p a la e o m a g n e tic rec o n stru c tio n the im nents. It m ay be fu rth er elab arate d . S o lo n g as tw o
p act o f o n ly g e o m a g n e tic field is co n sid ere d w hile co n tin en ts are jo in e d to g e th e r o r are n o t d riftin g in
m in o r m a g n e tic fie ld s are ig n o red ; (ii) sam p led relatio n to o n e an o th er, th e m a g n etic p o la r w an d er
rocks m ig h t h a v e e x p e rie n c e d m a g n etic ch an g es, ing cu rv es fo r sam e p e rio d w o u ld b e the sa m e fo r
(iii) so m e e rro rs m a y c ro p u p at th e tim e o f o rie n ta both th e c o n tin en ts. A cc o rd in g to A .G . W e g e n e r all
tion e tc. In o rd e r to re m o v e th e se e rro rs sev eral ro ck th e co n tin en ts w ere jo in e d to g e th e r in th e fo rm o f
sam p les o f s a m e ag e are c o lle c te d and th e p o sitio n o f P an g aea till late P erm ian p erio d . I f th is w as so, th en
p o le s is d e t e r m in e d a f te r th e s tu d y o f th e ir th ere sh o u ld be on ly o n e p a laeo m a g n etic p o le fo r all
p a la e o m a g n e tism an d c a lc u la tio n o f av era g e value th e c o n tin en ts d u rin g P ala eo zo ic era. T h is in fere n ce
on th e b a s is o f sta tistic a l m eth o d s. b ecam e tru e w h en th e p alaeo m a g n etic p o la r w a n
B a s e d on th e a b o v e m e th o d th e p o sitio n s o f d erin g cu rv e w as p rep ared fo r P a la eo zo ic P a n g a e a
p o le s w e re d e te rm in e d in Ja p a n , Italy , F ran ce etc. on by jo in in g all th e p re se n t d ay co n tin e n ts to g e th e r so
th e b a s is o f p a la e o m a g n e tic r e c o n s tru c tio n o f as to co n ce iv e th e situ a tio n in P a la e o z o ic era.
C SOMORPHOLOGY
190
It is, th u s, fin ally p ro v ed th at based on p o la r th e ro ck s o f all th e c o n tin e n ts at th a t tim e (d u rin g
w anderin g curves o f different p eriods f o r different rev ersed d ire c tio n o f g e o m a g n e tic fie ld ) are m a g n et
co n tin en ts on th e basis o f data d eriv e d fr o m ized ag ain in th e d ire c tio n o f g e o m a g n e tic fie ld but
p alaeom agn etic reconstruction not only the con th is tim e th e d ire c tio n o f m a g n e tism o f ro ck s is
c ep t o f con tin en tal d rift is validated but the m ech a o p p o site to th e d ire c tio n o f p re v io u s ly fo rm e d and
nism o f disru ption o f W egener's Pangaea, separa m a g n e tiz e d ro c k s b e c a u se n o w th e d ire c tio n o f
tion o f d ifferen t contin en ts an d th eir displacem ent g e o m ag n etic field h as g o t re v e rs e d itse lf. It is g e n e r
ally b e lie v e d th a t fie ld re v e rs a l o c c u rs a t reg u la r
is also validated.
in terv al o f tim e.
R eversal o f Polarity S c ie n tists h a v e m e a su re d m a g n e tic p o la rity
T h e stu d y o f p alaeo m a g n etism also rev ealed o f ro ck s u p to 4 .5 m illio n y e a rs w h ic h d e n o te s d e fi
th a t m a g n e tiz a tio n o f so m e ro ck s w as not co n fo rm al n ite and p e rfe c t tim e se q u e n c e . T h e ro c k s fo rm e d at
to the g e o m a g n e tic field i.e. the ro ck s w ere m a g n et th e sam e tim e p e rio d in all th e c o n tin e n ts d en o te
ized in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n o f m ain g eo m ag n etic field. sam e p o la rity . F ig . 11.2 s h o w s tim e s e q u e n c e o f
It w as fu rth e r su b sta n tia te d d u rin g th e d ecad e 1950- rev ersal o f g e o m a g n e tic fie ld o r p o la rity re v ersal
6 0 th a t th e o c c u rre n c e o f rev ersely m ag n etized ro ck s u p to 4 .5 m illio n y e a rs. It is e v id e n t fro m fig . 11.2
w as not ra re p h en o m en o n rath e r it w as u n iv ersal th a t th e re are fo u r p o la rity e p o c h s w h e re in tw o
p h en o m en o n . T h e av ailab le data o f p alaeo m ag n etism ep o ch s (e.g. G a u ss a n d B ru h n e s ) a re o f n o rm a l
re v e a ls th e fa c t th a t ab o u t 50 p er c en t o f th e ro ck s o f p o la r it y w h ile tw o e p o c h s ( e .g . G ilb e r t an d
th e cru st h av e g o t m ag n etized in o p p o site d irec tio n M a tu y a m a ) are o f r e v e r s e p o la r ity . P o la rity e v en ts
to th e g e o m a g n e tic field. T h ere m ay be tw o p o s si w ith in d iffe re n t g e o m a g n e tic p o la rity e p o c h s h ave
b ilitie s in this re g a rd — b een n am ed a fte r th e p la c e w h e re re m a n e n t m a g n e t
(1) A t the tim e o f m a g n etiz atio n o f ro ck s at ism (p a la e o m a g n e tis m ) w a s s tu d ie d first.
g iv e n tim e p e rio d so m e ro ck s m ig h t h av e been
m a g n etiz ed in o p p o site d irec tio n to th e g eo m ag n etic 1 1 .3 SEA-FLO O R SPR E A D IN G
field o r in itia lly all th e ro ck s w ere m a g n etiz ed in th e T h e c o n c e p t o f s e a -flo o r sp re a d in g w as first
d ire c tio n o f g e o m a g n e tic field b u t at a later d ate th e p ro p o u n d e d by P ro f. H ary H ess o f th e P rin c e to n
d ire c tio n o f so m e ro ck s m ig h t h av e c h an g e d and u n iv e rsity in th e y e a r 1960. H is c o n c e p t w as b a s e d
h e n c e o p p o site d irec tio n o f p a la e o m a g n e tism o f on th e re s e a rc h fin d in g s o f a la rg e n u m b e r o f m a rin e
ro ck s m ig h t h av e b eco m e p o ssib le. T h is m e ch an ism g e o lo g ists, g e o c h e m is ts , g e o p h y s ic is ts etc. M a sso n
o f re v e rsa l o f p o la rity is called s e lf r e v e r s a l. o f th e S c rip p s I n s titu te o f O c e a n o g ra p h y o b ta in e d
(2 ) A lte rn a tiv e ly , o rig in ally th e m a g n e tiz a sig n ific a n t in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e m a g n e tis m o f the
tio n o f re v e rs e ly m a g n etiz ed ro ck s m ig h t h av e tak en ro ck s o f s e a -flo o r o f th e P a c ific O c e a n w ith th e h elp
p la c e in th e d ire c tio n o f g eo m a g n e tic field b u t at a o f m a g n e to m e te r. L a te r o n h e s u rv e y e d a lo n g stretch
la te r d a te th e re m ig h t h av e b een rev ersal in th e o f th e s e a -flo o r o f th e P a c ific O c e a n fro m M e x ic o to
d ire c tio n o f g e o m a g n e tic field itself. T h is m e c h a B ritish C o lu m b ia a lo n g th e w e s te rn c o a s t o f N o rth
n ism o f re v e rs a l o f p o la rity is calle d g e o m a g n e tic A m e ric a . W h e n th e d a ta o f m a g n e tic a n o m alie s
fie ld r e v e r sa l. o b ta in e d d u rin g th e a fo re s a id s u rv e y w e re d isp la y e d
T h e firs t p o s s ib ility o f rev ersal o f p o la rity i.e. on a c h a rt, th e re e m e rg e d w e ll d e fin e d p a tte rn s o f
s e lf r e v e r s a l o f p o la r ity , as re fe rre d to a b o v e, co u ld strip e s (fig . 6 .9 ). B a s e d o n th e se in fo rm a tio n H ary
n o t be s u b sta n tia te d on th e b asis o f av a ila b le field H ess p ro p o u n d e d th a t th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s w ere
d a ta th o u g h N eel s u g g e s te d a few th e o re tic a l p o s si situ a te d o n th e ris in g th e rm a l c o n v e c tio n cu rren ts
b ilitie s to v a lid a te s e lf rev ersal. M o st o f th e s c ie n c o m in g up fro m th e m a n tle (fig . 6 .1 0 ). T h e o cean ic
tists a re o f th e o p in io n th at te rre stria l ro ck s are c ru s t m o v e s in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s fro m m id -o cean ic
m a g n e tiz e d a lw a y s in th e d ire c tio n o f g e o m a g n e tic rid g e s an d th u s th e re is c o n tin u o u s u p w e llin g o f new
f ie ld , b u t th e re is re v e rs a l in th e d ir e c tio n o f m olten m a teria ls (la v a s) alo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic ridges.
g e o m a g n e tic fie ld , i.e. n o rth -s o u th d ire c tio n o f T h e se m o lte n la v a s c o o l d o w n a n d s o lid ify to fo rm
g e o m a g n e tic field a fte r c e rta in tim e b e c o m e s so u th - new c ru s t a lo n g th e tra ilin g e n d s o f d iv e rg e n t plates
n o rth . F o r e x a m p le , if th e g e o m a g n e tic field is in (o c e a n ic c ru s t). T h u s , th e re is c o n tin u o u s c re a tio n o f
n o rm a l d ire c tio n (n o rth -s o u th ), all th e ro ck s o f all n ew c ru s t a lo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s . T h is, ac
th e c o n tin e n ts fo rm e d a t th at tim e are m a g n e tiz e d in c o rd in g to H ess, p ro v e s th e fa c t th a t s e a -flo o r sp read s
n o rm a l d ire c tio n b u t w h en th e n o rm al d ire c tio n o f a lo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s a n d th e e x p a n d in g
g e o m a g n e tic fie ld g e ts re v e rs e d (s o u th -n o rth ), all cru sts (p lates) are d estro y ed alo n g th e o cean ic trenches.
P L A T E T E C T O N IC S 191
T hese facts p ro v e th a t the co n tin en ts and ocean Indian O cean in 1963 and co m p u ted th e m ag n etic
basins are in c o n sta n t m otion. * p ro files on the b asis o f g en eral m ag n etism . W h en
W . G . V in e and M atth eu s co n d u cted the m ag they com pared the co m p u ted m ag n etic p ro files w ith
netic su rv ey o f th e cen tral part o f C arlsb erg R idge in the pro files o f m agnetic an o m alies p lo tte d on th e
basis o f actual d ata o b tain ed d u rin g th e su rv ey , they
found sizeab le d ifferen ce b etw een th e tw o p ro files.
W hen they plotted the m ag n etic p ro files on th e b asis
o f altern ate bands o f norm al and rev erse m a g n etism
in separate stripes o f 20 km w idth on e ith e r sid e o f
the ridge, they found co m p lete p arallelism b etw een
the com puted p ro files and o b serv ed p ro files.
V ine and M attheus have op in ed on the basis
o f th e e v id e n c e s o f te m p o ra l re v e rs a l in th e
geom agnetic field and the concept o f sea-flo o r spread-
ing as propounded by D eitz and H ess th a t w h en
m olten hot lavas co m e up w ith th e risin g th e rm al
convection currents along th e m id -o cean ic rid g es
and get cooled and solidified, th e se also g et m a g n e t
ized at the sam e tim e, in acco rd an ce w ith th e th e n
g eom agnetic field and thus altern ate b an d s o r strip e s
o f m agnetic anom alies are fo rm ed on e ith e r sid e o f
the m id-oceanic ridge. In o th er w ords, w hen m o lten
lavas are upw elled along the m id -o cean ic rid g es,
these divide the earlier basaltic lay er in to tw o eq u al
halves and these basaltic layers slide h o riz o n ta lly on
either side o f the m id-oceanic ridges. T h e fin d in g s o f
C ox, D oell and D alrym pal (1964), O p d y k e et. al
(1966) and H eritzler (1966) h av e v alid ated th e fo l
low ing facts— (i) th ere is rev ersal in th e m ain
geom agnetic field o f the earth (know n as g eo cen tric
dipole m agnetic field), (ii) norm al and rev erse m a g
netic am om alies are found in altern ate m a n n er on
eith er side o f the m id -o cean ic ridges, (iii) th e re is
com plete p arallelism in the m agnetic an o m alies on
either side o f the m id-oceanic ridges and (iv) th ere is
parallelism in the tim e seq u en ce o f p alaeo m a g n etic
epochs and ev en ts calcu lated for 4.5 m illio n y ears on
the basis o f m agnetism o f basaltic rocks o r sed im en
tary rocks. Fig. 6.11 d epicts the p o sitio n o f m ag n etic
stripes on eith er side o f the m id -o cean ic rid g e along
w ith the tim e-scale o f th eir form ation.
It m ay be co n clu d ed , on the basis o f above
discussion, that th ere is co n tin u o u s sp read in g o f sea-
floor. N ew basaltic crust is co n tin u o u sly form ed
along the m id -o cean ic ridges. T h e new ly form ed
basaltic layer is div id ed into tw o equal halves and is
thus displaced aw ay from the m id-oceanic ridge.
A lternate stripes o f positive and negative m agnetic
anom alies are found on eith er side o f the m id-
o ceanic ridges. Such m agnetic anom alies (positive
,in(i negative) are form ed because o t tem poral re-
« « » H n the geom agnetic Held T he rocks f o m e d
Fig. 11.2 : Time scale o f reversal o f geomagnetic field d u rin g norm al geom agnetic Held contain posm ve
(after A. Cox, 1969).
GEOM ORPHOLOGY
192
on th e su rface o f a sp h e re can b e re g a rd e d as a sim ple
m agnetic anom alies w hile the r w k s f o m e d d u n n g
ro tatio n o f th e p la te a b o u t a su ita b le c h o se n axis
reverse polarity (reversed g eo m ag n etic field ) d en o te
p a ssin g th ro u g h th e c e n tre o f th e s p h e re ’ (E .R .
negative m agnetic anom alies. O x b u rg h , 1979) (fig . i 1.3). T h e ro ta tio n ax is o f
T he age o f m ag n etic stripes, th e rate o f sea- p la tes p a sse s th ro u g h th e c e n tre o f th e g lo b e. ‘A ll
floor spreading and th e tim e o f d riftin g o f d iffere n t p o in ts o n th e p la te tra v e l a lo n g sm all c irc le p ath s
continents are calcu lated on the basis o f above facts. ab o u t th e ch o se n a x is ( o f ro ta tio n ) in p a ssin g fro m
T he d ating o f th e m agnetic stripes fo rm ed upto 4.5 th e ir in itia l to fin al p o sitio n s. It fo llo w s th a t any
m illion years b efo re p resen t has been co m p leted on p la te b o u n d ary w h ic h is c o n s e rv a tiv e (i.e. in v o lv es
the basis o f inform atio n o b tain ed from th e survey o f n eith er p la te g ro w th n o r d e s tru c tio n ) m u s t b e p a ra l
palaeom agnetism o f the sea-floors o f different oceans. lel to sm all c irc le, th e ax is o f w h ic h is th e a x is o f
T he rate o f sea-flo o r sp read in g is calcu lated on tw o ro tatio n fo r th e re la tiv e m o tio n ’ (E .R . O x b u rg h ,
bases e.g. (i) on the basis o f the age o f is o c h ro n s 1979). O n th e o th e r h an d , th e m a rg in o f th e p la te ,
(isochrons are those lines w hich jo in th e p o in ts o f
w hich is n o t p arallel to sm all c irc le , b e c o m e s e ith e r
equal dates o f the m agnetic stripes p lo tted on the
c o n stru ctiv e (acc re tin g ) o r d e s tru c tiv e (c o n s u m in g )
m ap) and (ii) on the basis o f d istan ce b etw een tw o
isochrons. T hus, the rates o f sp read in g (d riftin g ) o f p late m argin.
d ifferen t oceans have been determ in ed on the basis
o f above principles. T he A tlan tic and Indian O ceans
are spreading (expanding) very slu g g ish ly i.e. at the
rate o f 1.0 to 1.5 cm p er year w hile the P acific O cean
is expanding at the rate o f 6.0 cm p er year. It m ay be
pointed o u t th a t the rate o f seaflo o r sp read in g alw ays
m eans the rate o f ex p an sio n only on one side o f the
m id-oceanic ridge. F o r exam ple, if the rate o f sea-
floor spreading is rep o rted to be 1.0 cm p er year, the
total sp reading o f the co ncerned ocean w ould be
1+1=2 cm p e r year. T he recent studies have show n
that the m axim um spreading o f the P acific O cean is
6 to 9 cm p e r y ear (total expansion 12 to 18 cm /year)
along the eastern P acific ridge betw een eq u ato r and
30° S latitude, (ii) the southern A tlan tic O cean is
spreading along the southern A tlan tic rid g e at the
rate o f 2 cm p e r y ear (total ex pansion 4 cm /y ear) and
(iii) th e In d ian O cean is ex p an d in g at th e rate o f 1.5
to 3 cm p e r y e a r (total ex p an sio n bein g 3 to 6 cm /
y ear).
11.4 PLATE MOTION

A ll lith o sp h eric plates co n stan tly m o v e w ith Fig. 11.3 : Plate m otion according to p la te tectonic theory
resp ect to each o th e r w ith v ary in g rates. P late m o based on E uler's geo m etrica l theorem . A B E
tions are cu rren tly m easu red and m o n ito re d by u sin g represents earlier one co ntiguous landm ass
satellites and lasers. It m ay be m en tio n ed th a t each w hich has been sp lit into tw o blocks i.e. A B C
a n d A D E blocks. A represents p o le o f rotation
p la te m oves as a sin g le u n it h av in g relativ ely little
w hich is also contact p o in tfo r sep a ra ted A B C
c h an g es in its m id d le p art. O n ly th e p la te m arg in s a n d A D E blocks. S o lid lin es in d ica te sm a ll
u n d erg o changes. It is also to b e stated th a t th e p la te circle p a th s o r ‘lin es o f la titu d e ’ a b o u t the
m o tio n is rela tiv e w ith resp ect to o th e r p la te i.e. any p o le o f rotation (A), broken lin es-la titu d es
c h an g e in rate o r d irec tio n o f m o tio n in o n e p la te a n d lo n g itu d es a n d N -S d e n o te s g eo g ra p h i
cau ses c o rresp o n d in g c h an g es in o th e r plates. I f th e cal north a n d south pole. (a fterE .R . O xburgh,
p la te s a re rig id b lo ck s an d m o v e on th e su rface o f th e 1979).
sp h erical earth, th e ir m otion can b e ex p la in e d in
terms o f E u ler 's g eo m etrica l th eo rem . T h e m ech an ism o f p late m o tio n can b e e x
plained on the b asis o f fig . 11.3 (as d escrib ed by E .R .
‘E uler's g eo m etrical th eo rem show s th a t ev ery O xburgh, 1979). A B E represents origin al sin g le
d isp la cem e n t o f a p la te fro m o n e p o sitio n to an o th e r
con tigu ou s landm ass w h ich has sp lit in to tw o b lock s
plate te c to n ic s
1 93
i.e. block X (re p re s e n te d by A B C ) and b lo c k Y the addition (accretio n ) o f new b asaltic cru st a t the
(represented by A D E ). T h e se tw o sep arated blocks co n stru ctiv e plate m arg in s alo n g m id -o cean ic ridges
have c o n ta c t at p o in t A (p o in t o f p o le ro tatio n ). and co n seq u en t sea-flo o r sp read in g is su ita b ly c o m
Black so lid lin es d e n o te sm all circ le p ath s around pensated by loss o f cru st due to su b d u ctio n alo n g the
centre o f p o le o f ro ta tio n (A ). B ro k en lines rep resen t co n v erg in g (co n su m in g ) p late b o u n d aries.
geographical la titu d e s an d lo n g itu d es. P lates m ove
parallel to th e sm all c irc le p ath s aro u n d the cen tre of
pole o f ro ta tio n (A ). P la te m o tio n is alm o st zero at
the cen tre o f p o le o f ro ta tio n (A ) an d in creases aw ay
from A and b e c o m e s m a x im u m at 90° from A (i e at
0° latitu d e w h ic h re p re s e n ts sm all circ le path and not
the g e o g ra p h ic a l la titu d e ). In fig. 11.3 ps and qr
rep resen t sid e s o f th e re e n tra n t. I f th e se (sid es) are
p arallel, th e y a re a lso p a ra lle l to th e lines o f latitu d e
(sm all c irc le p a th s ) a b o u t A . T h e se sid es (ps and qr)
re p re se n t c o n s e rv a tiv e p la te m a rg in s, w h ich during
plate m o v e m e n t a re n e ith e r ac c re te d no r co nsum ed.
It m ay b e m e n tio n e d th a t lin es o f la titu d es are, in
fact, ro ta tio n a l la titu d e s .
‘A c o ro lla ry o f E u le r's th eo rem is that the
v e lo c ity o f re la tiv e m o tio n acro ss a co n stru ctiv e or
d e s tru c tiv e b o u n d a ry is p ro p o rtio n a l b o th to an g u lar
v e lo c ity a b o u t th e ax is o f ro tatio n fo r the m otion o f
th e p la te s , a n d to th e a n g u la r d ista n ce o f th e p o in t on
th e b o u n d a ry u n d e r c o n sid e ra tio n from the axis o f
ro ta tio n (fig . 11.3). It im p lie s th at v elo cities vary
c o n tin u o u s ly a lo n g all c o n stru c tiv e and d estru ctiv e
b o u n d a rie s , b e in g sm a lle s t in ‘h ig h r o ta tio n a l la ti
t u d e s ’ a n d g re a te s t in ‘lo w r o ta t io n a l la tit u d e s ’
(E .R . O x b u rg h , 1979).
W .J. M o rg a n h as su c c e s s fu lly e x p lain ed the
s p re a d in g o f e q u a to ria l A tla n tic and p late m o v em en t
on th e b a s is o f E u le r's g e o m e tric a l th e o re m . It m ay
be m e n tio n e d th a t m id -A tla n tic rid g e crest is d is
p la ced on e ith e r s id e a lo n g n u m e ro u s tran sfo rm
fau lts ru n n in g in a lm o s t e a s t-w e s t d ire c tio n , w hose
im p o rta n c e h e re is th a t th ey re p re s e n t c o n serv ativ e
secto rs o f p la te b o u n d a ry s e p a ra tin g c o n stru ctiv e
se c to rs -th e s p re a d in g p a rts o f th e rid g e (m id -A tla n
tic rid g e ). A ll a c tiv e tra n s fo rm fau lts on the sam e
rid g e o u g h t to b e s e g m e n ts o f c o -a x ia l sm all circles
if the p la te m o d e l is v a lid ’ (E .R . O x b u rg h , 1979).
A cc o rd in g to p la te m o d e l w ith re fe re n c e to P ^ e
m otion b a s e d on E u le r 's g e o m e tric a l th e o re m all the Fig. 11.4 : Intersection o f great circles at a common
great c irc le s , i f d ra w n , m u s t in te rs e c t at a sin g le point P which denotes pole o f rotation, (source:
point w h ic h w o u ld b e th e p o le o f rotation . W h en E.R. Oxburgh, 1979).
W .J. M o rg a n c o n s tr u c te d g re a t c irc le s n o rm al to the
strike o f tra n s fo rm fa u lts o f th e e q u a to ria l A tla n tic 11.5 C A U SE S OF PLATE MOTION
O cean (fig . 1 1 .4 ), h e fo u n d th a t all th e great circ le s S ev eral m e c h a n ism s, so u rces and p o ssib le
except o n e in te rs e c te d a t o n e c o m m o n p o in t P (lig- cau ses o f p la te m o tio n (m o v e m e n t) h av e b een s u g
11.4) at 5 7 .5 °N a n d 3 6 .5 °W . T h is re su lt th u s v a li g ested by sc ie n tists but n o n e o f th e m co u ld be fully
dated th e m e c h a n is m o f p la te m o tio n on th e h a s i s 1 su b sta n tia te d till now d u e to la ck o f c o n v in c in g
E uler's g e o m e tric a l th e o re m . It m a y b e e la rilic d th at ev id en ces. A m a jo rity o f sc ie n tists c o n s id e r th e rm al
the s u rfa c e a re a o f th e e a rth d o e s n o t in c re a s e d u e to c o n v e c tiv e cu rren ts in sid e th e earth as p o s sib le d riv
plate m o v e m e n t r a th e r it re m a in s c o n s ta n t b e c a u se ing fo rce fo r th e m o v e m e n t o f p la tes. It m ay be
GEOMORPHOLOGY
194
p o in ted o u t th a t A . H o lm es p o stu lated the co n c e p t o f it has no w b een v a lid a te d th a t th e c o n tin en ts and
risin g th erm al co n v ec tio n cu rren ts from w ith in th e o cean b a sin s h av e n e v e r b een sta tio n a ry or p erm a
earth in 1928. T h e m ech an ism o f th erm al c o n v ec tiv e nen t at th e ir p la ces ra th e r th e se h av e alw ay s been
cu rren ts in liquid m a tte r w as th e o re tic ally stu d ied by m o b ile th ro u g h o u t th e g e o lo g ic a l h isto ry o f the earth
L ord R ay leig h . C u rren tly , a h ost o f scien tists have and th ey are still m o v in g in re la tio n to each other.
accorded acc ep tan c e to the m e ch an ism o f therm al T h e sc ie n tists h av e d is c o v e re d am p le ev id en ces to
co n v ec tiv e cu rren ts on the basis o f therm al and d e m o n stra te th e o p e n in g an d c lo sin g o f ocean ba
p ressu re c o n d itio n s o t th e in terio r o f the earth . T he sins. F o r ex a m p le , the M e d ite rra n e a n S ea is the
pattern o f risin g (ascen d in g ) and fallin g (d e sc e n d resid u al o f o n ce v ery v ast o cea n (T e th y s S ea) and the
ing) therm al co n v ec tio n cu rren ts has been sh o w n in P acific O cean is c o n tin u o u s ly c o n tra c tin g b ecau se
fig. 6.10 in ch a p te r 6 o f this book. I.G . G ass has o f g rad u al su b d u c tio n o f A m e ric a n p la te alo n g its
v alid ated the m e ch an ism o f origin and m o v e m en t o f rid g es. In n u tsh ell it m ay be o p in e d th a t co n tin e n ta l
u n stab le th erm al co n v ectio n cu rren ts in the m an tle d rift h as n o w b e co m e a r e a lity on th e b a sis o f
(below earth 's crust). A cco rd in g to G ass the v isco s
p la te tecto n ic s. T h e d e ta ile d d e s c rip tio n o f c o n ti
ity o f m a n tle d ep en d s en tirely on tem p eratu re and
nental d isp la c e m e n t has b een p ro v id e d in c h a p te r 6
pressure. T he v iscosity o f ascending m aterials caused
by u p w ard m o v e m en t o f therm al co n v ectiv e c u r o f this b o o k (see c h a p te r 6, s u b se c tio n : p la te te c to n
ren ts due to high tem p eratu re d ecreases and hence ics and co n tin en ta l d rift).
the upw ard flow velo city o f the m atter increases.
T he cen tres o f up w ard m o v em en t o f hot and liquid 11.7 PLATE TECTONICS AND MOUNTAIN BUILD
m a tter w ith ascen d in g cu rren ts are g en erally located ING
below the m id -o cean ic ridges. T h o u g h the depth o f P late tecto n ic th eo ry h as e n a b le d s c ie n tis ts to
such cen tres is not correctly know n but it is believed explain the p ro b lem o f o rig in o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s
that these are located at an averag e depth o f 3 0 0 -4 0 0 w hich w as h eth erto u n re so lv e d till th e p o s tu la tio n o f
km from the earth 's su rface. T he rising co n vection this g reat scien tific th eo ry in th e d e c a d e 19 6 0 -7 0 . It
cu rren ts tran sp o rt hot and liquid m atter upw ard m ay be po in ted o u t th a t sev eral h y p o th e s e s h av e
w hich afte r reach in g the p o int ju s t below the crust been p ro p o u n d ed to so lv e th is g ig a n tic g e o lo g ic a l
(p lates) sp lit and d iv erg e in o p p o site d irectio n s in the problem (e.g. th erm al c o n tra c tio n h y p o th e s is by
form o f h o rizo n tal How w hich is co n fin ed to the
Jeffrey s, co n tin en ta l d rift th eo ry by F .B .T a y lo r a n d
depth upto 2 0 0 km . T hus, the d iv erg en ce o f co n v ec
A .G . W eg en er, th erm al co n v e c tio n c u rre n t h y p o th
tion cu rren ts (ju st b elow the m id -o cean ic ridges)
esis by A. H o lm es, slid in g c o n tin e n t h y p o th e s is by
w ith hot and m olten m atter cau ses plate m ovem ent
in o p p o site d irec tio n s. O n the o th er hand, tw o sets o f D aly, rad io a ctiv ity h y p o th e sis by Jo ly etc) fro m tim e
co n v erg in g therm al co n v ectio n cu rren ts brin g tw o to tim e b u t n o n e o f th em co u ld b e u n iv e rs a lly a c
plates to g e th e r and the plate m arg in s are su b ducted. cep ted b eca u se th e e x p o n e n ts o f th e se h y p o th e s e s
co u ld not p re se n t c o n v in c in g s c ie n tific e v id e n c e s in
S o m e sc ie n tists are o f the view th at plate
m otion is c au sed d ue to high g rav ity fo rce b ecau se o f su p p o rt o f th e ir re s p e c tiv e h y p o th e se s . N o w , the
creation o f a d d itio n al m a tter (lav a and m ag m a) on plate te cto n ic th eo ry o ffe rs c o n v in c in g e x p la n a tio n
eith er side o f the m id -o cean ic ridges. T h is high fo r the so lu tio n o f c o m p le x rid d le o f m o u n ta in b u ild
gravity fo rce ca u se s lateral m o v e m en t o f plates in ing. T h e m o d e o f o rig in o f fo ld ed m o u n ta in s on the
o p p o site d irec tio n from the rid g e crests. A cco rd in g basis o f p la te te c to n ic s h as b e e n d e ta ile d o u t in
to an o th er view the in tru sio n o f m ag m a in the m id - c h a p te r 13 ol th is b o o k (se e c h a p te r 13, m o u n ta in s
ocean ic rid g es from b elow cau ses sep aratio n o f and m o u n ta in b u ild in g ).
oceanic p la tes from rid g e c re sts and th e ir d is p la c e
m ent in o p p o site d irectio n . 11 .8 PLATE TECTONICS AND VULCANICITY
It m ay b c c o n c lu d e d th a t this is the w eak p o in t B ased on p late te c to n ic s th e re is clo se relation
(lack o f co m m o n ly acc ep ted c a u se o f p la te m o tio n ) ship b etw een p late b o u n d a rie s an d v u lcan icity as
in the theory o f p la te te cto n ic s w h ich is v u ln e ra b le to m o st o f th e w o rld 's activ e v o lc a n o e s are associated
severe c riticism . T h is p ro b lem o f real c a u s e o f p late w ith p late b o u n d arie s. A b o u t 15 p e r cen t o f the
m otion needs scien tific so lu tio n . w o rld 's activ e v o lc an o es are fo u n d alo n g the con
str u c tiv e p la te m a r g in s o r d iv e rg e n t p la te m argins
11.6 PLATE TECTONICS AND CONTINENTAL (alo n g the m id -o cean ic rid g es, w h ere tw o p lates m ove
DRIFT
in o p p o site d ire c tio n s) w h ereas 8 0 p e r c e n t volcanoes
O n the basis of the e v id e n c e s o f re c o n s tru c are a s s o c ia te d w ith th e d e s tr u c tiv e /c o n v e r g e n t/
tion o f p a la eo m a g n etism and s e a - f W s p r e a d in g c o n su m in g p la te b o u n d a r ie s (w h ere tw o plates col-
PLATE TECTO N ICS
195
iide). S om e v o lc a n o e s a ie also lo u n d in in tra-plate
tie and fo rm atio n o f th o leiite b asalt w h ich m o v e s
regions e.g. v o lc a n o e s o t th e H aw aii Islan d , fau lt zone
u p w ard th ro u g h ascen d in g therm al c o n v e c tio n c u r
0t East A frica etc. T h e re are th ree m a jo r belts ot
rents and ap p ears as fissu re flow o f b asaltic lava,
volcanoes e.g. (1) m id -A tla n tic R id g e zone, (2) circum
T h is b asaltic th o leiite lav a afte r co o lin g and s o lid i
pacific zone an d (3) m id -c o n tin e n ta l zone.
fication fo rm s new o cea n ic c ru st (fig. 12.5 in c h a p te r
T h e in ten sity o f v o lc a n ic a ctiv ity is also related 12). T his v o lcan ic m e ch an ism lead s to fo rm a tio n o f
to the nature o t p la te b o u n d a rie s. D iv erg en t or c o n ridges parallel to m id -o cean ic rid g es. T h e n ew ly
structive p la te b o u n d a rie s are a sso ciated w ith quiet form ed b asaltic cru st is d iv id ed into tw o eq u al halv es
volcanic e ru p tio n k n o w n as f is s u r e e r u p tio n . The and arc em p laced on e ith e r sid e o f th e rid g e. T h e se
volcanic lav a o t c o n s tru c tiv e p late m arg in s is th o le iite parallel basaltic strip e s p laced on e ith e r sid e o f the
w hich is in ta c t a ty p e ot b a sa lt h av in g less quantity ridge m ove aw ay from the m id -o c e a n ic rid g e d u e to
of potash and is fo rm e d d u e to d ifferen tial m elting. sea-flo o r sp read in g effected by a sc e n d in g th erm al
The b asaltic la v a a s s o c ia te d w ith d iv e rg e n t (d estru c co n v ectio n cu rren ts and a sso ciated u p w e llin g o f
tive) plate b o u n d a rie s re p re se n tin g circu m -P acific lava and (b asaltic strip e s) arc ac c re te d at the tra ilin g
belt and m id -c o n tin e n ta l (A lp in e) belt is rich in silica m arg in s o f d iv erg en t plates. T h is is also v a lid a te d on
content and is m ix e d w ith an d esite, d acite and rhyolite. the basis o f p arallel but altern ate p attern o f p o sitiv e
and negative an o m alies o f p a la e o m a g n e tic strip e s
The v o lc an ic la v a a sso c ia te d w ith rilt v alleys is rich in
(fig. 11.5, also see figs. 6.9 and 6 .1 1 ). Ic e la n d
alkalis. T h is is a lso c a lle d as a lk a lin e b a s a lt.
presents an ideal ex am p le o f th is m e c h a n ism b e
A c tiv e v o lc a n o e s are a sso c ia te d w ith m id- cau se it is situ ated on both th e sid es o f m id -A tla n tic
o cean ic rid g e s . U n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f risin g th e r ridge i.e. m id -A tlan tic rid g e (lo cally called as R ey -
mal c o n v e c tio n c u rre n ts o c e a n ic p la tes (cru st) are kjanes ridge) p asses th ro u g h the m id d le o f Ic e la n d
se p a ra te d an d tw o p la te s m o v e in o p p o site d irectio n s th ro u g h w hich m a g m a u p w ells from tim e to tim e.
from the ridtze c re s ts . B e c a u se o f d iv e rg e n c e o f tw o The eru p tio n o f H elg afell v o lcan o in 1973 p re s e n ts
plates th e c o n fin in g p re s s u re o f su p erin cu m b en t ev id en ce in su p p o rt o f this p ro p o sitio n . T h e re is
load is re le a s e d an d c o n s e q u e n tly m e ltin g p o in t is co n tin u o u s g ro w th in the su rface area o f Ic e la n d d u e
lo w ered w h ic h c a u s e s p a rtia l m e ltin g o f u p p er m an- to b asaltic lava. It is estim ated th at th e isla n d has
✓\ / N
-----V
c ta n
flo o r / / / V / Mm
^ fv -V v
A scending A scending
magma magma
NO R M A L MAGNETISM R E V E R S E D MAGNETISM NORMAL MAGNETISM
Fig. 1].5 : Formation o f ocean flo o r (magma) stripes on either side o f mid-oceanic ridge and magnetization. A.
Ascending magma after reaching the ridge crest is solidified on cooling and is magnetized in accordance with
the direction o f geomagnetic field. This is the present case o f normal magnetization. B. Formerly created
basaltic layer (1) moves away from llie ridge ancl new basaltic stripes form ed due to further upwelling o f
magma and the solidified stripe gets magnetized in accordance with reversed geomagnetic field (indicated by
arrow). This is the case o f reversed magnetism. C. Geomagnetic field returns to its normal position (upward
arrow) and the new ly form ed magma stripe close to the ridge is magnetized in accordance with normal
geomagnetic field, a case o f normal magnetism. The upper part o f the diagram denotes positive (shown by
+) and negative (shown b y—) magnetic anomalies. ([f'ter—M J. Bradshaw, A. J. Abbott and A. P. Gelsthorpe, 1978.
196 GEOMORPHOLOGY
g ro w n in size by 4 0 0 km sin ce the b eg in n in g o t th e se v o lc an ic isla n d s arc su b m erg ed urjder sea
T e rtia ry (65 m illio n y ears B .P .) e p o ch , w h ich in d i w av es and b eco m e sen m o u n ts or g u y o ts (fig. 11.6).
c ates a v era g e g ro w th rate o f 0 .6 cm /y r. T h e age o f It m ay be m e n tio n e d th at not all the v o lc an ic peaks
la v a (b asalt) in c re ases aw ay fro m th e rid g e as recen t su b m e rg e b e n e a th se a w av es as a few o f them p ro ject
la v a is fo u n d c lo se to th e rid g e, 2 m illio n y ear-o ld fro m 1500 to 3 0 0 0 m ab o v e se a-le v el. T h e study o f
la v a aw ay fro m the rid g e and 65 m illio n - y ear old b asaltic la v a o f th e v o lc a n ic islan d s o f th e A tlan tic
lav a at th e m a rg in o f th e island. O cean h as re v e a le d th e fact that v o lc a n ic islands
lo cated n eare st to th e rid g e arc c h a ra c te riz e d by
T h e a fo re sa id in fere n ce is also v alid ate d on
recen t lava w h ile th o se lo c ated at th e fa rth e st d is
th e basis o f e v id e n c e s o f v o lcan ic islan d s situ a ted on
tan ce fro m the rid g e h a v e o ld e st lava. F o r ex am p le,
th e ocean floor. F o r ex am p le, th e v o lcan ic islan d s o f
th e o d est lava o f A z o re s isla n d s lo c a te d on c ith e r
A tla n tic O cean are w ith o u t d o u b t a sso ciated w ith
sid e o f the m id -A tla n tic rid g e is 4 m illio n y ears old
th e m id -A tla n tic rid g e. T h e m o st activ e v o lcan ic
w h ile the o ld est la v a o f C a p e V e rd e isla n d lo c ated
islan d s are n e a re st to th e rid s e w h ereas d o rm an t and
near A frican co ast (fa rth e st from th e rid g e ) is 120
ex tin c t v o lc a n o e s are lo cated at th e farth e st d istan ce
m illio n y ears old. F ig . 11.6 re p re s e n ts s e a -flo o r
from the rid g e. It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t v o lcan ic
sp read in g , v u lc a n ic ity , fo rm a tio n ol v o lc a n ic is
islan d s are fo rm ed n e a r the rid g e due to u p w ellin g
lands and th e ir d is p la c e m e n t from th e rid g e .
o f m a g m a fro m b elo w . A s the sea flo o r sp read s these
v o lcan ic peaks m o v e aw ay from the rid g e and m ag m a T h e islan d arcs w ith v o lc a n ic p e a k s a n d a s s o
so u rce. W h en they m o v e far aw ay from the ridge the ciated o cean ic tre n c h e s are fo rm e d w h en o c e a n ic
su p p ly o f m a g m a co m es to an end and thus m o st o f p late is su b d u cted b elo w c o n tin e n ta l b elt. S e is m ic
Fig. 11.6 : Sea-floor spreading, vulcanicity and form ation o f volcanic islands. A-form ation o f 1st volcanic islatul 70
million years ago, B-present situation, gradual shifting o f volcanic islands due to sea-floor spreading.
Volcanic island in A (shown by 1) has m oved fa r away to position 1 in B. (after M.J. Bradshaw et. al, 1978).
s h o c k s and h e a t a re g e n e ra te d at th e d e p th o f 7 0 0 km
o u t th a t v o lc a n ic p e a k s o f isla n d a rc s h a v e been
d u e to fric tio n o f co n tin e n ta l p la te an d su b d u c te d
fo rm e d of s o d iu m -ric h b a s a lt. S u c h b a s a lt is form ed
o c e a n ic p la te . C o n s e q u e n tly , u p p e r m a n tle , b a sa ltic
w h en v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n o c c u rs in o c e a n ic w ater.
c ru s t o f o c e a n flo o r an d o v e rly in g se d im e n ts g et
S o d iu m -ric h b a s a lt is c o v e re d w ith a n d e s ite o f rela
m e lte d an d th u s m a g m a is fo rm e d . It m ay b e p o in te d tiv e ly le s s e r d e n s ity b u t ric h in s ilic o n in<com parison
PLATE t e c t o n i c s
to u n d erly in g b a sa lt.
sity the resu ltan t m a g m a intrudes in the o v erly in g
R e g a id in g th e o rig in o f a n d e s ite -d a c ite - crust, w ith the result folded m o u n tain s are fu rth er
rhyolite a lo n g th e c irc u m -P a c ific fo ld ed m o u n tain uplifted and g ranitic b ath o lith s h av in g q u a rtz and
chain tw o c o n tra s tin g v ie w s h av e b een floated feldspar m inerals are also form ed. T he Ranchi batholiths
( 1) R ing w o o d (1 9 7 4 ) h as staled that a n d e s i l e - o f the C hotanagpur H ighlands (Bihar) m ay be associated
dacite rh y o lite a re fo rm e d d u e to p artial melting o f w ith A rachaean m o u n tain building.
am p h ib o h te of s u b d u c te d B e n io ff zo n e and m ellm * T he origin and characteristics o f lava plateaus o f
o f q u artz e c lo g ite at g re a te r d e p th in the m a n tle * the continents can also be explained on the basis o f
(2) A c c o rd in g to G illu ly a n d e s ite — d ac ite — plate tectonic theory. T he form ation o f extensive basaltic
rhyolite are fo rm e d d u e to p a rtia l m e ltin g o f o cean ic lava plateaus o f India, B razil, C olum bian plateau o f the
tholente o r a m p h ib o h te o r e c lo g ite an d its m ix in g U SA etc. m ay be related to continental breaking. It is
/w ith se d im e n ts ol o c e a n flo o r su ch as san d sto n e believed that lava plateaus m ight have been form ed due
chert and ra d io la ria n o o ze. to separation o f continents and th eir m o v em en t in
A p p a ic n tly , th e e x p la n a tio n ol v o lc an o es o f relation to other continents e.g. D eccan lava plateau o f
Hawai Is la n d (fig . 12.4) d o es n o t fit in the fra m e India due to its separation from A frica-A ustral ia and its
work ol p la te te c to n ic th e o ry b u t the p ro b lem m ay be northw ard m ovem ent; C olum bia lava plateau o f the
solved if w e lo o k in to th e e n tire m e c h a n ism involved USA due to separation o f N. A m erica from E u ro p e and
w estw ard m ovem ent o f the form er; B razilean lava
in the v o lc a n ic p ro c e s s in the e a s t P a c ific O cean . T he
plateau due to separation o f S. A m erica from A frica and
Hawai Is la n d is s o u th -e a s te rn e x te n sio n o f M idw ay
w estw ard m ovem ent o f the form er etc.
Islan d -E m p ero r s e a m o u n ts — K am ch a tk a Island A rcs
and is lo c a te d fa r a w a y fro m th e E ast P acific R idge R eaders are ad v ised to co n su lt c h a p te r 12 o f
but H aw ai I s la n d is c h a ra c te riz e d by activ e vo lcan ic this book for ex p lan atio n o f o rigin o f v o .c a n o e s o f
activities w h e re a s th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d island arcs circu m -P acific belt, m id -A tlan tic b elt, m id -c o n ti
are d o m in a te d by d o rm a n t v o lc a n o e s and ancient nental belt etc. in term s o f d iffere n t ty p e s o f p la te
lava (25 to 75 m illio n y e a rs o ld , fig. 12.4 in ch ap ter b o u n d aries (e.g. co n v erg en t, d iv e rg e n t an d c o n
12). It is b e lie v e d th a t th e re is a c tiv e p lu m e (m ag m a servative plate b o u n d aries).
source) b e n e a th H a w a i Is la n d w h ich en su res co n
tinuous s u p p ly o f m o lte n m a g m a for lo n g e r duration 11.9 P L A T E T E C T O N I C S AND E A R T H Q U A K E S
of tim e. T h e re h a s b een u p w e llin g o f lava in the Seism ic events can be ex p lain ed in term s o f
H aw ai Is la n d fo r th e la st 7 0 m illio n years. D ue to plate boundaries. From the stan d p o in t o f m o v e m en t
plate m o v e m e n ts th e P a c ific O cean ic flo o r after and tectonic events and creation and d estru ctio n o f
being s e p a ra te d fro m E a s t P a c ific R id g e co n tin u ed geom aterials the plate boundaries are d iv id ed into ( l )
to m ove in n o rth -w e s te rly d ire c tio n at the rale of 9 c o n s tru c tiv e p la te b o u n d a rie s , (ii) d e s tru c tiv e p late
cm per y e a r w ith th e re su lt v o lc a n ic p eak s hav in g b o u n d a rie s , and (iii) c o n s e rv a tiv e p la te b o u n d a
plum e u n d e rn e a th a lso m o v e d n o rth -w estw ard . T hus, ries. C onstructive plate boundaries rep resent the trail
the p lu m e b e n e a th H a w a i Isla n d c o n tin u e d to supply ing ends o f divergent plates w hich m ove in o p p o site
lava to th e v o lc a n o e s of th e isla n d . O n the othei directions from the m id-o cean ic ridges, d estru ctiv e
hand, as th e o th e r is la n d s m o v e d ta r aw ay from the plate boundaries are those w here tw o co n v erg e n t
centre (p lu m e )o f la v a s u p p ly d u e to se a -flo o r sp re a d plates collide ag ain st each o ther and the h eav ier plate
ing, the lav a s u p p ly d rie d up an d th e v o lcan o es boundary is subducted below relativ ely lig h ter plate
boundary and co n serv ativ e plate b o u n d aries are those
becam e d o rm a n t.
w here tw o plates slip past each o th er w ith o u t any
T h e fo rm a tio n ra th e r e m p la c e m e n t ot granites
collision. M ajo r tectonic ev en ts asso ciated w ith these
into co n tin en tal fo ld ed m o u n ta in s and intrusion o plate b oundaires are ruptures and faults along the
batholiths can be e x p la in e d on the basis of plate ^ co nstructive plate b o undaries, fau ltin g and folding
tectonic theory. D u rin g th e c o llisio n of plates and along the d estructive plate bo u n d aries and transform
form ation o f fo ld ed m o u n ta in s co n tin en tal rocks are faults along the co n serv ativ e plate boundaries. A ll
subducted and re a c h g re a te r d ep th w here these get sorts o f d ise q u ilib riu m are caused due to d ifferent
melted and form m a g m a T h e re is m a rk e d variatio n in types o f plate m otions and co n sequently earthquakes
the com p osition o f m a g m a in v o lv ed in the co n tin en
o f varying m ag n itu d es are caused.
tal folded m o u n ta in s and lava o f v o lcan o es of island
arcs and an d esite la v a o f su b d u ctio n zone. C o n tin en N orm ally, m oderate earth q u ak es are caused
along the con stru ctiv e plate b oundaries because the
tal rocks are d o m in a te d by low d en sity m atter e.g.
silica and a lu m in iu m o x id e co n ten ts. W hen m elted, rate o f rupture o f the crust and co n seq u en t m o v em en t
o f plates aw ay from the m id -o cean ic ridges is rath e r
the resultant m a g m a is also d o m in ated by such m atter
slow and the rate o f upw elling o f lavas due to fissure
(silica and allu m in iu m o x id es). B e c a u se oi low d e n
198 GEOMORPHOLOGY
flow is also slow . C onsequently, sh a llo w focus ea rth E a rth q u a k e s o f high m ag n itu d e and deep fo
cu s are cau sed alo n g th e co n v e rg e n t o r destructive
q u akes arecau sed along the constructive plate bounda
p late b o u n d arie s b eca u se o f c o llisio n o f tw o conver
ries o r say along the m id-oceanic ridges. 'Flic depth ol
gent plates and c o n se q u e n t su b d u ctio n o f one plate
‘fo c u s ’ o f earth q u ak es associated with the co n stru c b o u n d ary alo n g the B e n io ff zo n e. H ere m ountain
tive plate bo u n d aries ranges betw een 25 km to 35 km b u ild in g , fau ltin g and v io len t v o lcan ic eruptions
but a few earth q u ak es have also been found to have (cen tral ex p lo siv e ty p e o f e ru p tio n s) ca u se severe
o c c u n o d al the depth o f 60 km . Il is, thus, o bvious that and d isastro u s e a rth q u a k e s h a v in g th e fo cu s at the
the earth q u ak es o ccu rrin g along the m id-A tlantic depth upto 7 0 0 k m . T h is p ro c e ss, c o n v erg e n ce of
R idge, m id -Indian O cean ic R idge and East Pacific plates and related p late c o llisio n , e x p la in s the m axi
R ise are cau sed because o f m ovem ent o f plates in m u m occurrence o fearth q u ak es o f v arying m agnitudes
o p p o site d irectio n s (div erg en ce) and co n seq u en t for alo n g the F iry R in g o f th e P a cific o r th e C in icm -
m ation o f faults and ruptu res and up w elling o f m agm a P a cific B elt (alo n g the w estern and ea ste rn m argins
or fissure flow o f basaltic lavas (fig. 11.7). o f th e P acific O cean or say a lo n g the w estern coastal
Ocean ridge-. Ocean trench

(spreading)! (convergence '
Transform C o n tin e n t-
Jam
Heoled transform fault

.......... Lithosphere —
Cool'lithtfsphere:: : : : : : : : _
Hot asthenosphere
Hot m atter rises into
ocean ridge rift Rising magmo
Shallow earthqu akes

Deep ea rth q u a k e s
Fig. 11.7 : R elationship between earthquakes and plate boundaries, after, F. Press a n d R. Seiver, 1978.
m a rg in s o f N o rth and S o u th A m eric as and th u s the A siatic p la te c a u s e s e a rth q u a k e s o f th e m id -co n ti

R o c k ie s-A n d e s M o u n tain B elt and alo n g the easte rn n ental belt.
c o asta l m a rg in s o f A sia and island arcs and festo o n s C re a tio n o f tra n s fo rm fa u lts a lo n g the con
p arallel to the A siatic co ast). T h e e a rth q u a k e s o f the se rv a tiv e p la te b o u n d a rie s e x p la in s th e o ccurrence
m id - c o n tin e n ta l b e lt alo n g the A lp in e -H im a la y a n o f sev ere e a rth q u a k e s o f C a lifo rn ia (U S A ). H ere,
c h a in s arc c a u se d d ue to co llisio n o f E u ra sia n p lates o n e p art o f C a lifo rn ia m o v e s n o rth -e a stw a rd w hile
and A frican and Indian plates. T h e e a rth q u a k e s o f the o th e r p art m o v e s s o u th -w e s tw a rd a lo n g the fault
th e w estern m a rg in al areas o f N o rth and S o u th p la n e an d th u s is fo rm e d tra n s fo rm fau lt w hich
A m eric as arc cau sed b c c a u sc o fs u b d u c t ion o f A m e ri c a u se s e a rth q u a k e s .
can p la te b e n e a th the P acific p late and the resu ltan t
te c to n ic fo rc e s w h ereas the e a rth q u a k e s o f the e a s t T su n a m i
ern m a rg in s o f A sia are o rig in a te d b eca u se o f ihe T h e w a v e s g e n e ra te d in th e o c e a n s triggered
su b d u c tio n o f P a c ific p la te u n d er A siatic p lalc. S im i- ' by h ig h m a g n itu d e e a rth q u a k e s in th e o cean floors
larly , th e su b d u c tio n o f A frican p la te b elo w E u ro (e x c e e d in g 7.5 on R ic h te r sc a le ), o r by v io len t cen
p ean p la te an d th e s u b d u c tio n o f In d ian p la te u n d er tral v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s (su c h as K r a k a t a o eru p tio n in.
PLATE t e c t o n i c s
1883), o r by m a s s iv e la n d slid e s o f th e co a sta l lan d s scale, g e n e ra te d 15 m h ig h tsu n a m i an d k ille d m o re

o r o f s u b m e rg e d c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s an d slo p e s or in th an 120 p e o p le in A lask a.
deep o c e a n ic tre n c h e s , are c a lle d tsu n a m i, w h ich is (6) S u m a t r a t s u n a m i : D e c e m b e r 2 6 ,2 0 0 4 , a
a Ja p a n e se w o rd m e a n in g th e re b y h a r b o u r w a v e s. po w erfu l e a rth q u a k e o f th e m a g n itu d e o f 9 on R ic h te r
T he ts u n a m is are lo n g w av es (w ith lo n g e r w a v e scale, o ff the c o a st o f S u m a tra w ith its e p ic e n te r at
lengths o f 100 k m o r m o re ) w h ic h trav e l at the sp eed S im e u lu e in the In d ian O cean o c c u rre d a t 0 0 ;5 8 :5 3
o f h u n d re d s o f k ilo m e te rs p e r h o u r b u t a re o f sh allo w ( G M T ) , 7 :5 8 :5 3 (In d o n esian L o cal T im e ) o r 6 .2 8 a.m .
in d ep th in d e e p e r o c e a n s an d seas. A s th e se w av es (Indian S tan d ard T im e, 1ST) and g e n e ra te d a p o w e rfu l
ap p ro ach c o a s ta l lan d , th e d e p th o f o cea n ic w ater tsunam i w ith a w a v e le n g th of 16 0 km and initial sp eed
d ecre ase s b u t th e h e ig h t ot ts u n a m is in c re ases e n o r o f 9 6 0 k m /hr. T h e d eep o c e a n ic e a rth q u a k e w as
m ously a n d w h e n th e y strik e th e c o a st, th ey cau se cau sed d u e to su d d en su b d u ctio n o f I n d i a n p la te
havoc in th e c o a s ta l area s. T h e b est e x a m p le o f below B u r m a p la te u p to 2 0 m e ters in a b o u n d a ry lin e
tsunam i in d u c e d by v io le n t v o lc an ic e ru p tio n is o f 1000 km or even m o re. T h is te c to n ic m o v e m e n t
from K ra k a ta o e ru p tio n w h ic h o c c u rre d in 1883. caused 10 m rise in the o cea n ic bed w h ic h s u d d e n ly
S ev ere e a rth q u a k e c a u s e d by K ra k a ta o e ru p tio n g e n d isp laced im m en se v o lu n e of w a te r c a u s in g k ille r
erated fu rio u s ts u n a m i w a v e s ra n g in g in 30 to 40
tsunam i. T h is ea rth q u a k e w ^s la rg e st (h ig h e s t on
m e ters in h e ig h t (a v e ra g e b e in g 120 feet or 36.5 m ).
R ich ter scale) sin ce 1950 and the 4 th la rg e st s in c e
T h ese w a v e s w e re so v io le n t th a t they rav ag ed the
1900 A .D . T h e A n d m an an d N ic o b a r g ro u p o f isla n d s
c o a st o f J a v a a n d S u m a tra an d k ille d 3 6 ,0 0 0 people.
w ere only 128 km (80 m iles) aw ay fro m th e e p ic e n te r
S in c e the P acific O cean is girdled by co n v er (S im eulue) and the east co asts o f In d ia w e re a b o u t
gent p la te b o u n d a rie s and the rin g o f earth q u ak es and 1920 km (1200 m iles) aw ay from th e e p ic e n te r. T h e
v o lc a n o e s, ts u n a m is arc m o re co m m o n in the Pacific furious tsunam i w ith a h eig h t o f ab o u t 10 m a d v e rs e ly
w ith a m in im u m freq u en cy o f 2 tsu n am is per year. affected 12 co u n tries b o rd erin g th e In d ia n O c e a n ,
T h e g re a t ts u n a m is cau sed by the L isbon earthquake w orst affected areas in clu d ed T am il N a d u c o a s t an d
(P o rtu g a l) o f the y e a r 1755 g en erated about 12 m high A ndm an-N icobar Islands o f India, Sri L anka. In d o n esia
sea w a v e s w h ic h d am ag ed m o st parts o f L isbon city
and T hailand. T he stro n g tsu n am i to o k a b o u t 3 h o u rs
and k ille d 3 0 .0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 p eo p le. T h e K utch
to strite T am il N adu coast. T h e k iller tsu n am i c la im e d
e a rth q u a k e o f Ju n e 6, 1819 g en era ted stro n g tsunam is
m ore than 200,000 hum an lives in the affected co u n tries
w h ich s u b m e rg e d the co astal areas. T he land area
w herein Indonesia, Sri L an k a and In d ia sto o d 1st, 2nd
m e a su rin g 2 4 km in len g th w as raised upw ard because
and 3rd in the n u m b er o f hum an ca su a litie s.
o f te c to n ic m o v e m e n ts . T h e raised land w as called as
A lla h 's B u n d (b u n d created by the G od). (7) J a p a n ts u n a m i, 2011 : D ate : M arch , 11.
2 0 1 1; tim e : Japan lim e = 2.46 A. M ., 1 S T = 6 .15 A . M .;
T h e fo llo w in g a re th e sig n ific a n t tsu n am is in
undersea earth quake o f 8.9 m ag n itu d e; e p c e n te r 130
the seco n d h a lf o f the 2 0 th cen tu ry and 21st century :
km off the coast ot Sendai C ity n ear L am en g V illag e
(1 ) A l e u t i a n t s u n a m i : A p ril 1, 1946, g e n e r and 380 km north-east o f T o k y o , at the d ep th o f 10 km
ated by A le u tia n e a rth q u a k e o f th e m a g n itu d e of 7.8 on sea bed; tsunam i w ave height 10m; m o re than
on R ic h te r s c a le , th e re s u lta n t tsu n am i w ith a h eig h t 10,000 people killed; m any cities like M iy ak o , M iy ag i,
o f 35 m k ille d m a n y p e o p le in A lask an and H aw aiian K esen n u m a w ere fla tte n e d ; S e n d a i a ir p o rt w as
coastal a re a s. inundated w ith heaps o t cars, trucks, b u ses and m ud
(2 ) K a m c h a t k a ts u n a m i : N ov. 4, 1952, deposits; aircrafts including lig h ter p lan es stan d in g on
ea rth q u a k e o f th e m a g n itu d e o f 8.2, g en era ted P a air port w ere w ashed out by gu sh in g tsunam i w aves;
cific-w id e ts u n a m i w ith a w av e h e ig h t ol 15 m. r o ta tio n s p e e d o f th e e a r th in c r e a s e d b y 16
(3 ) A le u t ia n t s u n a m i : M a rc h 9, 1957, e a rth m ic r o s e c o n d s ; d a y le n g th d e c r e a s e d b y 1.6
quake o f th e m a g n itu d e o l 8.3 on R ic h ter scale, m icroseconds; H onshu island w as d isp laced by 2.4 m
g enerated a P a c ific -w id e tsu n a m i ot 16 m h eig h t and due to m onstrous quake; earth rotational axis w as
ad v ersely a ffe c te d H a w a ii isla n d s. displaced by 10 centim eters; 2 10 0 km stretch o f eastern
(4 ) C h ile a n t s u n a m i : M ay 2 2 , I9 6 0 , a stro n g coastlines having several villages, cities and tow ns
earth q u ak e o f th e m a g n itu d e of 8.6 on R ich tei scale, w ere battered by killer tsunam i; nu clear p o w e r p lants
g enerated P a c ific -w id e tsu n a m is and claim e d 2 ,3 0 0 in F ukushim a severely dam aged resulting into leakage
hum an liv e s in C h ile . o f killer radiactive radiation; m ore than 5 lakh people
in the radius o f 20 km from F ukushim a p o w er plants
(5 ) A la s k a n ts u n a m i : M arch 28, 1964, a
w ere evacuated and shifted to safer places.
strong e a rth q u a k e o f th e m a g n itu d e ol 8.4 on R ichter
CHAPTER 12 : VULCANICITY AND LANDFORMS 200-215
C oncept o f vu lcanicity ; co m p o n en ts o f v o lc a n o e s ; c la s s if ic a t io n o f
v o lc a n o e s ; volcan ic types ; w orld d istrib u tion o f v o lc a n o e s ; m e c h a n is m
and cau ses o f vu lcanism ; h azardous e f f e c t s o f v o lc a n ic e r u p tio n s ;
topography produced by v u lca n icity ; g e y s e r s ; fu m a r o le s .
12
VULCANICITY AND LANDFORMS
12.1 THE CONCEPT OF VULCANICITY e x o g e n e tic . In o th e r w o rd s, v u lc a n ic ity in c lu d e s all

T h e term s v o lc an o es, m e ch an ism o f v o lc a th o se p ro c e s s e s an d m e c h a n is m s w h ic h a re re la te d
noes and v u lc an icity are m o re or less sy n o n y m to to th e o rig in o f m a g m a s , g a s e s a n d v a p o u r, th e ir
com m on m an b u t th e se h av e d iffe re n t co n n o ta tio n s asc e n t an d a p p e a ra n c e o n th e e a r th 's s u rfa c e in
in geology and g eo g rap h y . ‘A v o lc an o is a v en t, or v ario u s fo rm s. It is e v id e n t th a t th e v u lc a n ic ity h as
o p en in g , u su ally c irc u la r or n early c irc u la r in fo rm , tw o c o m p o n e n ts w h ic h o p e ra te b e lo w th e c ru s ta l
th ro u g h w h ich heated m a teria ls c o n sistin g o f gases, su rfa c e an d a b o v e th e c ru s t. T h e e n d o g e n e tic m e c h a
w ater, liq u id la v a an d frag m e n ts o f ro ck s are e jecte d n ism o f v u lc a n ic ity in c lu d e s th e c r e a tio n o f h o t an d
fro m th e h ig h ly h eated in te rio r to the su rface o f the liq u id m e g m a s a n d g a s e s in th e m a n tle a n d th e c ru st,
e a rth ’ (P .G . W o rce ster, 1948). ‘A v o lcan o is e sse n th e ir e x p a n sio n a n d u p w a rd a s c e n t, th e ir in tru s io n ,
tia lly a fissu re o r v ent, c o m m u n ica tin g w ith the co o lin g an d s o lid ific a tio n in v a rio u s fo rm s b e lo w
in te rio r, fro m w h ich flo w s o f lav a, fo u n tain s o f cru stal su rface (e.g. b a th o lith s, la c c o lith s , sills, d y k es,
in c a n d e s c e n t sp ray o r e x p lo siv e b u rsts o f g ases and lopoliths, p h aco lith s etc.) w h ile th e e x o g e n o u s m e c h a
v o lc a n ic a sh e s are e ru p te d at th e s u rfa c e .’ O n the n ism in c lu d e s th e p ro c e s s o f a p p e a ra n c e o f la v a,
o th e r h a n d , ‘th e te rm v u lc a n ic ity co v ers all th o se v o lc an ic d u sts a n d a sh e s, fra g m e n ta l m a te ria l, m u d ,
p ro c e sse s in w h ic h m o lten ro c k m aterial o r m a g m a sm o k e etc. in d iffe re n t fo rm s e .g . fis s u re flo w o r la v a
rises in to th e c ru s t o r is p o u re d o u t on its su rface, flo o d (fissu re o r q u ie t ty p e o f v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n ),
th e re to so lid ify as a c ry s ta llin e o r s e m ic ry sta llin e v io le n t e x p lo sio n (c e n tra l ty p e o f v o lc a n ic e r u p
r o c k ’ (S .W . W o o ld rid g e an d R .S . M o rg a n , 1959). tio n ), h o t sp rin g s, g e y se rs, fu m a ro le s , s o lfa ta ra , m u d
S o m e sc ie n tis ts h a v e a lso u sed th e te rm o f v u lc an ism v o lc an o es etc. It m ay b e, th u s, c o n c lu d e d th a t th e
as sy n o n y m to th e te rm o f v u lc a n ic ity . F o r ex am p le, v u lc a n ic ity is a b ro a d e r m e c h a n is m w h ic h in c lu d e s
P.G . W o rce ster (1948 ) h as m ain tain ed th at ‘vu lcan ism s e v eral e v e n ts a n d p ro c e s s e s w h ic h w o rk b e lo w th e
in c lu d es all p h e n o m e n a c o n n e c te d w ith th e m o v e c ru st as w ell as a b o v e th e c ru s t w h e re a s v o lc a n o is a
m e n t o f h e a te d m a teria l fro m th e in te rio r to o r p a rt o f v u lc a n ic ity (v u lc a n is m ).
V
to w ard s th e su rfa c e o f th e e a r th .’
1 2 .2 C O M PO N EN TS OF V O LC A N O ES
It is a p p a re n t fro m th e a b o v e d e fin itio n s o f
V o lc a n o e s o f e x p lo s iv e ty p e o r c e n tra l e ru p
v o lc an o an d v u lc a n ic ity (v u lc a n ism ) th a t th e la te r tio n ty p e a re a s s o c ia te d w ith th e a c c u m u la te d vol
(v u lc a n ic ity ) is a b ro a d e r m e c h a n ism w h ic h is re c a n ic m a te ria ls in th e fo rm o f cones w h ic h a re called
la te d to b o th the e n v iro n m e n ts, e n d o g e n e tic an d as volcanic cones o r sim ply volcanic m o u n ta in s , j
VULCANICITY AND LANDFORMS 201
There is a ven t or op en in g, o f circular or nearly (2) C la ssifica tio n o n th e B a sis o f P e r io d

circular shape, alm o st in the centre o f the sum m ital o f E ru p tion s
part o f the con e. T h is vent is called as volcanic vent (a) A ctive volcan oes
or volcanic m outh w h ich is con n ected w ith the
(b) Dormant volcanoes
interior part o f the earth by a narrow pipe, w hich is
called as v o lc a n ic p ip e . V o lca n ic m aterials o f vari (c) E x tin ct v o lcan o es
ous sorts are ejected through this pipe and the vent
12.3 CLASSIFICATION ON THE B A SIS OF THE
situated at the top o f the pipe. T he enlarged form o f
NATURE OF VOLCANIC ER UPTIO NS
the volcan ic ven t is k n ow n as v o lc a n ic cr a te r and
V olcan ic eruptions occur m o stly in tw o w ays
cald era. V o lca n ic m aterials include lavas, volcanic
viz. (i) violent and e x p lo siv e type o f eruption o f
dusts and a sh es, fra g m en t^ M aterials etc. (fig. 12.1).
lavas, volcanic dusts, v olcan ic ash es and fragm ental
f? &
materials through a narrow p ip e and sm all op en in g
Volcanic Vent ------* r— > Volcanic Cruter under the im pact o f violen t g a ses and (ii) cjuiet typ e
or fissure eruption along a lon g fracture or fissu re or
fault due to w eak gases and huge v o lu m e o f lavas.
Thus, on the basis o f the nature and in ten sity o f
eruptions volcanoes are d ivided into tw o ty p es e .g ..
(1) cen tra l eru p tio n ty p e o r e x p lo s iv e e r u p tio n
typ e and (2) fissu re e r u p tio n ty p e o r q u ie t e r u p
tion type.
(1) V o lca n o es o f C e n tr a l E r u p tio n T y p e —
Central eruption type or e x p lo siv e eruption typ e o f
volcanoes occurs through a central p ip e and sm all
opening by breaking and b lo w in g o f f crustal surface
Fig. 12.1 : Different components o f a volcano. due to violent and ex p lo siv e g a ses accu m u lated d eep
within the earth. The eruption is so rapid and v io len t
T here is a w id e range o f variations in the that huge quantity o f v olcan ic m aterials co n sistin g
mode o f v o lca n ic eruptions and their periodicity. o f lavas, volcanic dusts and ashes, fragm ental m ate
Thus, v o ca n o es are cla ssified on the basis o f (i) the rials etc. are ejected upto thousands o f m etres in the
mode o f eruption and (ii) the period o f eruption and sky. T hese m aterials after fa llin g d ow n accu m u late
the nature o f their activities. around the volcanic vent and form v o lc a n ic c o n e s o f
(1) C la ssific a tio n o n th e B asis o f th e M od e o f various sorts. Such v o lca n o es are very d estru ctive
Eruptions and are disastrous natural hazards. E x p lo siv e v o lc a
noes are further divided into 5 su b -ty p es on the b asis
(i) C e n tr a l eru p tio n ty p e o r ex p losive
o f difference in the intensity o f eruption, variations
e r u p tio n ty p e
in the ejected volcan ic m aterial and the period o f the
(a) H aw aiin type action o f volcanic even ts as g iv en b elo w .
(b) Strom bolian type (i) Hawaiin Type of Volcanoes— S u ch
(c) V ulcanian type canoes erupt quietly due to le ss v isc o u s lavas and
non-violent nature o f g a ses. R ounded blisters o f hot
(d) Peleean type
and glo w in g m ass/b oll o f lavas (b leb s o f m olten
(e) V isu viu s type lava) when caught by a strong w in d g lid e in the air
(ii) F issu re eru p tio n ty p e o r q u iet e r u p like red and g lo w in g hairs. T he H aw aiin p eo p le
tio n ty p e consider these lon g g la ssy threads o f red m olten lava
(a) L a v a f lo o d o r la v a f lo w as Pele's hair (P ele is the H aw aiin g o d d ess o f fire).
Such volcan oes have been nam ed as H aw aiin type
(b) M u d flo w
because o f the fact that such eruptions are o f very
(c) Fum aroles com m on occurrence on H aw aii island. T h e eruption '
202 GEOMORPHOLOGY i
o f K ilavca v o lca n o of the southern H aw aii island in m ountain (M ou n t P elee) w ith great sp eed w hich
1959-60 continued for sev en days (from N ovem b er caused disastrous avalan ch es on the h illslo p e s w hich
14 to 2 0 , 1959) w hen about 30 m illion cu b ic m etres plunged d ow n the slo p e at a sp eed o f about 100 |
of lavas poured out. T he interm ilttent eruptions kilom etres per hour. T he annihilating e x p lo siv e erup
continued upto D ecem b er 2 1 , 1959, w hen the v o l tion o f Krakatoa v o lc a n o in 1883 in Krakatoa Island
can o b ecam e dorm ant. It again erupted on January located in Sunda Strait b etw een Java and Sum atra is
1 3 ,1 9 6 0 and about 100 m illion cubic m etres o f lavas another ex a m p le o f v io le n t v o lc a n ic eruption o f this
w ere poured out o f on e kilom etre long fissure. type.
(H) Strombolian Type of Volcanoes— Such (v) Visuvious Type of Volcanoes— T he
v o lcan oes, nam ed after Strom boli volcano o f Lipari are m ore or less sim ilar to V u lcan ian and Strom bolian
island in the M editerranean Sea, erupt with m oder types o f v o lc a n o e s, the d iffe r e n c e lie s o n ly in the
ate intensity. B esid es lava, other volcanic m aterials intensity o f ex p u lsio n o f la v a s and g a se s. T here is
like p u m ice, scoria, bom bs etc. are also ejected upto extrem ely v io len t ex p u lsio n o f m a g m a d u e to enor
greater height in the sky. T h ese materials again fall m ous volu m e o f e x p lo s iv e g a ses. V o lc a n ic m aterials
dow n in the volcanic craters. The eruptions are are thrown up to greater h eig h t in the sk y. The
alm ost rhythm ic or nearly continuous in nature but ejected en orm ou s v o lu m e o f g a se s and a sh es form s
so m e tim es they are interrupted by long intervals. thick cloud s o f ‘c a u liflo w e r fo r m .’ T h e m o st d e
structive type o f eruption is ca lle d as Plinian type
(iii) Vulcanian T y p e of Volcanoes— These
b ecause o f the fact that su ch ty p e o f eruption was
are named after volcano o f Lipari island in the
first ob served by P lin i in 7 9 A .D .
Mediterranean Sea. Such volcanoes erupt with great
force and intensity. The lavas are so viscou s and (2) Fissure Eruption Type of Volcanoes—
pasty that these are quickly solidified and hardened Such v o lca n o es occu r a lo n g a lo n g fracture, fault and
between tw o eruptions and thus they crust over fissure and there is slo w u p w ellin g o f m agm a from
(plug) the volcanic vents. T hese lava crusts obstruct b elo w and the resultant la v a s spread o v e r the ground
the escape o f violent gases during next eruption. surface. T he sp eed o f lava m o v em en t d ep en d s o n the
Consequently, the violent gases break and shatter nature o f m agm a, v o lu m e o f m agm a, slo p e o f ground
the lava crusts into angular fragments and appear in surface and tem perature co n d itio n s. T h e L aki fis
the sky as ash-laden volcanic clouds o f dark and sure eruption o f 1783 in Icela n d w a s so q u ick and
often black colour assum ing a convoluted or cau li enorm ous that h u g e v o lu m e o f la v a s m easu rin g
flow er shape (fig. 12.2). about 15 cu b ic k ilo m etres w a s poured ou t from a 28-
(iv) Peleean Type of Volcanoes— T hese are km lo n g fissu re. T h e la v a flo w w a s s o en o rm o u s that
named after the Pelee volcano o f M artinique Island it travelled a d ista n ce o f 3 5 0 k ilo m etres.
in the Caribbean Sea. T hese are the m ost violen t and
m ost ex p lo siv e type o f volcanoes. The ejected lavas 1 2 .4 CLASSIFICATION ON THE B A S IS O F PE
are m ost viscou s and pasty. O bstructive dom es o f RIODICITY O F E R U P T IO N S
lava are formed above the conduits o f the volcanoes. V o lca n o es are d iv id e d in to 3 ty p e s on the
Thus, every su ccessiv e eruption has to blow o ff basis o f period o f eruption and in terval p eriod be
these lava dom es. C onsequently, each su ccessiv e tw een tw o eru p tion s o f a v o lc a n o e .g . (i) active
eruption occurs with greater force and intensity v o lca n o es, (ii) dorm ant v o lc a n o e s and (iii) extinct
m aking roaring noise. The m ost disastrous volcanic v o lca n o es.
eruption o f Mount P elee on May 8, 1902 destroyed (i) Active volcanoes are th o se w h ich
the w hole o f the town o f St. Pierre k illing all the stantly eject v o lc a n ic la v a s, g a s e s , a sh e s and frag
2 8 ,0 0 0 inhabitants leaving behind only tw o survi m ental m aterials. It is estim a ted that there are about
vors to mourn the sad d em ise o f their brethren. Such m ore than 5 0 0 v o lc a n o e s in the w orld . E tna and
type o f disastrous violen t eruptions are named as
Strom boli ot the M ed iterranean S e a are the m ost
nuee ardente m eaning thereby ‘glo w in g c lo u d ’ o f
sig n ifica n t ex a m p les o f th is c a teg o r y . S trom b oli ?
hot gases, lavas etc. com in g out o f a vocan ic erup
V o lca n o is k n ow n as L ig h t H o u se o f th e Mediterra- ^
tion. The nuee ardente spread laterally out o f the
nean b ecau se o f co n tin u o u s e m is s io n o f burn5"
203
lum inous incandescent gases, M o st o f the active

volcanoes are found along the m id -o cean ic ridges
representing div erg en t plate m arg in s (co n stru ctiv e
plate m argins) and co n v erg en t plate m argins (d e
structive plate m argins rep resen ted by the eastern
and w estern m argins o f the Pacific O cean). T h e
latest eruption took place from P in atu b o volcano in
June 1991 in P hillipines.
(ii) D om ran t vo lca n o es are th o se w hich b e
com e quiet after their eru p tio n s for som e tim e and
there are no indications for future eru p tio n b u t su d
denly they erupt very violently and cau se e n o rm o u s
damage to hum an health and w ealth. V isu v io u s
volcano is the best exam ple o f d o rm an t v o lcan o
w hich erupted first in 79 A .D ., then it k ep t q u iet upto
1631 A.D. when it suddenly ex p lo d ed w ith g reat
force. The subsequent eru p tio n s o ccu rred in 1803,
1 8 72,1906, 1927, 1228 and 1929.
(iii) E xtin ct volcan oes are co n sid ere d e x tin ct
when there are no indications o f fu tu re eru p tio n . T he
crater is filled up w ith w ater and lakes are form ed. It
may be pointed out that no vo lcan o can be d eclared
perm anently dead as no one know s, w h at is h a p p e n
ing below the ground surface.
1 2 .5 VOLCANSC M A T E R IA L S
V olcanic m aterials d isch arg ed d u rin g eru p
tions include gases and vapour, lav as, frag m en tal
m aterials and ashes.
V apour and G ases— S team and v ap o u r c o n
stitute 60 to 90 per cen t o f the total g ases d isch arg e d
during a volcanic eru p tio n . S team an d v ap o u r in
clude (i) ph reatic vap ou r and (ii) m a g m a tic v a
p our w hereas volcanic gases in clu d e carb o n d io x
ide, nitrogen o xides, su lp h u r d io x id e, h y d ro g en ,
carbon m onoxide etc. B esid es, c ertain c o m p o u n d s
are also ejected w ith the v o lc a n ic g a se s e .g .
sulphurated h y d ro g en , h y d ro ch lo ric acid, v o latile
chlorides o f iron, potassium and other m etallic m atter.
M agm a and L a v a— G en erally , m o lten ro ck
m aterials are called m ag m as below the e a rth ’s su r
face w hile they are called la v as w hen they co m e at
the earth's face. L av as and m ag m as are d iv id e d on
the basis o f silica p erce n tag e into tw o g ro ups e.g. (i)
acidic m agm a (h ig h er p ercen tag e o f silica and (ii)
Fig* 12,2 : Types o f Volcanoes-(l) Hawaiin type, (2)
Strombolian type, (3) Vulcanian type, (4) basic lava (low p ercen tag e o f silica). Lavas and
Peleean type, (5) Visuvian type and (6) Fis m agm as are also classified on the b asis o f light and
sure type or Icelandic type. dark coloured m in erals into (i) fe lsic la v a in d (ii)
204 GEOMORPHOLOGY
m a fic la v a . B a sa ltic o r m a fic la v a is c h ara cterized in clu d e frag m e n tal m a te ria ls o f crustal rocks. On the
by m a x im u m flu id ity . B asa ltic lav a sp read s on the b asis o f size p y ro c la stic m a te ria ls are g ro u p ed into
g ro u n d su rfa c e w ith m a x im u m flo w sp eed (fro m a (i) v o lc a n ic d u st (fin e s t p a rtic le s), (ii) v o lc a n ic ash
few k ilo m e tre s to 100 k ilo m e tre s p er h o u r, average (2 m m in size), (iii) lap U li ( o f th e siz e o f peas) and
flo w sp eed b ein g 45 to 65 km p er h o u r) d u e to high (iv) v o lc a n ic b o m b s (6 cm o r m o re in size), w hich
flu id ity an d lo w v isco sity . B asaltic lav a is the h o ttest are o f d iffe re n t sh ap es viz. e llip s o id a l, discoidal,
la v a (1 ,000° to 1,200°C ). L a v a flo w is d iv id ed into cu b o id al, and irre g u la rly ro u n d e d . T h e d im e n sio n of
tw o ty p e s on the b asis o f H aw aiin lan g u ag e e.g. (i) av erag e v o lcan ic b o m b s ra n g e s fro m th e size o f a
p a h o e h o e an d (ii) a a a a la v a flg w or b lock lava base ball or b a sk e t ball to g ia n t size. S o m e tim e s the
flow . P a h o e h o e la v a has hig h flu id ity and spreads vo lcan ic b o m b s w eig h 100 to n n e s in w e ig h t a n d are
lik e th in sh eets. T h is is also k now n as r o p y la v a . On th ro w n u pto a d ista n c e o f 10 km .
the o th e r h an d , aa aa lav a is m ore viscous. P ahoehoe
12.6 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF V O LCANOES
lav a, w h en so lid ifie d in the form o f sacks or pillow s,
L ik e e a rth q u ak es, the s p a tia l d is trib u tio n o f
is c a lle d p illo w la v a .
v o lcan o es o v er the g lo b e is w ell m a rk e d a n d w ell
F r a g m e n t a l o r P y r o c la s tic M a te r ia ls — u nd ersto o d b ecau se v o lc a n o e s are fo u n d in a w ell
P y ro c la stic m aterials throw n durin g explosive type d efin ed belt or zone (fig. 12.3). T h u s, th e d is trib u
o f e ru p tio n are gro u p ed into three categories, (i) tional pattern o f v o lc an o es is zo n al in c h a ra c te r. If
E s s e n tia l m a te r ia ls include co n so lid ated form s of. w e lo o k at the w o rld d istrib u tio n o f v o lc a n o e s it
liv e lavas. T hese are also know n as te p h r a w hich appears th at the v o lc an o es are a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
m ean s ash. E ssential m aterial are unco n so lid ated w eak er zones o f the earth 's c ru s t an d th e s e are
and th eir size is upto 2 m m . (ii) A c c e sso ry m a te ria ls closely a sso ciated w ith seism ic e v e n ts say e a rth
are form ed o f dead lavas, (iii) A c c id e n ta l m a te ria ls q uakes. T h e w e a k e r zo n es o f th e e a rth are re p re -
tNuovo Bezymian
/B o g o s lo f,
Lessen Peak
kurajirna
rcena *
Jorullu hilippinesi
kNewGuine
Tristan da Cunna
Tarawera
■ C irc u m p a c ific
M id -c o n tin e n ta l
b e fl
b e lt
B a s a ltic p la te a u
Fig. 12.3: World distribution o f volcanoes.

sented b y fo ld e d m o u n ta in s (w e ste rn c o rd ille ra o f

N orth A m e n c a , A n d e s , m o u n ta in s o f e a s t A s ia anH v o lcan o es are fo u n d in ch ain s e.g. th e v o lc an o es o f
East In d ie s ) w ith d ie e x c e p tio n s o f th e A lp s and the the A leu tian Island, H aw aii Islan d , Jap an etc. A b o u t
22 volcanic m o u n tain s are fo u n d in g ro u p in E c u a
H im alay as, a n d fa u lt z o n e s . V o lc a n o e s are also
d o r w herein the h eig h t o f 15 v o lcan ic m o u n ta in s is
asso ciated w ith th e m e e tin g z o n e s o f th e co n tin en ts
m ore than 45 6 0 m A M S L . C o to p ax i is the h ig h e st
and o cea n s. O c c u r re n c e s o f m o re v o lc a n ic eru p tio n s
volcanic m ou n tain o f the w o rld (h e ig h t b ein g 19,613
along c o a s ta l m a rg in s a n d d u r in g w e t se a so n d en o te
feet). T he oth er sig n ifican t v o lc an o es are F u z iy a m a
the fact th a t th e re is c lo s e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n w ater
(Japan), Shasta, R ainier and H ood (w estern co rd illiera
and v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s . S im ila rly , v o lc a n ic eru p
o f N orth A m erica), a valley o f te n th o u sa n d sm o k e s
tions are c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e a c tiv ities o f
(A laska), M t. St. H elens (W ashington, U S A ), K ilav ea
m ountain b u ild in g a n d fra c tu rin g .
(H aw aiiland), M t. T aal, P in atu b o an d M a y o n o f
B a s e d o n p la te te c to n ic s , th e re is Close P h illippines etc.
rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n p la te m a rg in s and v u lcan icity H ere volcanic eru p tio n s are p rim a rily c a u se d
as m o st o f th e w o rld s a c tiv e v o lc a n o e s are asso ci due to collision o f A m erican and P a c ific p la te s an d
ated w ith th e p la te b o u n d a rie s . A b o u t 15 p er cen t o f due to subduction o f P acific P late b elo w A sia tic
the w o rld s a c tiv e v o lc a n o e s are fo u n d along the plate.
c o n stru ctiv e p la te m a r g in s o r d iv e r g e n t p late
(2) M id -C o n tin en ta l B elt— T h is b e lt is also
m argin s ( a lo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s w here tw o know n as ‘the v o lca n ic zo n es o f c o n v e r g e n t c o n ti
plates m o v e in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s ) w h ereas 80 per n e n ta l p la te m e r g in s ’. T h is b elt in c lu d e s th e v o lc a
cent v o lc a n o e s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith the d estru ctiv e noes o f A lpine m o u n tain ch ain s and th e M e d ite rra
or c o n v e r g e n t p la te b o u n d a r ie s (w h ere tw o plates nean Sea and the v o lcan o es o f fa u lt zo n e o f e a s te rn
collide). B e s id e s , s o m e v o lc a n o e s are also found in A frica. H ere, the volcanic e ru p tio n s are c a u s e d due
intraplate r e g io n s e .g . v o lc a n o e s o f the H aw aii Is to convergence and co llisio n o f E u ra sia n p la te s and
land, fa u lt z o n e s o f E a s t A fric a etc. A frican and Indian plates. T h e fam o u s v o lc a n o e s o f
L ik e e a rth q u a k e s , th e re are also th ree m ajor the M editerranean Sea such as S tro m b o li, V isu v io u s,
belts or z o n e s o f v o lc a n o e s in the w orld viz. (i) E tna etc. and the v o lcan o es o f A eg ean S ea are
circ u m -P acific b e lt, (ii) m id -c o n tin e n ta l belt and included in this belt. It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t this
(iii) m id -o c e a n ic rid g e b e lt (fig#. 12.3). belt does not have the co n tin u ity o f v o lc an ic e ru p
(1) C ir c u m -P a c ific B e lt— T h e circ u m -P tions
a as several gaps (v o lcan ic - free z o n es) are
cific belt, a lso k n o w n as th e ‘v o lc a n ic zo n es o f the found along the A lps and the H im a la y a s b e c a u se o f
con vergen t o c e a n ic p la te m a r g in s ’, in clu d es the com pact and thick cru st fo rm ed due to in ten se fo ld
volcanoes o f th e e a s te rn an d w e ste rn co astal areas o f ing activity. T he im p o rtan t v o lc an o es o f th e fault
the P acific O c e a n (o r th e w e ste rn co astal m arg in s o zone o f eastern A frica are K ilim an jaro , M eru , E lg o n ,
North and S o u th A m e ric a s and th e eastern coj*sta B irunga, R ungw e etc.
m argins o f A sia ), o f isla n d arcs a n d festo o n s o t e (3) M id -A tla n tic B elt— T h is b elt in c lu d es
east coast o f A s ia a n d o f th e v o lc a n ic islan ^ sca^ the volcanoes m ain ly alo n g th e m id -A tla n tic ridge
tered o v e r th e P a c ific O c e a n . T h is v o lcan ic b ell is w hich rep resen ts the sp littin g zo n e o f p lates. In o th e r
also called as th e F ir e G ir d le o f th e P a cific o r t e w ords, tw o p lates d iv erg e in o p p o site d ire c tio n s
Fire R in g o f th e P a c ific . T h is b elt b eg in s fiom from the m id -o cean ic ridge. T h u s, v o lc a n o e s m ain ly
Erebus M o u n ta in o f A n ta rc tic a and runs I' ort wa^ o f fissu re eru tp io n ty p e o c c u r alo n g th e c o n s tru c
through A n d e s an d R o c k ie s m o u n ta in s o f ISouth a tive or d iv erg en t p late m a rg in s (b o u n d arie s). T he
N orth A m eric as to re a c h A laska fro m w ere is m ost active v o lcan ic area is Icelan d w h ich is lo c a te d
turns to w ard s e a ste rn Asiatic c o a st to inc ui e e
on the m id -A tlan tic ridge. T h is b elt b eg in s fro m
volcanoes o f island a rcs and festo o n s (e.g. a a li ,
H ekla volcanic m o u n tain o f Icelan d w h ere se v e ra l
K am chatka, Japan, Phillippines etc.). T e e u i
fissure eru p tio n type o f v o lc an o es are fo u n d . It m ay
l a t e l y m e rg e s w ith th e m i d - c o n tin en ta e ‘n
Bast Indies. M o st o f h ig h v o lc an ic co n es and vo - be po in ted out th at since Icelan d is lo c a te d o n the
canic m o u n tain s a re fo u n d in this belt, os m id -A tlan tic rid g e rep resen tin g th e sp littin g zon e o f
206 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(4) I n tr a - P la te V o lc a n o e s— B esid es th e afore-
A m e ric a n p la te m o v in g w e stw a rd an d E u ra sia n p late
said w ell d e fin e d th re e z o n e s o f v o lc a n o e s, scattered
m o v in g eastw ard , and h en ce here is co n stan t upw elling
v o lc a n o e s a re a lso fo u n d in th e in n e r p a rts o f the
o f m a g m a s a lo n g th e m id -o c e a n ic rid g e an d w h e r
c o n tin en ts. S u c h d is trib u tio n a l p a tte rn s o f v o lca
e v e r th e c ru s t b e c o m e s th in an d w eak , fissu re flo w o f
n o es are c a lle d as in tra p la te v o lc a n o e s , th e m echa
la v a o c c u rs b e c a u se o f fra c tu re c re a te d d u e to d iv e r
nism o f th e ir e ru p tio n is n o t y e t p re c ise ly know n.
g e n ce o f p la te s. T h e L a k i fissu re eru p tio n o f 1783
Fig. 12.4 d e p ic ts th e lo c a tio n o f v o lc a n o e s o f the
A .D . w as so q u ic k an d e n o rm o u s th at h u g e v o lu m e P acific p la te w h e re o n e b ra n c h o f v o lc a n o e s runs
o f la v a s m e a su rin g a b o u t 15 cu b ic k ilo m etres w as fro m H aw aii to K a m c h a tk a . V u lc a n ic ity a lso b e
p o u red o u t fro m 2 8 -k m lo n g fissu re. R ecen tly , H ek la co m es a c tiv e in th e in n e r p a rts o f c o n tin e n ta l plates.
an d H e lg a fe ll v o lc an o es eru p te d in th e y ear 1974 M assiv e fissu re e ru p tio n o c c u rre d in th e n o rth
and 1973 resp e c tiv e ly . O th er m o re active volcanic w estern p arts o f N o rth A m e r ic a d u rin g M io cen e
areas are L e s s e r A n tilles, S o u th ern A ntilles, A zores, p erio d w h en 1 ,0 0 ,0 0 0 c u b ic k ilo m e tre s o f b asaltic
St. H e le n a etc. T h e d read fu l and disastro u s eru p tio n lavas w ere sp read o v e r an a re a o f 1 ,3 0 ,0 0 0 km 2 to
o f M o u n t P ele e o ccu rred on M ay 8 ,1 9 0 2 in the tow n form C o lu m b ia n p la te a u . S im ila rly , g re a t fissure
o f St. P ierre on the M artin iq u e Island o f W est Indies flo w s o f lav as c o v e re d m o re th a n 5 ,0 0 ,0 0 0 k m 2 areas
in th e C arib b ean Sea. A ll the 28 ,0 0 0 inh ab itan ts, o f P e n in su la r In d ia. P a ra n a o f B a ra z il a n d P arag u ay
ex ce p t tw o persons, w ere killed by the k iller v o l w ere fo rm ed d ue to sp re a d o f la v a s o v e r an are a o f
can ic eruption. 7 ,5 0 ,0 0 0 k m 2.
Fig. 12.4 : Volcanic-ridge-chain on Pacific plate.

V U L C A N IC IT Y A N D L A N D F O R M S
207
12.7 MECHANISMS AND C A U S E S OF V U L C A N IC
asso ciated w ith plate b oundaries. It m ay be p o in ted
• t S/ a >hd e a r ‘r t h e V O ,C a n ic e r u P t i o n s a r eo ut th at the types o f plate m o v em en ts and p late
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w e a k e r z o n e s o f t h e e a r t h surface
b o undaries also d eterm in e the n atu re and intensity
r e p r e se n te d b y m o u n t a in b u ild in g a t th e d e s tr u c tiv e
o f volcanic eruptions. M o st o f the activ e fissure
or c o n v e r g e n t p la t e m a r g in s a n d fr a c tu r e z o n e s r e n
volcanoes are found along the m id -o cean ic rid g es
r e se n te d b y c o n s t r u c t iv e o r d iv e r g e n t p la te b o u n d a
w hich rep resen t sp littin g zones o f d iv e rg e n t p late
r ie s a t t h e s p l i t t i n g z o n e s o f m i d - o c e a n i c r i d g e s a n d
boundaries (fig. 12.5). T w o p lates m ove in opp o site
th e z o n e s o f t r a n s f o r m fa u lts r e p r e se n te d b v co n
d irectio n s from the m id -o cean ic rid g es due to th e r
s e r v a tiv e p la te b o u n d a r ie s . The m e c h a n is m of
mal conv ectiv e cu rren ts w hich are o rig in ated in the
v u lc a n ic it y (v u lc a n is m ) a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p tio n s is m antle below the cru st (plates). T h is sp littin g and
c lo s e ly a s s o c ia t e d w it h s e v e r a l in t e r c o n n e c t e d p r o c lateral spreading o f plates creates fractu res and faults
esses su ch a s ( i ) g r a d u a l in c r e a s e o f te m p e r a tu r e (transform faults) w hich cau se p re ssu re re le a se and
with in c re a s in g d e p th a t th e ra te o f 1°C p er 32 m due low ering o f m elting p oint and th u s m a te ria ls o f
to heat g e n e ra te d fro m th e d isin te g ra tio n o f rad io a c upper m antle lying below the m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s are
tive e le m e n ts d e e p w ith in th e earth , (ii) o rigin o f m elted and m ove u p w ard as m a g m as u n d e r the
m agm a b e c a u s e o f lo w e rin g o t m e ltin g p o in t caused im pact o f enorm ous volum e o f acc u m u la te d g ases
by r e d u c t i o n in th e p r e s s u r e o f o v e r ly in g and vapour. T his rise o f m ag m as a lo n g th e m id -
su p erin cu m b en t lo a d d u e to fra c tu re cau sed by sp lit oceanic ridges (constructive or divergent plate b o u n d a
ting o f p la te s a n d th e ir m o v e m e n t in o p p o site d irec ries) causes fissure eru p tio n s o f v o lc an o es an d th e re
tion. (iii) o rig in o f g a s e s an d v a p o u r d u e to heating is constant upw elling o f lavas. T h ese lavas are c o o le d
of w ater w h ic h re a c h e s u n d e rg ro u n d th ro u g h p erco and solidified and are ad d ed to th e trailin g e n d s o f
lation o f ra in w a te r a n d m e it-w a te r (w ater derived d ivergent plate b o undaries and th u s th e re is c o n s ta n t
through the m e ltin g o f ice an d sn o w ), (iv) the ascent creation o f new basaltic crust, T he v o lcan ic e ru p
of m agm a fo rc e d by e n o rm o u s v o lu m e o f gases and tions o f Iceland and the islands lo c ated alo n g the
vapour an d (v ) fin a lly th e o c c u rre n c e o f volcanic m id-A tlantic ridge are cau sed b eca u se o f se a -flo o r
eruptions o f e ith e r v io le n t e x p lo siv e cen tral type or spreading and d iv erg en ce o f p lates. It is o b v io u s th at
quiet fissu re ty p e d e p e n d in g up o n the intensity o f divergent or co n stru ctiv e p late b o u n d arie s are a l
gases and v a p o u r an d th e n a tu re o f cru stal surface. w ays associated w ith q u iet type o f fissure flo w s o f
T h e o r y o f p l a t e te c to n ic s now very well lavas because the p ressure release o f su p erin cu m b en t
explains th e m e c h a n is m o f v u lc an ism and volcanic load due to d iv erg en ce o f p lates and fo rm atio n o f
eruptions. In fact, v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s are very closely fissures and faults is a slow and g rad u al p ro cess.
% 12.5 : Illustration o f constructive (divergent) and destructive (convergent) plate boundaries and their relationship
with vulcanicity.
208 GEOMORPHOLOGY
It is apparent from the above d iscussion that to hum an structures such as b u ild in g s, factories,
the m id-oceanic ridges, rep resen tin g splitting zones, roads, rails, airp o rts, dam s and reserv o irs through
are associated w ith active volcanoes w herein the hot lavas and fires cau sed by h o t lav as; flo o ds in the
supply o f lav a com es from the upper m antle ju st rivers and clim atic ch an g es. A few o f the severe
below the ridge because o f differen tial m elting o f the dam ages w ro u g h t by v o lcan ic eru p tio n s m ay be
rocks into th oleiitic b asa lts. Since there is constant sum m arized as given b elo w —
supply o f basaltic lavas from below the m id-oceanic (1) H uge vo lu m es o f h o t and liq u id lavas
ridges and hence the v o lcan o es are active near the m oving at co n sid erab ly fast sp eed (reco rd ed speed is
ridges but the supply o f lavas d ecreases w ith increas 48 km per hour) bury h um an stru ctu re s, kill people
ing distance from the m id -o cean ic ridges and there and anim als, destro y ag ricu ltu ral farm s and pas
fore the volcanoes becom e inactive, d orm ant and tures, plug rivers and lakes, b u m an d d estro y forest
extinct d epending on th eir distances from the source etc. The great eru p tio n o f M t. L o a on H aaw aii
o f lava supply, e.g. m id -o cean ic ridges. This fact has poured out such a huge vo lu m e o f lav as th a t these
been validated on the basis o f the study o f the covered a distance o f 53 km dow n the slo p e. E n o r
b asaltic floor o f the A tlantic O cean and the lavas of m ous Laki lava flow o f 1783 A .D . tra v e lle d a d is
several Islands. It has been found that the islands tance of 350 km eng u lfin g tw o c h u rch es, 15 a g ric u l
n earer to the m id -A tlan tic R idge have younger lavas tural farm s and k illin g 24 p er c e n t o f th e total
w hereas the islands aw ay from the ridge have older population o f Iceland. T he cases o f M t. P elee e ru p
lavas. F or exam ple, the lavas o f A zores islands tion o f 1902 in M artinique Islan d (in C a rib b e a n S ea)
situated on eith er side o f the m id-A tlantic Ridge are (total death 28,000) and St. H elen s eru p tio n o f 1980
4 -m illion y ear old w hereas the lavas o f Cape V erde (W ashington, U SA ) are rep resen tativ e e x a m p le s o f
Island, located far aw ay from the said ridge, are 120- dam ages done by lav a m o v em en t. T h e th ic k c o v ers
m illion year old. o f green and dense fo rests on th e flan k s o f M t. St.
D estru ctive or con vergent plate b ou nd a H elens w ere com p letely d e stro y e d d u e to sev ere
ries are associated w ith explosive type o f volcanic forest fires kindled by h o t lav as.
eruptions. W hen tw o convergent plates collide along (2) F allo u t o f im m en se q u an tity o f v o lc an ic
B en io ff zon e (subduction zone), co m p aratively m aterials including frag m en tal m a teria ls (p y ro clastic
heavier plate m argin (boundary) is subducted be m aterials), dusts and ashes, sm o k es etc. c o v e rs la rg e
neath com paratively lighter plate boundary. The ground su rface and th u s d estro y s cro p s, v e g e ta tio n
subducted plate m argin, after reaching a depth o f and buildings, d isru p ts an d d iv e rts n a tu ra l d ra in a g e
100 km or m ore in the upper m antle, is m elted and system s, creates h ealth h azard s d u e to p o iso n o u s
thus m agm a is form ed. T his m agm a is forced to gases em itted d u rin g the eru p tio n , and c a u s e s k ille r
ascend by the enorm ous volum e o f accum ulated acid rains.
explosive gases and thus m agm a appears as violent
volcanic eruption on the earth's surface. Such type o f (3) A ll ty p es o f v o lc an ic e ru p tio n s , if n o t
volcanic eruption is very com m on along the d estru c predicted w ell in ad v an c e, c a u se s tre m e n d o u s lo sses
to p recio u s h um an lives. S u d d en e m p tio n o f v io le n t
tive or co n v erg en t plate boundaries w hich rep resen t
the volcanoes o f the circu m -P a cific b elt and the and ex p lo siv e type th ro u g h c en tral p ip e d o e s n o t
give any tim e to h u m an b ein g s to e v a c u a te th e m
m id -con tin en tal belt. T he volcanoes o f the island
arcs and festoons (o ff the east co ast o f A sia) are selves and th u s to save th e m se lv e s fro m th e c lu tc h e s
caused due to subductio n o f oceanic cru st (p late) say o f d eath lo o m in g larg e o v er th em . S u d d en e m p tio n
Pacific plate below the co n tin en tal plate, say A siatic o f M t. P elee on the Islan d o f M a rtin iq u e , W e st In d ie s
plate near Japan T rench. in the C arib b ean S ea, on M ay 8, 1902 d e stro y e d th e
w hole o f St. P ierre tow n and k illed all the 2 8 ,0 0 0
12.8 HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC in h ab itan ts leav in g b eh in d o n ly tw o su rv iv o rs to
ERUPTIONS m ourn the sad d e m ise o f th e ir b re th re n . T h e heavy
V olcanic eru p tio n s cau se heavy d am ag e to rain fa ll, asso c ia te d w ith v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s , m ixin g
h u m an lives and pro p erty th ro u g h ad v an cin g hot w ith fallin g v o lc a n ic d u sts an d ga ses ca u ses e n o r
lavas and fallo u t o f vo lcan ic m a terials; d estru ctio n m o u s m u d flo w o r ‘la h a r * on th e s te e p slo p es o f
209
volcanic c o n e s w h ich c a u ses sudden deaths o f hu- (5 ) V o lca n ic eruptions also ch an ge the radia
man b ein gs. For ex a m p le , great m ud flo w created on tion balance o f the earth and the atm osphere and thus
the steep slo p es o f K elu t v o lc a n o in Japan in the year help in causing clim atic ch an ges. Greater con cen tra
1919 killed 5 ,5 0 0 p eo p le. tion o f volcan ic dusts and ash es in the sky red u ces
the am ount o f insolation reaching the earth s su rface
(4 ) E arthquakes ca u sed b efore and after the
as they scatter and reflect som e am ount o f in co m in g
volcanic eruptions gen erate d e s tr u c ti v e tsu n a m is
shortwave solar radiation. D u st v e ils , on the other
seism ic w a v es w h ic h create m o st d estructive and
hand, do not hinder in the lo ss o f heat o f the eart s
disastrous sea w a v e s ca u sin g innum erable deaths o f surface through ou tgoin g lo n g w a v e terrestrial ra
hum an b ein gs in the a ffe c te d co a sta l areas. O n ly the diation. The ejection o f nearly 2 0 cu b ic k ilo m etres
exam ple o f K rakatoa in 1883 w o u ld be su fficien t o f fragm ental m aterials, dusts and a sh es u p to e
enough to d em on stra te the d isastrous im pact o f height o f 23 km in the sky during the v i o le n t eru p tion
tsunam is w h ich gen erated en orm ou s sea w a v es o f 30 o f Krakatoa volcano on A u gu st 2 7 , 1 8 8 3 , fo rm e a
to 40 m h eig h t w h ic h k illed 3 6 ,0 0 0 p eop le in the thick dust veil in the stratosphere w h ich c a u sed a
coastal areas o f Java and Sum atra.
C uldera w ith C in d e r
Volcanic Neck with Rnclianf inf> Dikes C one

E ro d e d L acco lith
nroduced during volcanic activities.

fig. 12.6: Different types o ,f .landforms proauc
geom orphology
210
m a tio n o f c in d e r c o n e s is in itia te d d u e to accu m u la
global d ecre ase o f so lar ra d ia tio n re c e iv e d at the
tio n o f fin e r p a rtic le s a ro u n d v o lc a n ic v e n t in the
earth 's su rface by 10 to 20 p er cent.
form o f tin y m o u n d , say ‘a n t m o u n t’ w h ich varies
(6) A g ro u p o f scien tists b eliev es th a t v o l
in h e ig h t fro m a few c e n tim e tre s to a few m etres in
canic eru p tio n s and fallo u t o f d u sts and ash es cau se the b eg in n in g . T h e size o f th e c o n e g rad u ally in
m ass ex tin ctio n o f a few sp ecies o f an im als. B ased
cre a se s d u e to c o n tin u o u s a c c u m u la tio n o f volcanic
on this h y p o th e sis th e m ass ex tin ctio n o f d in o sau rs
m aterials m in u s la v as. S o m e tim e s , th e ra te o f grow th
ab o u t 60 m illio n y ears ago has been rela ted to
o f the co n e is so h ig h th a t it g a in s h e ig h t o f 100 m or
increased w o rld -w id e v o lcan ic activity. A cid rains
m o re w ith in a w eek . T h e s lo p e s o f c in d e r cones
acco m p an ied by v o lcan ic eru p tio n s cau se large-
ran g e b etw ee n 30° an d 45°. L a rg e r p a rtic le s are •
scale d estru ctio n o f p la n ts and anim als.
arran g ed n ear th e c ra te rs a n d re s t a t th e a n g le be
12.9TOPOGRAPHY PRODUCED BY VULCANICITY tw een 40° and 45° an d th e fin e r p a rtic le s a re d epos- *
N u m e ro u s ty p es o f lan d fo rm s are created due ited at the o u te r m a rg in s o f th e c o n e s . S in c e such
to co o lin g an d so lid ificatio n o f m ag m as b elow the co n es are fo rm ed o f u n c o n s o lid a te d la rg e r p article s
earth 's su rface and lav as at the earth 's surface and and are seld o m c o m p a c te d by la v a s a n d h e n c e they
du e to acc u m u la tio n o f frag m en tal m aterials, dusts are p erm eab le to w ater.
and ashes w ith lav as such as d ifferen t types o f Such co n es are on an a v e ra g e le ss s u s c e p itb le
v o lcan ic co n es. T h e cones and craters are n ot alw ays to ero sio n and h e n ce th ey m a in ta in th e ir o rig in a l
p erm a n e n t lan d fo rm s b ecau se they are ch an g ed and form s fo r h u n d red s o f y ears p ro v id e d th a t th e y a re
m o d ified d u rin g every su ccessiv e eruption. E x p lo n ot d estro y ed by en su in g v io le n t e x p lo s io n . T h e
sive ty p e o f volcan ic eru p tio n s helps in the fo rm a v o lcanic co n es o f M t. Jo ru llo o f M e x ic o , M t. Iz a lc o
tio n o f several types o f volcanic cones w hereas o f San S alv ad o r, M t. C a m ig u in o f L u z o n Is la n d o f
fissu re flow s resu lt in the fo rm ation o f lava plateaus P h illip p in es etc. are ty p ic a l e x a m p le s o f c in d e r c o n e s
and lav a plains due to accu m u latio n o f th ick layers
(fig. 12.7(1).
o f basaltic lavas over ex ten siv e areas. T he to p o
graphic features produced by the entire process o f (ii) C o m p o site c o n e s a re th e h ig h e s t o f all
vulcanicity are grouped into tw o broad categ o ries volcan ic cones. T h e se are fo rm e d d u e to a c c u m u la
viz. (1) extru sive to p o g ra p h y and (ii) in tru sive tion o f d iffe re n t la y ers o f v a rio u s v o lc a n ic m a te ria ls
top ograp h y. Fig. 12.6 depicts m ajo r ch aracteristic and h en ce th e se are a lso c a lle d as s tr a to -c o n e s (fig.
volcanic landform s. 12.7(2). In fact, th e se c o n e s a re fo rm e d d u e to
(1) E xtru sive V olcan ic T op ograp h y d ep o sitio n o f a lte rn a te la y e rs o f la v a ai^d fra g m e n ta l
(p h y ro cla stic) m a te ria ls w h e re in la v a a c ts as c e
(i) F rom exp losive type o f eru p tion s
m en tin g m a teria ls fo r th e c o m p a c tio n o f fra g m e n ta l
(a) E levated form s, e.g. volcanic cones m aterials. T h e co n e b e c o m e s c o m p a ra tiv e ly r e s is t
(b) D epressed form s, e.g. craters and an t to ero sio n if it is c o ated by th ic k la y e r o f la v a . O n
calderas the o th er h an d , if th e o u te r la y e r is c o m p o s e d o f
(ii) F rom fissu re eru p tion s frag m en tal m a te ria ls, the c o m p o s ite c o n e is s u b
(a) L av a p lateau s and dom es je c te d to sev ere ero sio n . M o s t o f th e h ig h e s t s y m
(b) L av a plains m etrical and e x te n siv e v o lc a n ic c o n e s o f th e w o rld
(2) In tru siv e V o lca n ic T o p o g ra p h y co m e u n d er th is c a te g o ry e.g . M t. S h a s ta , M t. R a n ie r,
(i) M t. H o o d (U S A ), M t. M a y o n o f P h illip p in e s , M t.
in tru siv e lav a d o m es, (ii) b ath o lith s, (iii)
lacco lith s, (iv) p h aco lith s, (vi) lo p o lith s, (vi) sills, F u z iy a m a o t Ja p a n , M t. C o to p a x i o f E c u a d o r etc.
(vii) d ik es, (viii) v o lcan ic p lu g s and sto ck s etc. (iii) P a r a s ite c o n e s- S e v e ra l b ra n c h e s o f pipes
c o m e o u t fro m th e m a in c e n tra l p ip e o f th e v o lc a n o
Elevated Forms
w h en the v o lc a n ic c o n e s are e n o rm o u s ly e n la rg e d .
VOLCANIC CONES L av a s an d o th e r v o lc a n ic m a te ria ls c o m e o u t from
(i) C in d e r o r a sh c o n e s are u su ally o f low
th e se m in o r p ip e s a n d th e se m a te ria ls a re d e p o s ite d
height and are form ed o f volcanic d u sts an d ashes and a ro u n d n e w ly fo rm e d v e n ts lo c a te d o n th e o u te r
p y ro c la stic m a tte r (fra g m e n ta l m a te ria ls). T h e fo r su rfa c e o f th e m a in c o n e a n d th u s s e v e ra l s m a lle r
yyiXANICTTY AND LANDFORMS
cones are form ed on m ajo r cone (fig. 12.7(3)). T hese

cones are called p arasite cones b ecau se the supply o f
lava for these cones com es from the m ain pipe.
T hese cones are also know n as a d v en tiv e or lateral
con es. S hastina cone is a p arasite co n e o f M t. S h asta
o f the U SA .
(iv) B asic lava con e is fo rm ed o f lig h t an d
less viscous lava w ith less q u an tity o f silica. In fact,
w hen the lava co m in g o ut o f fissu se flow is d e fic ie n t
in silica and is ch aracterized by h ig h d eg ree o f
fluidity, it cools and so lid ifies afte r sp read in g o v er
larger area. Thus, a long co n e w ith sig n ifican tly low
h eig h t is form ed. Such cones are also c a lle d as sh ield
cones because o f th eir sh ap es re se m b lin g a sh ield .
Since these cones are co m p o sed o f b a sa ltic la v as,
they are also called as b asic la v a co n es. T h e se are
also know n as H aw an a ty p e o f co n es (fig. 12.7(4)).
(v) A cid la v a co n es are fo rm ed w h e re the
lavas com ing out o f v o lcan ic e ru p tio n s are h ig h ly
viscous and rich in silica co n ten t. In fact, such
viscous lavas have very low m o b ility an d h e n ce th e y
are im m ediately cooled and so lid ified a fte r th e ir
appearance on the earth's su rface. T h u s, h ig h c o n e s
of steep slopes are form ed. S u ch co n es are very o fte n
know n as S tro m b o lia n ty p e o f co n es (fig. 12.7(5).
(vi) L ava d om es are in fa c t sim ila r to sh ield
cones in one w ay or the other. L av a d o m e s d iffe r
from shield cones as reg ard s th eir size. A c tu a lly ,
lava dom es are larg er and m o re ex te n siv e in size th a n
the shield cones. T h ese are fo rm ed d u e to a c c u m u la
tion o f so lid ified lavas aro u n d the v o lc a n ic ven ts.
B ased on the m o d e o f o rigin and the p la c e o f fo rm a
tion lava dom es are d iv id ed into 3 c a te g o rie s e.g. (A )
p lu g d om e (fo rm ed o f lav as d u e to fillin g o f v o l
canic vents), (B ) en d o g en o u s d o m e (fo rm e d o f
silica rich v isco u s lavas) an d (c) e x o g e n o u s d o m e
(form ed o f s ilica-d eficien t la v a w ith h ig h d e g re e o f
fluidity).
(vii) L ava p lu g s are fo rm e d d u e to p lu g g in g
o f volcanic pipes and v en ts w h en v o lc a n o e s b e c o m e
extinct. T h ese v ertical c o lu m n s o f s o lid ifie d la v a s
ap p ear on the earth 's su rface w h en th e v o lc a n ic
cones are ero d ed aw ay. T h e la v a -fille d v o lc a n ic
piple is called as v o lc a n ic n e c k (fig . 1 2 .7 (6 )). G en
erally, volcan ic n eck s are c y lin d ric a l sh a p e d a n d
m easu re 50 to 6 0 m in h e ig h t (a b o v e th e g ro u n d
su rface) and 3 0 0 to 6 0 0 m in d ia m e te r. S o m e tim e s
% 12,7: Different types o f volcanic cones. d ia trem e term is u sed to in d ic a te v o lc a n ic neck or
GEOMORPHOLOGY
212
len t ex am p le o f a diatreme ex p o se d by the erosion
pipe filled w ith breccia. ‘S h ip ro ck * w hich tow ers
o f its en clo sin g sed im en tary ro c k s’ (F. P ress and R.
515 m etres (1700 feet) ov er the su rrounding, flat-
lying sedim entary rocks o f N ew M exico, is an excel- S iev er 1974) (fig. 12.8).
Fig. 12.8 : Shiprock (New Mexico, USA), an example o f diatreme or volcanic neck.
Depressed Forms th eir size e.g. craters ran g e fro m sm all craterlets
(i) Craters— T he d ep ressio n fo rm ed at hthe
av in g a d ia m ete r o f a few h u n d re d m e tre s to la rg e
m outh o f a volcanic vent is called a crater o r a craters h av in g th e d ia m e te r o f a few k ilo m e tre s. T he
volcanic mouth, w h ich is usually funnel shaped. c rater o f e x tin c t A n ia k c h a k v o lc a n o o f A la sk a h as a
T he slope o f the c ra te r d ep en d s upon th e vo lcan ic d ia m e te r o f 9 .6 km (6 m iles) a n d th e sid e w alls are
cone in w hich c ra te r is fo rm ed . N o rm ally , a c rater 364 m to 91 2 m (1 2 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 fe e t) hig h . I f the
fo rm ed in a c in d e r co n e slo p es at the an g le b etw een Crater Lake o f th e state o f O re g o n (U S A ) is a c
25° an d 30°. T h e size o f a c ra te r in c re ases w ith ce p te d as a c ra te r, it b e c o m e s o n e o f th e m o st
in c re ase an d e x p an sio n o f its co n e. A c ra te r m ay be e x te n siv e c ra te rs o f th e w o rld , th o u g h m an y sc ie n
d iffe re n tia te d fro m a c a ld e ra on the b asis o f size and tists c o n s id e r it as an e x a m p le o f a ca ld e ra . W h en a
m o d e o f fo rm atio n . A n av era g e c ra te r m e asu re s 300 c ra te r is filled w ith w a te r, it b e c o m e s a crater lake.
m in d ia m e te r an d 3 0 0 m in d e p th b u t th e re is w ide W hen the crater o f v o lca n o b ecom es very
ra n g e o f v aria tio n s in c ra te rs fro m th e sta n d p o in t o f ex ten siv e and if there are fe w eruptions o f very sm all
VULCANICITY AND LANDFORM S
213
intensity a fte r long tim e, sev eral sm aller co n es are T arso Y eg a (20 km x 14 k m ) in S h a ra (A fric a ), A so
form ed w ithin the e x ten siv e o ld er c ra te r and thus San (23 km x 14 k m ) in Ja p a n , A lb a n (11 km x 10
several sm all-sized craters are fo rm ed at the m o u th km ) in Italy , C ra te r L ak e (1 0 km x 10 k m ) in U S A ,
o f each v o lcan ic v en t in sid e the e x ten siv e crater. K rak ato a (7 km x 6 k m ) in In d o n e sia , K ila u e a (5 km
Such craters or craterlets are called ‘nested cra x 3 k m ) in H aw aii etc. S m a lle r c a ld e ra s h o u se d in a
ters’ or ‘craters within the crater’ o r ‘grouped big c a ld era are c a lle d nested calderas o r grouped
craters’. S uch c ra te rs are fo rm ed only w hen the next calderas (fig. 12.9).
eruption is sm a lle r in in ten sity than the p rev io u s
one. T he c ra te rs fo rm ed at the m o u th o f v o lcan ic C aldera
vents o f p arasite co n es d e v e lo p e d o v er an ex ten siv e
volcanic co n e is ca lle d adventive crater. T h ree
sm aller c ra te rs are fo u n d w ith in the e x ten siv e crater
o f M t. T aal o f P h illip p in e s. S im ilarly , th ree and tw o
craters are fo u n d w ith in th e craters o f V isu v iu s and
E tna v o lcan o es.
(ii) Calderas— G e n e ra lly , en larg ed form of a
crater is c a lle d ca ld e ra . T h e re are tw o p arallel c o n
cepts fo r th e o rig in o f ca ld e ra s. A cco rd in g to the first
group o f sc ie n tists a c a ld e ra is an en larg ed form o f a
Fig. 12.9 : Exam ple o f nested cladera.
cra te r and it is s u rro u n d e d by steep w alls from all
sid es. T h e c a ld e ra is fo rm ed d u e to su b sid en ce o f a Intrusive Topography
c rater. T h is c o n c e p t has been p ro p o u n d ed by the W hen g ases an d v a p o u r a re n o t v e ry m u c h
U .S. G e o lo g ic a l S u rv ey . It is b eliev ed acco rd in g to strong d u rin g v o lc an ic a c tiv ity , th e a s c e n d in g m a g
this c o n c e p t th a t A so c ra te r o f Jap an and C rater L ake m as do not eru p t as lav as ra th e r th e se are in tru d e d in
o f the U S A are th e re su lt o f su b sid en ce. T he second viods b elow the cru stal su rfa c e a n d a fte r c o o lin g a n d
g ro u p o f s c ie n tis ts has o p in e d th at the cald eras are so lid ificatio n a ssu m e s e v e ra l in te re s tin g fo rm s lik e
fo rm ed d u e to v io le n t a n d ex p lo siv e eru p tio n s o f batholiths, laccoliths, phacoliths, lopoliths, sills
and dykes. T h e se in tru siv e v o lc a n ic fo rm s a re seen
v o lcan o es.
only w hen th e s u p e rin c u m b e n t lo a d s o f o v e rly in g
D aly, the le a d in g a d v o c a te o f ‘eruption hy co u n try ro ck s are re m o v e d th ro u g h p ro lo n g e d e r o
pothesis’ o f th e o rig in o f c a ld e ra s, b eliev es th at the sion. T h ese featu res h av e a lre a d y b e e n d is c u s s e d in
to p o g rap h ic fe a tu re s fo rm e d by su b sid e n c e are ‘vol the p rece d in g c h a p te r 8 on rocks.
canic sinks.’ A c c o rd in g to th e a d v o c a te s o f this
h y p o th esis if c a ld e ra s are fo rm ed d u e to su b sid en ce
Geysers
there sh o u ld n o t be any d e p o s it o f p y ro c la stic m a te G ey ser, in fact, is a sp e c ia l ty p e o f hot spring
rials and v o lc a n ic a sh e s re la te d to a p a rtic u la r v o l w h ich sp o u ts h o t w a te r an d v a p o u r fro m tim e to
canic co n e n e a r the c a ld e ra b u t e v id e n c e s h av e tim e. T h e w o rd g e y s e r h as b e e n d e riv e d fro m an
revealed th a t th e re m a in s o f v o lc a n ic m a te ria ls re Icelan d ic w o rd ‘geysir’ w h ic h m e a n s gusher o r
lated to a p a rtic u la r c o n e are fo u n d n o t o n ly n e a r the

spouter. T h is w o rd w as u sed to in d ic a te the sp o u tin g
w ater o f a h o t s p rin g o f Ic e la n d k n o w n as Great
concerned c a ld e ra but a re a lso fo u n d s ev eral k ilo m e
tres aw ay from the c a ld e ra . F o r e x a m p le , v o lc an ic
Geyser o r Gesir.
m aterials h av e been fo u n d at th e d is ta n c e o f 128 km G e y se r, re p re s e n tin g a m in o r form o f the
from the c a ld e ra o f C ra te r L ak e (U S A ). T h e s ig n ifi b ro a d e r p ro c e ss o f v u lc a n ic ity , h as b een v a rio u sly
cant c ald eras o f th e w o rld are (fig u re in th e b ra c k e ts d efin ed by the scien tists. F o re x a m p le , A rth u rH o le m s
denote dim ension in k ilo m e tre s)L a k e T o b a o fS u m a tra has d e fin e d g e y s e r in th e fo llo w in g manner-. “G e y
(50 km x 50 k m ) in S u m a tra , A ira (25 km x 24 km ) sers are h o t sp rin g s fro m w h ic h a co lu m n o f h o t
in Japan, L ak e K u tc h a io (2 6 km x 2 0 k m ) in Ja p a n , w a te r an d steam is e x p lo siv e ly d isch arg e d a t in te r
G EO M O R PHOLOGY "
214
vals, sp o u tin g in so m e cases to h eig h ts o f h u n d red s p ie, G ra n d G e y s e r o f Ic e la n d s p o u ts w a te r for 30

o f fe e t.” A cco rd in g to P .G . W o rc e ste r “G e y se rs are m in u te s in c o n tin u a tio n b e fo re th e n ex t interval
in te rm itte n t ho t sp rin g s th a t fro m tim e to tim e sp o u t p e rio d sta rts) an d (iv ) f e e b le g e y s e r (w h erein the
steam and hot w a te r fro m th e ir c ra te rs .” activ e p e rio d o f w a te r s p o u tin g is v ery sh o rt). C o n
tin u o u s ly a c tiv e g e y s e r s are, in fa c t, hot springs
T h e d iffe re n c e b etw ee n h o t sp rin g s and g e y
w hich spout w ater w ith o u t an y in terv al. T h e Excelsior
ser lies in the fact th a t th ere is co n tin u o u s sp o u tin g
G ey ser o f the Y ello w S to n e N a tio n a l P ark o f the
o f h o t w a te r fro m th e f o r m e r w h ile th e re is
U S A is th e e x am p le o f th is c a te g o ry .
in te rm itte n t(w ith in terv al) sp o u tin g o f w ater from
the alter. A g ey ser sp o u ts w ater from a sm all and T h ere is no certain o b s e rv a b le d istrib u tio n a l
n arrow vent w h ich is c o n n ec ted by a circu ito u s pipe p attern o f g e y se rs o v er th e g lo b e as th ey are found
w ith the u n d erg ro u n d aquifers. T h is pipe is called as in alm o st all the c o n tin e n ts an d in a lm o s t all the
g e y s e r p ip e or g e y s e r tu b e . T he length o f g ey ser clim atic zones. T he g ey sers o f the U S A , Ic e la n d and
tube ran g es betw een 30 to 100 m at d ifferent places. N ew Z ealan d are m o st w id ely stu d ie d g e y se rs. G e y
T h e te m p eratu re o f w ater co m in g out o f a g ey ser sers are found in g ro u p s in the Y ello w S to n e N a
ran g es betw een 75° to 90°C. tional Park (U SA ). A b o u t one h u n d re d g e y se rs h ave
G eysers are classified into tw o types viz. (i) been nam ed and an o th er h u n d red g e y se rs are k n o w n
to the scien tists. T h ere are fo u r m a jo r b a sin s o f
pool type o f geyser and (ii) nozzle t]/pe o f geyser.
W hen a geyser spouts w ater through an open and g ey sers viz. (i) N o rris B asin, (ii) U p p e r L a k e B asin ,
(iii) L o w er L ake B asin and (iv ) H eart L ak e B asin.
relatively large pool, it is called po o l ty p e o f g ey ser.
Such geysers spout larger volum e o f w ater and T he m ajo r g ey ser o f N ew Z e a la n d is lo c ated in the
vapour through long geyser tubes. N o deposits are w estern region o f the n o rth ern Islan d w h ich is also
dom in ated by v o lcan ic ac tiv itie s. T h e g e y se rs and
possible around the geyser pools. N ozzle ty p e o f
hot springs are spread o v er an a re a o f 1786 km 2
g ey sers spout w ater and vapour through a very small
(5000 square m iles) in Iceland. T h e m o st s ig n ific a n t
and constricted vent. Em itted m aterials are d ep o s
g eyser o f Iceland is G ran d G ey ser.
ited around the geyser vents and thus g ey ser cones
are form ed. 12.10 FUM AROLES
Som e scientists do not agree to accept hot F um arole m ean s such a v en t th ro u g h w hich
sp rin g s and g e y se rs as tw o sep arate fo rm s o f there is em ission of g ases and w a te r v ap o u r. It
vulcanicity rather they believe that both are the appears from a d istan t place th a t th ere is em issio n o f
sam e, the difference is only o f periodicity o f sp o u t enorm ous volum e o f sm o k es from a p a rtic u la r c e n
ing o f water. Thus, they have grouped geysers into tre. Thus, sm oke o r gas e m ittin g v en ts are called
two categories viz. (1) no n -co n tin u o u s geysers or fum aroles. In fact, fu m aro les are d ire c tly lin k e d w ith
geysers w ith interm ittent spouting and (2) co n tin u volcanic activ ities. E m issio n o f g ases and v a p o u r
ously active geysers. The in term itten t geysers are begins after the em issio n of v o lc an ic m a teria ls is
further divided into (i) geysers o f equal intervals term inated in an active v o lcan o . S o m e tim es the
between two successive period o f spouting (w herein em ission o f gases and v ap o u r is c o n tin u o u s but in
interval period betw een two successive active p eri m ajority o f the cases em issio n o ccu rs a fte r intervals.
ods of spouting is certain and fixed, such geysers are, It is believ ed that g ases and v a p o u r are g en era ted due
thus, considered to be reliable as regards the p eriods to co o lin g and co n tractio n o f m a g m a afte r the term i
of interval and spouting, exam ple, O ld F aithful G ey nation o f the eru p tio n o f a v o lcano. T h e se gases and
ser of the Y ellow Stone N ational Park, U SA ), (ii) vap o u r ap p ear at the earth 's su rface th ro u g h a narrow
v a ria b le geysers (w herein the interval period b e and co n stricted pipe (tube). It m ay be po in ted out
tw een tw o successive periods o f spouting is not th at fu m aro les are the last sig n s o f th e activ en ess o f
certain), (iii) lo n g -p e rio d g ey sers (w herein the ac a volcano.
tive period o f spouting is longest o f all the geysers,
N u m ero u s fu m aro les are fo u n d in groups |
ranging betw een a few m inutes to one hour, exam -
near Katm ai volcano o f A laska (U SA ). H ere fum aroles J
VULCANICITY AND LANDFORMS 215
are found in groups in ex ten siv e v a lley zone, w hich 9 8 .4 to 9 8 .9 9 p ercen t o f the total g a ses em itted from
is called a v a lle y o f te n th o u sa n d s m o k e s ’ w hich fum aroles. Other g a ses in clu d e carbon d io x id e, h y
m eans fu m aroles appear from 10 ,0 0 0 vents the d i drochloric acid, hydrogen su lp h id e, nitrogen, som e
ameter o f w h ich is around 3 m etres. Here fum aroles o x y g en and am m onia. S o m e m inerals are a lso em it
are found along a linear fracture. Elsew here, fumaroles ted w ith g a s e s and v a p o u r fro m f u m a r o le s .
are found a lo n g the v o lca n ic craters. The tem pera Sulphur is the m ost im portant m ineral. F um aroles
ture o f vapour em itted from fum aroles is around dom inated by sulphur are ca lled s o lfa ta r a or s u l
645°C . It m ay be m en tio n ed that vapour constitutes p h u r fu m a r o le s.
CHAPTER 13 : MOUNTAIN BUILDING 216*246
In tr o d u c tio n ; c la s s ific a tio n o f m o u n ta in s ; b lo ck m o u n ta in s ; fo ld e d
m o u n ta in s ; g e o s y n c lin e s ; th eo ries o f m o u n tain b u ild in g - g e o s y n c lin a l
th e o r y o f K o b e r ; therm al co n tra ctio n th eory o f J e ffrey s ; slid in g c o n ti
n e n t th e o r y o f D a ly ; therm al c o n v e c tio n current thery o f H o lm e s ;
r a d ia c tiv ity th eo ry o f J o ly ; p late te c to n ic th eory.
13
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
13.1 INTRODUCTION ta in o u s re d o n o f th e w e s te rn p a r t o f N o rth A m e ric a

M o u n ta in s ir e sig n ific a n t re lie f fe a tu re s o f is th e b est e x a m p le o f a c o r d ille r a .
the seco n d o rd er on th e earth s s u rta c e . A m o u n ta in
13.2 CLASSIFICATION O F MOUNTAINS
m av have sev eral fo rm s viz. (1) m o u n ta in rid g e, iji)
m o u n tain ran g e. viiO m o u n ta in ch ain , (iv ) m o u n tain 1. On the Basis of Height
system , (v) m o u n ta in g ro u p an d (v i) c o rd illera . A (i) lo w m o u n ta in s; h e ig h t ra n g e s b e tw e e n 7 0 0
m o u n ta in rid g e is a sy stem o f lo n g , narro w and hig h to 1.00 m .
hills. G en erally , th e slope o f one side o f a rid g e is (ii) rough m ountains; height-1000 m to 1.500 m
steep w hile die o th e r side is o f m o d erate slope but a
(iii) rugged m ountains; h eig h t-1.500 to 2.0 0 0 m
ridge m ay also h av e sy m m e trica l slo p es on b o th the
sides. A m o u n ta in ra n g e is a sy stem o f m o u n tain s (iv) h ig h m o u n ta in s; h e ig h t a b o v e 2 .0 0 0 m
and hiTk h av in g several rid g es, p eaks and su m m its
2. On the Basis of Location
and valleys. In fact, a m o u n tain range stretch es in a
lin ear m anner. In o th e r w o rd s, a m o u n tain range (i) C o n tin en ta l m o u n ta in s
rep resen ts a long but narrow strip o f m o u n tain s and (a) coastal m o u n ta in s, e x a m p le s: A p p la c h ia n s,
hills. A ll o f the hills o f a m o u n tain ran g e are o f the R ockies, A lpine m o u n tain ch ain s. W e ste rn a n d E a s te rn
sam e age but there are stru ctu ral v aria tio n s in d iffe r G h ats o f In d ia etc.
ent m e m b ers o f the range. A m o u n ta in ch a in c o n (b) in la n d m o u n ta in s, e x a m p le s ; U ra l m o u n
sists o f sev eral p arallel long and n arro w m o u n tain s tain s (R u ssia). V o sg e s and B la c k F o r e s t b lo c k m o u n
o f different periods. S om e tim es. the m o u n tain ranges tains (E urope). H im alay as, A ra v a llis, S a tp u ra . M aik al,
are separated by flat upland or plateaus. A m o u n ta in K aim u rs etc. (In d ia ), K u n lu n , T ie n s h a n , A lta i etc.
sy ste m con sists o f different m ountain ranges o f the (A sia) etc.
sam e period. D ifferen t m ountain ranges are sepa
(ii) O c e a n ic m o u n ta in s -m o s t o f the o cea n
rated by valleys. A m o u n ta in g ro u p co n sists o f m ountains are b elo w w ater su rface (b e lo w sea
several unsystem atic patterns o f different m ountain lev el). O cean ic m ountains are lo ca ted on continental
system s. C o r d ille r a co n sists o f several m ountain sh elv es and ocean flo o rs. S o m e o c e a n ic m ountains
groups and system s. In fact, cordillera is a co m m u are also w ell a b o v e the sea le v e l. If the h eigh t o f the
nity o f m ountains having d ifferent ridges, ranges, m ountains is co n sid ered from the o c e a n ic flo o r and
m ountain ch ain s and m ountain system s. The m oun not from se a -le v e l, m any o f the o c e a n ic m ountains
m o u n t a in b u il d in g
217
will becom e m u c h h ig h e r than the M ount E verest
For ex am p le M a u n a K ea volcanic m ountain o f K ilam ean m ountains etc. (N orth A m erica), m oun
Hawaii Islan d is 4 2 0 0 m h ig h from the sea level but tains o f Feno-Scandia, N orth-W est H ighlands and
A nglesey etc. (Europe).
if its h eig h t is c o n sid e re d from th e sea bottom it
height b eco m es 9 1 4 0 m w hich is h ig h er than ’the (2) Caledonian mountains: mountains formed
highest m o u n ta in , M o u n t E v erest (8848 m AMSL1 during Silurian and D evonian periods, exam ples :
T aconic m ountains o f the A pplachian system , m oun
SLmilar,y’ th£ An,ilean Mountain
system is 3 0 0 0 m a b o v e sea-lev el b u t it is also 5400 tains of Scottland, Ireland and Scandinavia (E u
m below se a -le v e l, an d th u s its total height from the rope), B razilid es o f S outh A m erica, A ravallis,
oceanic flo o r b e c o m e s 8 4 0 0 m. M o st o f the oceanic M ahadeo, Satpura etc. o f India.
m o u n ta in s a re v o l c a n i c m o u n ta in s . (3) H e rc y r ;an m ountains: m ountains form ed
during Perm ian and Perm ocarboniferous periods,
3. On the B a sis of Mode of Origin exam ples: m ountains o f Iberian peninsula, Ireland,
(1) O rig in a l or tecton ic m ountains are caused Spanish M esseta, B rittany of France, S outh W ales,
due to t e c t o n ic f o r c e s e.g. c o m p r e s s iv e and tensile Cornw all, M endips, Paris basin, B elgian coalfields,
forces m o t o r e d b y e n d o g e n e t ic fo rces c o m in g from Rhine M ass, B ohem ian plateau, V osges and B lack
d e e p w i t h in th e e a rth . T h e s e m o u n ta in s are further F o re s t, p la te a u re g io n o f c e n tr a l F r a n c e ,
di v id e d i n to 4 t y p e s o n th e b a s is o f o ro g en e tic forces T h u ringenw ald, F ran k en w ald , H a rtz m o u n ta in ,
r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e o r ig in o f a p a rtic u la r type o f Donbas coalfield (all in E urope); V ariscan m o u n
m o u n ta in . tains o f A sia include A ltai, Sayan, B aikal A rcs, T ien
Shan, Khingan, m ountains o f D zu n g arian b asin,
(1) F o ld e d m o u n ta in s are fu rth er divided
Tarim basin, N anshan, A lai and T ran s A lai m o u n
in to 3 s u b - t y p e s o n the b a s is o f their area. T h e se are
tains o f A m ur basin, M o n golia and G obi etc; A u
o r ig i n a te d by c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
stralian V ariscan m ountains include the scattered
(A ) y o u n g fo ld e d m o u n ta in s hills in the Eastern C ordillera, N ew E n g lan d o f N ew
(B ) m a t u r e fo ld e d m o u n ta in s Southerw ales; N orth A m erican V ariscan m o u n tain s
(C ) o ld fo ld e d m o u n ta in s include A pplachians; S outh A m eric an V a riscan
m ountains are A ustrian and S aalian fo ld s o f S an
(ii) B lo c k m o u n ta in s are originated by ten
Juan and M endoza, m ountains o f Puna arc o f A tacam a,
sile f o r c e s l e a d i n g to th e fo rm a tio n o f rift valleys.
G ondw anides o f A rgentina etc.
T h e y a r e a ls o c a lle d as h o r s t m o u n ta in s .
(4) A lpine m ou n tain s : m o u n tain s fo rm ed
(iii) D o m e m o u n ta in s are o rig in ated by
during Teritary period, ex am ples: R o ck ies (N o rth
m a g m a t i c i n tr u s io n s a n d u p w a r p in g o f the crustal
A m erica), A ndes (S outh A m erica), A lp in e m o u n
surface. E xam ples, normal domes, lava domes,
tain system s o f E urope (m ain A lp s, C arp ath ian s,
batholithic dom es, laccolithic domes, salt domes
Pyrenees, B alkans, C au casu s, C an tab rian s, A pen
etc. nines, D inaric A lps etc.), A tlas m o u n tain s o f n o rth
(iv ) M o u n ta in s o f a c c u m u la tio n s are form ed
w est A frica; H im alayas and m o u n tain s c o m in g out
d u e to a c c u m u la tio n o f v o lc a n ic m ate ria ls. T hus,
o f Pam ir K not o f A sia (T au ru s, P au n tic, Z agros,
th e s e a re a ls o c a lle d as v o lc a n ic m o u n ta in s. D iffe r
Elburz, K unlum etc.).
en t ty p e s o f v o lc a n ic c o n e s (e.g. cin d er cones, co m p o s
ite c o n e s , a c id la v a c o n e s , b a sic lava c o n e s etc.) Block Mountains
c o m e u n d e r th is c a te g o r y . B lock m o untains, also know n as fau ltb lo ck
m ou n tain s, are the resu lt o f fau ltin g cau sed by
(2) C i r c u m - e ^ o s i o n a l o r re lic t m o u n ta in s :
te n s ile a n d c o m p r e s s iv e f o r c e s m o to r e d by
exam ples, V in d h y ach al ranges, A rav alh s, Satpura,
endogenetic forces co m in g from w ithin the earth.
E astern G h ats, W estern G h ats etc. (all from India).
B lock m ountains represent the u p stan ding p arts of
4. On the basis of period of origin the ground betw een tw o faults o r on e ith er side of a
(1 ) P r e -C a m b r ia n m o u n ta in s : examples, rift valley or a graben. E ssen tially , b lo ck mountains
L a u ren tia n m o u n ta in s, A lg o m a n m o u n ta in s, are form ed due to faulting in the g ro u n d surface.
geom o rph
218
r e p r e s e n te d b y fa u lt s c a r p a n d o n e g e n tle side and(ii)
Horst lifted block m ountains r e p r e s e n t real horst and are
c h a r a c te r iz e d by f la tte n e d s u m m i t o f tab u la r shape
and very steep side slo p e s re p re sen te d by tw o boundary
fault s c a rp s . B lo c k m o u n ta in s a re a lso called as If
horst mountains (fig. 13.1).
B lo c k m o u n ta in s a re found in all the conti.
n e n ts e.g. (i) y o u n g b lo c k m o u n ta in s a ro u n d Albert,
W a r n e r an d K la m a th lak e s in the S te e n s M ountain
D istrict o f S o u th e r n O r e g o n , W a s a t c h R a n g e in the
U tah p r o v in c e etc. in the U S A , (ii) V o s g e s and Black
F o re st m o u n ta in s b o r d e r in g the fa u lte d R h in e Rift
va lle y in E u r o p e , (iii) S a lt R a n g e o f P a k ista n etc.
S ierra N a v a d a m o u n ta in o f C a l if o r n ia ( U S A ) is
c o n s id e r e d to be the m o s t e x te n s iv e b lo c k m ountain
o f the w orld. T h is m o u n ta in e x te n d s fo r a length of
6 4 0 km ( 4 0 0 m ile s ) h a v in g a w id th o f 80 km (50
m iles) and the h e ig h t o f 2 ,4 0 0 to 3 ,6 6 0 m (8 ,0 0 0 to
12,000 feet). T h e r e is d if f e r e n c e o f o p i n io n s am o n g
the sc ie n tists r e g a r d in g the o rig in o f b lo c k m o u n
tains. T h e re are tw o th eo ries for the o rig in o f these
m o u n ta in s viz. ( 1) f a u lt th e o ry a n d (ii) ero sio n
th e o ry .
F ault T heory
M o st o f the g e o lo g is ts are o f the o p in io n that
block m o u n ta in s are fo rm e d d u e to faulting. T h e
structural pa tte rn s o f G re a t B asin R a n g e m o u n ta in s
o f U tah p r o v in c e ( U S A ) w e re c lo se ly s tu d ie d by
C C la re n c e K ing and G .K . G ilb e r t w h o n a m e d these
niock Mountain mock M o u n t a in m o u n ta in s as f a u l t e d b l o c k s ( b e tw e e n 1870 and
1875 A .D .). S in c e then the m o u n ta in s f o rm e d d u e to
larg e -sc a le fa u ltin g w e re n a m e d b lo c k m o u n ta in s.
L a ter on G .D . L o u d e r b a c k o p in e d that B asin Range
m o u n ta in s w e re fo rm e d d u e to f a u ltin g a n d tilting in
the g ro u n d s u rfa c e . W .M .D a vis a lso a d v o c a te d for
the fault th eo ry o f the o rig in o f b lo ck m ountains.
B lo c k m o u n ta in s are fo rm e d in a n u m b e r o f ways.
(i) B lo c k m o u n ta in s are f o rm e d due to up
w ard m o v e m e n t o f m id d le b lo ck b e tw e e n tw o nor
mal faults (fig. 13.1 ). T h e u p th ro w n block is also
Fig. 13.1 : A-lilock mountain form ed due to rise o f m id ca lled as horst. T h e s u m m ita l a rea o f such block
dle block, /?-form ation o f block mountain due m o u n ta in is o f Hat s u rf a c e but the side slopes are
to downward movement o f side blocks and C-
very steep.
form ation o f block mountain due to down
ward movement o f middle block-due to rift (ii) B lo c k m o u n ta in s m ay be fo rm e d when the
vailey formation. side b locks o f tw o faults m o v e d o w n w a rd whereas
B lo c k m o u n ta in s are g e n e ra lly o f tw o basic types the m id d le b lo ck re m a in s s ta b le at its place (fig- j
e.g. (i) tilted b lock m ou n tain s ha v in g o n e steep side 1 3.1B). It is a p p a re n t that the m id d le b lock projects ^
m ou nta in b u il d in g
219
above the surrounding surface because o f downward
m ovem ent o f sid e b lo ck s. Su ch b lock m ountains are c u m bent folds caused by pow erful com pressive forces.
generally form ed ,n h igh plateaus or broad dom es ( 2 ) F o ld e d m o u n ta in s are c la s s ifie d in to (i)
you n g fold ed m ou n tain s (w h ic h a re le a s t a ffe c te d *
u J hi' ) ® lo c k m o u n ta in s m ay b e fo rm ed w hen
by d e n u d a tio n al p ro c e s s e s) a n d (ii) m atu re fo ld ed
the m id d le b lo c k b e tw e e n tw o n o rm al fau lts m oves
m ou n tain s. It m a y be p o in te d o u t th a t it is d iffic u lt
dow nw ard. T h u s , th e s id e b lo c k s b e c o m e horsts and
block m o u n t a i n s ( fig . 13 i q S u r h ♦ • to find true y o u n g fo ld e d m o u n ta in s b e c a u s e th e
• . . , ■, . f ^ u c n m o u n ta in s are p ro ce ss o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g is e x c e e d in g ly slo w
a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f r ift v a lle y s
p ro ce ss and thus d e n u d a tio n a l p r o c e s s e s s a rt d e
Erosion Theory n u d in g the m o u n ta in s rig h t fro m the b e g in l i n g o f
J .F . S p u r r , o n th e b a s is o f d e ta i le d stu d y o f their origin. M a tu re fo ld e d m o u n ta in s a re ch lra c te r-
G reat B a s i n R a n g e m o u n t a i n s o f the U S A o p in e d ized by m o n o c lin a l rid g e s a n d v a lle y s. T h is classifi
that th e s e m o u n t a i n s w e r e n o t f o r m e d d u e t o ’fau ltin g cation is b a s e d on the a g e factor.
and tiltin g , r a t h e r t h e y w e r e f o r m e d d u e to d if f e r e n (3) O n the basis o f the p e r io d o f o r ig in f o ld e d
tial e r o s i o n . A c c o r d i n g to S p u r r th e m o u n ta in s , after m o u n ta in s are d iv id e d into (i) o ld fo ld ed m o u n ta in s
their o r i g i n in M e s o z o i c e ra , w e r e s u b je c te d to a nd (ii) new fold ed m o u n ta in s. All th e o ld f o ld e d
intense e r o s i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , d iff e re n tia l e ro s io n m o u n ta in s w e re o r ig in a te d b e fo r e T e r ti a r y p e r i o d .
re s u lte d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of e x is t in g d e n u d e d G re a t T h e folded m o u n ta in s o f C a l e d o n ia n a n d H e r c y n i a n
B asin R a n g e m o u n t a i n s . It m a y be p o in te d out that m o u n ta in b u ild in g p e rio d s c o m e u n d e r th is c a t
egory. T h e s e m o u n ta in s h a v e b e e n so g r e a tly d e
e ro s io n t h e o r y o f t h e o r i g i n o f b l o c k m o u n ta in s is not
n u ded that they h a v e n o w b e c o m e r e lic t -folded
a c c e p ta b le to m o s t o f th e s c ie n t is ts b e c a u s e they
m o u n t a i n s , for e x a m p le , A r a v a llis , V i n d h y a c h a l
b e lie v e t h a t d e n u d a t i o n m a y m o d i f y m o u n ta ns but
etc. T he Alpi ne fo ld e d m o u n ta in s o f T ertiary' p e r i o d
c a n n o t f o r m a m o u n t a i n . In fact, d e f o r m a t o r y p r o c
are g ro u p e d u n d e r the c a te g o r y o f n e w f o ld e d m o u n
ess p la y m a j o r r o l e in th e o r i g i n o f b l o c k m o u n ta in s .
tains, for e x a m p le , R o c k ie s , A n d e s , A lp s , H i m a l a
Folded Mountains yas etc.
F o l d e d m o u n t a i n s a re f o r m e d d u e to fo ld in g
C h a ra c te ris tic s o f F o ld e d M o u n ta in s
o f c ru s ta l r o c k s b y c o m p r e s s i v e fo rc e s g e n e ra te d by
(1) F o ld e d m o u n ta in s a re th e y o u n g e s t m o u n
e n d o g e n e t ic f o r c e s c o m i n g f r o m w ith in the earth.
tains on the e a rth 's s u rfa c e.
T h e s e a re t h e h i g h e s t a n d m o s t e x te n s i v e m o u n ta in s
(2) T h e lith o lo g ic a l c h a r a c te r is t ic s o f f o l d e d
o f the w o r l d a n d a r e f o u n d in all the c o n tin e n ts . T h e
m o u n ta in s rev e a l th a t th e s e h a v e b e e n f o r m e d d u e to
d is tr ib u tio n a l p a t t e r n o f f o l d e d m o u n t a i n s o v e r the
fo ld in g o f s e d im e n ta ry r o c k s by s tr o n g c o m p r e s s i v e
g lo b e d e n o t e s th e f a c t t h a t th e y a re g e n e r a lly fo u n d
forces. T h e fo ss ils fo u n d in th e r o c k s o f f o ld e d
a long th e m a r g i n s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t s e it h e r in n o r t
m o u n ta in s d e n o te the fa c t th a t th e s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s
south d i r e c t i o n o r e a s t - w e s t d i r e c ti o n . R o c k ie s , A n
o f these m o u n ta in s w e re f o r m e d d u e to d e p o s i t i o n
des, A lp s , H i m a l a y a s , A t l a s e tc . a re th e e x a m p l e s o t
and c o n so lid a tio n o f s e d im e n ts in w a t e r b o d ie s m a in ly
fo ld e d m o u n t a i n s . F o l d e d m o u n t a i n s a re c assi le
in o c e a n ic e n v i r o n m e n t b e c a u s e th e a r g i l l a c e o u s
on v a rio u s b a s e s a f o ll o w s . r o c k s o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s c o n t a i n m a r i n e fo s s ils .
(1) F o l d e d m o u n t a i n s a r e d i v i d e d into 2 b ro a d
(3) S e d i m e n ts a re f o u n d u p t o g r e a t e r d e p t h s ,
c a te g o rie s on t h e b a s i s oi t h e n a tu r e o o s.
th o u s a n d s o f m e t r e s ( m o r e th a n 12 ,000 m e t r e s ) .
S im p le fo ld e d m o u n t a i n s w i t h o p en 0 s u
B a s e d on this fa c t s o m e s c ie n tis ts h a v e o p i n e d th a t
m o u n ta in s a r e c haracterized by w e ll d e v e o p e sys
the s e d im e n ts i n v o lv e d in th e f o r m a t i o n o f s e d i m e n
tern o f a n ti c li n e s and synclines w h e r e in o s a
tary r o c k s o f f o ld e d m o u n t a i n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n
a rra n g e d in w a v e - l i k e p a t t e r n . T h e s e m o u n ta in s h a v e
d e p o s ite d in d e e p o c e a n i c a re a s b u t th e m a r i n e
o pen a n d r e l a ti v e ly s i m p l e fols. (ii) C o m p ex o e
fo ss ils f o u n d in th e r o c k s b e lo n g to s u c h m a r i n e o r
m o u n ta in s r e p r e s e n t v e r y c o m p l e x s tr u c tu r e o in^
g a n is m s w h i c h c a n s u r v i v e o n ly in s h a l l o w w ater or
ten se ly c o m p r e s s e d f o ld s . S u c h c o m p l e x stru c ure
s h a llo w sea. It m e a n s t h a t th e s e d i m e n t a r y rock s o f
o f folds is c a l l e d ‘n a p p e ’ . In fac t, c o m p l e x fo ld
fo ld e d m o u n ta in s w e r e d e p o s i t e d in sh allow seas.
m ountains are f o r m e d due to the f o r m a ti o n o re
GEOMORPHOLOGY
220 M
T h e sea bottom s w ere su b jected to co n tin u o u s su b O n an average, a g eo sy n clin e m eans a water
sidence due to gradual sed im en tatio n . T hus, the d ep ressio n c h a ra c te riz e d by se d im e n ta tio n . It has
greater thickness o f sed im en ts co u ld be p o ssib le due now b een acc ep ted by m a jo rity o f th e g eo lo g ists and
to continuous sed im en tatio n and su b sid en ce and g e o g ra p h e rs th a t all th e m o u n ta in s h a v e co m e o u t o f
consequent co n so lid atio n o f sed im en ts d u e to ev er the g eo sy n c lin e s an d th e ro c k s o f th e m ountains
increasing su p erin cu m b en t load. o rig in ated as se d im e n ts w ere d e p o s ite d and later on
c o n s o lid a te d in s in k in g s e a s , n o w k n o w n as
(4) Folded m ountains extend for greater lengths
g eo sy n clin es. I f w e c o n s id e r th e h e ig h t and thick
but their w idths are far sm aller than th eir len g th s, F or
ness o f sed im en ts o f the y o u n g fo ld e d m o u n tain s of
ex am ple, the H im alay as ex ten d from w est to east for
T ertiary p erio d (e.g. R o c k ie s, A n d e s, A lp s, H im ala
a length o f 2400 km (1 5 0 0 m iles) but th eir north-
yas etc.), then it ap p ea rs th at th e g e o s y n c lin e s should
soutjf w idth is only 400 km (250 m iles). It m eans that
have been very d eep w a te r b o d ie s b u t th e m arine
folded m o u n tain s have been form ed in long, n arrow
fossils found in the se d im en tary ro c k s o f th e se folded
and shallow seas. S uch w ater bodies have been
m o u n tain s b elo n g to the c a te g o ry o f m a rin e organ
term ed g eo sy n clin es ^nd it has been estab lish ed that
ism s o f sh allo w seas. It is, th u s, o b v io u s th at the
‘o u t o f .geosyn clin es h ave co m e ou t th e m o u n
g eo sy n clin es are sh allo w w a te r b o d ie s ch aracterized
ta in s ’ or ‘g eo sy n clin es h ave b een crad les o f m o u n
by grad u al sed im en tatio n an d su b sid e n c e . B ased on
t a in s / A ccording to P.G . W o rcester ‘all g reat folded
above facts g eo sy n clin es can n o w be d efin ed as
m ountains stand on the sites o f fo rm er g eo sy n clin es’.
follow s-
(5) F olded m o u n tain s are g enerally round in
‘G eo sy n clin e s are lo n g b u t n arro w and shal
arch shape having one side concave slope and the
other side convex slope. low w ater d ep ressio n s c h a ra c te riz e d by sed im en ta
tion and su b sid e n c e ’.
(6) F olded m o u n tain s are found along the
J.A . S teers (1 9 3 2 ) has ap tly rem ark ed , ‘the
m argins o f the contin en ts facing oceans. F or exam -
g eo sy n clin es h ave been long and rela tiv e ly narrow
ple^R ockies and A ndes are located along the w est
d ep ressio n s w h ich seem to have su b sid ed d u rin g the
ern m argins o f N orth and S outh A m ericas resp ec
accu m u latio n o f sed im en ts in th e m .’
tively and face Pacific O cean. T hey are lo cated in
tw o directions e.g. n o rth-south (e.g. R ockies and T he fo llo w in g are the g en eral ch aracteristics
A ndes) and w est-east d irectio n s (e.g. H im alayas). o f g eo sy n clin es.
T he A lpine m ountains are lo cated along the southern (1) G e o sy n clin e s are lo ng, narrow and shal
m a rg in ! o f E urope facing M ed iterran ean sea. If we low d ep ressio n s o f w ater.
consider form er T ethys Sea, then the H im alayas (2) T h ese are c h a ra c te riz e d by g rad u al sedi
w ere also located along the m argins o f the continent. m en tatio n and su b sid en ce.
13.3 GEOSYNCLINES (3) T he n atu re and p attern s o f geosynclines

have not rem ain ed the sam e th ro u g h o u t geological
Meaning and C oncep t
h istory rath er th ese have w id ely c h an g e d . In fact, the
The geological history o f the continents and
location, shape, d im en sio n and ex ten t o f geosynclines
ocean basins denotes the fact that in the beginning
have co n sid erab ly ch an g e d d u e to e a rth m ovem ents
our globe was characterized by two im portant fea and geological p ro cess.
tures viz. (i) rigid m asses and (ii) geosyn clin es.
(4) G eo sy n clin e s are m o b ile z o n e s o f water.
Rigid m asses representing the ancient nuclei o f the
present continents, have rem ained stable for co n sid (5) G eo sy n clin es are g e n e ra lly b o rd ered by
erably longer periods o f time. T hese rigid m asses are tw o rigid m asses w h ich are ca lle d fo rela n d s.
supposed to have been surrounded by m obile zones E volution of th e C o n cep t
o f w ater characterized by extensive sedim entation.
T he co n cep t o f g e o sy n clin es w as given by
These m obile zones o f w ater have been term ed
Jam es Hall and D ana but the co n c e p t w as elaborated
‘geosynclines’ w hich have now been converted by
and further d ev elo p ed by H aug. J.A . S teers (1932)
com pressive forces into folded m ountain ranges.
has rem arked, ‘w hile the th eo ry o f g eo sy n clin es is
m o u n ta in b u i l d i n g
221
due to H au g , th e c o n c e p t o f id e a b e lo n g s to H all and

m o u n tain s. H e o p in e d th a t th e ro ck s o f fo ld e d m o u n
D ana’. It is d e s ira b le to d is c u s s th e c o n c e p t o f
tain s w ere d e p o site d in sh allo w seas. A c c o rd in g to
geo sy n clin es d e v e lo p e d b y d iffe re n t e x p o n e n ts.
H all th e b ed s o f g e o sy n c lin e s are su b je c te d to su b
(1) Concept o f Hall and Dana- D a n a stu d ied sid en ce d u e to c o n tin u o u s se d im e n ta tio n b u t the
the folded m o u n tain s and p o stu lated th at the sedim ents d ep th o f w ater in th e g e o sy n c lin e s re m a in s th e sam e
of the ro c k s o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s w ere o f m arin e (fig. 13.2). G e o sy n c lin e s are m u ch lo n g e r th a n th e ir
origin. T h e s e ro c k s are d e p o s ite d in lo n g , narro w w idths.
and sh allo w seas. D a n a n a m e d su ch w a te r b o d ies as (2) Concept of E . Haug - ‘I f th e id
geosynclines. H e d e f in e d , f o r th e f ir s t tim e , g eo sy n clin es is d u e to H all an d D an a, the th e o ry o f
g eo sy n clin es as lo n g , n a rro w an d sh allo w and sin k th eir d ev elo p m en t is really d u e to H a u g ’. H e d e fin e d
ing beds o f seas. geo sy n clin es as long and d eep w a te r b o d ie s. A c
co rd in g to H au g ‘g eo sy n clin es are re la tiv e ly d e e p
w ater areas and they are m u ch lo n g e r th a n th e y are
w id e.’ He drew the p a la e o g e o g ra p h ic a l m a p s o f th e
w orld and d ep icted long and n arro w o c e a n ic tra c ts to
d em o n strate the facts th at th ese w a te r tra c ts w ere
subsequently folded into m o u n tain ra n g e s (fig. 13.3).
He further postulated th at the p o sitio n s o f th e p re se n t-
day m ountains w ere p rev io u sly o c c u p ie d by o c e a n ic
tracts i.e. g eo sy n clin es. G e o sy n c lin e s e x iste d as
m obile zones o f w ater b etw een rig id m a sse s. H e
Fig. 13.2 : Sinking beds o f geosynclines due to sedimen identified 5 m ajo r rig id m asses d u rin g M e s o z o ic e ra
tation and subsidence. e.g. (i) N orth A tlan tic M ass, (ii) S in o -S ib e ria n M a s s,
H all e la b o ra te d th e co n ce p t o f geosynclines (iii) A frica-B razil M ass, (iv) A u stra lia -In d ia -M a d a -
as ad v an c ed by D an a. H e p resen te d am ple evidences gascar M ass and (v) P acific M ass. H e lo c a te d 4
to show re la tio n sh ip b etw een geosynclines and folded geosynclines betw een th ese a n c ie n t rig id m a s s e s
North Atlantic Continent
180° Eq«»tor
Ojy1 A frkun -Hrazlleun Continent
Pacific Continent
vr.A AstraHnii-liulian M adagascar G

(Jeosyncline —
Fig. 13-3 ; distribution o f rigid masses and geosynclines during Mesozoic era as depicted by £ H aug
222 GEOMORPHOLOGY
e.g. (i) R o ck ies g eo sy n clin e, (ii) U ral g eo sy n clin e, H im a lay as, this d ep ressio n w as la ter on filled with
(iii) T eth y s g e o sy n clin e and (iv) C irc u m -P acific sed im en ts to form In d o -G an g etic P lain s), (iii) it may
g eo sy n clin e. be alo n g th e m a rg in s o f th e co n tin en ts, (iv) it may be
A cco rd in g to H au g th ere is sy stem a tic s e d i in front o f a riv er m o u th etc. A cco rd in g to E vans all
m e n tatio n in the g eo sy n c lin e s. T h e litto ral m arg in s the g eo sy n clin es irre sp e c tiv e o f th e ir v arying forms,
o f the g e o sy n c lin e s are a ffected by tran sg ressio n al sh ap es and lo catio n s are c h a ra c te riz e d by tw in proc
and re g re ssio n a l p h ases o f th e seas. T h e m arginal esses o f sedim entation and su b sid en ce. G eosynclines,
areas o f the g e o sy n c lin e s h av e sh allo w w ater w h ere after long p erio d o f sed im en tatio n , are sq u eezed and
in la rg e r se d im e n ts are d ep o site d w h ereas fin er folded into m o u n tain ran g es.
se d im e n ts are d e p o s ite d in ce n tra l p arts o f the (4) V iew s o f S ch u ch ert- H e attem p ted t
g eo sy n clin es. T h e sed im en ts are sq u eezed and folded classify g eo sy n clin es on the b asis o f th e ir character
in to m o u n ta in ran g es d u e to c o m p re ssiv e forces istics related to th e ir size, lo catio n , evolutionary
c o m in g fro m the m a rg in s o f the g eo sy n clin es. He history etc. H e has d iv id ed g e o sy n c lin e s into 3
h as fu rth e r re m a rk e d th a t it is n o t alw ay s necessary categories, (i) M o n o g eo sy n clin e s are exceptionally
th a t all the g e o sy n c lin e s m ay pass th ro u g h the co m long and narrow but sh allo w w a te r trac ts as con
p le te c y c le o f the p ro cesses o f sed im en tatio n , su b ceived by H all and D ana. T h e g e o sy n clin al beds are
sid en ce, c o m p re ssio n and fo lding o f sedim ents. Som e subjected to co n tin u o u s su b sid en ce d u e to gradual
tim es, no m o u n tain s are form ed from the geosynclines sedim entation and resu ltan t load. S u ch g eo sy n clin es
in sp ite o f c o n tin u o u s sed im en tatio n for long d u ra are situated eith er w ithin a c o n tin en t o r along its
tio n o f g e o lo g ical tim e. borders. T hese are called m ono b ecau se they pass
T h o u g h th e co n trib u tio n s o f H aug in this through only one cycle o f sed im en tatio n an d m o u n
re g a rd are p ra isew o rth y as he d ev elo p ed the concept tain building. A pplachian g eo sy n clin e is co n sid ered
o f g e o sy n c lin e s b u t his th eo ry suffers from certain to be the best exam ple o f m o n o g e o sy n clin es. In
serio u s d ra w b a c k s an d co n fu sin g ideas about them . place o f the A p plachians (U S A ) there ex isted a long
and narrow A ppalachian g eo sy n clin e d u rin g pre-
H is p a la e o g e o g ra p h ic a l m ap (fig. 13.3) o f M esozoic
C am brian period. T he g eo sy n clin e w as b o rd ered by
era d ep icted unbelievable larger extent o f rigid m asses
highland m ass know n as A p p lach ia in the east.
(lan d area s) in co m p ariso n to g eo sy n clin es (oceanic
A pplachian geosynclines were folded from O rdovician
areas). Q u estio n s arise, as to w h at h ap p en ed to such
to P erm ian periods.
e x te n siv e land m asses afte r M eso zo ic era ? W here
d id they d isa p p e a r ? H aug co u ld not ex p lain these (ii) P o ly g e o sy n c lin e s w ere long and wide
and m any m o re Q uestio n s. H is g eo sy n clin es as very w ater bodies. T hese w ere d efin itely b ro a d e r than the
d eep o cean ic tracts are also not accep tab le because m o n o g eo sy n clin es. T h ese g eo sy n clin es ex isted for
the m arin e fossils found in the fo ld ed m o untains relativ ely lo n g er period than the m o n o g eo sy n clin es
belong to the g ro u p o f m arin e o rg an ism s o f shallow and these have p assed th ro u g h c o m p lex ev o lu tio n
seas. ary h istories. T hese are c o n sid ere d to have experi
(3) C o n c ep t o f J .W . E van s- A cco rd in g enced
to m ore than one phase o f o ro g e n e sis, conse
E vans the g eo sy n clin es are so varied th at it becom es q uently they ‘m ay have been d iv e rsifie d by the
d ifficu lt to p resen t th e ir d efin ite form and location. p roduction o f one or m ore p arallel g ean ticlin es aris
T he beds o f g eo sy n clin es are su b jected to gradual ing from th eir floors in the sq u e e z in g p ro c e ss’. They
subsidence b ecause o f sed im en tatio n . T h e form and o r ig i n a te d in p o s i t i o n s s i m i l a r to th o s e of
shape o f g eo sy n clin es ch an g e w ith ch an g in g en v i m o n o g eo sy n clin es. R ocky and U ral geosynclines
ronm ental conditions. A g eo sy n clin e m ay be narrow are q u o te d as th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e e x a m p le s of
o r wide. It m ay be o f d ifferen t shapes. T h ere m ay be p o ly g eo sy n clin es.
several alternative situ atio n s o f g eo sy n clin es e.g. (i) (iii) M e so g e o sy n c lin e s are very long, narrow
it m aybe betw een tw o land m asses (ex am p le, T eth y s and m o b ile o cean b asin s w h ich are bordered by
geosyncline betw een L au rasia and G o n d w an alan d ), c o n tin en ts from all sides. T h ey are characterized by
(ii) it m ay be in front o f a m o untain o r a plateau (for g reat ab y ssal d ep th and long and co m p lex geologic^
exam ple, resu ltan t long tren ch after the origin o f the histo ries. T h ese g e o sy n c lin e s pass through sever
-/ "'l~ -I'M
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
223
g e o s y n c lin a l p h a s e s e .g . p h a s e s o f s e d im e n ta tio n , ty p ic a l e x a m p le s o f su ch g e o s y n c lin e . T h is con cep t
s u b s id e n c e a n d fo ld in g . M e s o g e o s y n c lin e s are s im i o f H o lm e s h as been s e v e re ly c ritic is e d b e c a u se the
la r to th e g e o s y n c lin e s c o n c e iv e d by H a u g . T e th y s tra n s fe r an d d is p la c e m e n t o f m a g m a s c a n n o t cause
g e o s y n c lin e is the. ty p ic a l e x a m p le o f su c h ty p e. s u b sid e n c e to form g e o s y n c lin e s .
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a is th e r e m n a n t o f T e th y s (ii) F o r m a tio n o f G e o sy n c lin e s d u e to M e ta
g e o s y n c lin e . T h is g e o s y n c lin e w a s fo ld e d in to A l m o r p h is m - A c c o rd in g to H o lm e s th e ro c k s o f the
p in e m o u n ta in s o t E u ro p e an d th e H im a la y a s o f lo w e r la y e r o f th e c ru s t, as re fe rre d to a b o v e , are
A sia. T h e u n fo ld e d r e m a in in g p o rtio n o f T e th y s m e ta m o rp h o s e d d u e to c o m p re s s io n c a u s e d by c o n
g e o s y n c lin e b e c a m e M e d ite r r a n e a n sea, an e x a m p le v e rg in g c o n v e c tiv e c u rre n ts. T h is m a ta m o rp h is m
o f median mass o f K o b e r.
in c re a se s th e d e n sity o f ro c k s, w ith th e re s u lt the
(5) Concept of Arthur H o lm e s -B e s id e s dlo e w er la y er o f th e c ru s t is s u b je c te d to s u b sid e n c e
s c rib in g m a in c h a r a c te r is tic s o f g e o s y n c lin s , A. an d th u s a g e o s y n c lin e is fo rm e d . C a rib b e a n S ea, th e
H o lm e s h a s a ls o e la b o r a te d th e c a u s e s o f th e o rig in w estern M e d ite rra n e a n S e a an d B a n d a S e a h a v e
o f d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f g e o s y n c lin e s . H e h as a lso d e b e e n q u o te d as e x a m p le s o f th is c a t e g o r y o f
s c rib e d th e d e ta ile d p r o c e s s e s an d m e c h a n ism s o f g e o sy n c lin e s. T h is c o n c e p t h a s b e e n re je c te d o n th e
s e d im e n ta t io n a n d s u b s id e n c e a n d c o n s e q u e n t g ro u n d th at c o m p re ss io n c a u s e d by c o n v e r g e n t c o n
o ro g e n e s is . A c c o r d in g to h im no d o u b t s e d im e n ta v ectiv e c u rre n ts w o u ld n o t c a u s e m e ta m o rp h is m
tio n le a d s to s u b s id e n c e b u t th is p ro c e ss can n o t ra th e r it w o u ld ca u se m e ltin g o f ro c k s d u e to r e s u lt
a c c o u n t fo r th e g r e a te r th ic k n e s s o f se d im e n ts in an t h ig h te m p eratu re.
g e o s y n c lin e s r a th e r e a r th m o v e m e n ts can cau se su b (iii) F o rm a tio n o f G e o s y n c lin e s d u e to C o m
s id e n c e o f h ig h m a g n itu d e in th e g e o sy n c lin a l beds. p ressio n -S o m e g e o s y n c lin e s a re f o rm e d d u e to
H e f u rth e r p o in te d o u t th a t th e p ro c e s s o f su b sid en ce c o m p re ssio n an d re s u lta n t s u b s id e n c e o f o u te r la y e r
o f th e g e o s y n c lin a l b e d s w as n o t a su d d en p ro cess o f the c ru st c au sed by c o n v e rg e n t c o n v e c tiv e cu r
r a th e r it w a s a g ra d u a l p ro c e s s . T h e d e p o sitio n o f rents. P ersian G u lf an d I n d o -G a n g e tic tro u g h a re
s e d im e n ts u p to th e th ic k n e s s o t 12,160 m (4 0 ,0 0 0 c o n sid e re d to be ty p ical e x a m p le s o f th is g ro u p o f
fe e t) in th e A p p la c h ia n g e o s y n c lin e c o u ld be p o s si g eo sy n clin es.
b le d u rin g a lo n g p e rio d o f 3 ,0 0 0 .0 0 0 ,0 0 0 y ears from
(i v) F o rm a tio n o f G e o s y n c lin e s d u e to T h in
C a m b ria n p e rio d to e a rly P e rm ia n p erio d at the rate
n in g o f S ia lic L a y e r - A c c o rd in g to H o lm e s th e re
o f o n e fo o t o f s e d im e n ta tio n ev e ry 7 ,5 0 0 years.
m ay be tw o p o s sib ilitie s if a c o lu m n o f ris in g c o n
H o lm e s h a s id e n tif ie d 4 m a jo r ty p e s o f g eo sy n clin es
v ectiv e c u rre n ts d iv e rg e s a fte r r e a c h in g th e lo w e r
a n d h a s d e s c r ib e d th e m o d e o f th e ir o rig in sep arately
lay er o f th e c ru s t in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s , (i) T h e s ia lic
as g iv e n b e lo w - la y er is stre tc h e d a p art d u e to te n s ile fo rc e s e x e r te d
(i) F o r m a t i o n o f G e o s y n c lin e s d u e to M i by d iv e rg in g c o n v ec tiv e c u rre n ts. T h is p ro c e s s c a u s e s
g r a t io n o f M a g m a - A c c o rd in g to H o lm e s the cru st th in n in g o f sialic la y e r w h ic h re s u lts in th e c r e a tio n
o f th e e a rth is c o m p o s e d of 3 sh ells o f ro ck s. Ju st o f a g e o sy n c lin e . T h e fo rm e r T e th y s g e o s y n c lin e is
b e lo w th e o u te r th in s e d im e n ta ry la y e r lies (.) o u te r c o n sid e re d to hav e b een fo rm e d in th is m a n n e r, (ii)
la y e r o f g ra n o d io rite ( th ic k n e s s , 10 to 12 k m ), fo l
A lte rn a tiv e ly , the c o n tin e n ta l m a s s m a y be s e p a
lo w e d by (ii) an in te rm e d ia te la y e r ol a m p h ib o lite
rated d u e to e n o rm o u s te n sile fo rc e g e n e r a te d by
( th ic k n e s s , 2 0 -2 5 k m ), an d ( i i i ) . lo w e r la y e r o
d iv e rg e n t c o n v e c tiv e c u r r e n ts . F o r m e r U ra l
e c lo g ite a n d s o m e p e rid o tite . H e h as fu rth er p o in ted
g e o sy n c lin e is s u p p o se d to h a v e b e e n fo rm e d d u e to
o u t th a t m ig ra tio n o f m a g m a s fro m th e in te rm e d ia te
th is m e c h a n ism .
la y er to n e ig h b o u rin g a re a s c a u s e s co lla p se and
s u b s id e n c e o f u p p e r o r o u te r la y e r an d th u s is fo rm ed (6 ) V ie w s o f O th e r s - D u s t a r h a s c la s s i
a g e o s y n c lin e . It m a y be s u m m a ii/.e d that som e g e o s y n c lin e s in to 3 ty p e s on th e b a s is o f s tru c tu re o f
g e o s y n c lin e s a rc fo rm e d d u e to d is p la c e m e n t ol m o u n tain ran g es.
lig h t m a g m a s and c o n s e q u e n t su b sid e n c e o f cru stal (i) ln te r -c o n tin e n ta l g e o s y n c lin e s a re
s u rfa c e P re s e n t C o ra l S ea, T a s m a n S ea. A rafu ra w ays situ ated betw een tw o c o n tin e n ta l o r la n d m a ss e s
S ea W e d d e ll S e a a n d R o ss S ea hav e been q u o te d as S c h u c h e rt's m e so g e o s y n c lin e is s im ila r to th is ty p e
224
U ral G eo sy n c lin e is q u o te d as th e re p re se n ta tiv e

ex am p le, (ii) C ir c u m -c o n tin e n ta l g e o sy n c lin e s are Folded Ranges
g en erally situ a ted alo n g the m a rg in s o f th e c o n ti
nen ts. S ch u ch ert's m o n o g e o sy n c lin e is th e e x a m
ple. (iii) C ir c u m -o c e a n ic g e o sy n c lin e s are g e n e r
ally fo u n d a lo n g the m a rg in a l areas o f th e o cean s
w h ere c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s m e e t w ith the o cea n ic
m arg in s. S tille h as n a m e d su ch g e o sy n c lin e as m a r
g in a l g e o sy n c lin e w h ile o th e rs h av e called it sp ecia l
ty p e o f g e o s y n c lin e o r u n iq u e g e o sy n c lin e . M o re
ex te n siv e g e o sy n c lin e s h av e b een n am ed by S tille as
Com
o r th o g e o s y n c lin e s. S tille h as fu rth e r cla ssifie d the ----------- V
g e o sy n c lin e s on th e b asis o f in te rm itte n t v o lcan ic Landmass
a c tiv ity d u rin g th e ir in fillin g in to (i) e u g eo sy n clin e s

an d (ii) m io g e o s y n c lin e s . E u g e o sy n c lin e s h av e re la
tiv e ly h ig h a m o u n t o f v o lc an ic p ro d u cts (G reek Fig. 13.5 :Stage o f orogenesis : squeezing and folding o f
p re fix eu m e a n s h ig h statu s o f ig n eo u s activ ity ) geosynclinal sediments due to compressive
w h ile m io g e o s y n c lin e s h av e lo w v o lcan ic p ro d u cts forces; the whole o f geosyndinal sediments
(m io m e a n s low ). are folded when the compressive forces com
ing from the sides o f geosyncline is enormous
Stages of Geosynclines and acute.
T h e g e o sy n c lin a l h isto ry is d iv id ed into three
sta g e s viz. (i) lith o g e n e sis (th e stag e o f crea tio n o f
g e o sy n c lin e s, se d im e n ta tio n an d su b sid en ce o f the M arginal Ranges M a rg in al R anges
b ed s o f g e o sy n c lin e s, fig. 13.4), (ii) o r o g e n e sis (the
stag e o f sq u e e z in g an d fo ld in g o f g e o sy n c lin a l
sed im en ts into m o u n tain ran g es, figs. 13.5 and 13.6),
Fig. 13.6 : Folding o f marginal sediments into marginal

ranges and formation o f median mass when
the compressive forces are moderate.
tain s o f a c c u m u la tio n ) is m o re o r le s s w e ll u n d er
Fig. 13.4 : The stage o f lithogenesis : creation o f
sto o d b ut the p ro b le m o f th e o rig in o f fo ld e d m o u n
geosyncline followed by sedimentation and
ta in s is very m u c h c o m p le x a n d c o m p lic a te d . D iffe r
subsidence.
en t h y p g th e se s a n d th e o rie s h a v e b e e n p o stu la te d
an d (iii) g lip to g e n e s is (th e sta g e o f g rad u al rise o f fro m tim e to tim e by v a rio u s s c ie n tis ts fo r th e e x p la
m o u n ta in s , and th e ir d e n u d a tio n an d c o n s e q u e n t n atio n o f th e o rig in o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s b u t n o n e o f
lo w e rin g o f th e ir h e ig h ts). T h e s e sta g e s w o u ld be th e m c o u ld b e c o m e c o m m o n ly a c c e p ta b le to m a jo r
e la b o ra te d d u rin g th e d is c u ssio n o f g e o sy n c lin a l ity o f the s c ie n tis ts . R e c e n tly , p la te te c to n ic theory
th e o ry o f K o b er. h as, to la rg e r e x te n t, s o lv e d th e p ro b le m o f m o u n
tain b u ild in g at g lo b a l s c a le . T h e h y p o th e s e s and
1 3 .4 THEORIES OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING th e o rie s re la te d to m o u n ta in b u ild in g a re d iv id ed
T h e p ro c e s s o f the o rig in o f b lo ck m o u n ta in s , in to tw o g ro u p s , (i) th e o rie s b a s e d o n h o rizo n tal
d o m e m o u n ta in s , an d v o lc a n ic m o u n ta in s (m o u n - fo rces an d (ii) th e o rie s b a s e d o n v e rtic a l fo rces.
MOUNTAIN b u i l d i n g 225
(1) T he first group includes those theories earth. He believes in the contraction history o f the
which postulate the origin o f m o untains due to earth. A ccording to J.A. Steers (1932) ‘K ober is
horizontal crustal m ov em en t and co n seq u en t c o n definitely a contractionist, contraction providing the
traction and folding o f crustal surface into m o u n m otive force for the com pressive stress’. In other
tains. This group is fu rther sub d iv id ed into tw o w ords, the force o f contraction generated due to
subgroups e.g. (i) the group o f co n tractio n theories cooling o f the earth causes horizontal m ovem ents o f
(i.e. horizontal m ov em en ts are caused due to co n the rigid m asses or forelands w hich squeeze, buckle
traction o f the earth b ecau se o f co o lin g ) and (ii) the and fold the sedim ents into m ountain ranges.
group of drift theories (i.e. the h o rizontal m o v e
m ents are caused due to continental disp lacem en t B a se of the Theory
A ccording to K ober there w ere m o b ile zones
and drift). T herm al contraction theory o f Jeffreys
o f w ater in the places o f p resen t-d ay m o u n tain s. H e
and geosynclinal T heory o f K ober belong to the
called m obile zo n es o f w ater as g eo sy n clin es or
group o f co n tractio n theories w hereas C ontinental
orogen (the place o f m ountain b u ild in g ). T h e se
Drift th eo ries o f F.B . T aylor, and A.G. W egener,
m obile zones o f g eo synclines w ere s u rr o u n d e d by
Therm al C o n v ectio n C u rren t T heory o f A. H olm es,
rigid m asses w h ich w ere te rm ed by K o b e r as
Sliding C o n tin en ts T h eo ry o f D aly, R adioactivity
‘k r a to g e n ’. The old rigid m asses in clu d ed C a n a d ia n
Theory o f Joly and P late T ectonic Theory are in
Shield, B altic Shield or R ussian M assif, S ib e ria n
cluded in the g ro u p o f d rift theories. (2) The second
Shield, C hinese M assif, P en in su la r In d ia, A fric a n
group includes those th eo ries w hich are based on
Shield, B razilian M ass, A u stralian and A n ta rc tic
vertical m o v em en ts co m in g from w ithin the earth,
rig id m asses. A cco rd in g to K o b e r m id -P a c ific
e.g. U ndulation and O scillatio n Theory o f H arm on.
geosyncline separated north and so u th P a c ific fo re
Theories o f F.B . T ay lo r and A .G . W egener have
lands w hich w ere later on fo u n d ered to fo rm P a c ific
already been d iscu ssed in ch ap ter 6 o f this book.
O cean. Eight m o rphotectonic u n its can be id e n tifie d
(1) G E O S Y N C L IN A L O R O G EN T H E O R Y O F K O B ER on the basis o f the descrip tio n o f the su rface fe a tu re s
O bjectives of the earth during M eso zo ic era as p re s e n te d by
F am ous G erm an g eo lo g ist K ober has pre K ober e.g. (i) A frica to g eth er w ith so m e p a rts o f
sented a d etailed and sy stem atic d escription o f the A tlantic and Indian O ceans, (ii) In d ian A u s tra lia n
surface features o f the earth in his book ‘D e r B au land m ass, (iii) E urasia, (iv) N o rth P a c ific c o n tin e n t,
d e r E r d e \ H is m ain o b jectiv e was to establish (v) South Pacific co n tin en t, (vi) S o u th A m e ric a a n d
A ntarctica etc.
relationship betw een an cien t rigid m asses or tab le
lands and m ore m o b ile zones or g eo sy n clin es, w hich K ober has id entified 6 m a jo r p e rio d s o f m o u n
he called ‘o r o g e n .’ K o b er not only attem p ted to tain building. T hree m ountain b u ild in g p e rio d s, a b o u t
explain the origin o f the m o u n tain s on the basis o f his w hich very little is k n ow n, are re p o rte d to h a v e
geosynclinal theory but he also attem p ted to elab o occurred during p re-C am b rian p erio d . P a la e o z o ic
rate the various asp ects o f m o u n tain b u ild in g e.g. era saw tw o m ajo r m o u n tain b u ild in g p e rio d s - th e
form ation o f m o u n tain s, th eir g eo lo g ical history and C aledonian o ro g en esis w as c o m p le te d by th e e n d o f
evolution and d ev elo p m en t. H e co n sid ered the old S ilurian period and the V ariscan o ro g e n y w as c u lm i
rigid m asses as the fo u n d atio n sto n es o f the p resent nated in P erm o -C arb o n ifero u s p erio d . T h e la s t (6 th )
continents. A cco rd in g to him presen t co n tin en ts orogenic activity k now n as A lp in e o ro g e n y w as
have grow n out o f rigid m asses. He d efin ed the com pleted d u rin g T ertiary ep o ch .
process o f m ountain b u ild in g or o ro g en esis as that K ober has op in ed th at m o u n ta in s a re fo rm e d
process w hich links rigid m asses w ith g eo sy n clin es. out o f geosynclines. A ccording to K o b er g eo sy n clin es,
In other w ords, m o u n tain s are form ed from the the places o f m o u n tain fo rm atio n (k n o w n as o ro g e n )
geosynclines due to the im p acts o f rigid m asses. are long and w ide w ater areas c h a ra c te riz e d by
sed im en tatio n and su b sid en ce. A c c o rd in g .to J .A
O rogenetic Force Steers (1932), ‘K o b er’s v iew s (on g e o s y n c lin e s a n d
K ober's g eosy n clin al theory is based on the o ro g en esis) are, then, a c o m b in a tio n o f th e o ld
forces o f co n tractio n p ro d u ced by the co o lin g o f the g eo sy n clin al h y p o th esis o f H all a n d D a n a , which
■ • -
226. GEOMORPHOLOGY
was developed later by H aug, and his own views on m asses or forelands are subjected to continuous
orogenesis.’ erosion by fluVial processes and eroded materials
are deposited in the geosynclines. This process of
M echanism of the Theory sedim ent deposition is called sedim entation. The
A ccording to K ober the w hole process o f everincreasing w eight o f sedim ents due to gradual
mountain building passes thorugh three closely linked sedim entation exerts enorm ous pressure on the beds
stages o f lithogenesis, orogenesis and gliptogenesis. o f g e o s y n c lin e s , w ith th e r e s u lt th e b ed s o f
The firststage is related to the creation of geosynclines geosynclines are subjected to gradual subsidence.
due to the force o f contraction caused by cooling of
This process is know n as the process o f subsidence.
the earth. This preparatory stage o f m ountain build
These twin processes o f sedim entation and resultant
ing is called lith ogen esis. The geosynclines are long
and w ide m obile zones o f w ater w hich are bordered subsidence result in the d eposition o f enorm ous
by rigid m asses, w hich have been nam ed by Kober volum e o f sedim ents and attain m en t o f great thick
as forelan d s or kratogen . T hese upstanding land ness o f sedim ents in the g eosynclines.
M a rg in a l R a n g es M a rg in a l R a n g es
Fig. 13.7 : Illustration o f Kober's geosynclinal theory o f mountain building through a block diagram.
T he S econ d S tage is related to m ountain m arginal sed im en ts o f the g e o sy n clin e are fo ld ed to

b uilding and is called the sta g e o f o ro g en esis. B oth form tw o m arg in al ran d k etten (m arg in al ran g es) and
the forelands start to m ove to w ard s each other b e m id d le po rtio n o f the g eo sy n clin e rem a in s unaf
cause o f h o rizontal m o v em en ts cau sed by the force fected by fo ld in g activ ity (th u s re m a in s unfolded).
o f co n tractio n resu ltin g from the co o lin g o f the T h is u n f o ld e d m id d le p o i i i o n is c a lle d
earth. T he co m p re ssiv e forces g en erated by the z w is c h e n g e b irg e (b e tw ix t-m o u n ta in s) o r m e d ia n
m o vem ent o f fo relan d s to g eth er cau se co n tractio n , m a s s (figs. 13.6 an d 13.7). A lte rn a tiv e ly , if the
squeezing and u ltim ately fo ld in g o f g eo sy n clin al c o m p r e s s iv e f o r c e s a r e a c u te , th e w h o le o f
sedim ents to form m o u n tain ranges. T h e parallel g eo sy n clin al se d im e n ts are c o m p re sse d , squeezed,
ranges form ed on eith e r sid e o f the g eo sy n clin e have b u ck led and u ltim a te ly fo ld ed (fig . 13.5) and both
been term ed by K o b er as ra n d k etten (m arg in al the fo rela n d s are clo se te d . T h is p ro c e ss introduces
ranges) (figs. 13.6 and 13.7). co m p le x ity in th e m o u n ta in s b ec a u se acute com
A ccording to K ober folding o f entire sedim ents p ressio n re su lts in the fo rm a tio n o f recu m b en t folds
o f the g eo sy n clin e or part th e re o f d ep en d s upon the an d n ap p es.
intensity o f co m p ressiv e forces. If the co m p re ssiv e K o b er h a s a tte m p te d to e x p la in th e form s and
forces are norm al and o f m o d e ra te in ten sity , on ly the stru c tu re s o f fo ld e d m o u n ta in s on th e b asis o f h is - .J
m o u n ta in b u i ld i n g 227
typical m edian m ass. ‘R eally, K ober's typical “orogen” A lp in e m ountain system . A cco rd in g to K ober the
(g eo sy n clin es) w ell ex p lain s the orig in o f m o u n A lpine m ountain chains w ere form ed because o f
tain s’. ‘T h e id ea o f m e d ian m ass o f K o b er fully co m p ressiv e forces com ing from tw o sides (north
explains the p ro c e ss o f m o u n tain b u ild in g ’. A cco rd and south). Betic C o rd illera, Pyrenees, Province
ing to K o b er the A lp in e m o u n tain ch ain s o f E urope ranges, A lps- proper, C arp ath ian s, B alkan m oun
can w ell be e x p la in e d on the basis o f m ed ian m asses.
tains and C aucasus m o untains w ere form ed due to
A ccording to him T eth y s g eo sy n clin e w as b ordered
northw ard m ovem ent o f A frican foreland (fig. 13.8).
by E u ro p ean lan d m ass in the n orth and by A frican
On the other hand, A tlas m ountain (north-w est
rigid m ass in the so u th . T h e sed im en ts o f T ethys
gco sy n clin e w ere c o m p re sse d and folded due to A frica), A p en n in es, D in a rid e s, H e lle n id e s and
m o v e m en t o f E u ro p e a n lan d m ass (fo relan d ) and T aurides w ere form ed due to so u th w ard m o v em en t
A frican rig id m a ss (fo rela n d ) to g e th er in the form of o f E uropean landm ass (fig. 13.8).
C a i p a tfiiu n s
Fig. 13.8 : The directions o f folding in Alpine mountains o f Europe. Arrows indicate directions (based on Kober).
7'he m e d ian m asses located in the A lpine m ountain ranges take so u th erly tren d in th e fo rm o f
m ountain sy stem very w ell ex p lain the m echanism B urm ese hills. A siatic A lp in e ran g es b eg in fro m
o f m o u n tain b u ild in g . It is ap p are n t from fig. 13.8 A sia m inor and run upto S u n d a Isla n d in th e E a s t
that the d ire c tio n o f fo ld in g in the C arp p ath ian s and Indies. K ober has also ex p lain ed th e o rie n ta tio n o f
D inaric A lp s (D in a rid e s) is north and south resp ec thrust or com pression o f A siatic fo ld e d m o u n ta in s
tively, w hich m e a n s th a t H u n g arian m edian m ass is on the basis o f his f o r e la n d th e o r y . A sia tic fo ld ed
located b etw een tw o m o u n tain ranges having o p p o m ountains including the H im a la y a w ere fo rm e d due
site d irec tio n s o f fo ld in g . M ed iterran ean S ea is in to com pression and folding o f s e d im e n ts o f T e th y s
fact an e x am p le o f m ed ian m ass betw een Pyreness- geosyncline caused by the m o v e m e n t o f A n g a ra la n d
Provence R an g es in the north and A tlas m ountains
and G ondw ana F o relan d s to g e th e r (fig. 13.9). T w o
and their eastern e x te n sio n in the south. C o rsica and
m arginal ranges (ran d k etten ) w ere fo rm ed on e ith e r
Sardinia are rem n a n ts o f th is m edian m ass. A natolian
side o f the g eo sy n clin e and u n fo ld ed m id d le p o rtio n
plateau b etw een P an tic and T au ru s ran g es is a n o th er
rem ained as m edian m ass. A c c o rd in g to K o b e r A si
exam ple o f m edian m ass. S im ilarly , further e a st
ward, Iranian p lateau is a m edian m ass betw een atic A lpine folded m o u n tain s can be g ro u p e d in to
Zagros and E lb u rz m o u n tain s. tw o categ o ries on the b asis o f o rie n ta tio n o f fo ld s i.e.
A lpine m o u n tain s fu rth er ex ten d into A sia (i) the ranges, w hich w ere fo rm ed by th e n o rth w a rd
w here m ountain ran g es fo llo w latitudinal directio n s co m p ressio n , in clu d e C a u c a su s, P an tic an d T a u ru s
e -g. w est-east o rien tatio n b u t th e latitu d in al pattern (o f T urkey), K unlun, Y an n an an d A n n a n ra n g e s , a n d
is broken in n o rth -eastern hill region o t In d ia w here (ii) the ranges, w h ich w ere fo rm e d b y th e s o u th w a rd
228 GEOMORPHOLOGY
com pression, include Zagros and Elburz o f Iran, betan p lateau is a fine e x a m p le o f median mass
b etw een K u n lu n -T ie n -S h a n and the Himalayas.
Oman ranges, H im alayas, B urm ese ranges etc. T i
S F o ld e d M a r g in a l R a n g e s
N M a rg in a l F o ld e d R anges
K u n lu n M t Til>etan P la te a u H im a la y a
"G eosyncline
\;°r f
M l
Fig. 13.9 : Illustration o f Kober s median mass through Tibetan plateau between Kunlun and Himalaya.
The median mass m ay be in various form s the A lps, the H im a lay as, th e R o c k ie s and the A ndes
e.g. (i) in the form o f plateau (exam ples, T ibetan can n o t be fo rm ed by the fo rce o f c o n tra c tio n gener
plateau betw een K unlun and H im alaya, Iranian p la ated by co o lin g o f th e earth .
teau betw een Z agros and E lburz, A natolian plateau (2) A cco rd in g to S u e ss o n ly o n e side o f the
betw een P antic and T aurus, B asin R ange betw een g eo sy n clin e m o v es w h e re a s th e o th e r sid e rem ains
W asatch ranges and S eirra N av ad a in the U S A ) ; (i) stable. T h e m o v in g sid e h as b e e n te rm e d by S uess as
in the form o f plain (exam ple, H ungarian plain backland w h ereas stab le sid e h a s b e e n c a lle d fore
betw een C arpathian s and D inaric A lps), and (iii) in land. A cco rd in g to S u ess th e H im a la y a s w ere form ed
the form o f seas (exam ples, M ed iterran ean S ea b e
due to so u th w ard m o v e m e n t o f A n g a ra la n d . The
tw een A frican A tlas m o u n tain s and E u ro p ean A l
G o n d w a n alan d re m a in e d s ta tio n a ry . T h is o b serv a
p in e m o u n tain s, C arib b ean S ea b etw een the m o u n
tion o f S u ess g a in e d m u c h fa v o u r p re v io u s ly but
tain ran g es o f m id d le A m erica and W est Indies).
after the p o stu la tio n o f plate tectonic theory his
Third Stage o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g is c h a r a c
view s h av e b e c o m e m e a n in g le s s a n d th e c o n c e p t of
t e r iz e d by g r a d u a l rise o f m o u n ta in s a n d th e ir d e n u
K ober, that b o th th e fo re la n d s r r o v e to g e th e r, has
d a tio n by flu v ia l a n d o t h e r p r o c e s s e s . C o n t i n u o u s
been v a lid a te d b ecau se a m p le e v id e n c e s of
d e n u d a t i o n r e s u l ts in g r a d u a l l o w e r i n g o f the h e ig h t
p alaeo m ag n etism an d s e a -flo o r sp re a d in g h av e shown
o f m o u n ta in s .
th at b o th A siatic a n d I n d ia n p la te s are m o v in g to
Evaluation of the theory w ard s e a c h o th e r.
T h o u g h K o b e r's g e o sy n c lin a l th eo ry s a tis fa c (3 ) K o b e r's th e o ry so m e h o w e x p la in s the
to rily e x p la in s a few a sp e c ts o f m o u n tain b u ild in g w e s t-e a st e x te n d in g m o u n ta in s b u t n o rth -s o u th ex
b u t the th e o ry su ffe rs from c e rta in w e a k n e sse s and te n d in g m o u n ta in s (R o c k ie s a n d A n d e s ) c a n n o t be
la c u n a e . e x p la in e d on th e b a s is o f th is th e o ry . In s p ite o f a few
(1 ) T h e fo rce o f c o n tra c tio n , as e n v isa g e d by
in h e re n t lim ita tio n s a n d w e a k n e s s e s K o b e r is given
K o b e r, is n o t s u ffic ie n t to c a u se m o u n ta in b u ild in g . c re d it fo r a d v a n c in g th e id e a o f th e fo rm a tio n o f
In fa c t, v ery e x te n s iv e an d g ig a n tic m o u n ta in s lik e m o u n ta in s fro m g e o s y n c lin a l s e d im e n ts b ecau se
g eosyncline fo u n d b e rth in a lm o s t all th e su b se q u e n t trac tio n c au sed b y g rad u al c o o lin g o f th e ea rth d u e to

theories e v en in p la te te c to n ic th eo ry . loss o f h eat th ro u g h rad ia tio n fro m th e v ery b e g in
n in g o f its o rig in . H e h as m a th e m a tic a lly c a lc u la te d
(2) THERMAL CONTRACTION THEORY OF JEFFREYS
th e e x te n t o f c o n tra c tio n o n c o o lin g . A d e c re a se o f
Objectives te m p eratu re u p to 400°C in th e 4 0 0 k m th ic k o u te r
J e ffre y s, a s tro n g e x p o n e n t o f co n tra ctio n shell o f the earth w o u ld ca u se sh o rte n in g o f th e
theory, p o stu la te d h is ‘thermal contraction theory’ d ia m ete r o f the ea rth by 2 0 km a n d th e c irc u m fe r
to explain th e o rig in a n d e v o lu tio n o f m a jo r reliefs o f en ce by 130 km d u e to c o o lin g a n d re s u lta n t c o n tra c
the earth 's s u rfa c e (c o n tin e n ts , o cea n b asin s, m o u n tion. H e c a lc u la te d th e m a x im u m s h o rte n in g o f th e
tains, isla n d a rc s a n d fe s to o n s ) b u t h is m a jo r o b je c cru st d ue to c o n tra c tio n to b e 2 0 0 k m a n d th e r e d u c
tive w as to e x p la in th e o rig in and d istrib u tio n a l tion in su rface a re a u p to 5 x 1 0 16 c m 2.
patterns o f m o u n ta in sy ste m s o f th e g lo b e. Jeffrey s A cco rd in g to Je ffre y s th e e a rth is c o m p o s e d
was a c o n tra c tio n is t. H is th e o ry w as b a se d on m a th o f several co n ce n tric sh ells (la y e rs). T h e c o o lin g a n d
em atical re a s o n in g . H e p o stu la te d h is co n tractio n resu ltan t co n tra ctio n tak e p la c e la y e r a fte r la y e r b u t
theory b e c a u s e he c o u ld n o t fin d any stro n g reason the co o lin g is effe c tiv e u p to th e d e p th o f o n ly 7 0 0 k m
in the c o n tin e n ta l d rift th e o ry w h ic h ad v o ca ted h o ri from the earth 's su rface. “T h e re g io n o f th e e a rth
zontal m o v e m e n t o f th e c o n tin e n ts d ue to tid al force from the cen tre to so m ew h ere a b o u t 7 0 0 k ilo m e tre s
of the sun a n d th e m o o n an d th e g rav itatio n al force from the su rface m ay h av e u n d e rg o n e n o a p p r e c i
as e n v isa g e d by A .G . W e g e n e r. able ch an g e o f te m p e ra tu re , an d c o n s e q u e n tly n o
Orogenetic Force m arked change in v o lu m e” (J.A . S teers, 1932). W ith in
the zone o f 70 0 km from th e e a rth 's s u rfa c e e v e ry
J e ffre y s u sed th e fo rc e o f co n tra ctio n resu lt
uper lay er has co o led e a rlie r an d m o re th a n th e la y e r
ing p artly fro m c o o lin g o f the earth due to loss o f
im m ediately b elo w the u p p e r la y er. T h u s , e a c h u p
heat th ro u g h ra d ia tio n fro m the earth 's su rface and
p er layer co n tra cted m o re th a n th e la y e r j u s t b e lo w
partly fro m th e d e c re a s e o f the speed o f the earth's
it. F u rther, each u p p er la y e r c o n tin u e d to c o o l u n le s s
rotation. In fact, th e fo rc e s in v o k ed by Jeffrey s are
o bstructed by th e im m e d ia te lo w e r la y e r. T h e o u te r
divided in to tw o g ro u p s. (1 ) F o rce co m in g through
layer began to cool first d u e to lo ss o f h e a t th ro u g h
the c o o lin g o f th e e a rth . T h e earth , afte r being
radiation. It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t th e re is a lim it
form ed, sta rte d c o o lin g d u e to loss o f h eat through
o f cooling b ey o n d w h ich no fu rth e r c o o lin g is p o s
rad iatio n . T h is p ro c e s s re su lte d in the gradual d e
sible. A fter m ax im u m c o o lin g a n d r e s u lta n t c o n tr a c
crease o f th e size o f th e earth d u e to co n tractio n on
tion o f the uper la y e r lo w e r la y e r ju s t ly in g b e lo w th e
cooling. T h e re s u lta n t co n tra c tio n p ro v id ed adequate
upper lay er b eg in s to co o l a n d c o n tra c t, w ith th e
force (as b e lie v e d by Je ffre y s ) to form vario u s re lie f
resu lt alread y co o led an d c o n tra c te d u p p e r la y e r
features in c lu d in g m o u n ta in s. (2) F o rce co m in g
through d e c re a s e in th e sp eed o f earth s rotatio n . b eco m es too larg e to fit in w ith th e s till c o o lin g a n d
A bout 1600 m illio n y e a rs a g o th e earth co m p leted its co n tractin g lo w er lay er. T h e c o re o f th e e a rth is n o t
one ro ta tio n in a b o u t 0 .8 4 h o u r w h ereas it p resen tly affected by c o o lin g b e c a u se o f e x c e p tio n a lly h ig h
tem p eratu re p re v a ilin g th e re . T h u s , th e c o re o b
com pletes o n e ro ta tio n in a b o u t 2 4 h o u rs. T h e d e
structs the c o n tra c tio n o f th e la y e r ly in g a b o v e it.
crease in th e ro ta tio n a l sp e e d ca u se d co n tra ctio n in
T h e co o lin g an d c o n tra c tin g la y e r ly in g b e lo w th e
the e q u ato rial c irc u m fe re n c e o f th e earth . It m ay he
alread y c o o le d an d c o n tra c te d la y e r b e c o m e to o b ig
con clu d ed th a t th e fo rc e o f c o n tra c tio n w as d e rived
to fit in w ith th e c o re o f th e e a rth . T h e re is s u c h a
through th e c o n tra c tio n o f th e earth d ue to (i) co o lin g
ay er etw ee n th e u p p e r a n d lo w e r la y e r w h e re
o f the e a rth an d (ii) d u e to d e c re a se in th e speed o f
co n tra ctio n is su ch th a t th e in te rm e d ia te la y e r c a n fit
earth's ro tatio n .
m w ith the lo w e r la y er. T h is la y e r is c a lle d level o f
no strain.
Mechanism of the Theory
•Jeffreys' th e o ry is b a se d essen tially on the T h e la y e r ly in g o v e r th e le v e l o f n o s tra in is
history o f th e c o n tra c tio n o f the earth . A cco rd in g to too b ig to fit w ith th e lo w e r la y e r a n d h e n c e th e u p p e r
Jeffreys th e e a rth b eg an to sh rin k b eca u se o f c o n ay er has to co lla p se on th e lo w e r la y e r so th a t it c a n
230
GEOMORPHOLOGY
f it w ith th e lo w e r la y e r. T h is p ro c e s s (c o lla p s e o f re g io n s h a v in g h a rd an d le ss e la stic ro c k s are af
u p p e r la y e r on lo w e r la y e r ) re s u lts in th e d e c re a s e in fe c te d by te n sile fo rc e s an d th u s se v e ra l fau lts and
th e ra d iu s o f th e e a rth w h ic h c a u s e s h o riz o n ta l fra c tu re s a rc fo rm e d b e c a u se su c h ro ck s are easily
c o m p re s s iv e s tre s s w h ic h le a d s to b u c k lin g and b ro k e n in to b lo c k s. It is, th u s, a p p a re n t th a t m oun
fo ld in g o f th e ro c k s o f u p p e r la y e r. T h u s , th e m o u n tain b u ild in g is lo c a liz e d in c e rta in zo n es o f the
ta in s a re fo rm e d . T h e lo w e r la y e r b e lo w th e lev el o f g lo b e .
n o s tra in is to o s h o rt to fit w ith th e c o re o f th e e a rth
Direction o f the Force- A c c o rd in g to Jeffreys
a n d h e n c e th e lo w e r la y e r h a s to s tre tc h h o riz o n ta lly .
n o t all th e a re a s b elo w th e e a rth s u rfa c e are equally
T h is p ro c e s s im p lie s a la te ra l s p re a d in g an d th in n in g
affe c te d by the m e c h a n ism o f c o o lin g a n d co n tra c
o u t o f th e m a te ria ls o f th e lo w e r la y e r b e lo w th e level
tion. T h e c o o lin g p ro c e ss w as m o re a c tiv e b e lo w the
o f n o s tra in . T h e s p re a d in g a n d th in n in g o f th e lo w er
o c e a n ic c ru s t th an th e c o n tin e n ta l c ru s t b e c a u se o f
la y e r in tro d u c e s a s ta te o f s tre s s w h ic h c a u s e s fra c
d is s im ila r s tru c tu re o f th e se tw o z o n e s. T h u s, the
tu re s a n d fis s u re s re s u ltin g in to b re a k in g o f ro ck s.
ro ck s b elo w th e o c e a n ic c ru s t e x p e rie n c e d m o re
T h is m e c h a n is m a llo w s fu rth e r c o lla p s e o f th e a l
c o o lin g and c o n tra c tio n than th e ro c k s b e lo w the
re a d y c o o le d o u te r la y e r a n d th u s a lre a d y fo rm ed
c o n tin en ta l cru st. T h u s, the fo rc e o f c o n tra c tio n is
m o u n ta in s a re s u b je c te d to fu rth e r rise in h eig h t.
d ire c te d fro m th e o c ea n ic c ru st to w a rd s th e c o n ti
J e ffre y 's h a s a lso e x p la in e d v a rio u s asp ects o f n ental cru st. T h is m e c h a n ism re su lts in th e fo rm a
m o u n ta in b u ild in g e.g . p e rio d o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g , tion o f m o u n tain s alo n g th e c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s
z o n e s o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g , d ire c tio n o f m o u n tain s, p arallel to ,th e o cean s. R o ck ies an d A n d e s are the
e tc . e x am p les o f such situ atio n .
Period o f Mountain Building- A cco rd in g to D ire c tio n o f M o u n ta in s - A cco rd ing to Jeffreys
J e ffre y s th e p ro c e ss o f a fo re sa id m e ch an ism o f m o u n the co m p re ssiv e fo rce g en era ted by c o n tra c tio n o f
ta in b u ild in g is n o t a lw a y s a c tiv e th ro u g h o u t the the earth d u e to co o lin g w as d ire c te d fro m o cean ic
g e o lo g ic a l p e rio d s ra th e r is c o n fin e d to c e rta in p e ri areas to w ard s the co n tin e n ta l area s a lm o s t at right
o d s o n ly . T h e re is c o n tin u o u s a c c u m u la tio n o f an g le and thus the m o u n tain ra n g e s w ere form ed
c o m p re s s iv e and te n sile fo rc e s re su ltin g from c o n p arallel to th e o cean ic areas. T h e la y o u t an d d irec
tra c tio n o f th e e a rth d u e to c o o lin g an d th is p ro cess tion o f the R o ck ies and A n d es m o u n ta in s are very
c o n tin u e s until th e a c c u m u la te d fo rces ex c e e d the w ell ex p la in e d on the b asis o f th is th e o ry because
ro c k stre n g th . W h en , th is sta te (w h en a c c u m u la ted th ese m o u n tain s run n o rth to so u th a lo n g th e w estern
c o m p re s s iv e an d te n sile fo rc e s e x c e e d th e ro ck m a rg in s o f N o rth and S o u th A m e ric a resp ectiv ely
s tre n g th ) is re a c h e d , fo ld in g an d fau ltin g are in tro an d are p arallel to the P acific O c e a n b u t the w est-
d u c e d a n d th e p ro c e ss o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g sets in east e x ten t o f th e A lp s an d th e H im a la y a s can n o t be
a n d th is p ro c e s s c o n tin u e s till th e c o m p re ssiv e and e x p la in e d on the b asis o f th is th e o ry .
te n s ile fo rc e s a re s tro n g an d activ e. W h e n th ese
fo rc e s b e c o m e w eak , m o u n ta in b u ild in g sto p s and
Evaluation of the Theory
T h o u g h Je ffre y s h as a tte m p te d to ex p lain the
th e p e rio d o f q u ie s c e n c e sets in. A g ain th e p ro c e ss o f
o rig in an d e v o lu tio n o f su rface fe a tu re s o f the earth
a c c u m u la tio n o f c o m p re ss iv e and te n sile fo rces starts
an d h as p re se n te d sev eral e v id e n c e s in su p p o rt o f his
and th e n e x t p ro c e s s o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g b egins
th erm al c o n tra c tio n th e o ry b u t h is th e o ry h as been
when th e s e fo rc e s a g a in b eco m e stro n g en o u g h to
sev erely .c ritic is e d and a tta c k e d on the follow ing
fold th e c ru s ta l ro ck s. T h u s , tw o p e rio d s o f m o u n tain
building a re s e p a ra te d by a lo n g p erio d o f q u ie s g ro u n d s.
cence. ( I) T h e fo rce o f c o n tra c tio n re su ltin g from th

Zones o f M ountain Building- A c c o rd in g to c o o lin g o f the ea rth is not s u ffic ie n t en o u g h to
J e ffre y s m o u n ta in b u ild in g d e p e n d s u p o n the n atu re a c c o u n t for th e o rig in an d e v o lu tio n o f m a j o r surface
a n d stre n g th o f ro c k s. T h e a re a s h a v in g so ft and re lie fs o f the g lo b e. A H o lm e s h as re m a rk e d that ‘the
e la s tic ro c k s are m o s t a ffe c te d by the p ro c e ss o f c a lc u la te d re d u c tio n o f a re a (by J e ffre y s) is seri
m o u n ta in b u ild in g as th e ro c k s are e a sily fo ld e d by o u sly in d e fic it o f the a m o u n t to e x p la in m ountain
c o m p re s s iv e fo rc e s c a u s e d by c o n tra c tio n b u t the b u ild in g .’
MOUNTAIN b u i l d i n g 231
(2) The concept o f cooling o f the earth in the processes o f m ountain building. H e attem pted to
system o f concentric shells (layers) is erroneous and explain salient aspects o f folded m ountains e.g.
is not acceptable. origin, successive upheavals, distributional patterns
(3) The im pact o f decrease in the speed of and orientation and extent.
rotation o f the earth on m ountain building is doubt
Orogenetic force
ful. J.A. Steers (1932) has aptly rem arked, ‘It may,
The main force im plied by Daly for the origin
in fact, be safely concluded that w hatever effects the
of the m ountains has been the force o f gravity. The
changing speed o f rotation in geological tim es may
w hole theory o f D aly is based on the nature and rate
have had, it w as totally inadequate to influence
o f dow nw ard slide o f the continents fostered by
m ountain building in any m arked w ay .’
gravitational force. ‘The key to the D aly's view s is
(4) It is im p ro p er to believe that contraction the idea that there has been dow nhill sliding m ove
would have been so im m ense about 200 m illion m ent o f continental m asses. In other w ords, the
years ago so that it m ight have form ed such gigantic controlling factor has been g rav ity ’ (J.A . S teers,
m ountains o f T ertiary period as the R ockies, the 1932). Daly h im self proclaim ed th at his theory based
A ndes, the A lps, the H im layas etc. on gravitational force w as co m p eten t to deal w ith all
(5) A s per th erm al con tractio n theory o f the problem s o f m ountain bu ild in g satisfacto rily .
Jeffreys the co n tin en ts and oceans should have been
Axioms of the Theory
uniform ly d istrib u ted as the earth w as contracted
Daly has assum ed certain ax io m s (se lf p ro v ed
from all sid es but p resen tly there is uneven d istribu
facts) in support o f his theory. If w e lo o k into the
tion o f co n tin en ts and oceans.
history it appears that ‘a m ajo r p art o f the th e o ry is
(6) A cco rd in g to this theory the situation o f based on self proved facts or a x io m s’ . It m ay b e
m ountains sh o u ld alw ay s be parallel to the oceans. pointed out that D aly did n ot elab o rate h is ax io m s.
The arran g em en t o f the R ockies and A ndes is ju s ti He adm itted h im se lf th at his th eo ry can w ell e x p la in
fied on the basis o f this th eory but the arrangem ent the problem s o f o ro g en esis on th e fo rce o f g rav ity
o f E uropean A lp in e m o u n tain s and the H im alayas alo n e.’
cannot be ex p lain ed .
A cco rd in g to D aly a so lid c ru st w as fo rm e d
(7) If we b eliev e in the co m p eten ce o f the ju s t after the o rigin o f the earth . H e n am ed th is so lid •
force o f co n tra ctio n to form m o u n tain s it cannot crust as primitive crust. In early tim es th e re e x iste d
produce g reat ran g es o f m o u n tain s as they are found a series o f an cien t rig id m a sses w h ic h w ere g e n e ra lly
at p resen t o v e r the g lo b e but it w ould p roduce a situ ated near th e p o les and a ro u n d th e e q u a to r. T h e s e
larger n u m b e r o f sm all p u ck ers or m in o r folds. rigid m asses h av e b een n am ed by D aly as polar and
(8) A c c o rd in g to this th eo ry there sh o u ld not equatorial domes. T h u s, th e re w ere th re e b e lts o f
be any d efin itiv e d istrib u tio n a l p attern o f m o u n tain s rig id m asses e.g . (i) n o rth p o la r d o m e s, (ii) e q u a to
as they m ay be fo rm ed e v ery w h ere b eca u se all parts rial d o m es and (iii) so u th p o la r d o m e s. T h e s e th ree
o f earth's c ru st e x p e rie n c e d co n tra ctio n b u t c o n trary belts o f rig id m a sses w ere s e p a ra te d by d e p re sse d
to this m o u n tain s are fo u n d in certain p a tte rn s e.g. reg io n s w h ich w ere c a lle d by D a ly as midlatitude
along the m a rg in s o f the c o n tin e n ts e x te n d in g eith er furrows an d primeval Pacific Ocean. T h e s e d e
n o rth -so u th w ard o r w est-eastw ard . p re sse d re g io n s w ere, in fact, o c e a n ic a re a s (o r say
g e o sy n c lin e s) th e b e d s o f w h ic h w ere fo rm e d o f
(3) SUDING CONTINENT THEORY OF DALY
primitive crust w h ic h w as fo rm e d w ith th e o rig in o f
Objectives th e earth .
D aly p o stu la te d h is th e o ry o f sliding conti T h e c ru st, a c c o rd in g to D aly , co m p o se d o f
nents in his b o o k ‘Our Mobile Earth* in th e y e a r g ra n ite s, w as h e a v ie r th a n th e ro c k s o f su b stratu m
1926 to e x p la in the o rig in an d e v o lu tio n o f d iffe re n t b elo w th e c ru st. T h e c ru s t w as c o m p o se d o f h eav ier
relief featu res o f th e e a rth 's su rface. T h o u g h D aly g ra n ite s w h ile th e s u b stra tu m w as fo rm ed o f lig h ter
attem pted to th ro w lig h t on m a jo r re lie fs o f th e g lo b e g la ssy b asalt. It m ay b e p o in te d o u t th a t this view o f
but his m ain o b je c tiv e w as to e x p la in th e c a u s e s an d D aly is iso sta tic a lly to ta lly w ro n g . H e fu rth er as
232
GEOMORPHOLOGY
su m ed th a t th e w a te r b o d ies o ccu p ied ab o u t h a lf o f sed im en ts, the size o f d o m es co n tin u ed to increase.

th e g lo b e an d T eth y s g eo sy n clin e (n o rth ern m id It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at g rad u al in crease in the
la titu d e fu rro w b etw een n o rth p o la r d o m e and e q u a lateral p ressu re resu ltin g from co n tin u o u s dow n
to rial d o m e ) ‘w as a m a rk e d featu re th ro u g h o u t m uch w ard m o v em en t o f g eo sy n clin al b ed s w as responsi
o f g eo lo g ical tim e .’ L an d m a sses (p o lar eq u ato rial ble fo r in crease in the size an d h e ig h t o f the continen
d o m e s - rig id m a sse s) p ro je c te d ab o v e the w ater tal dom es.
b o d ies an d th e p o la r an d eq u ato rial d o m es w ere T h e sed im en ts o f th e c o n tin e n ta l dom es be
slo p in g to w a rd s m id -la titu d e fu rro w s (w h ich w ere gan to ex p an d b eca u se o f in c re a se in th e size and
in fa c t g e o sy n c lin a l trac ts) an d th e P acific O cean. h eig h t o f the d o m e s an d c o n se q u e n tly sedim ents o f
the d o m es b eg an to lo se w e ig h t an d b e c a m e lighter
in w eight. In o rd e r to c o m p e n sa te th e lo ss o f w eight
D aly h as b e lie v e d in the co llap se o f the p rim i
o f sed im en ts o f the c o n tin e n ta l d o m e s th e re began
tiv e c ru st b u t has no t e la b o rated the m ech an ism o f
u n d erg ro u n d flo w ag e o f d e n se m a te ria ls fro m below
c o lla p se . It m a y be su rm ise d th at the p rim itiv e cru st
the o cean ic (g e o sy n c lin a l b ed s) b ed s to w ard s the
w o u ld h av e b een p ro b ab ly b ad c o n d u cto r o f h eat and
co n tin en tal d o m es. B e c a u se o f th is p ro c e s s denser
so th e su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re w o u ld have fallen soon to
m aterials began to a c c u m u la te in th e co n tin en tal
th a t o f the p re se n t tim e b u t th e loss o f h eat from the
d o m es from b elo w . B e c a u se o f th e re p e titio n o f the
in te rio r into the e x te rio r p art co n tin u ed and hence
above p ro cesses th e c o n tin e n ta l d o m e s co n tin u ed to
th e in te rio r p art c o n tra cted aw ay from the o u ter shell
gro w in size an d h e ig h t, ‘p ro b a b ly n o t as rapidly in
o r crust. C o n seq u en tly , the o u te r cru st w o u ld have
the c en tre as to w a rd s th e ir p e rip h e rie s ’. T he increase
co llap sed on the still co n tra c tin g in terio r d u e to (i)
in th e size o f d o m e s cau sed p ressu re on the crust
the w eig h t o f the o cea n ic w ater, (ii) the w eig h t o f
u n d er the o c ea n ic beds (g e o sy n c lin a l beds). A s the
g eo sy n ciin al se d im e n ts an d (iii) g rav itatio n al fo rce
size o f d o m e s co n tin u e d to e x p a n d , the re su lta n t
o f the cen tre o f the earth . It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at
p ressu re on o c e a n ic b ed s also c o n tin u e d to in crease.
the im p act o f g ra v ita tio n a l fo rce w as m o re u n d er the
W h en the to le ra n c e lim it o f th e o c e a n ic cru st to
o cean ic c ru st than the co n tin e n ta l d o m es b ecau se the
fo rm e r w as n eare r to the earth 's cen tre. It ap p ears
(th o u g h not d e sc rib e d by D aly ) that the m id -la titu d i
nal fu rro w s w ere fo rm ed as g eo sy n c lin e s due to
c o lla p se o f o u te r c ru s t on th e c o n tra c tin g in te rio r o f
th e e a rth an d d u e to th e g rav ita tio n a l force c o m in g
fro m the c e n tre o f the earth .
T h e se d im e n ts d e riv e d th ro u g h the ero sio n o f
p o la r an d e q u a to ria l d o m e s (m o re p recise ly c o n ti
n en tal d o m e s) w e re d e p o s ite d by th e riv ers in to the
m id - la titu d in a l fu rr o w s a n d th e P a c ific O c e a n
(g eosynclines). C o n tin u o u s sed im en tatio n and w eig h t Folded Mi - -
o f the o c ea n ic w a te rs e x e rte d e n o rm o u s p re ssu re on
the beds o f o c e a n s (g e o s y n c lin e s ) w ith th e re su lt
their b eds w ere s u b je c te d to c o n tin u o u s su b sid e n c e .
T h u s , d o w n w a r d p r e s s u r e o n th e o c e a n i c
(g eosynclinal) b e d s d u e to c o n tin u o u s s e d im e n ta
tion and resu lta n t s u b s id e n c e o f g e o s y n c lin a l b ed s
caused lateral p re s s u re on th e c o n tin e n ta l m a sse s,
w ith the resu lt th e y w ere tra n s fo rm e d in to b ro a d
co n tinental d o m e s k n o w n as p o la r an d e q u a to ria l
om es. A s the o cea n ic b e d s w e re d e p re s s e d d o w n
w ard due to g rav ita tio n a l fo rc e o f th e e a rth 's c e n tre , Fig. 1 3 .1 0 : Illustration o f slid in g c o n tin e n t theory ofR-A-
an w eig h t o f o c e a n ic w a te r a n d g e o s y n c lin a l Daly.
m o u n t a in b u i l d i n g
233
w ithstand the ev erin creasin g pressure w as crossed, building in a sim ple m anner yet it does not present
the oceanic beds began to rupture and break. Thus, coherent account o f the problem as the theory does
the support o f the co n tin en tal dom es w as rem oved not go into details and there is a w ide gap betw een
due to rupture o f the ocean ic beds w hich introduced theoretical and practical aspects o f the theory. M ajor
strong tensional m o v em en ts d ue to w hich larger part o f the theory is based on self proved facts
blocks o f continen tal m ass began to slide tow ards (axiom s). The theory suffers from the follow ing
the geosynclines. T he geo sy n clin al sedim ents were lim itations.
thus squeezed and fo ld ed due to com pressive force
(1) The sliding continent theory presents er
coming from the slid in g continental blocks (fig.
roneous concepts about the structure o f the interior
13.10) giving birth to folded m ountains.
o f the earth. His concept, th at the outer crust is
A ccording to D aly the broken continental denser than the substratum , is against the evidences
blocks and parts o f o ceanic crust founder in the of seism ology because it is now proven fact that the
substratum b ecau se the density o f outer crust is more density increases with increasing dep th in the in te
than th e s u b s tra tu m . Or: th e o th e r h an d , the rior o f the earth.
geosynclinal sed im en ts do not founder in the sub (2) D aly’s theory is based on sev eral guesses
stratum rath er th ese flo at on the substratum because and surm ises. W hy did the earth ’s cru st b eco m e
these are less d en se than the substratum . Because of asym m etrical? W hy the co n tin en tal do m es w ere
this fact geo sy n clin al sedim ents are m ore folded by sloping towards m id-latitude furrow s (geosynclines)?
the com pressive fo rces g enerated by sliding conti How was the Pacific O cean form ed ? D aly d o es not
nental blocks, it is, thus, obvious that greater the offer any convincing ex p lanation to th ese an d m an y
am ount o f slip p in g o f co n tin en tal blocks, the more more questions.
geosynclinal sed im en ts are squeezed and m ore and
(3) This theory presents erro n eo u s view s ab o u t
greater folded m o u n tain s are form ed. D aly has fur
geosynclines because these are g en erally c o n sid e re d
ther pointed out that the foundered continental blocks
as long, narrow and relatively sh allo w d e p re ssio n s
in the su b stratu m are m elted due to high tem perature
of water but D aly's geosynclines w ere in fa c t o c e a n s
and thus rise in the volum e o f m olten continental
(e.g. m id-latitude furrow s and P acific O c e a n ). If
blocks cau ses fu rth er rise in the m ountains.
these are accepted as g eo sy n clin es they w o u ld h a v e
T he sliding c o n tin en t theory o f Daly also well never been filled w ith sed im en ts and th u s no m o u n
explains the d istrib u tio n a l patterns o f folded m oun tains could have been form ed.
tains e.g. n o rth -so u th and w est-east extents. A ccord
(4) Daly has also p resen te d c o n fu s in g id e a s
ing to D aly fo ld ed m o u n tain s are form ed because ol
and erroneous co n cep ts ab o u t the m e c h a n is m o f
squeezing and fo ld in g ol geosynclinal sedim ents by m ountain building. In fact, this th e o ry d o e s n o t ca re
com pressive fo rces cau sed by sliding o f the conti for the extension and dep th o t o cea n s an d a m o u n t o f
nental blocks to w ard s the geosynclines. Thus, west- sedim ents d eposited in them b u t e x p e c ts m o u n ta in s
east ex ten d in g m o u n tain s (e.g. A lpine chains and the from every ocean (g eo sy n clin e).
H im alayas) w ere fo rm ed due to sliding o f polar and
(5) T he theory p ro v id es w ro n g v ie w s a b o u t
equatorial dom es tow ards m id-latitude furrow (Tethys
the m echanism and p ro cess o f g rav ity . T h e th e o ry
geosyncline) and n o rth -so u th extending m ountains
does not throw light on the te rm in a tio n o f p u llin g
(e.g. R ockies and A n d es) w ere form ed due to sliding
effects of gravity and the b e g in n in g o f th e ru p tu re o f
of continental m asses to w ard s P acific O cean. Sim i
the beds o f the g eo sy n clin es. T h u s, th e re is n o
larly, the island arcs and festoons parallel to the
coherence b etw een d iffe re n t e v en ts re la te d to m o u n
A siatic co ast w ere form ed due to sliding o f A siatic
tain building as en v isag e d by th e slid in g c o n tin e n t
m ass tow ards P acific O cean.
theory. In fact, the th eo ry p resen ts so m e p ie c e m e a l
Evaluation of the Theory analysis o f m o u n tain b u ild in g ra th e r th a n a c o m p le te
T h o u g h the ‘sliding co n tinent th e o ry ’ by Daly or perfect p ersp ectiv e.
is based on w ell know n principle o f gravitational
(6) The theory to certain exten t b e lie v e s in
force and tries to explain the problem o f m ountain
such distribution o f land and sea (m id latitud e fur
234 GEOMORPHOLOGY
row s and P acific O cean an d p o la r and equatorial p art o f the lo w er layer. C ru st and substratum are
continental dom es) as to suit its ow n purpose. co m p o sed o f sial and sim a resp ectiv ely . G enerally,
W ooldridge and M org an have aptly rem arked, sial is ab sen t in the oceanic areas.
‘com plete rejectio n o f the id ea m ay be prem ature, T h e origin o f co n v ec tiv e cu rren ts w ithin the
b ut it is a fair co m m en t to say th at the cause o f earth d epends on the p resen ce o f rad io a ctiv e ele
prim ary “b u lg e s” w h ich start the slipping has in no m ents in the rocks. T h e d isin teg ratio n o f radioactive
sense been satisfacto rily in d ic a te d .’ elem en ts g en erates h eat w h ich cau ses convective
currents. A cco rd in g to H o lm es th e re is m axim um
(4) THERMAL CONVECTION CURRENT THEORY OF co n cen tratio n o f rad io activ e elem en ts in the crust
HOLMES
but tem p eratu re is not so high b eca u se there is
Objectives gradual loss o f h eat th ro u g h co n d u ctio n and radia
A rth u r H olm es p o stu lated his therm al con tion from the u pper su rface at the rate o f 60 calories
v ectio n cu rren t theory in the year 1928-29 to explain per square cen tim eter per year. ‘T h is is ap p ro x i
the in tricate problem s o f the origin o f m ajor relief m ately equal to the rad io activ e en erg y p ro d u ced by
featu res o f the earth's surface. H o lm es’ m ajor objec a layer 14 km thick o f granite, 16.5 km o f granodiorite,
tiv es w ere not co nfin ed to search the m echanism o f 52 km o f p lateau b asalt or g ab b ro and 6 0 km o f
m o u n tain building b ased on sound scientific b ack p erid o tite’ (J.A . Steers, 1932). A cco rd in g to H olm es
g round b u t w ere also directed to w ard s finding scien the loss o f heat from the earth ’s su rface is co m p en
tific explanation for the origin o f the continents and sated by the heat produced by a cru stal shell o f 60 km
ocean basins in term s o f co n tin en tal d rift as he was thickness. Thus, there is no acc u m u latio n o f addi
opposed to the co n cep t o f perm anency o f the co n ti tional heat in the earth's cru st in sp ite o f m axim um
nents and ocean basins as en v isag ed by the ad v o concentration o f radioactive elem en ts. On the other
cates o f therm al contractio n o f the earth. W ooldridge hand, though there is very low co n cen tratio n o f
and M organ have aptly rem arked, “T he only unify radioactive elem ents in the substratum but the gradual
ing theory w hich show s a hopeful sings o f reconcil accum ulation o f heat p roduced by the rad io activ e
ing certain o f the d iv erg en t h ypotheses o f m ountain elem ents causes convective cu rren ts. T h e c o n v e c
b uilding and co n tin en tal d rift is that due to H olm es' tive currents depend on tw o facto rs e.g. (i) th ick n ess
(S.W . W ooldridge and R .S. M organ, 1959). o f the crust near the eq u ato r and p o les and (ii)
uneven distrib u tio n o f rad io activ e elem en ts in the
Orogenetic Force
crust. A scending co n v ectiv e cu rren ts o rig in ate un
T he driving force o f m ou n tain building im
der the crust near the eq u ato r b eca u se o f greater
plied by A rthur H o lm es is p ro v id ed by therm al
thickness o f crust w hereas d e scen d in g convection
convection currents originating deep w ithin the earth.
currents are o rig in ated u n d er the p o la r c ru st because
T he m ain source o f the origin o f co n v ectiv e currents
o f its shallow depth. T he risin g c o n v ec tiv e currents
is e x c e s s iv e h e a t in th e s u b s tr a tu m w h e re in originating from below the continental crust are more
d isin te g ra tio n o f rad io a ctiv e elem en ts generates pow erful than the convective currents originating from
h eat regularly. In fact, the w hole theory depends below the oceanic crust because o f g reater concentra
exclusively on the m ech an ism o f co n v ectiv e c u r tion o f radioactive elem ents in the continental crust.
rents.
Base of the Theory
C o n v ectiv e cu rren ts, th u s, are generated at
A ccording to H olm es the earth co n sists o f 3 som e p laces in th e su b stratu m . B ecau se o f differ
zones or layers e.g. (i) u p p er lay er o f g ran o d io rite ence o f tem perature gradient from the e q u a t o r (greater)
(10 to 12 km ), (ii) interm ediate lay er (20 to 25 km ) to w ard s the p o les (lo w ) risin g c o n v ec tiv e currents
of am phibolite and (iii) low er layer o f eclo g ite. He are fo rm ed u n d er the eq u ato rial cru st w hile dow n
has further grouped these three layers into tw o zones w ard m o v in g (d escen d in g ) co n v ec tiv e currents are
e.g. (i) crust consisting o f u pper and m iddle or g en erated u n d er the p o lar cru st. T he convective
interm ediate layers and cry stallin e u p p er p art o f cu rren ts o rig in atin g u n d er the co n tin en ta l crust are
lower layer and (ii) su b stra tu m rep resen tin g m olten m ore p o w erfu l th an the c o n v ec tiv e cu rren ts origi
235
nating u n d e r th e o c e a n ic cru st. I t m a y b e p o in te d o u t risin g c o n v e c tiv e c u rren ts d iv e rg e in o p p o s ite d ire c
that th e c u rre n ts o rig in a tin g u n d e r th e e q u a to ria l tio n s, is stre tc h e d an d th in n e d d u e to te n sio n a l fo rces
crust m o v e to w a rd s th e p o le s i.e. to w a rd s n o rth an d an d u ltim a te ly th e c ru s t is ru p tu re d an d b ro k e n in to
south a n d th u s th e c ru s ts a r e c a rrie d aw ay w ith th e tw o b lo c k s w h ich are c a rrie d aw ay by la te ra l d iv e r
co n v ec tiv e c u rre n ts . g en t c o n v e c tiv e c u rre n ts a n d th e o p e n in g b etw ee n
tw o b lo ck s b eco m es seas. T h u s, d iv e rg e n t c o n v e c
T h e re a re tw o s itu a tio n s o f ris in g c o n v e c tiv e
tiv e c u rren ts c a u se c o n tin e n ta l d rift, (ii) W h ere tw o
cu rrents w h e n th e y r e a c h th e lo w e r lim it o f th e lateral c o n v e c tiv e c u rre n ts o rig in a tin g u n d e r th e
cru stal m a s s e s , (i) T h e c ru s ta l m a ss, w h e re tw o c o n tin en ta l and o c ea n ic c ru sts c o n v e rg e (fig . 13.11).
C o n tin e n t C o n tin e n ta l S h e lf
C o n t in e n t
Sea
tt
tt
A scending Current
Fig. 13.11 : Illustration o f rising and descending convective currents under the crust. A-D ivergent convective currents
cause opening o f the landm ass and creation o f oceans. B-convergent convective currents cause closin g o f la n d
m asses a n d oceans a n d create mountains.
c o m p re ss iv e fo rc e is g e n e r a te d w h ic h c a u s e s s u b sid
ence in th e c r u s ta l z o n e s g iv in g b irth to g e o s y n c lin e s to H o lm e s th e e q u a to ria l c r u s t w a s s tr e tc h e d a n d
and c lo s in g o f s e a . It is a p p a r e n t th a t d iv e rg e n t ru p tu re d d u e to d iv e rg e n c e o f r is in g c o n v e c tiv e
c o n n e c tiv e c u r r e n ts m o v e th e c ru s ta l b lo c k s aw ay in c u rre n ts w h ic h c a rrie d th e r u p tu r e d c r u s ta l b lo c k s
o p p o site d ir e c tio n s a n d th u s c re a te s e a s a n d o cea n s to w a rd s th e n o rth a n d s o u th a n d T e th y s S e a w a s
w hile c o n v e r g e n t c o n v e c tiv e c u rre n ts b rin g c ru sta l fo rm ed . T h is p h a s e is c a lle d ‘O p en in g o f T eth y s’ .
blocks to g e th e r a n d th u s fo rm m o u n ta in s . A g ain tw o sets o f c o n v e rg e n t o r d o w n w a rd m o v in g
(d e s c e n d in g ) c u rre n ts b r o u g h t L a u r a s ia a n d
T h e c o n v e c tiv e c u r r e n ts a re d iv id e d in to tw o
G o n d w a n a la n d to g e th e r a n d th u s T e th y s w a s c o m
g roups o n th e b a s is o f th e ir lo c a tio n a l a s p e c t e.g . (i)
p re s s e d an d fo ld e d in to A lp in e m o u n ta in s . T h is
convective cu rren ts o f risin g colum ns an d (ii)
p h a se is c a lle d ‘C losing o f T eth y s’.
convective cu rren ts o f fa llin g colum ns. T h e ris in g
c o n v e c tiv e c u r r e n ts a f te r r e a c h in g th e lo w e r lim it o f ‘T h e c o n v e c tiv e m e c h a n is m is n o t a s te a d y
the c ru s t d iv e rg e in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s . T h is o u t p ro c e s s b u t a p e rio d ic o n e , w h ic h w a x e s a n d w a n e s
w ard o r d iv e rg e n t m o v e m e n t in tro d u c e s te n sio n a l a n d th e n b e g in s a g a in w ith a d if f e r e n t a r r a n g e m e n t
force d u e to w h ic h th e c r u s t is s tr e tc h e d , th in n e d an d o f c e n tr e ’ (A . H o lm e s 1 9 5 2 ). I t m e a n s th a t th e
u ltim a tely b r o k e n a n d th e b ro k e n c ru s ta l b lo c k s are c o n v e c tiv e c u rre n ts o r ig in a te a t s e v e r a l c e n tr e s
m o v ed a p p a rt. T h e w id e o p e n a re a b e tw e e n tw o w h ic h a re n o t p e rm a n e n t. G e o s y n c lin e s a re f o r m e d
d riftin g c ru s ta l b lo c k s in o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n s is fille d d u e to s u b s id e n c e o f c ru s ta l b lo c k s m a in ly c o n t in e n
w ith w a te r a n d th u s a n o c e a n is fo rm e d . A c c o rd in g tal s h e lv e s d u e to c o m p r e s s iv e f o r c e g e n e r a te d by
236 GEOMORPHOLOGY
convergent convectiv e cu rren ts m oving laterally to g eosynclines w hich are alw ays located above the
g ether under continental and o ceanic crusts. In other convective currents o f rising colum ns under conti
w ords, w hen the co n tin en tal and oceanic crusts nental and oceanic crusts bring m aterials in the
m ove together and co n v erg e u nder the continental d escending convective currents o f falling column.
shelves, they descen d d o w n w ard and thus cause C ontinuous com pression and sedim entation causes
im m ense com pression due to w hich the crust is gradual subsidence o f geosynclines. H olm es has
subjected to subsid en ce to form geosyncline. The described a cyclic pattern o f therm al convective
currents which includes the origin o f convective
currents, form ation o f g eo sy n clin es, sedim entation
and orogenesis and further rise in the m ountains.
F irs t S tag e £
A ccording to H olm es the cyclic pattern o f convec
Geosyncline £. tive currents and related m ountain b uilding pass
through three phases or stages (fig. 13. 12).
F ir s t S tag e : The first stage is o f the longest
duration during w hich convective currents are o rig i
nated in the substratum . The rising con vective c u r
rents o f two centres converge under the continental
shelves and thus form geosynclines due to c o m p re s
sion com ing from the co n vergence o f tw o sets o f
lateral currents. G eosynclines are su b jected to co n
tinuous sed im en tatio n and s u b sid e n c e . A s the
S eco n d S tag e £
t: sedim ents are pressed d o w nw ard into g eosynclines,
these go further dow nw ard and are in tensely heated
and m etam orphosed. M etam o rp h ism o f sedim ents
causes rise in their density w hich fu rth er causes
dow nw ard m ovem ent o f the m etam o rp h o sed m ate
rials. Thus, the falling colum n o f d o w n w ard m oving
convective currents is the co lu m n o f increasing
den sity . A m p h ib o lite s are m e ta m o rp h o se d into
eclogites. A portion o f heat is sp en t during the
process o f m etam orphism and h en ce the heat does
not accum ulate to g reater ex ten t. T h e first stage,
characterized by high velo city co n v ec tiv e currents,
is in fact the prep arato ry stage o f m o u n tain building
w hich is m arked by the creatio n o f geosynclines,
sedim entation and su b sid en ce o f m aterials partly,
caused by co m p ressio n resu ltin g from convergence
o f co n v ectiv e cu rren ts and partly by increase in the
density o f m aterials due to m etam o rp h ism .
"S eco n d S ta g e : T he seco n d stage is marked
by phenom enal in crease in the velo city o f convec
tive currents but this stage is relativ ely o f short
duration. T he m ain cause fo r the phenom enal in
crease in the velocity o f co n v ec tiv e currents is the
dow n w ard m o v em en t o f cold m aterials in the falling
Fig. 13.12 : Illustration o f successive stages o f thermal colum n and upw ard m o v em en t (rise) o f hot materi
convective currents under the crust and moun als in the risin g co lu m n o f co n v ectiv e currents.
tain building. In c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e d u e to m e ta m o rp h is m o f
g eo m aterials in th e fa llin g co lu m n o f d esc e n d in g

cu rrents in c re a s e s th e v e lo c ity o f d o w n w a rd m o v in g
on th erm al co n v ec tiv e cu rren ts. T h e theory w as
co n v ec tiv e c u rre n ts . T h e h ig h v elo c ity c o n v e rg e n t
criticised , at the tim e o f its p o stu latio n in 1928-29,
co n v ec tiv e c u rre n ts b u c k le g e o sy n c lin a l sed im en ts on the fo llo w in g grounds.
and thus in itia te th e p ro c e s s o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g
(1) C o n v ectiv e cu rren t th eo ry , no doubt, is a
(fig. 13.12). T h is s ta g e , th u s, is c a lle d th e sta g e o f
o ro g en esis. lead in g th eo ry in a new d irectio n b u t w hole o f the
th eory d ep en d s on such facto rs ab o u t w hich very
T h ir d S t a g e : T h e t h i r d s t a g e is c h a r a c te r iz e d little is know n. R ising and fallin g co lu m n s are doubtful
by w a n i n g p h a s e o f t h e r m a l c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n ts d u e p h en o m en a and th e re fo re d o u b tfu l stag e can nev er
to i n c o m i n g h o t m a t e r i a l s in t h e f a l l in g c o l u m n a n d be taken fo r the ex p lan atio n o f n atu ral p h en o m en a.
u p w a r d m o v e m e n t ( r i s e ) o f c o l d e r m a t e r i a l s in the
(2) T he w h o le m e ch an ism o f c o n v e c tiv e c u r
risin g c o l u m n . G r a d u a l l y , t h e r is i n g c o l u m n b e
rents d ep en d s on the h eat g e n e ra te d b y ra d io a c tiv e
c o m e s a c o l d c o l u m n i.e. c o l d m a t e r i a l s a re a c c u m u
elem en ts in the su b stratu m (now m a n tle ) b u t sev eral
lated a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e o r i g i n o f r is in g ( u p w a r d
scien tists have raised d o u b t ab o u t th e a v a ila b ility o f
m o v in g ) c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s d u e to w h i c h th e s e
req u ired am o u n t o f h eat g e n e ra te d by ra d io a c tiv e
c u r r e n ts c e a s e t o o p e r a t e a n d th e w h o l e m e c h a n i s m
elem en ts. If h e a t5 thus, is in su ffic ie n t, c o n v e c tiv e
o f c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s c o m e s to a n e n d . T h e t e r m i cu rren ts m ay not be g en era ted an d , th e re fo re , th e
n a tio n o f t h e m e c h a n i s m o f c o n v e c t i v e c u rr e n ts w hole m ech an ism and w o rk in g o f th e th e o ry w o u ld
y ie ld s s e v e r a l r e s u l t s e .g . (i) T h e m a t e r i a l s o f the not be p ossible. It m ay be fu rth e r p o in te d o u t th a t th e
f a llin g c o l u m n s t a r t r i s i n g b e c a u s e o f d e c r e a s e in the rising cu rren ts p ass on th e ir h e a t in to th e c ru s t
p r e s s u r e a t t h e t o p o f t h e f a l l in g c o l u m n d u e to the through co n d u ctio n . T h is p ro c e ss a lso c a u s e s lo s s o f
e n d o f d e p o s i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s . T h i s m e c h a n is m heat w hich m ay w eak en th e c u rre n ts.
c a u s e s f u r t h e r r i s e in th e m o u n t a i n s , (ii) T h e d e
(3) T he h o rizo n tal flo w o f th e rm a l c o n v e c tiv e
p r e s s e d a n d s u b s i d e d h e a v i e r m a t e r i a l s in the fallin g
cu rren ts u nder the co n tin e n ta l an d o c e a n ic c ru s ts is
c o l u m n o f d e s c e n d i n g c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n ts start r is
also a d o u b tfu l p h e n o m e n a b e c a u se o f la c k o f r e
ing d u e to d e c r e a s e in th e w e i g h t a n d p r e s s u r e at the
q uired am o u n t o f h e a t to d riv e th e se c u rre n ts . I f
top o f t h e f a l l i n g c o l u m n , (iii) E c l o g it e , w h i c h w as h o rizontal flow o f c o n v e rg e n t m o v e m e n t o f c o n v e c
d e p r e s s e d d o w n w a r d , g e t s m e l t e d d u e to i m m e n s e tive cu rren ts is n o t p o ssib le , th e n th e fa llin g c o lu m n
h e a t a n d t h u s it e x p a n d s . T h i s e x p a n s i o n in the w ould not exist and hen ce m o u n tain c a n n o t b e fo rm e d .
v o l u m e o f m o l t e n e c l o g i t e c a u s e s f u r t h e r ris e in the
(4) T h e m e ta m o rp h ism o f a m p h ib o lite s in to
m o u n t a i n s . T h i s s t a g e is k n o w n as the s t a g e o f
eclo g ites and re su lta n t d o w n w a rd m o v e m e n t o f r e la
g lip to g e n e s is . I t is, t h u s , a p p a r e n t th a t th e th e r m a l
tively d en ser e c lo g ite s is a lso a d o u b tfu l p h e n o m
c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s o f H o l m e s e x p l a i n s all th e th re e
e n o n . E v e n w e a c c e p t th e m e t a m o r p h i s m o f
s ta g e s o f m o u n t a i n b u i l d i n g e .g . l i t h o g e n e s i s ,
am p h ib o lites in to e c lo g ite s b u t th e r e s u lta n t in c re a s e
o r o g e n e s is a n d g l i p t o g e n e s i s . in d en sity from 3.0 to 3.4 w o u ld n o t b e e n o u g h to
G r i g g s t h r o g h h i s e x p e r i m e n t s h a s v a lid a te d d ep ress and sin k e c lo g ite s in th e fa llin g c o lu m n . I f
the m e c h a n i s m o f c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s a n d c o n s e - d esired sin k in g o f e c lo g ite s is n o t p o s s ib le , th e re
quent m o u n ta in b u ild in g . w o u ld not be p ro p e r a c c o m m o d a tio n o f m e te ria ls
b ro u g h t by the h o riz o n ta l c o n v e rg e n t c o n v e c tiv e
Evaluation of the T h e o ry
c u rre n ts in to th e fa llin g c o lu m n . I f th is is so , th e
C o m m e n t i n g o n H o l m e s 1t h e r m a l c o n v e c u v c
w hole fallin g c o lu m n w o u ld be fille d w ith e c lo g ite s
c u r r e n t t h e o r y J .A . S t e e r s ( 1 9 3 2 ) h a s r e m a r k e d The
and the n ext stag e o f the m e c h a n is m o f th e c o n v e c
t h e o r y is i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t it d e p e n d s u p o n s u c h f a c
tive cu rre n ts w o u ld n ot w o rk . It is, th u s , a rg u e d th a t
to rs a b o u t w h i c h lit tl e is k n o w n ' . It m a y b e p o i n te d
the th e o ry d o e s not m a k e p ro p e r p ro v is io n f o r th e
o u t t h a t t h i s c o m m e n t o f S t e e r s a b o u t 6 8 y e a r s a g o is
a c c o m m o d a tio n o f a d d itio n a l m a te ria ls .
n ot v alid to d a y as th e re are am p le c o n v in c in g s e e n -
•r- *a v v h irh v a l i d a t e th e m e c h a n i s m o t (5 ) A c c o rd in g to th is th e o ry c o n v e c tiv e c u r
oolwTCtive c u rre n ts o rig in atin g from w ithin the m antle. ren ts are o rig in a te d a t few c e n tr e s o n ly u n d e r th e
238 GEOMORPHOLOGY
continental and oceanic crusts but question arises, traction o f the substratum o f the earth resulting into
why are they not originated at all places ? If this so transgressional and regressional phases o f the seas
happens, the horizontal m ovem ent o f these currents (geosynclines). T he expansion and contraction of
w ould not be possible. The w hole o f the continents the substratum are based on the m echanism o f heat
w ould be divided into several blocks as the rising generated by radioactive elem ents o f the rocks. It
convection currents originating from num erous cen m ay be pointed out that the theory o f A. H olm es and
tres w ould break the crusts and w ould give birth to Joly are based on radioactive elem ents but they
volcanic eruptions o f various sorts. This observation sought their help differen tly e.g. H olm es used radio
has been now validated on the basis o f plate tectonics active elem ents to explain the origin o f therm al
as rising convective currents diverge under the mid- convective currents in the sub stratu m w hile Joly
oceanic ridges and thus the plate is ruptured and two used them to explain the m elting and resolidification
plates m ove in opposite directions due to divergent o f the substratum . H e also im plied tid al fo rce and
convective currents and fissure flow s o f lavas occur fric tio n to explain continental drift.
along the m id-ocean ic ridges representing the rup
B a se of the Theory
ture zone. It m ay be concluded that the idea o f
The w hole m echanism o f Jo ly 's theory is
therm al convective currents conceived by A. H olm es
about 71 years ago (in 1928-29) proved its w orth in based on the presence o f radioactive elem ents o f the
rocks o f the earth. In ord er to explain various aspects
1960s w hen the scientists w ere looking forw ard to
o f the m echanism o f rad io activ e elem en ts Joly has
search such a force w hich can explain the m ovem ent
o f plates. N ow , the process o f m o u n tain ’building can described first the structure o f the earth. A ccording
be very satisfactorily explained on the basis of co n to him continents are m ade o f lig h ter sialic m aterials
vective currents though not in the way as conceived the density o f w hich is 2.67 w h ile the o cean ic beds
by A. H olm es in 1928-29 but on the lines o f plate are form ed o f heav ier m aterials o f sim a h aving
tectonics. average density o f 3.0. T hus, the cru st has been
assum ed to have been co m p o sed o f sial and s u b stra
(5) RADIOACTIVITY THEORY OF JOLY tum o f basalt (sim a). B esides a few ex ce p tio n s, sial
O bjectives is not found in oceanic beds.
Joly postulated his theory based on rad io ac A ccording to Joly the ro ck s o f th e ea rth c o n
tivity o f certain rad io activ e m inerals in the year 1925 tain rad io activ e e lem en ts b u t th e ir d istrib u tio n is not
in his book, ‘S urface H istory o f the E a rth ’ to account uniform in all zo n es o f the earth . R ad io a c tiv e e le
fo r the origin and evo lu tio n o f su rface features o f the m ents are found in ab u n d an c e in sialic zo n e or the
earth. H is theory is also know n as ‘th e r m a l cycle co n tin en tal ro ck s b u t the ro ck s o f sim a fo rm in g the
th e o r y ’ or ‘th e o ry o f th e s u r f a c e o f th e e a r t h ’. oceanic crusts are less rad io activ e. C o n tin u o u s break
T h o u g h the m ain o b jectiv e o f Joly's theory w as to dow n o f certain ra d io a ctiv e ele m e n ts lik e uranium ,
p resen t a d e ta ile d acc o u n t o f the therm al history o f
thorium etc. g en era tes heat. It m ay b e p o in ted out
the earth and m ath em atical ex p lan atio n o f the stru c
that the actual rate o f heat p ro d u c tio n by rad io activ e
ture o f the in te rio r o f the earth but he also attem p ted
elem en ts is e x ce ed in g ly sm all b u t it b e c o m e s suffi
to e x p la in the p ro b lem s o f m o u n tain b u ild in g and the
cien t en o u g h to p ro d u ce a p p re c ia b le re su lt after
co n tin en tal drift. In fact, ‘J o ly ’s view s on the earth 's
surface history are based on such reasonable prem ises, long p erio d o f ac c u m u la tio n . T h o u g h th e production
and are so sim p le in th e ir c o n ce p tio n , that they have o f heat is c o m p a ra tiv e ly h ig h e r in th e continental
m et w ith a g reat deal o f fa v o u r’ (J.A . S teers, 1932). c ru st b eca u se o f m o re ra d io a c tiv e e le m e n ts than the
W hile co m m e n tin g on Jo ly 's th eo ry o f rad io a ctiv ity o cea n ic b ed s b u t th e re is no la rg e -sc a le accu m u la
he has rem a rk ed , ‘It sh o u ld not be acc ep ted as tion o f heat in th e c o n tin e n ta l c ru s t d u e to continuous
p ro v ed , but reta in ed as an h y p o th e sis w h ich p ro b lo ss o f h eat th ro u g h ra d ia tio n .
ab ly co n ta in s a certain ele m e n ts o f tru th ’.
M echanism of the Theory
Orogenetic Force A c c o rd in g to Jo ly th e d isin te g ra tio n o f rad io
T h e d riv in g force o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g as activ e e le m e n ts o f sialic o r c o n tin e n ta l ro ck s pro
in v o k e d by Jo ly is p ro v id e d by e x p a n sio n and c o n d u c e s h e a t b u t it d o e s n o t a c c u m u la te in the contir
m ou ntain b u il d in g
239
nfftts o r sial b e c a u se th e to tal loss o f h eat th ro u g h
level o f ocean ic w ater rises d u e to sin k in g o f sialic or
radiation fro m th e sia lic c ru s t is m o re th an the total
con tin en tal m asses into liq u id sim a. T his m e ch a
heat p ro d u c e d by th e ra d io a c tiv e e le m e n ts. H e has
nism cau ses exten sio n o f ocean ic w ater o v e r the
further p o in te d o u t th at te m p e ra tu re in c re ases w ith
con tin en tal m argins. T h is p ro cess o f ex p an sio n o f
increasing d e p th . A fte r d e ta ile d m a th e m a tic a l c a lc u
o ceanic w aters and th eir en cro a ch m en t on co n tin en
lation Jo ly e s tim a te d th e a m o u n t o f te m p e ra tu re at tal m argins is called transgression of sea and th e
the depth o f 3 0 k m to b e 1050°C. H e estim a te d the c o n c e r n e d s ta g e is k n o w n as th e p h a se o f
m axim um th ic k n e s s o f sial to b e 3 0 km . A cco rd in g transgressional sea. (5) T ran sg ressio n o f se a re
to him th e re is n o tra n s fe r o f h eat fro m sim a to sults in sed im en tatio n on the su b m e rg e d c o n tin en ta l
overlying sia l. H e h a s a lso e stim a te d th e am o u n t o f m argins. T hus, this th eory o f rad io a c tiv ity a cc o u n ts
te m p eratu re a t th e o u te r lim it o f sim a u n d er the fo r the origin o f g eo sy n clin es d ue to s u b m e rg e n c e o f
co n tin en ts to b e 1050°C . T h e c o n d itio n s u n d er the continental m arg in s d u rin g tra n sg re ssio n a l p h a s e o f
oceans a te la th e r d ilte r e n t. S in c e th e re is no sial in “sea. (6) The co n d itio n s u n d er th e o c e a n s are d iffe re n t
the o c e a n ic b e d s , so th e h e a t p ro d u c e d by rad io activ e b ecause there is ab sen ce o f sial. T h e in c re a s e in th e
elem en ts, th o u g h v e iy sm a ll, is lost to the oceanic radius and the circ u m feren c e o f th e g lo b e d u e to
w ater th ro u g h c o n d u c tio n but su ch situ atio n does m elting o f sim a p ro d u ces ten sio n in th e o c e a n ic b e d s
not e x ist a t g re a te r d e p th s in th e su b stratu m (sim a) w hich cau ses cracks and fau lts. M o lte n m a te ria ls o r
u n d er the o c e a n s . T e m p e ra tu re in c re ases w ith in m olten basalts co m e u p w ard th ro u g h th e se c ra c k s
crea sin g d e p th in th e s u b stra tu m (sim a) u nder the and faults. T h ese m o lten b asalts are th e n s o lid ifie d
o cean s b e c a u s e o f a c c u m u la tio n o f h e a t p ro d u ced by and thus oceanic islan d s are fo rm ed . T h e r a d io a c tiv
ra d io a c tiv e e le m e n ts . T h is m e c h a n ism cau ses te m ity theory, thus, ex p lain s th e isla n d s o f th e P a c ific
p eratu re g r a d ie n t a t g re a t d ep th in sim a (su b stra and other oceans. (7) C o n tin e n ta l m a ss e s e a s ily flo a t
tum ). T h e te m p e ra tu r e b e c o m e s eq u al to the m elting over m olten sim a, c o n s e q u e n tly th e y are m o re a f
p o in t o f b a s a lt. T h e re is no tra n s fe r o f h eat from the fected by tidal force w h ich c a u se s w e s tw a rd m o v e
lo w er p art o f s im a to the u p p e r part o f sim a so there m ent o f the co n tin en ts. It is in th is w ay th a t th e
is a c c u m u la tio n o f h e a t in the lo w er lay ers o f sim a radio activ ity th eo ry also d e s c rib e s th e p ro c e s s o f
b e n e a th th e o c e a n s . T h e m e ltin g p o in t is 1150°C con tin en tal drift. (8) C o n tin e n ta l d rift c h a n g e s th e
w h ereas th e te m p e ra tu re at th e top ot su b stratu m position o f the c o n tin e n ts an d th e o c e a n s a s th e
(sim a ) is 1050°C . I f th e te m p e ra tu re o f the su b stra fo rm er occupy th e p o sitio n s o f th e la tte r. T h is p r o c
tum rise s to 1150°C it w o u ld attain its m eltin g point e s s a llo w s th e e s c a p e o f h e a t a n d t h u s th e
but the s u b s tr a tu m w o u ld still rem a in in solid state tran sg ressio n al p h ase co m es to an e n d .
u n less re q u ire d a m o u n t o f l a te n t h e a t o f fu s io n is P e r io d o f R e g r e s s io n a l S e a - T h e p h a s e o f
pro v id ed . J o ly h as c a lc u la te d that the req u ired am ount reg ressio n al sea is c h a ra c te riz e d by th e f o llo w in g
o f h eat to liq u e fy th e s u b stra tu m w o u ld be available ev en ts - (1) T h e te m p e ra tu re o f th e s u b s tra tu m d e
in 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 to 5 6 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 y ears. If su ch condi- creases b ecau se ot lo ss o f h e a t d u e to c o n tin e n ta l
tions b e c o m e p o s s ib le i.e. if th e su b stra tu m reach es drift. T h u s, the c o o lin g o f the s u b s tra tu m re s u lts in
the m o lten c o n d itio n , s e v e ra l ch a n g e s take p lace in the re so lid ific a tio n o f m o lte n s u b s tra tu m . T h e c o o l
the e a rth ’s s tru c tu re . ing o f the su b stra tu m b e g in s fro m its u p p e r la y e r a n d
P e r io d o f T r a n s g r e s s io n a l S ea - S everal in co n tin u es d o w n w a rd and u ltim a te ly th e w h o le o f t h e
te re stin g e v e n ts ta k e p la c e w h en the su b stratu m su b stratu m b e c o m e s so lid o n c o o lin g . (2 ) T h e d e n
reac h es the m o lte n c o n d itio n d u e to acc u m u ation ot sity o f the s u b stra tu m , w h ic h w a s re la tiv e ly d e
g reater a m o u n t o f h e a t p ro d u c e d by the b reak ow n crea sed d u rin g its m o lten sta g e , a g a i n i n c r e a s e s t o
o f ra d io a c tiv e elem en ts. (1 ) T h e e x p a n sio n o f sim a reg ain its p re v io u s v alu e. (3 ) T h e r a d i u s a n d t h e
d u e to m e ltin g c a u se s in c re ase in the rad iu s ot the circ u m fe re n c e o f the g lo b e , w h ic h w e r e i n c r e a s e d
g lo b e. (2 ) C o n tin e n ta l m asses or sialic m asses are due to m e ltin g o f th e s u b stra tu m , a r e a g a i n s h o r t e n e d
ra ise d r e la tiv e to the cen tre o f th e g lo b e. (3) I he to th e ir p re v io u s p o sitio n , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h e c o n t i
d e n sity o f s im a d e c re a se s d u e to m e ltin g and hence nents, w h ich w ere ra ise d re la tiv e t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e
sia lic m a ss e s b e g in to sin k in m o lten sim a. (4) The g lobe, are a g ain b ro u g h t to th e ir p re v io u s p o s i t i o n s
240 geom orphology
JJ
(5) R elative increase in th e den sity o f the sub stratu m tain bu ild in g is altern ated by the p eriod o f quies
due to reso lid ificatio n cau ses co n tractio n o f the cence.
oceanic beds w hich resu lts in the w ithdraw al o f
oceanic w aters from the co n tin en tal m argins. T his is Evaluation of the Theory
called th e p h a se o f reg r essio n a l sea. B ecause o f the T h o u g h the rad io a ctiv ity th eo ry o f Joly based
w ithdraw al o f ocean ic w ater p rev io u sly su b m erg ed on scien tific facts and m a th em a tic al calcu latio n was
c o n t in e n ta l m a r g in s ( d u r in g th e phase o f w idely ap p reciated by sev eral scie n tists b u t sim ulta
tran sg ressio n al sea) rise up w ard and the d ep o sited n eously it w as also sev erely criticized . A few critics
sed im en ts are ex p o sed above the w ater level. (6) It o f the theory do n o t g ran t th e o re tic al statu s to the
m ay be rem e m b ered that the o ceanic beds w ere v iew s o f Joly rath e r they ta k e h is v iew s as m erely
su b jected to m ax im u m ex p an sio n d u rin g the p erio d d escrip tiv e acco u n ts o f th e e a rth 's in terio r. In fact,
o f tran sg ressio n al ph ase d u e to m eltin g o f the su b the theory o f Jo ly is a w ell d ev e lo p e d geom orphic
stratu m . S im ilarly , the o cean ic beds are also su b story o f the earth rath e r than a th eo ry . J.A . S teers
je c te d to m a x im u m co n tractio n d u rin g the p erio d o f (19 3 2 ) has rem ark ed that ‘th e th e o ry is, a t first sight,
reg ressio n al sea due to reso lid ificatio n o f m olten co n v in cin g and it certain ly d o es g iv e a d e q u a te ex
su b stratu m . T h u s, co n tra ctin g beds o f tw o oceans plan atio n s o f m any featu res o f the e a rth 's s u rfa c e ’.
e x e rt lateral co m p ressio n on the sed im en ts d e p o s T h e fo llo w in g sh o rtco m in g s h av e been p o in te d ou t
ited on the co n tin en tal m arg in s (g eo sy n clin es), c o n by the critics o f the theo ry .
seq u en tly the sed im en ts d e p o sited d u rin g the perio d (1) T he theory is b a se d on ra d io a c tiv e e le
o f tran sg ressio n al sea are sq u eezed , b uckled and m ents o f the ro ck s o f th e e a rth at d iffe re n t d ep th s
fo ld ed and th u s m o u n tain s are form ed. about w hich very little is k n o w n . T h u s, th e fo rc e o f
Joly has d e sc rib e d tw o p arallel p ro cesses o f ex p an sio n and co n tra ctio n o f th e s u b stra tu m (sim a)
m o u n tain b u ild in g , (i) T h e sed im en ts d ep o sited in du e to m eltin g an d c o o lin g re sp e c tiv e ly b a s e d on
the sh allo w seas o f the co n tin en tal m arg in s are rad io activ e elem en ts is d o u b tfu l an d p e rh a p s is no t
sq u eeze d and fo ld ed d u e to lateral co m p ressio n en o u g h to form m o u n tain s.
cau sed by tw o co n tra c tin g o cean ic beds, (ii) V ertical (2) Jeffrey s d id n o t a g re e w ith th e 3 0 -k m
force is produced durin g the process o f resolidification th ick n ess o f the co n tin e n ta l m a ss e s as e n v isa g e d by
o f th e su b stratu m . T h is v ertical force raises the Joly. A cco rd in g to Je ffre y s th e th ic k n e s s o f the
w h o le m o u n ta in sy stem fo rm ed d u rin g the first p ro c co n tin en ta l c ru st m ay n o t b e m o re th a n 16 k m . I f the
ess. It is o b v io u s th a t a cc o rd in g to this theory m o u n th ick n ess o f th e c o n tin e n ta l c ru s t is a c c e p te d to b e 16
ta in s are alw a y s fo rm ed alo n g the m arg in s o f the km then the w h o le m e c h a n is m o f J o ly 's th e o ry w ould
c o n tin e n ts fa c in g o cea n s. T h e in ten sity o f lateral co m e to a g rin d in g h alt as re q u ire d a m o u n t o f h e a t of
p re s s u re an d c o n s e q u e n t m a g n itu d e o f fo ld in g d e 1 150°C w o u ld not be p o s sib le at th e d e p th o f 16km.
p e n d on the a m o u n t o f c o n tra c tio n o f o cea n ic b eds.
(3) Jo ly 's c o n c e p t o f c y c lic n a tu re o f m oun
It m ay be arg u e d th a t la rg e o cea n s w o u ld p ro d u ce
tain b u ild in g has b een d is p u te d by s o m e c ritic s. The
m o re p o w e rfu l lateral c o m p re ssio n and h en ce g re a t
th eo ry e n v isa g e s u n ifo rm p e rio d s o f q u ie sc e n c e be
est m o u n ta in w o u ld face la rg e st o cean . T o som e
tw een tw o p e rio d s o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g bu t this
e x te n t th is s ta te m e n t is tru e as the R o ck ies and the
c o n c e p t h as also b e e n d is p u te d . J.A . S tee rs has
A n d es m o u n ta in s face th e P ac ific O cean .
c o m m e n te d th a t “ In s h o rt, th e v ery e s se n c e o f the
Jo ly a lso e x p la in s th e p erio d o f q u ie sc e n c e th e o ry , th e a p ro x im a te ly e q u a lly s p a c e d recurrence
b etw ee n tw o p e rio d s o f m o u n ta in b u ild in g . T h e total o t s im ila r c o n d itio n s , s e e m s to be o n e o f its m ain
p erio d o f tw o so lid p h a se s o f th e s u b stra tu m (so lid d ra w b a c k s .” H e h a s fu rth e r re m a rk e d th at “there
p h ase, m olten p h ase an d re s o lid ific a tio n p h ase o f th e se e m s to b e little d o u b t th a t m o u n ta in building
su b stra tu m ) is c alled o n e r e v o lu tio n w h erein th e p e rio d s h a v e b e e n re c u r r e n t to s o m e e x te n t, b u t it is
m e ltin g o f su b stra tu m (s im a ) la k es to tal tim e p erio d v ery d o u b tfu l if th ey h a v e b e e n so re g u la r as Joly's
o f 3 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 5 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 y ears. It m ay be, th u s, th e o ry w o u ld m a k e th e m ” (J.A . S te e rs , 1932).
in ferre d th at th e p ro c e ss o f m o u n tin g b u ild in g o c
(4 ) T h is th e o ry e n v is a g e s tw o fa c ts about
c u rs in cy clic m a n n e r w h e re in th e p e rio d o f m o u n - m o u n ta in b u ild in g , (i) ‘T h e g r e a te st m o u n ta in s m ust
m o u n t a in b u i l d i n g
241
face the greatest ocean ic beds. ’ (ii) B oth the m argins Base of the Theory
0f the continent m u st hav e m o u n tain s o f the sam e T he rigid lithospheric slabs or rigid and solid
period and both th e m arg in s should be regular. The land m asses having a thickness o f about 100 km
first fact is v alid ated to som e ex ten t but the second com posed o f earth ’s cru st and som e portion o f upper
fact is not validated . m antle are technically called ‘p la tes’ . T he term
‘p la te ’ was first used by C anadian g eologist J.T .
(5) This th e o ry p resen ts erro n eo u s concept
W ilson in 1965. T he w hole m ech an ism o f the ev o
about g eosynclines. A s p er this theory g eosynclines
lution, nature and m otion and resu ltan t reactions o f
are alw ays fo rm ed d u e to su b m erg en ce o f co n tin en
plates is called ‘plate tecton ics’. Plate tectonic theory,
tal m argins due to tra n sg re ssio n o f seas. It m eans that
a great scientific ach iev em en t o f the d ecad e o f
geosynclines sh o u ld alw ay s be lo cated around the 1960s, is based on tw o m ajo r scien tific ev id en ces
continents. O n th e o th e r h an d , it has been generally e.g. (i) ev idences o f p alaeo m ag n etism an d (ii) e v i
accepted that g e o sy n c lin e s are long, narrow and dences o f sea-floor spreading. S ix m a jo r and 20
shallow w ater b o d ie s w h ich are ch aracterized by m inor plates have been id en tified so far (e.g. E u ra
continuous se d im e n ta tio n and su b sid en ce but Joly's sian plate, In d ian -A u stralian p late, A m eric an p late,
geosynclines re c e iv e sed im en ts but do not undergo Pacific plate, A frican plate an d A n ta rc tic p late).
the process o f su b sid en ce. W ith o u t subsidence the M cK enzie and P ark er d isc u sse d in d etail the
enorm ous th ic k n e ss o f sed im en ts o f the present m echanism o f plate m o tio n s on the b asis o f E u le r s
A lpine m o u n ta in s c a n n o t be exp lain ed . geom etrical theorem in 1967. H ary H ess (1 9 6 0 )
elaborated the m ech an ism o f p la te m o v e m e n t on th e
(6) PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
basis o f the ev id en ces o f sea -flo o r sp re a d in g . W .J.
Objectives M organ and Le P ichon e la b o ra te d th e v a rio u s a s
P late te cto n ic th eo ry is a com prehensive theory pects o f p late tecto n ics in 1968.
w hich o ffers e x p la n a tio n s fo r v arious re lie f features
T hree types o f p la te b o u n d a rie s (see fig . 6.7 in
and te cto n ic e v e n ts viz. m o u n tain building, folding
chapter 6 on the o rig in o f c o n tin e n ts a n d o c e a n
and fau ltin g , c o n tin e n ta l drift, vu lcan icity , seism ic
b a sin s) have been id e n tified e.g. (i) d e s tru c tiv e p la te
events (e a rth q u a k e s ) etc. T h e theory belongs to a boundaries, (ii) c o n stru ctiv e p la te b o u n d a rie s a n d
host o f s c ie n tists o f d iffe re n t d iscip lin es. Plate tec (iii) co n serv ativ e plate b o u n d a rie s.
tonic th e o ry is, in fact, the o u tco m e o f com bined
(1) C on stru ctive p la te b o u n d a r ie s also c a lle d
efforts o f m a n y sc ie n tists o f d iffere n t co untries w ork
as ‘d iv er g en t p la te b o u n d a r y ’ o r ‘a c c r e tin g p la te
ing to g e th e r and se p a ra te ly . T h e th eo ry cam e into
b o u n d a ry ’ rep resen t zo n es o f d iv e rg e n c e a lo n g the
light in th e 1960s. It e n v isa g e s the fo rm atio n o f
m id -o cean ic rid g es and are c h a ra c te riz e d b y c o n
m o u n tain s d u e to c o llisio n o f plate bo u n d aries.
tin u o u s ad d itio n (a c c re tio n ) o f m a te ria ls as there is
Orogenetic force co n stan t u p w ellin g o f m o lte n m a te ria ls (b a s a ltic
T h e o ro g e n e tic fo rce to form m o u n tain s is lavas) from b elo w the m id -o c e a n ic rid g e s . T h ese
p ro v id ed by th e c o m p re s s iv e fo rces cau sed by the b asaltic lav as are c o o le d an d s o lid ifie d a n d a re a d d e d
collision o f tw o c o n v e rg e n t p la tes alo n g the d e stru c to the trailin g m a rg in s o t th e d iv e rg e n t p la te s an d
tive p la te b o u n d a rie s. T h e rm a l co n v e c tiv e cu rren ts thus new o ce a n ic c ru s t is c o n tin u o u s ly fo rm e d . In
o rig in atin g in th e m a n tle h av e been acc ep ted as the fact, o cean ic p la te s sp lit a p p a rt a lo n g the m id -o c e
co m p eten t fo rce fo r th e m o v e m e n t o f p lates. The anic rid g es an d m o v e in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s (se e fig .
plates m o v e in d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s rela tiv e to each 6 .7 ) and th u s tra n s fo rm fa u lts are fo rm e d .
o th er u n d er th e im p a c t o f th e rm al c o n v e c tiv e c u r
(2) Destructive plate boundaries a lso know n
rents. P late m o v e m e n ts tak e p la ce in acc o rd an ce
as ‘consum ing plate b ou nd aries’ or ‘con vergent
w ith th e E u le r 's g e o m e tr ic a l th eo rem w h ich e n v is
plate boundaries’ are th ose w here tw o p lates c o l
ages th e m o v e m e n t o f p la tes in the lorrn of sim p le
lide against each other and the lead in g e d g e o f o n e
ro tatio n alo n g a p o le o f ro tatio n (see fig. 6 .1 0 in plate having relatively lighter m aterial o verrid es th e
ch ap ter 6). other plate and the overridden plate boundary o f
242 GEOMORPHOLCXr
cJgl
re la tiv e ly d e n s e r m a te ria l is su b d u cted o r th ru st into A sia. T h e fo ld m o u n ta in ra n g e s o f isla n d arcs and
th e u p p e r m a n tle an d th u s a p a rt o f th e c ru st is lo st in festo o n s ‘form w h ere a sectio n o f th e o cean f lo o r# ®
th e m a n tle (see fig. 6.8 in c h a p te r 6). T h is m e c h a su b d u cted in th e o cea n b a sin aw ay fro m a continent
n ism re su lts in c o n s ta n t lo ss o f cru stal m aterials. i.e. w h ere o cean flo o r c ru s t is o n e ith e r side o f the
c o n v e rg e n t p la te b o u n d a ry ’ ( M J . B rad sh aw et a l - f t .
(3 ) C o n s e r v a tiv e p la te b o u n d a r ie s a lso
k n o w n as ‘sh e a r p la te b o u n d a r ie s ’ are th o se w here 1978).
tw o p la te s slip p a st eac h o th e r w ith o u t any co llisio n T h e b e st e x a m p le o f th e fo rm a tio n o f m oun
a lo n g th e tra n sfo rm fa u lt an d thus cru st is n eith er tain s d u e to c o llisio n o f tw o o c e a n ic p la tes is the
c re a te d n o r d e stro y e d . situ atio n o f Ja p a n e se isla n d arc. M o u n ta in s o f Japan
ran g e in h e ig h t fro m 3 0 0 0 m to 4 0 0 0 m A M S L . It
Mechanism of the Theory m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t all th e m o u n ta in s o f Japan
A c c o rd in g to p late te cto n ic th eo ry m o u n tain s are o f v o lc an ic o rig in . T h o u g h J a p a n e s e m ountains
a re fo rm e d d u e to co llisio n o f tw o co n v erg e n t plates. ex h ib it a n u m b e r o f c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re s o f folded
M o u n ta in s are alw ay s fo rm ed alo n g the d estru ctiv e m o u n tain s b u t th ey can n o lo n g e r by re g a rd e d as fold
p la te b o u n d arie s. It is o b v io u s th a t the p ro cess o f m o u n tain s lik e th e A lp s an d th e H im a la y a s . H onshu
m o u n ta in b u ild in g is asso ciated w ith d estru ctiv e Islan d rep resen ts th e m o st c h a ra c te ris tic e x am p le of
p la te b o u n d arie s o f tw o co n v erg e n t plates. T h e plate the situ a tio n o f th e c o n v e rg e n c e o f tw o oceanic
te c to n ic theory envisag es the fo rm atio n o f m o u n p lates.
ta in s d u e to co m p ressio n o f sed im en ts cau sed by the
H o n sh u is b o rd e re d b y J a p a n T re n c h in the
co llisio n o f tw o co n v erg e n t p late bo u n d aries. T w o
east and Jap an S ea in th e w est. T h e w e s te rn p art o f
p lates m oving to g eth er u n d er the im p act o f therm al
the islan d is m o re fre q u e n te d b y v o lc a n ic activ ities
co n v ec tiv e currents co llid e ag ain st each o th er and
than the eastern p art. T h e is la n d is c h a ra c te riz e d by
the p late boundary h av in g relativ ely d en ser m a teri
tw o belts o f m e ta m o rp h ic ro c k s on e ith e r sid e. It is
als is su b d u cted u n d er the o th er p late boun d ary o f
believ ed th at th e Jap an T re n c h w as fo rm e d d u e to
relativ ely lig h ter m aterials. T his su b d u ctio n zone is
su b d u ctio n o f P acific O ce a n ic p la te u n d e r th e o c e
also called B e n io ff zo n e . T he su b d u ctio n o f plate
b oundary cau ses lateral co m p re ssiv e force w hich anic cru st to th e e a st o f Jap an . A c c o rd in g to p la te
ultim ately sq u eezes and folds the sed im en ts and tecto n ic th eo ry th e s u b d u c te d p o rtio n o f p la te a fte r
m aterials o f the m a rg in s o f the p lates and thus reach in g a d ep th o f 100 km o r m o re s ta rts m e ltin g
m ountains are form ed. T h e su b d u cted p art o f the due to h ig h te m p e ra tu re p re v a ilin g in th e u p p e r
plate after reac h in g a d ep th o f 100 km o r m o re in the m an tle. T h e m a g m a, th u s fo rm e d , a s c e n d s an d ap
m antle is liq u efied and thus ex p an d s in vo lu m e p ears as v o lc an ic e ru p tio n a b o u t 2 0 0 k m aw ay from
because o f co n v ersio n o f th e p o rtio n o f p la te into th e o cea n ic tren c h . S in c e J a p a n is v e ry c lo s e to the
m agm a. T his ex p an sio n o f m o lten m a te ria ls cau ses Jap an T re n c h an d h e n c e w e s te rn p a r t o f Ja p a n is
further rise in the m o u n tain s. m o re fre q u e n te d by v o lc a n ic a c tiv itie s . T h is p rocess
T he co n v erg e n ce an d c o n se q u e n t c o llisio n o f is still c o n tin u in g as th e P a c ific p la te is b e in g con
plate b o undaries o ccu rs in th ree situ a tio n s viz. (i) tin u o u sly s u b d u c te d u n d e r th e o c e a n ic c ru s t along
collision o f tw o o cea n ic p lates, (ii) c o llisio n o f tw o th e Ja p a n T re n c h (fig . 1 3 .1 3 ). T h e eru p tio n s o f
continental p lates an d (iii) co llisio n o f o c e a n ic - v o lc a n o in th e m o n th o f J u n e , 1991 in Ja p a n after a
continental plates. d o rm a n t p e rio d o f a b o u t 2 0 0 y e a rs a n d the eruption
(1) C o n v e rg en ce (C o llisio n ) o f T w o O coefM
t.P in a tu b o o n J u n e 9 , 1991 in M a n ila , Phillippines,
an ic P lates- The co llisio n o f tw o ocean ic plates and v a lid a te th e a u th e n tic ity o f th is th e o ry o f p la te tec
subduction o f the boundary o f the plate o f relatively to n ic s. T h e v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s ca u sed b y su bduction
denser materials results in the form ation o f the fold o f o c e a n ic p la te s u n d e r the o cea n ic crust o ff the
mountain ranges o f island arcs and festo o n s, for J a p a n e s e c o a s t r e s u lte d in to c o n tin u o u s acc u m u la
exam ple, island arcs and festo o n s form ed by Japa tio n o f v o lc a n ic ro c k s and co n seq u en t in crease in the
nese islands, Phillippines etc. around the w estern
h eigh t o f islan d arc and thus the form ation o f vol
margin o f the P acific O cean o f f the east co a st o f
ca n ic m o u n ta in s co u ld b e p o ssib le .
MOUNTAIN b u i l d i n g
243
U
Cretaceous
belt
Metamorphic
belt
nf Flysch jopan
wedge fr e nc h
Rapid
sedimentation
Greatest volunta
of q u a t e r n a r y
volcanoes
High t e m p e r a t u r e ,
h i g h pressure
k Me t a mor ph i c
/ik . fclueschist- be 11
hi gh p re ssure,
low temperature
Magma g e ne r at e d from
.— ••Surface er os io n, pl ate b e l o w 100 Km
tr ansport
1 R ising magma
Fig. 13.13 : Formation o f island arcs and mountain building on the basis o f plate tectonics (Reproduced from M.J.
Bradshaw et. al, 1978, this diagram o f Dewey and Bird was reproduced in Cox, 1973).
(2 ) C o n v e r g e n c e (C o llisio n ) o f C ontin en tal posed o f continental crusts co llid e ag ain st each other,
and O c e a n ic P la te s- T h e co llisio n o f continental the continental plate having relativ ely d e n se r m a te
and o c e a n ic c o n v e rg e n t p la te s resu lts in the fo rm a rials is subducted under the o th er co n tin e n ta l p late
tion o f c o rd ille ra ty p e o f fo ld ed m o u n tain s e.g. the having com paratively lighter m aterials than the form er.
w estern c o rd ille ra o f N o rth A m e ric a (in clu d in g the T he resultant lateral co m p ressio n sq u eezes and fo ld s
R o ck ies). W h e n o n e c o n tin e n ta l and the o th er o ce the sedim ents deposited on eith er side o f the c o n ti
anic p la te s c o llid e d u e to th e ir co n v erg e n ce along nental plate m argins and the sed im en ts o f the
subduction o r B e n io ff zone, the oceanic plate boundary geosynclines lying betw een tw o c o n v e rg e n t c o n ti
b eing h e a v ie r d u e to c o m p a ra tiv e ly d e n se r m aterials nental plates and thus form s g ig a n tic fo ld ed m o u n
is su b d u c te d b e lo w th e c o n tin e n ta l p late boundary. tains e.g. the A lps and the H im alay as.
T he se d im en ts d e p o s ite d on the co n tin en tal m argins T he origin o f the A lp in e m o u n ta in s o f E u ro p e
are sq u e e z e d a n d fo ld ed d u e to co m p re ssiv e forces and A sia are w ell ex p lain ed on the b asis o f this
cau sed by th e su b d u c tio n o f o c e a n ic p late (see fig. m echanism (collision o f tw o c o n v e rg e n t co n tin en tal
6.8 in c h a p te r 6). T h e R o c k ie s an d th e A n d es m o u n plate b o undaries) o f plate tecto n ics. T h ere e x isted a
tains w ere fo rm ed d u e to su b d u ctio n o f the P acific long T ethys g eo sy n clin e b etw een E u rasia n p late in
o cean p la te u n d e r th e A m eric an co n tin en ta l plate the north and A frica-In d ian p late in the south d u rin g
(fig. 13.14). M esozoic era. T he g eo sy n clin al sed im en ts o f T eth y s
sea were squeezed and folded into A lp in e-H im alay an
(3 ) C o n v e r g e n c e (C o llisio n ) o f tw o C o n ti
n en ta l P la te s- W h en tw o co n v e rg e n t plates c o m m ountain ch ain s due to lateral c o m p re ssiv e forces
geomorphology
244
Continental Shelf Continental rise V olcan ics Seo level
o w lavas Blueschisf
metamorphism
Continental
crust
Pl a t e s u b d u c t e d
Beginning
of uplift
TT T T T T TTTT f ronj
G r a v i t y slide
Granites
>
M o l a sse ife V o l c o n o e s
Fig. 13.14 : Origin o f Cordillera type o f folded mountains on the basis o f plate tectonic theory 1. Subduction o f oceanic plate
below continental plate upto 100 km depth leads to eruption o f submarine volcanic ocks (magma) and
deformation o f plate margins; 2. Rising magma generates heat, sediments o f plate margins are folded and
uplifted due to expansion o f dome and intrusion o f gabbro/diorites; 3. With the growth o f mobile orogenetic
core plate deformation increases induced by high temperature/high pressure conditions which leads to
subsidence o f continental shelf gravity slides occur due to continuance o f uplift; 4. Metamorphosed sheets are
thrust towards continental parts due to mobile core. Granites come upward and are emplaced in the mobile
core. Continental margins are compressed and folded due to tangential force generated by exfxmding mobile
core (After M.J Bradshaw et. al, 1978).
caused by the convergence and collision o f Eurasia and mountain chains could be possible due to continued
African- Indian continental plates during Cenozoic era. It collision ol continental plates and consequent orogenesis
m a y be pointed out that the formation o f Alpine-Himalayan along several subduction zones for long period o f time.
MOUNTAIN b u i l d i n g
245
A b o u t 7 0 -6 5 m illio n y e a rs ag o th e re w a s an
A siatic and Indian p lates an d c o n seq u en t subduction
extensive g e o sy n c lin e , k n o w n as T e th y s g eo sy n clin e,
o f In d ian p late u n d er th e fo rm er cau sed lateral co m
in the place o f th e H im a la y a s . T e th y s g e o sy n c lin e
p ressio n d u e to w h ich the sed im en ts o f T ethys
was b o rd ered b y A s ia tic p la te in th e n o rth an d In d ian
g eo sy n clin e w ere sq u eezed an d fo ld ed into three
plate in th e so u th . T e th y s g e o s y n c lin e b eg a n to
p a ra lle l c h a in s o f th e H im a la y a s a b o u t 3 0 -2 0
contract in s iz e d u e to m o v e m e n t o f In d ia n and
m illio n y ears ago. It h as b een e stim ated th a t the
A siatic p la te s to g e th e r. A b o u t 6 0 -3 0 m illio n y ears
c ru s t h as b een s h o rte n e d by 5 0 0 km b e tw e e n
ago the In d ia n p la te c a m e v ery c lo se to A siatic p late.
A siatic and Indian p lates d u e to co n v erg e n ce o f
The In d ian p la te b e g a n to a c tiv e ly su b d u c t u n d e r the tw o p lates an d su b d u ctio n o f In d ian p la te (fig.
A siatic p la te . T h e c o n v e rg e n c e an d co llisio n o f 13.15).
Fig. 13.15 : Origin o f the Him alayas on the basis o f plate tectonic theory. 1. Movement o f Asiatic and Indian plates towards
each other about 70-65 million years B. P .; 2. Collission o f Indian and Asiatic plate and subduction o f Indian
plate under Asiatic plate about 60-30 million years B.P. ; 3. Beginning o f orogenesis o f the Himalayas due
to thrusting resulting fro m subduction o f Indian plate under Asiatic plate; 4. Present position.
A lp in e m o u n ta in s o f E u ro p e w ere fo rm ed due and sea-flo o r sp read in g . P late te c to n ic th e o ry a lso

to c o n v e rg e n c e a n d c o llis io n o f E u ro p e a n an d A fri satisfacto rily ex p lain s th e cy c lic p a tte rn o f m o u n ta in
can p la te s. S in c e th e c o llis io n o f th e se tw o c o n tin e n building.
tal p la te s w a s v e ry c o m p le x a n d h e n c e th e stru ctu re It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t 4 m a jo r p e rio d s o f
o f the E u ro p e a n A lp in e m o u n ta in s is also very c o m m o u n tain b u ild in g h av e b een id e n tifie d e.g. (i) p re -
plex. T h e A fric a n p la te is still m o v in g n o rth w a rd and C am b rian o ro g en y , (ii) C a le d o n ia n o ro g e n y , (iii)
is b e in g su b d u c te d u n d e r E u ro p e a n p la te to th e so u th H ercy n ian o ro g en y an d (iv ) T e rtia ry o ro g e n y . A ll
o f A eg e a n arc. S im ila rly , In d ia n p la te is also bein g the earlier th eo ries o f m o u n tain b u ild in g , as d is
c o n tin u o u sly s u b d u c te d u n d e r A sia tic p late. cu ssed in the p rece d in g p ag es, s u ffe r fro m a c o m
m on d efec t th at th ey , so m e h o w , d o a tte m p t to
Evaluation of the Theory
T h e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f the sc ie n tists ex p lain the o rig in o f the fo ld ed m o u n ta in s o f T e rti
all o v e r th e w o rld is o f th e v iew th at p la te te cto n ic ary p erio d but they d o -n o t th ro w an y lig h t o n th e
th e o ry h a s a lm o s t so lv e d th e p ro b le m o f the o rig in o f m o u n tain s o ld er than T ertiary p erio d . It m a y b e
c o n tin e n ts a n d o c e a n b a sin s an d o f m o u n tain b u ild m en tio n ed that p lates are a lw ay s in m o tio n d u e to
ing. In fa c t, th e c o n tin e n ta l d rift h as now b eco m e a w hich so m e tim es all th e lan d m a sse s u n ite to g e th e r
reality on th e b a s is o f e v id e n c e s o f p a la e o m a g n e tism to form Pangaea an d ag ain b reak up a n d m o v e a w a v
iv.> y
246 GEOMORPHOLOGY
relative to each o th er and new distrib u tio n al pattern tains w ere fo rm ed . A b o u t 3 0 0 m illio n y ears ago the
o f continents and ocean b asin s is evolved. T he p ast A tla n tic O cean w as c o m p le te ly c lo se d an d the
history o f the earth up to 200 m illion years has been o ro g en esis o f th e A p p lach ian m o u n ta in s w as co m
r e c o n s tr u c te d on th e b a s is o f e v id e n c e s o f p leted d u rin g P erm ian p erio d . A t th e sam e tim e
palaeom agnetism . A b o u t 20 0 m illion years before H ercy n ian m o u n tain s o f E u ro p e w ere fo rm e d (see
present all the co n tin en ts w ere united to g eth er in the fig u re 6.12 in c h a p te r 6). A b o u t 2 0 0 m illio n years
form o f P an gaea II (a su p er co ntinent). It is b elieved ago all the c o n tin e n ts w ere ag ain u n ite d to form
that before the situation o f P an g aea II, the co n tin en ts P an g aea II. A b o u t 150 m illio n y e a rs ag o P an g aea
w ere separated from each other. T h ese co n tin en ts w as again d isru p te d an d th e A tla n tic o cea n w as
m ig h t have m oved relativ e to each other in such a reo p en ed . T he A lp in e m o u n ta in s w ere fo rm e d due
w ay th at they m igh t have been united to g eth er to to plate m o v e m en ts d u rin g T e rtia ry p e rio d .
form a super continent. It is b eliev ed that the c o n ti
T he only p o in t o f a rg u m e n t a n d q u e s tio n is
nents m oved together due to plate m otions and w ere
united together in the form o f P a n g a ea I durin g Pre related to the c o m p e te n t fo rce re s p o n s ib le fo r the
C am brian period, ab o u t 700 m illion years ago. A bout m o v em en t o f p lates and d riftin g o f c o n tin e n ts . M o st
600-500 m illion years ago P an g aea I w as disrupted. o f the scien tists still rely on th e th e rm a l c o n v e c tiv e
A bout 460 m illion y ears ago the A tlantic O cean currents o rig in atin g fro m th e m a n tle as th e p ro b a b le
began to close dow n d u e to co n v erg en ce o f A m eri ad eq u ate fo rce to m o v e th e p la te s (c o n tin e n ts ) in
can and E urasian plates and the C aledonian m o u n d ifferen t d irec tio n s re la tiv e to e a c h o th e r.
C H A PT E 14 WEATHERING AND MASSMOVEMENT
M e a n i n g a n d c o n c e p t ; c o n tr o llin g f a c to r s o f w e a th e r in g ; ty p e s o f
w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s e s ; p h y s ic a l w e a th e r in g ; c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g ;
b i o t i c w e a t h e r i n g ; b io c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g ; g e o m o r p h i c im p o r ta n c e o f
w e a t h e r i n g ; m a s s m o v e m e n t a n d m a s s w a s tin g - m e a n in g a n d c o n c e p t ;
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f m a s s m o v e m e n ts ; f a c to r s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t s ; s lid e s ;
f a l l s ; f lo w s ; c r e e p .
14
WEATHERING AND MASS MOVEMENT
14.1 MEANING AND CONCEPT It appears from th e ab o v e d e fin itio n s th a t

The p ro cess o f d isin teg ratio n and d eco m p o si w eathering is essen tially th e b reak d o w n o f ro c k s
tion o f rocks in situ is g e n e ra lly called w eathering. It due to chem ical and m ech an ical p ro c e sse s a t th e ir
m eans w eath erin g is a static pro cess. A cco rd in g to places. T he defin itio n o f w eath e rin g by B .W . S p a rk s
C.D. O ilier (1 9 6 9 ) “ w e a th e rin g is the breakdow n highlights the above facts. A cco rd in g to h im , “ w e a th
and alteratio n o f m in e ra ls n e a r th e earth 's surface to ering m ay be d efin ed as the m e c h a n ic a l fra c tu rin g o r
pro d u cts th a t are m o re in eq u ilib riu m w ith new ly chem ical d eco m p o sitio n o f ro ck s by n atu ra l a g e n ts
im posed p h y sic o -c h e m ic a l c o n d itio n s.” A ccord in g at the surface o f th e e a rth .”
to P. R eich e (1 9 5 0 ) “ w e a th e rin g is the resp o n se o f It is ob v io u s th at w e a th e rin g in v o lv e s tw o
m in erals w h ic h w e re in e q u ilib riu m w ith in the types o f changes in the ro ck s e.g. (i) p h y sic a l o r
lith o sp h ere to c o n d itio n s a t o r n ear its co n tact w ith m ech a n ica l ch an g es, w h e re in ro ck s are d is in te
the a tm o sp h e re , th e h y d ro sp h e re , and p erh ap s still gra ted th ro u g h te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e s (h e a t fa c to r),
m ore im p o rta n tly , th e b is o p h e re .” It m ay be p o in ted fro st-actio n (fro st facto r), b io lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s (b i
out th a t ro c k s are n e v e r in p e rm a n e n t eq u ilib riu m otic facto r), and w in d a c tio n s; (ii) c h e m ic a l c h a n g e s
ra th e r th e y a re in e q u ilib riu m o n ly m o m en tarily and w h erein ro ck s are d e c o m p o se d th ro u g h sta tic w a te r,
th u s W .D . K e lle r (1 9 5 7 ) h as p le a d e d fo r th e d eletio n ox y g en , carb o n d io x id e a n d b io lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s .
o f ‘w h ic h w e re in e q u ilib riu m ’ fro m R eich e's ab o v e S eco n d ly , th e b re a k d o w n o f ro c k s o c c u rs a t th e p la c e
d e fin itio n o f w e a th e rin g . B .B . P o ly n o v (1 9 3 7 ) has o f ro ck s (in situ ). T h ird ly , th e re is n o la rg e -sc a le
very p re c ise ly d e fin e d w e a th e rin g as “th e c h a n g e o f tra n sp o rt o f w e a th e re d m a te ria ls e x c e p t m a s s m o v e
ro ck s fro m th e m a ss iv e to th e c la stic s ta te .” m e n t or m a ss tra n s lo c a tio n o f w e a th e re d m a te ria ls
A rth u r H o lm e s h a s p re s e n te d m o re e la b o ra te (ro c k -w a ste s) d o w n th e slo p e u n d e r th e fo rc e o f
d efin itio n o f w e a th e rin g w h ic h a lso in c lu d e s the g rav ity . W e a th e rin g , th u s, m a y b e d e fin e d so a s to
in c lu d e all a s p e c ts o f th e m e c h a n is m o f b re a k d o w n
p ro cesses o f w e a th e rin g . A c c o rd in g to h im “ w e a th
o f ro c k s as fo llo w s.
ering is th e to tal e ffe c t o f all th e v a rio u s su b a e ria l
p ro cesses th a t c o o p e ra te in b rin g in g a b o u t th e d eca y “W e a th e rin g re fe rs to th e b re a k d o w n o r d is in
and d isin teg ratio n o f ro c k s, p ro v id e d th a t no la rg e - te g ra tio n a n d d e c o m p o s itio n o f r o c k s in s itu th ro u g h
scale tran sp o rt o f th e lo o s e n e d p ro d u c ts is in v o lv e d . m e c h a n ic a l an d c h e m ic a l c h a n g e s in th e ro c k s a n d
T he w ork o f ra in w a sh a n d w in d , w h ic h is,e sse n tia lly th e ir m in e ra ls e ffe c te d b y w a te r, te m p e ra tu re , w in d ,
e ro sio n al, is th u s e x c lu d e d ” (A . H o lm e s, 1952). d iffe re n t a tm o s p h e ric g a s e s a n d o rg a n is m s p ro v id e d
248 GEOM ORPHOLOGY '*?
th a t there is no larg e-scale tran sp o rt o f w eath e red g en tle and m o d e ra te g ro u n d slo p e are le ss affected
products by d en u d atio n al p ro cesses e x ce p t m ass by m e ch an ic al d isin te g ra tio n .
m ovem ent o f ro ck w astes (w eath ered p ro d u cts) dow n
3. Climatic Variations
the slope u n d er the im p act o f g rav ity S a v in d r a
C lim ate is c o n sid e re d to b e very im portant
S ingh.
facto r o f all ty p e s o f w eath e rin g . C lim a tic geom or
14.2 CONTROLLING FACTORS OF WEATHER p h o lo g ists are o f the v iew th at eac h clim atic type
ING p ro d u ces d e fin ite c o n d itio n s fo r a p a rtic u la r type o f
T h e n atu re and m a g n itu d e o f w eath erin g d if w eath erin g . F o r ex am p le, c h em ica l w eath erin g is
fers fro m p la ce to p la ce an d reg io n to reg io n . W eath m o re d o m in an t in h u m id tro p ical areas becau se o f
ering o f ro ck s is a ffected and co n tro lled by the m o re av ailab le w a te r and h ig h te m p eratu re. B ecause
agents o f w eath e rin g , lith o lo g ical and stru ctu ral o f ab u n d an ce o f m o istu re an d h ig h tem p eratu re
ch a ra c te ristic s o f ro ck s, h eig h t and slope factors. le a c h in g p ro c e s s and so lu tio n o f ro ck s are m ore
B esides, clim a tic co n d itio n s, to p o g rap h y and re effectiv e in the h u m id tro p ics. M e c h a n ic a l w eath e r
liefs, flo ra and m ic ro fa u n a also affect d iffere n t p ro c ing is less effectiv e. O n the o th e r h an d , m e ch an ic al
esses o f w eath e rin g to g reater extent. F o r exam ple, d isin teg ratio n o f rick s is m o re d o m in a n t in the tro p i
d isin te g ra tio n o f ro ck s is m o re effectiv e in h o t and cal and sem i-arid reg io n s. R o ck s are w eak en ed due
dry reg io n and in th e reg io n s w h ere fro st action is to altern ate ex p an sio n on h eatin g d u rin g d ay tim e
m o re d o m in a n t w h ile ch em ical d eco m p o sitio n is and co n tractio n on relativ e co o lin g d u rin g n ig h ts
m o re p re v a le n t in h o t and h u m id and tem perate because o f diu rn al ch an g e o f te m p eratu re. It m ay be
h u m id reg io n s. pointed out th at lim esto n es are v ery w e a k ro c k s in
hum id clim atic reg io n s b u t they are re la tiv e ly m ore
1. Composition and Structure of Rocks resistan t to w eath erin g and e ro sio n in h o t d esert
S in ce w eath e rin g in v o lv es d isin teg ratio n and clim ate. T he ro ck s in dry te m p e ra te c lim ates are
d e c o m p o sitio n o f ro ck s and h en ce m ineral co m p o si m ore su scep tib le to m e ch an ic al w 'eathering than
tion, jo in t p attern s, lay erin g system , faulting, fo ld chem ical w eath e rin g b eca u se alte rn a te ex p an sio n
ing etc. larg ely affe c t the n atu re and in ten sity o f and co n tractio n o f crack s, fra c tu re s an d jo in ts of
w eath erin g . F o r ex am p le, carb o n a te ro ck s (e.g. c a l ro ck s d ue to altern ate freeze and th aw o f w ater
cium c arb o n a te, m a g n esiu m carb o n a te etc.) h aving accu m u lated in th ese crac k s an d fra c tu re s w eaken
m o re so lu b le m in erals are easily affected by c h e m i the rocks. R o ck s are le ast a ffe c te d by m echanical
cal w eath erin g . W ell jo in te d ro ck s are m ore su b
d isin teg ratio n in co ld clim a te b u t c h e m ic a l d ecom
je c te d to m e ch an ic al d isin teg ratio n . R o ck s h av in g
p o sitio n o f ro ck s m ay b e e ffe c tiv e p ro v id e d that the
vertical strata are easily lo o sen ed and bro k en dow n
g ro u n d su rface is n o t c o v e re d by ice c o v e r for longer
d u e to te m p e ra tu re ch an g es, fro st actio n , w ater and
d u ratio n in a y ear. B o th , m e c h a n ic a l an d chem ical
w in d actio n s. O n th e o th e r han d , the ro ck s h av in g
h o riz o n ta l bed s are m o re co m p a c t and are less a f w eath erin g ce a se w h en th e g ro u n d su rface is cov
fe c te d by th e m e c h a n ism s o f d isin teg ratio n and ered by p e rm a n e n t ice sh eets. N o t o n ly th is, seasonal
d e c o m p o sitio n . v aria tio n s in c lim a te o f a re g io n g en e ra te different
co n d itio n s fo r w eath e rin g . F o r e x a m p le , in m onsoon
2. Nature of Ground Slope clim ate ro ck s are su b je c te d to m e ch an ic al disinte
G ro u n d slo p e c o n tro ls m e ch an ic al d isin te g ra g ratio n ^during h o t an d dry su m m e r m o n th s whereas
tio n o f ro c k s an d m a ss m o v e m e n t o f w eath ered ch em ical an d b io c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g is m ore dom i
p ro d u c ts d o w n th e slo p e. T h e ro ck s in the reg io n s o f
n an t d u rin g w et m o n so o n m o n th s.
s te e p h ills lo p e are ea sily d isin te g ra te d d u e to m e
c h a n ic a l w e a th e rin g an d th e w e a th e rin g m aterials 4. Floral Effects
a re in sta n ta n e o u s ly m o v e d d o w n the h illslo p e in the T h e n atu re o f w e a th e rin g is largely deter
fo rm o f ro c k fa ll, d e b ris fall an d slid e, ta lu s c ree p etc. m in ed by the p re se n c e o r ab se n c e o f vegetations in
In s ta n ta n e o u s re m o v a l o f w eath e rin g p ro d u cts a l a p a rtic u la r reg io n . It m ay be p o in te d o u t that vege
lo w s c o n tin u o u s e x p o s u re o f ro ck s to atm o sp h eric tatio n is p a rtly a fa c to r o f w e a th e rin g and partly a
c o n d itio n s fo r fu rth e r w e a th e rin g . T h e reg io n s o f p ro te c to r o f ro ck s. In fact, v eg e ta tio n s b ind the rocks
WEATHERING AND M ASS M OVEM ENT
through their network o f roots and thus protect them (iii) B lock disintegration due to frost
from weathering and erosion but the sam e tim e the (iv) Exfoliation or onion weathering due to
penetration o f roots w eakens the rocks by breaking temperature and wind
them into several blocks. D en se vegetations protect
2. C h em ical w ea th erin g
the ground surface from the direct im pact o f sun
rays. The m icro-organism s associated with the roots (i) O xidation
o f plants and trees encourage decom position and (ii) C arb o n atio n
disintegration o f rocks through p h ysico-biochem i-
(iii) Solution
cal weathering.
(iv) H ydration
14.3 Types of Weathering Processes
(v) C helation
G e n e ra lly , w eath e rin g p ro cesses are co n v en
iently divided in to p h y sical, ch em ical and b io c h em i (vi) H ydrolysis
cal p ro cesses b u t th e se are so in tim ately interrelated 3. B iotic w ea th erin g a n d b io ch em ica l w e a th
that it is p ra c tic a lly d iffic u lt to isolate o ne process ering
from th e o th er. In fact, “no ch em ical w eath erin g (i) Plant w eathering
takes place w ithout the production o f physical stresses;
(ii) A nim al w eathering
d isin te g ra tio n o f rock by th erm al ex p an sio n p ro b
ably d o es n o t o ccu r in the ab sen ce o f the chem ical (iii) B iochem ical w eath erin g
p ro cess a sso c ia te d w ith the p resen ce o f w ater; in the (iv) A nthropogenic w eath erin g
co u n try o f ev en sp arsest v eg etatio n chem ical w eath
erin g is re p la c e d in part by bio ch em ical (process)" Physical W eathering
(R .J. C h o rle y , et al. 1985). Inspite o f this lim itation The physical or m ech an ical w e a th e rin g leads
one has to d iv id e w eath e rin g into physical w eath er to fragm entation and b reak d o w n o f ro ck m a sse s in to
ing, c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g and b io ch em ical w eath er big blocks and b o ulders, c o b b les and p eb b les, san d s
ing on the b a sis o f d o m in a n t agent o f w eathering and and silts and feld sp ar and m ica m in erals are c h e m i
w eath e rin g p ro c e ss. T h e w ea th erin g agen ts are cally decom posed and clay is form ed. P hysical w eath
divided in to 3 ty p e s as follow s. ering m ay be d efin ed as the d isin te g ra tio n o f ro ck s
1. P h y sic a l o r m ech a n ica l w ea th erin g agents due to tem p eratu re v ariatio n s, fro st a c tio n , w in d
action and u n lo ad in g o f co n fin in g s u p e rin c u m b e n t
(i) M o istu re and w ater pressure. T h o u g h te m p eratu re v aria tio n is a key
(ii) F ro st factor in physical w eath erin g b u t p re ssu re release,
(iii) In so la tio n (tem p eratu re ) freeze and thaw o f w ater and g rav ity a lso play major
(iv) W in d roles.
2. C h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g agen ts 1. B lo ck d isin te g r a tio n due to tem peratu
(i) O x y g en ch a n g e- Temperature changes have been reported to
(ii) C a rb o n d io x id e have great im pact upon m any rocks but there are also
som e rocks w hich are least affected by temperature
(iii) H y d ro g en
changes such as clastic sedim entary rocks (e.g. shales
3. B io lo g ica l w e a th e r in g a g en ts
and sandstones) b ecau se the particles are separated
(i) V egetation by thin cem enting lam inae o f silica . On the other
(ii) A n im a ls, m a in ly m icro -o rg an ism s hand, crystalline rocks, like granites, are m ore af
T h u s, w e a th e r in g p r o c e s s e s or sim p ly fected by temperature changes as particles are c lo sely
weatherings are d ivid ed , on the basis o f w eathering associated w ith each other and th ese particles e x
agents, into 3 m ajor types. pand and contract w ith increase and d ecrease o f
1. P h y sica l o r m ech a n ica l w ea th e r in g temperature resp ectively. It has been exp erim en tally
(i) B lock disintegration due to temperature dem onstrated that if the tem perature o f granite rocks
(ii) Granular disintegration due to tempera is increased by 6 5 .5°C, the rock contracts by 2 .5 4 cm
ture per 3 0 .4 8 m distance. Contrary to this B lack Welder
C&GMORPHGIjOGY
250 . •’
in 1925 found no im p a c t o f te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e on G rig g s’ex p e rim e n ts in v o lv in g p u rely th erm al changes
g ran ite w hen he d ro p p ed g ran itic b lo c k s in to h o t oil e q u iv a le n t to d iu rn a l c h a n g e o f 11 OPC o v e r 2 4 4 years
at the te m p eratu re o f 200°C . It m ay be p o in te d o u t c o u ld n o t p ro d u c e an y c h a n g e in th e ro c k strength
that co n tra stin g resu lts h av e b een re p o rte d a b o u t th e an d th u s c o u ld n o t c a u s e a n y d is in te g ra tio n o f rodks.
im pact o f te m p eratu re c h a n g e s on th e ro ck s. In a n o th e r e x p e rim e n t G rig g s u s e d w a te r s p r i n k l e r
T he p ro d u cts o f w e a th e rin g in h o t d e s e rt area s to co o l h ig h ly h e a te d ro c k s in ste a d o f re d u c in g the
te m p e ra tu re . T h e re s u lt w a s im m in e n t as th e rocks
are d iffere n t from th o se o f m o re h u m id a re a s as th ey
d e v e lo p e d c ra c k s a n d s u rfa c e s p a llin g . T h is process
are co arser an d d e fic ie n t in clay an d o rg a n ic m a tte r.
w o rk s w h en th e re is s u d d e n lig h t s h o w e rs in th e hot
G enerally, it is a c c e p te d th a t th e b a re ro c k s u rfa c e s
are heated d u rin g d ay tim e d u e to w h ic h th e ir o u te r d e s e rt areas. T h e h ig h ly h e a te d ro c k s w h e n stru c k by
layers ex p an d . D u rin g n ig h ts th e ro c k s are c o o le d su d d e n d riz z le s d e v e lo p n u m e ro u s c ra c k s. T h e re p
d ue to re la tiv e d e c re a se in te m p e ra tu re w h ic h lead s e titio n o f th is m e c h a n is m c a u s e s s p a llin g a n d g ra n u
to c o n tra c tio n in th e o u te r la y e r o f th e ro ck s. T h u s, lar d is in te g ra tio n o f ro c k s.
the re p e titio n o f e x p a n s io n an d c o n tra c tio n o f o u te r 4. B lo c k d is in te g r a tio n d u e to fr o s t- D is
ro ck la y ers d u e to d iu rn a l ra n g e o f te m p e ra tu re in the te g ra tio n o f ro c k s in to la rg e siz e b lo c k s d u e to fre e z e
h o t d e s e rt a re a s c a u s e s te n sio n a n d stre s s e s w h ich an d th aw o f w a te r is o f c o m m o n o c c u rre n c e in th e
in tro d u c e p a ra lle l jo in ts in th e ro c k s. T h e ro ck s, te m p e ra te an d co ld c lim a tic re g io n s. In fa c t, th is
th e n , are d is in te g ra te d a lo n g th e se jo in ts an d b ro k en p ro cess is m o re a c tiv e in th o se a re a s w h ic h a re v ery
b ig b lo c k s o f ro c k s are d is lo d g e d fro m the m a in ro ck o ften c h a ra c te riz e d by a lte rn a te p ro c e s s o f fre e z in g
m a ss a n d fall d o w n th e slo p e u n d e r th e im p a c t o f and th a w in g o f w a te r m a in ly d u rin g n ig h t a n d d ay
g rav ity . T h is p ro c e s s o f p h y sic a l w e a th e rin g is called resp ectiv ely . F ro st a c tio n w e a k e n s th e ro c k s in tw o
b lo c k d is in te g r a tio n . It m a y be p o in te d o u t th at w ays e.g. (i) d u e to fre e z e an d th a w o f w a te r b e tw e e n
b lo c k d is in te g ra tio n s h o u ld n o t be c o n sid e re d as the the p article s o f th e ro c k s a n d (ii) d u e to fre e z e a n d
re s u lt o f o n ly te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e s, ra th e r u n lo a d in g th aw o f w a te r in th e c re v ic e s a n d p o re s p a c e s . T h e
o f s u p e rin c u m b e n t lo a d o r re le a se o f c o n fin in g p re s m o re c o m p a c t an d h ig h ly c o n s o lid a te d ro c k s , lik e
su re a lso h e lp s in th is p ro c e ss. g ran ites, are le a st a ffe c te d by f re e z e -th a w a c tio n s
2. G r a n u la r d is in te g r a tio n d u e to te m w h ile less c o m p a c t a n d lo o s e ly c o n s o lid a te d ro c k s
p e r a tu r e c h a n g e s - T h e c o a rs e -g ra in e d ro ck s are are m o re a ffe c te d by fro s t a c tio n s , f o r e x a m p le ,
m o re a ffe c te d by s h a tte rin g p ro c e ss in th o se h ot se d im e n ta ry ro c k s b e in g m o re p o ro u s a re h ig h ly
d e se rts w h ic h are c h a ra c te riz e d by h ig h ra n g e o f su sc e p tib le to th e m e c h a n is m o f w e a th e rin g . W a te r
d aily te m p e ra tu re . I f th e ro c k s are c o a rs e -g ra in e d p re se n t b e tw e e n th e p a rtic le s o f p o ro u s ro c k s fre e z e s
an d are o f d iffe re n t c o lo u rs, th e y a b so rb in so la tio n d u rin g n ig h t d u e to fall o f te m p e ra tu re b e lo w fre e z
d iffe re n tly . T h u s, th e d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e sam e ro ck ing p o in t an d th u s e x p a n d s d u e to in c re a s e in its
m a s s r e c e iv e a n d a b s o r b d if f e r e n t a m o u n t o f v o lu m e by a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t a n d th a w s during d ay
in s o la tio n , c o n s e q u e n tly th e d iffe re n t p a rts o f the tim e d u e to re la tiv e in c re a s e in th e te m p e ra tu re and
ro c k s a re a ffe c te d by d iffe re n tia l e x p a n sio n an d h e n c e it c o n tra c ts in v o lu m e b y 10 p e r c e n t. T h is
c o n tra c tio n w h ic h c a u s e s tre s s e s w ith in th e ro ck s d iu rn a l fre e z e an d th a w c y c le c a u s e s a lte rn a te ex
d u e to w h ic h th e y a re d is in te g ra te d in to sm a lle r p a n sio n an d c o n tra c tio n w h ic h in tro d u c e te n sio n
p a rtic le s. S u c h ty p e o f s h a tte rin g o f ro c k s is c a lle d an d s tre sse s d u e to w h ic h ro c k s a re d is in te g ra te d in to
g ra n u la r d is in te g ra tio n w h ic h is m o re a c tiv e in h o t s m a lle r p a rtic le s. T h is p ro c e s s , k n o w n a s g r a n u la r
d e s e rt area s. d is in te g r a tio n d u e to fr o s t a c tio n , is an e x c e e d
in g ly slo w p ro c e s s an d ro c k s are le a st a ffe c te d by
3. S h a tte r in g d u e to ra in s h o w e r a n d h ea t-
T h e o u te r s h e lls o f th e ro c k s a re s h a tte re d d u e to th is p ro c e ss.
su d d e n lig h t s h o w e rs in h o t c lim a tic re g io n s m a in ly A lte rn a tiv e ly , a lte rn a te e x p a n s io n an d c o n
in h o t d e s e rt a re a s. G rig g s h as re m a rk e d a fte r e x p e ri tra c tio n o f c re v ic e s , p o re s a n d c ra c k s in th e ro ck s
m e n ts th a t sm all c ra c k s a re d e v e lo p e d a t th e o u te r d u e to d iu rn a l fre e z e a n d th a w o f w a te r c a u s e s b lo c k
su rfa c e o f th e h ig h ly h e a te d ro c k s w h e n lig h t d r iz d is in te g ra tio n o f ro c k s w h e re in ro c k s a re b ro k en
z le s su d d e n ly s trik e th e m . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t d o w n in to la rg e r b lo c k s w h ic h a re d is lo d g e d from
251
the main rock m ass. W hen such process operates fected by sheeting* s p a ttin g an d b lo c k d isin teg ra
over the hillslopes o f w ell jo in ted m assive rocks, the tion due to reduction in die co n fin in g pressure b e
dislodged rock blocks tum ble dow n the slope in the cause o f rem oval o f su p erin cu m b en t lo ad by u plift
form o f rockslides and rock falls and collect at the and erosion.
base o f the hillslopes. S h e e tin g refers to the d ev elo p m en t o f c ra c k s
The disintegration o f rocks due to diurnal and fractures parallel to the gro u n d su rface cau sed
freeze-thaw cycles in the p eriglacial areas is called by rem oval o f su p erin cu m b en t lo ad resu ltin g in to
frost w eath erin g o r con gelifraction w hich form s reduction o f co nfining pressure. S uch p arallel crac k s
very interesting lan d fo rm s like frostriven polygons. and fractures are d ev elo p ed in m assiv e ro ck s such as
5. E x fo lia tio n d u e to tem p eratu re and granites and other igneous in tru siv es, q u artz ite s an d
wind- E x fo liatio n w eathering, also know n as onion thickly bedded sandstones b ecau se o f ex p a n sio n o f
w eath erin g, refers to peelin g o ff concentric shells rocks consequent upon u n lo ad in g o f su p erin cu m b en t
of rocks d ue to co m b in ed actions o f heat and w ind in load. R.H. Jahns (1943) h as en u m erated sev en p ro c
hot arid and sem i-arid regions and m onsoon lands. esses w hich cause sh eetin g in the ro ck s-
E xfoliation is m ore com m on over crystalline rocks. (i) T ensional or co n tractio n al strain s set u p
The outer shells o f rocks b eco m e loose due to alter during cooling o f an igneous m ass,
nate expansion and co n tractio n due to high tem pera (ii) Local or regional c o m p re ssio n a l stresses
ture d uring day tim e and com paratively low tem due to tectonic m ovem ents.
perature d u rin g night respectively and these loos
(iii) Insolation, w ith atten d an t d aily and s e c u
ened shells are rem oved (peeled off) by strong winds.
lar tem perature changes.
D ifferen tial h eatin g o f outer and low er shells of a
rock m ass cau ses fla k in g . T he solar radiation p en (iv) Progressive h y d ratio n and fo rm atio n o f
etrates u p to a few cen tim etres only in the rocks chem ical alteration products in su scep tib le m in e r
having low th erm al co n d u ctiv ity . Thus, the outer als,
shells o f su ch ro ck s ex p an d m ore than the shells (v) M echanical action o f fire, frost, and v e g
lying ju s t b elo w . T h is d ifferen tial expansion o f rock etation,
shells cau ses flak in g w h erein the thin rock sheets are (vi) D im inution o f p rim ary co n fin in g p re s
detached from the ro ck m ass. T hese detach ed rock sure by rem oval o f su p erin cu m b en t lo ad, and
sheets are la te r on rem o v ed by strong w inds. Thus,
(vii) C o m b in atio n s o f the ab o v e cau ses.
sheets a fte r sh e e ts o f ro ck s are p eeled o ff and the
rocks c o n tin u e to be bare. M any o f the granitic C a m b e r in g p ro c e s s refers to fra c tu rin g o f
batholiths, w h ich are e x p o sed above the ground brittle sandstone beds alo n g v ertical jo in ts d u e to
surface, are b e in g c o n tin u o u sly affected by ex fo lia expansion caused by u n lo ad in g o f su p e rin c u m b e n t
tion w eath e rin g . K a n k e D o m e n ear R anchi city load and co n seq u en t release o f co n fin in g p ressu re.
exhibits a fin e e x a m p le o f su ch w eath e rin g process. G.W . B ain (1 9 3 1 ) has rep o rted the c a se o f fly in g
ro ck -sh eets or sp alls k now n as ro c k b u rsts in lim e
6. D is in te g r a tio n a n d e x fo lia tio n d u e to
stone qu arries d u e to sp o n tan eo u s m e c h a n ic a l ro c k
u n load in g- T h e ro c k s, w h ich are b u ried u n d er th ick
ex p an sio n cau sed by u n lo a d in g o f s u p e rin c u m b e n t
covers o f o v e rly in g ro ck s, are d isin te g ra te d w hen
load. “A s new faces are cu t in the w alls o f (lim e
they are e x p o se d to th e su rfa c e d u e to rem o v al o f
sto n e) q u arries the d en se lim e sto n e e x p a n d s, p ro
superin cu m b en t lo a d a n d c o n s e q u e n t rele ase o f c o n
d u cin g crack s p arallel to th e su rface. In so m e in
fining p ressu re. T h e re m o v a l o f su p e rin c u m b e n t
stan ces q u arrie s h ad to b e clo sed d o w n b e c a u se o f
load, very p re c ise ly k n o w n as u n lo a d in g , m ay be
the d a n g e r o f fly in g ro c k sh e e ts o r sp a lls” (C .D .
effected th ro u g h g ra d u a l d e n u d a tio n o f o v erly in g
O ilier, 1969).
rocks. In fact, th e b u rrie d ro ck s, w h en re lie v e d o f the
confining p re ssu re d u e to u n lo a d in g , d e v e lo p crack s T h e p ro c e ss o f s p a llin g re fe rs to th e d e v e lo p
and jo in ts a n d u ltim a te ly b re a k u p a lo n g th e se crac k s m en t o f p laty ro c k fra g m e n ts, lo z e n g e sh a p e d o r
and jo in ts. G ra n ite s, m a ss iv e sa n d sto n e s, m a ssiv e ir r e g u l a r , in th e r o c k s d u e to u n l o a d i n g o f
arkose, c o n g lo m e ra te s a n d lim e sto n e s a re m o re a f s u p e rin c u m b e n t load.
GEOMORFHOLOQY
252
7. O th er typ es o f p h y sica l w ea th erin g -B o u l- d io x id e ) c o n te n t o f w a te r a n d p H o f th e s o lu tio n
d er clea v in g refers to b reak in g an d sp littin g o f W h en ra in w a te r m ix e s w ith a tm o s p h e ric C O j it
boulders o f g ranites and b asalts and co m p lex b o u l b e c o m e s ac tiv e s o lv e n t a n d w h e n it c o m e s in c o n ta c t
ders due to th erm a l e x p a n sio n . A n o th e r ty p e o f w ith the c a rb o n a te ro c k s , su c h as lim e s to n e s and
in solation w ea th erin g is ‘d ir t c r a c k in g ’ w h erein d o lo m ite s, it d is s o lv e s th e ro c k s th ro u g h a set o f
the boulders c o n tain in g ‘d ir t’ are fractu red an d sp lit c h em ica l re a c tio n s o c c u rrin g th ro u g h v a rio u s stages.
due to therm al ex p an sio n and co n tra ctio n . F ire, T h e v a rio u s sta g e s o f th e c h e m is try o f lim estone
m ainly b ru sh fire, also cau ses in so latio n w eath e rin g so lu tio n m ay be p re s e n te d in a sim p lifie d form as
due to therm al ex p an sio n and co n tractio n o f ro ck s fo llo w s.
w hich cau se ex fo liatio n and th u s n u m ero u s sp alls A c c o rd in g to R .M . G a rre ls ( I 9 6 0 ) th e re are
and flakes o f rocks are p ro d u ced . S la k in g w e a th e r sev en v aria b les w h ic h c o n tro l th e e q u ilib ria in v o lv ed
in g refers to the d isin teg ratio n o f ro ck s d ue to alter in the so lu tio n o f lim e sto n e s-
nate w ettin g and d ry in g o f ro ck s w herein c o n seq u en t
(i) P artial p ressu re o f C 0 2
ex p an sio n and co n tractio n o f ro ck shells resu lt in the
d isag g reg atio n o f rocks. D isag g reg atio n o f rocks (ii) [H 2C 0 3] ... c a rb o n ic acid
due to grow th o f salt cry stals from so lu tio n is called
sa lt w ea th erin g w h ich gen erally occu rs in h ot arid (iii) [ h C O ^] ...b ic a rb o n a te ion
areas. It m ay also be im p o rtan t in the ro ck s o f coastal
areas. (iv) C O 3 ] .. .carb o n ate an io n
C hem ical W eathering (v) [H+] ... h y d ro g en ion

D eco m p o sitio n and d isin teg ratio n o f rocks
(vi) [O H ']...h y d ro x y l ion
due to ch em ical reac tio n s is called chem ical w eath
ering w herein the m in erals o f the rocks w eather (vii) [C a2+] .. .calciu m catio n
aw ay. W ater v apo u r and w ater are the m ed ia w hich C alciu m h y d ro x id e, C a (O H )2, is fo rm e d d u e to
activate several types o f chem ical reactio n s w ithin reaction o f calciu m o x id es (C aO ) w ith w a te r (H 20 ) in
the rocks. P ure w ater, d istilled w ater, is ch em ically the follow ing m a n n er o f re v e rsib le e x o th e rm ic reac-
inert b u t w hen it m ixes w ith th e atm o sp h eric gases, tion-
m ainly w ith C 0 2, it b eco m es p o ten t solvent. O x id a
C aO + H 20 = C a (O H )2 ..............eq. 14.1
tion , ca rb o n a tio n , so lu tio n , h y d ra tio n , ch ela tio n ,
h y d ro ly sis, b ase ex ch a n g e etc. are the im p o rtan t C alciu m c a rb o n a te s, C a C O v is fo rm e d d u e to
ch em ical reactio n s w h ich cau se v ario u s chem ical reactio n s o f calc iu m h y d ro x id e (C a (O H )2) w ith
ch an g es in the m in erals o f rocks w hich u ltim ately carb o n d io x id e (CO.,) in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r o f
lead to d eco m p o sitio n and d isin teg ratio n o f rocks. rev ersib le ex o th erm ic re a c tio n s-
1. S o lu tio n - S o lu tio n is co n sid ered to be the
C a (O H )2 + C 0 2 <-> C a C 0 3 + H 20 . . .eq 14.2
first step in the ch em ical d eco m p o sitio n and d isin te
C arb o n ic acid (H 2C O ?) is fo rm e d w hen CO^ is
gratio n o f rocks. S o lu tio n refers to the d isso lu tio n o f
d isso lv ed in w ater -
so lu b le p article s and m in erals from the rocks w ith
the help o f w ater in m o tio n b u t a thin film o f w ater C 0 2 + H 20 <-> H 2C 0 3 ..............eq. 14.3
aro u n d a solid p article also leads to ch em ical d isso
C arb o n ic a cid is also d is s o c ia te d in to p o sitiv e
lution. S o lu tio n o f ro ck s d ep en d s on the n atu re o f
h y d ro g en iop an d n e g a tiv e b ic a rb o n a te ion -
ro ck s, so lu b ility o f ro ck s o r so lid s and the ratio
betw een the volum es o f so lv en t (w ater) and the H 2C 0 3 <->H+ + H C O 3- .............eq. 14.4
solids. C o m m on salts are m o st so lu b le w hereas C alciu m c a rb o n a te (lim e sto n e s) d isso c ia te s to lim
ca rb o n a te rocks (lim esto n es-ca lciu m carb o n ates, ited e x ten t in p u re w ater into a m e ta l catio n (C a2+)
d o lo m ite s-m ag n esiu m carb o n a tes etc.) are o f m o d
and carb o n a te an io n ( C 0 32-) d u rin g th e pro cess o f
erate so lu b ility .
d isso lu tio n in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r -
L im esto n es are m o re su scep tib le to so lu tio n
p ro cess w h ich d ep en d s on tem p eratu re, C 0 2 (carb o n C a C 0 3 — d-issociali°" > C a 2+ + C O ? " ...... eq. 14.5
WEATHERING AND MASS MOVEMENT 253
It m ay be po in ted o ut that lim estone can be c o n ta in iro n in fe rro u s s ta te (F e ) e .g . m a jo r
dissolved in w ater only w hen it is transform ed into ironsulphide (pyrite, F eS ,), iron c arb o n a te (sid e n te ,
calcium bicarbonate, C a ( H C 0 3)2, w ith help o f car F e C 0 3), and various iron silicates.
bonic acid (H 2C 0 3) as follow s— W hen w ater m ixed w ith atm o sp h eric o x y g en
C a C 0 3 + H 20 + C 0 2 C a (H C 0 3)2 ...e q 14.6 com es in co n tact w ith iron bearin g rocks, the iro n
or oxidizes to form ferrous oxides (F eO ). F u rth er o x i
dation o f ferrous oxides produces ferric oxides (Fe20 3)
C a C 0 3 + H 2C O 3 —> C a ( H C 0 3)2
or ferric h ydroxides (F e(O H )2). T h e o x id atio n o f
T he carb o n ate ion ( C 0 32 * ) can react w ith iron-bearing rocks rep ro d u ces ru sts in th e fo llo w in g
w ater w hen it accep ts proton from acid and then the m anner-
carbonate becom es base (w hich accepts the proton).
Fe + H20 + 0 2 -> F e20 3.3H 20 . . . : . . e q 14.8
The u ltim ate reactio n s yield hydroxyl ions and thus
the calciu m carb o n a te becom es an alkaline sub (rust)
stance as follow s- The rusting o f rocks w eak en s th em an d u lti
m ately the rocks are d isin teg rated . T h e ferric ox id es
C 0 32 - + H 20 — h-ydrolysis > H C O -3+ O H -...e q 14.7 and ferric hydroxides give red and y ello w c o lo u rs to
T h e actual q u antity o f lim estone dissolved in m any rocks and soils. T he o x id atio n o f iro n -ric h
w ater d ep en d s on tem p eratu re, C 0 2 content o f w a V indhyan sandstones o f the K aim u r R an g es and
ter, p artial p ressu re o f C 0 2, pH o f the solution and R ew a scarps (M .P.) has help ed in the b lo c k d is in te
k in etics o f reactio n s. T he solubility o f C 0 2 is di gration of m assively bedded and w ell jo in te d s a n d
rectly re la te d to p ressu re (partial pressure) and is stone capping.
in v e rsely rela ted to tem p eratu re. In o ther w ords, the 3. C a r b o n a tio n - ‘C arb o n atio n is the reac tio n
s o lu b ility o f C 0 2 increases and d ecreases with in o f carbonate or b icarb o n ate ions w ith m in e ra ls ’. T he
crease and d e c re a se o f partial p ressure w hereas it process o f carbonation is also k now n as ‘solution*
(so lu b ility o f C 0 2) in creases w ith decrease in the w herein atm ospheric carbon d io x id e after m ix in g
te m p eratu re an d v ice versa. On the other hand, the with w ater form s carbonic acid (H 2C O ?, see eq u atio n
so lu b ility o f so lid s (say lim esto n es) is directly re 14.3) w hich after reacting w ith carb o n a te ro ck s, say
lated to te m p e ra tu re i.e. total solution o f lim estone in lim estones ( C a C 0 3), fo rm s calciu m b ic a rb o n a te
creases w ith in c re ase in tem p eratu re and vice versa. (C a (H C 0 3)2) (see eq u atio n 14.6) w h ich is easily
M ore and m o re lim esto n e s can be d isso lv ed in w ater dissolved in w ater. T he m ech an ism o f so lu tio n o f
eith er by in c re a sin g the tem p eratu re or C 0 2 content carbonate rocks has already been d iscu ssed above.
o f w ater o r by d e c re a sin g th e pH o f the solution. The The rain w ater hav in g d isso lv ed carb o n d io x id e (C o 2
solution o f lim e sto e n s and d o lo m ites gives birth to aq) p ercolates th ro u g h the d iffe re n t h o rizo n s o f the
very in te re s tin g la n d sc a p e s kn o w n as k a rst to p o g
soils to reach u n d erly in g lim esto n es. T h u s, m o re and
rap h y c h a ra c te riz e d by v ario u s so lu tio n holes (sink m o re o rg a n ic c a rb o n d io x id e is d is s o lv e d in
holes, s w a llo w h o le s, u v alas, d o lin es and polje) and g ro u n d w ater w hich then b eco m es a m o re active
various ty p e s o f c a v e s an d g alleries. so lvent b ecau se d isso lu tio n o f m o re carb o n d ioxide
2. O x id a tio n - T h e ch em ical process pro o f d u ces m ore carb o n ic acid s w h ich d isso lv e m ore
oxidation sim p ly m e a n s a reac tio n o f atm o sp h eric carb o n ate ro ck s after tran sfo rm in g calciu m carb o n
oxygen to fo rm o x id e s. W h e n w a te r is m ix ed w ith ates into calciu m b icarb o n ates.
oxygen its re a c tio n w ith th e m in erals o f the rocks 4. H y d r a tio n - T h e p ro cess o f hy d ratio n is
form s h y d ro x id e . In o th e r w o rd s, the atm o sp h eric related to the ad d itio n o f w ater to th e m in erals. T he
oxygen a fte r re a c tin g w ith th e ro ck s p ro d u ces sev ro ck s after h av in g a b so rb ed w ater u n d erg o th e p ro c
eral ty p es o f o x id e s, iro n o x id e b ein g the m o st ess o f p o sitiv e ch an g e o f th e ir v o lu m e. In o th er
im portant, w h ich w e a k e n s th e ro ck s to d isin teg rate. w o rd s, the v o lu m e o f th e h y d rate d ro ck s (ro ck s
T he o x id a tio n o f m in e ra ls o f th e ro ck s by g aseo u s w hich have ab so rb ed w ater) in c re ases rem a rk ab ly .
oxygen b e c o m e s p o s sib le w h en o x y g en is d isso lv ed S om e tim es, th e in c re ased v o lu m e b eco m es ab o u t
in w ater. M o st o f th e iro n b e a rin g ro c k s co m m o n ly tw ice th e o rig in al volu m e. T h u s, th e in c re a se in th e
GEOM ORPHOLOGY
254
volum e o f rock* due to in crease in the v olu m e o f carb o n m o le c u le s” . In fact, th e w o rd ‘c h e la te ’ m eans
m inerals cause* strc**es and *train* in th e m ineral* a c o -o rd in a tio n c o m p o u n d in w h ich a cen tral m e ta l
o f the rocks w hich u ltim ately lead to p h y sical d is in lic ion is atta c h e d to an o rg a n ic m o le c u le at tw o or
tegration o f rocks. “H y dration is an cx o th erm ic m o re p o sitio n s. In o th e r w o rd s, c h e la tio n m eans
reaction, and in vol ve* a co n sid era b le v o lu m e ch an g e ‘h o ld in g o f an io n , u su a lly a m e ta l, w ith in a ring
w hich m ay be important in p h y sical w eath e rin g - stru c tu re o f o rg a n ic o rig in ’ (C .D . O ilier, 1969). W e
exfoliation and g ran u la r d isin teg ratio n . H y d ratio n m ay safely say th a t c h e la tio n is a fo rm o f chem ical
prepares m ineral su rfaces for fu rth er alteratio n by w eath e rin g b y p la n ts. P la n ts e x tra c t m in e ra ls o r say
oxidation and carb o n atio n , and en ab les the tran sfer n u trien ts from th e so ils w ith th e re s u lt m in eral lat
o f ions to take place w ith g reater e a s e ” (C.D. O ilier, tic e s a re d isru p te d a n d c ry sta l la ttic e s are fra g
1969j. T he process o f h y d ratio n c h a n g e s f e ld s p a r m e n t e d a n d t h u s m in e ra l w e a th e rin g ta k es p la c e a t a
m inerals into kaolim te clays, the process being k n o w n m u c h f a s te r rate .
as ‘k a o lin iz a tio n ’ T h e p ro d u c ts o f c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g are
5. H y d ro ly s is - “ H y d r o l y s i s is a c h e m iccala
l s s e d u n d e r t h r e e c a te g o r i e s .
reaction betw een m in eral a n d w a te r, th a t is b e tw e e n (i) S o lu tes o f so d iu m , p o ta ssiu m , ca lc iu m ,
hydrogen (H ) ions o r h y d r o x y l f O H ; io n s, a n d the m a g n e s i u m etc. p ro d u c e d by th e p ro c e ss o f c a rb o n a
ions o f the m in e ra l” (C.D. O lie r , 1969;. In fact, the tion o r s o lu tio n o f carb o n a te ro ck s, w h ich a re b ro u g h t
h y d ro ly sis is th a t p r o c e s s w h e r e in b o th th e m in e r a ls to the lak e s and seas and are re p re c ip ita te d to fo rm
o f the ro ck s a n d w a t e r m o l e c u l e s d e c o m p o s e and limestones!, d o lo m ite s and o th e r c a rb o n a te ro c k s .
reac t in su ch a w a y t h a t n e w m in e r a l c o m p o u n d s are
(ii) C la y s , d eriv e d fro m th e w e a th e rin g o f
formed. S ilic a te m in e r a l s a re m o s t a ff e c te d by h y
fe ld s p a r an d fe rro m a g n e sia n m in e ra ls , fo rm
d ro ly sis. T h is r e a c ti o n s ta rts i m m e d i a te l y w h e n a
a r g illa c e o u s sed im en tary ro c k s lik e sh a le s.
m in eral c o m e s in c o n t a c t w ith w a te r. T h e h y d r o ly s is
o f m a g n esiu m s ilic a te m in e r a l s ( M g , S i O j in c o n ta c t ( i i i ) M in e r a l r e s i d u a l s , s u c h a s s i l i c a ,
v»,ui 4 i o n i z e d w a t e r m o le c u le s (4 H20 —* 4H^ + u n w e a t h e r e d f e l d s p a r an d m ic a a n d o th e r h e a v y
4 C H ' ) ta k es p la c e in th e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r - m in e r a ls , f o rm c la stic se d im e n ta ry ro c k s s u c h as
s a n d s to n e s .
M g2SK)4 + 4H ~~ 40H ~ 2M g~ + 40H"
Biotic Weathering
+ H 4S 1O 4 /'silica a c id in so lu tio n )
P la n ts a n d a n i m a l s in c lu d in g m a n la rg e ly
H y d r o l y s i s o f p o t a s s i u m f e ld s p a r (o r th o c la s e , c o n tr o l th e b r e a k d o w n o f ro c k s . It m a y b e p o in te d
2 K A IS L O ,/ w ith c a r b o n i c a c id (H CO .) in w a t e r is o u t th a t in all t y p e s o f w e a th e rin g in all c lim a tic
p e rh a p s th e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e o f c h e m i c a l w e a t h r e g i o n s b io tic c o m m u n itie s p la y s o m e ro le s in o n e
e r i n g p r o c e s s w h e r e in t h e e n d p r o d u c t o f t h e r e a c tio n w a y o r the o th e r . T h is is w h y B .B . P o ly n o v (1 9 3 7 )
o f p o ta ss iu m f e l d s p a r w ith c a r b o n i c a c id in w a te r is b e li e v e d th a t c o m p le te ly ste r ile w e a th e r in g w as
p o ta ssiu m an d b i c a r b o n a t e io n s in s o lu tio n . T h e im p o s s ib le . It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t it d o e s n o t
m e c h a n ism o f th e h y d r o l y s i s o f p o t a s s i u m f e ld s p a r m e a n th a t b io tic c o m m u n itie s a lw a y s in d u lg e in
is g i v e n b e l o w - d estru c tiv e w o rk by d is in te g ra tin g a n d d e c o m p o s
ing the ro ck s b u t th e b u rro w in g a n im a ls d e fin ite ly
2 K A J 3 i/> 2 * W^COv hk 9 H 2O —yAl2S i205fG H j4 +
help in the tra n s fe r o f so ils fro m lo w e r to u p p e r and
o rth o c la te +• c a rb o n ic + w ater k ao lin ite, a clay u p p er to lo w e r h o riz o n s a n d th u s th e m ix in g o f ,
ac id m in eral g e o m a te ria ls a c tiv a te s w e a th e rin g . T h o u g h
4H 4S 1O 4 * 2 K* + 2 H C O , v eg etatio n s p ro tec t the ro ck s by b in d in g th e m through
th e ir ro o ts b u t d iffe re n t ty p e s o f ac id s (e.g . hum ic
silic ic acid 4 potassium and bicarbonate
acid s, b a c te ria l a c id s, m ic ro flo ra l a c id s e tc .) pro
m to k ttk m joins m solution d u c e d by th e m fa c ilita te b io c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g .
& C fcd a tk a s- A cco rd in g to D .S . Lehm an R e c e n tly , m a n h a s b e c o m e th e m o s t p o w e rfu l w eath
0 9 6 3 ) “c b e to ik m is a co m p lex organic p rocess by e rin g a g e n t b e c a u se o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o d e m
w k fc k m eta llic catio n s are incorporated in to hydro te c h n o lo g ie s. B io tic w e a th e rin g , th u s, is d iv id ed
255
into 3 types e.g. (i) fau n a] w ea th erin g , (ii) floral hum us co n ten t, in creased m o istu re d u e to lo w ra te o
w eatheirng and (iii) a n th ro p o g en ic w eath erin g. evap o ratio n , in creased c o n te n t o f o rg a n ic C O r lo w
tem p eratu re, all o f w h ich activ a te c h em ica l w e a th e r
1. F au n a l W ea th erin g - T he b u rro w in g an i
ing. It m ay also be m e n tio n e d th a t v e g e ta tio n s a lso
mals, w orm s and o th e r O rganism s help in gradual
pro tect the ro ck s and so ils fro m w e a th e rin g p ro c
breakdow n o f rocks o r frag m en ts thereof. B u rro w
ing anim als in clu d e g o p h ers, p rairie do g s, foxes, esses.
rabbits, ja c k a ls , term ites, rats etc. w hich d u g out 3. A n th ro p o g en ic W e a th e r in g - M an b e in g a
burrow s and tu n n e ls in the ro ck s and u n co n so lid ated biological agent accelerates and d ecelerates the natural
geom aterials as th e ir liv in g p laces (hom es). By d o rates o f w eath erin g by m an y fo ld s. T h e ‘e c o n o m ic
ing so they w e a th e r th e ro ck s and g eo m aterials to and tech n o lo g ica l m a n ’ la sh ed w ith m o d e rn te c h
great extent. S m all o rg an ism s play m ore im p o rtan t n o logies has b eco m e th e m o s t p o w e rfu l w e a th e rin g
roles in ro ck an d soil w eath erin g . T h ese o rg an ism s and erosion agent. M in in g a c tiv itie s fo r e x tra c tio n o f
repeatedly m ix up th e soil m a teria ls and th u s alw ays m inerals, b lastin g o f h ills an d rid g e s by d y n a m ite s
expose fresh m a te ria ls to w eath e rin g ag en ts. T hey for road and dam c o n stru c tio n an d m in e ra l e x tra c
also h elp in m o v in g the o rg an ic m a tter do w n w ard tion, q u arry in g fo r in d u strial (lim e s to n e s fo r c e
into the soil p ro file s and th u s ex ten d the w eath erin g m ent) and b u ild in g m aterial etc. re s u lt in su c h a fa s t
at g re a te r d e p th s w h ich o th e rw ise w ould have not rate o f d isin teg ratio n o f g e o m a te ria ls (ro c k s ) th a t
been p o ssib le . this m ay be acc o m p lish e d by n atu ra l w e a th e rin g
It is b e lie v e d th at th ere are about 1,50,000 p ro cesses in th o u san d s to m illio n s o f y e a rs. M a n
c re a tu re s, b ig and sm all, in one acre o f land and these accelerates the rate o f w e a th e rin g on h ills lo p e s b y
o rg a n ism s b rin g a b o u t 15 to n n es o f soils at the m o d ify in g the g ro u n d su rface th ro u g h d e fo re s ta tio n
su rface fro m b e lo w ev ery y ear. A cco rd in g to the w hich red u ces th e m e ch an ic al re in fo rc e m e n t a n d
e stim ate o f C h a rle s D a rw in th e soil o rg an ism s bring co h esio n o f u n co n so lid a te d g e o m a te ria ls a n d th u s
about 2 5 .4 th o u s a n d k ilo g ra m s o f soil at the surface in creases slope in sta b ility w h ic h c a u s e s slo p e fa il
every y e a r in th e E n g lis h g ard en s. T erm ite s play ures and m ass m o v e m e n t o f m a te ria ls d o w n th e
very im p o rta n t ro le in s o rtin g an d rearran g in g the slope in the form o f la n d slid e s, s lu m p in g an d d e b ris
soil m a te ria ls in th e u p p e r h o riz o n s o f soil p ro files in fall and slides.
tropical re g io n s . T e rm ita ria are the e v id e n c e s o f soil
Biochemical Weathering
w eath e rin g by te rm ite s. A c c o rd in g to P o n o m arev a
B io c h em ical w e a th e rin g re fe rs to d e c o m p o
(1950) e a rth w o rm s b u rro w to ab o u t 1.5 m an d pass
sitio n and d isin te g ra tio n o f ro c k s d u e to o rg a n ic
10 to n s p e r a c re p e r y e a r as a m e an and 2 0 tons p er
m a teria ls o f b o th flo ra an d fa u n a . A c o m p le x set o f
acre p e r y e a r a s a m a x im u m o f soil m a teria ls. R a b
d iffe re n t b io c h e m ic a l p ro c e sse s su c h as c a tio n r o o t
bits, p ra irie d o g s etc. d e s tro y th e soil stru c tu re and
they o b s tru c t th e le a c h in g a n d o th e r h o riz o n fo rm in g ex c h a n g e , c h e la tio n , s o lu tio n by ro o t e x u d a te s an d
processes by c o n s ta n tly re m ix in g th e soil m a teria ls. p ro d u ctio n o f d iffe re n t k in d s o f o rg a n ic a c id s such
as h u m ic acid s, b a te ria l a c id s, m ic ro fa u n a l a c id s etc.
2. Floral Weathering- W e a th e rin g o f ro ck s
p ro d u c e d by o rg a n ic m a te ria ls h e lp in th e d e c o m p o
by v e g e ta tio n s ta k e s p la c e in tw o w ay s viz. (i)
sitio n an d d is in te g ra tio n o f ro c k s a n d so ils.
physical w e a th e rin g a n d (ii) c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g
w hich is c a lle d as biochemical weathering, w h ich Humic acids a c tiv a te chelation a n d h e lp in
will he d is c u s s e d u n d e r s e p a ra te h e a d in g . It m ay be th e d e c o m p o sitio n o f s ilic a te m in e ra ls . Fulvic acids,
pointed o u t th a t flo ra l w e a th e rin g d o e s n o t ta k e p la ce h u m ic ac id s d e riv e d fro m p e a t, p la y im p o r ta n t ro le
independently ra th e r it h e lp s th e p h y sical a n d chem ical in d e c o m p o sin g ro c k m in e ra ls . B a c te ria l a c id s , in
processes o f w e a th e rin g . L a rg e r p la n ts a ffe c t an d c lu d in g la c tic , a c e tic , o x a lic a n d g lu c o n ic , a tta c k a
control w e a th e rin g in a n u m b e r o f w a y s, (i) C ra c k s w id e ra n g e o f ro c k m in e ra ls im p o rta n t b e in g m a g n e
are w id en ed by ro o t p e n e tra tio n a n d c o n s e q u e n t ro o t siu m c a rb o n a te , c a lc iu m a n d m a g n e s iu m s ilic a te s ,
pressure, (ii) D e n s e v e g e ta tio n c o v e r g e n e ra te s d is fe ld s p a r an d k a o lin ite s . B a c te ria l a c id s a ls o p r o d u c e
tinct m ic ro c lim a te a t th e g r o u n d s u rfa c e . T h e soil s u lp h id e s, o x id iz e iro n a n d h e lp in th e s o lu tio n o f
atm osphere is la rg e ly a ffe c te d by ro o t re s p ira tio n , s ilic a w h e n th e ro c k s a re c o n s ta n tly s u b m e r g e d
GEOMORPHOLOGY
256
Under w ater (perpetual w aterlogging). M ic r o f a u n a l alo n g co astal zo n es o b ta in th e se w eath e red m ateri

a c id s such as oxalic and citric acids are p ro d u ced by als and m o v e th em to o th e r p laces. T h e ra p id rate o f
fungi and lichens. T h ese acids w eath er silicate m in w eath erin g d u e to m ass fellin g o f tree s (d efo resta
erals and clays. tio n ) has a cc elera ted the rate o f ero sio n o f n ude rocks
o f the hill ran g es w ith th e re s u lt m o st o f th e rivers
C h em otrop h ic b a cteria m a n u fa ctu re su l
h ave b eco m e o v erlo a d e d an d slu g g ish b ecau se m il
phides and rem ove silica in the tropical soils and
lions o f to n n es o f ero d e d s e d im e n ts are reac h in g the
help in the carb o n ate m in eralizatio n in cav es. The
m a jo r riv ers ev ery y ear. F o r e x a m p le , G arh w al and
colonization by b lu e-g reen algae form s d esert v a r
K um aun H im a la y a s an d o th e r p a rts o f th e H im a la
n ish and m o b ilizes ferro u s irons and h elp in the
yas h av e been e x te n siv e ly d e fo re s te d an d thus the
co n cen tratio n o f ox id es on ro ck su rfaces. M icro
w eath ered ro ck s h av e in c re a se d th e rate o f flu v ial
organism s also form v a rn ish in cru sta tio n s ori rocks.
ero sio n , c o n seq u en tly m o st o f th e H im a la y a n riv ers
L ich en s in tro d u ce the alteratio n o f m in erals co m p o
lik e the Y am u n a, the G an g a, the G h a g h ra , th e K osi
sition o f ro ck s b oth m e ch an ic ally and ch em ically .
T he o rg an ic carb o n d io x id e p ro d u ced by plants etc. h ave b eco m e o v e rlo a d e d in th e p la in s d u e to
a cc elera tes th e rate o f carb o n a tio n on carb o n ate- supply o f h u g e v o lu m e o f se d im e n ts e v e ry y ear. T h is
ro ck s e.g. lim e sto n e s and d o lo m ites. p ro cess has cau sed rap id rate o f s ilta tio n o f riv e r
beds o f m a jo r allu v ial riv ers o f n o rth In d ia an d th e
1 4.4 GEOMORPHIC IMPORTANCE OF WEATH resu ltan t siltatio n h as in c re a se d th e fre q u e n c y a n d
ERING d im en sio n o f re c u rrin g flo o d s.
1. P r o d u c tio n o f ro ck w a stes—-Rocks are 3. L o w erin g o f su rfa ce— C o n tin u o u s re m o v a l
d is in te g ra te d and d e c o m p o se d and u ltim ately are and tran sfer o f w e a th e re d m a te ria ls th ro u g h d iffe r
b ro k en d o w n in to sm a lle r p ie ces d ue to the o p eratio n en t p ro cesses o f m a ss tra n s lo c a tio n o f ro c k w a s te s
o f d iffe re n t w ea th e rin g , ch em ica l w eath e rin g , b io tic su ch as la n d slid e s, d e b ris slid e s, ro c k fa ll, ro c k s lid e s,
w e a th e rin g an d b io c h e m ic a l w eath e rin g . T h u s, d if talu s cree p etc. a n d by th e a g e n ts o f e ro s io n c a u s e s
fe re n t w e a th e rin g p ro c e sse s p ro d u ce im m en se v o l g rad u al lo w e rin g o f th e h e ig h t o f th e a ffe c te d area.
u m e o f ro c k w a ste s o r w e a th e re d m a teria ls. T h ese
w eath e red m a te ria ls ly in g o v e r the u n w e a th e re d
4. E v o lu tio n of la n d fo r m s a n d th e ir m o d i
fic a tio n s — D iffe re n tia l w e a th e rin g h e lp s in th e e v o
fresh ro ck s are c a lle d re g o lith s. T h e d ep th o f w e a th
lu tio n o f d iffe re n t ty p e s o f la n d fo rm s . W e a th e rin g
ered rock s from the g ro u n d su rface to the un w eath ered
p la y s im p o rta n t ro le in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f sto n e
fresh ro c k s is c a lle d w e a th e r in g z o n e . T h e d e p th o f
la ttic e (in h o t d e s e rts ), to rs, b u tte s , ta lu s c o n e s , ta lu s
w e a th e rin g zo n es v arie s fro m p la ce to p la c e and
fan s, sa n d sto n e a n v ils etc. It m a y b e p o in te d o u t th at
fro m re g io n to re g io n d e p e n d in g m a in ly on th e d ep th
w e a th e rin g an d e ro s io n go h a n d in h a n d a n d th u s it
o f w a te r ta b le o f g ro u n d w a te r an d th e d u ra tio n o f is n o t w ise to s e p a ra te th e in s e p a ra b le , so it is
w e a th e rin g . T h e w e a th e re d m a te ria ls are v ery im d iffic u lt to a s c e rta in th e q u a n tu m o f w o rk d o n e by
p o rta n t e c o n o m ic a lly b e c a u se th e y h e lp in th e p ro c w e a th e rin g an d e ro s io n in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a
ess o f so il fo rm a tio n , th e y e x p o s e m in e ra ls etc. p a rtic u la r ty p e o f la n d fo rm .
W ea th e rin g g e n e ra te s m a ss m o v e m e n t o f ro c k w a ste s
d o w n th e h ills lo p e a n d th u s c a u s e s d a m a g e to h u m a n 14.5 MASS MOVEMENT (MASS WASTING)
se ttle m e n ts in th e fo o th ill z o n e s, c a u s e s o b s tru c tio n s T h e stu d y o f m a ss m o v e m e n t o f ro c k w a s te s
in th e riv e r flo w a n d th u s fo rm s la k e s (by d a m m in g in v o lv e s th e a n a ly s is o f m e a n in g a n d c o n c e p t, c la s
th e riv e rs th ro u g h d e b ris fall). sific a tio n , c a u s e s , a n d g e o m o rp h ic s ig n ific a n c e o f
m a ss m o v e m e n t o r m a ss tra n slo c a tio n o f ro c k w astes.
2. Weathering helps erosional processes—
W eathering lo o se n s the rock s by d isin tegratin g and 1. Meaning and Concept
d eco m p o sin g them and thus p aves the w ay for ero D isin tegrated and fragm en ted rock m aterials
sion al p ro cesses to operate ea sily . D ifferen t agen ts du e to m ech a n ism o f w ea th erin g p r o c e sse s (m e
o f erosion lik e running w ater (rivers) in hum id ch an ical, ch em ica l, b iotic and b io ch em ica l) are called
region s, w in d in hot arid and sem i-arid reg io n s, rockwastes. G en era lly , m o v e m e n t o f ro ck w a ste en
g la ciers in co ld regio n s and sea w a v e s op eratin g b lo ck d o w n the h ills lo p e i s c a l l e d m a s s m o v em en t of
257
rockwaste or sim ply m ass m ovem ent. ‘M ass m ove of rock m aterials through different w eathering p roc
ment is the detachem nt and dow nslope transport of esses, and enblock dow nslope transport o f w eath
soil and rock m aterial under the influence of gravity. ered rock debris by gravity force w ithout any m e
The sliding or flow ing o f these m aterials is due to dium o f transport (e.g. running w ater, w ind, sea
their position and to gravitational forces, but mass waves, glacier etc.) except som e lubricating role o f
movement is accelerated by presence o f water, ice
water or ice. The rock debris com ing through m a s s .
and air. This definition o f m ass m ovem ent permits
m ovem ent are deposited at the foot-hill zone as
consideration o f the m ovem ent o f earth m aterials at
all scales and at all rate s’ (R.J. Chorley, et. al, 1985). scree or talus. The deposit o f large boulders in
It is evident from the above definition that mass conical shape is called talus cone. It is, thus, appar
movement includes both, detachm ent o f rock m ate ent that the most significant stim ulating factor o f
rials and their dow nslope transport enblock. ‘The mass movem ents is gravity force.
collective term for gravitational or dow nslope m ove
ments of w eathered rock debris is m ass-wasting. 2. Classification of M ass M ovem ents
The term im plies that gravity is the sole important A wide range o f variations in term s o f rate,
force and that no transporting m edium such as wind, direction and type o f m ovem ents is noted in m ass
flowing w ater, ice or m olten lava is involved. A l movements in different places having varying en v i
though flow ing w ater is excluded from the process ronmental conditions. It is generally believed that
by definition, w ater nevertheless plays an im portant mass m ovem ent of rock w astes occurs suddenly and
role in m ass-w asting by over steepening slopes through instantaneously and hence all m ass m ovem ents c an
surface erosion at their bases and by generating not be witnessed by man. But in reality m ass m o v e
seepage forces through groundw ater flow ’ (A.L. ments have long preparatory period and there are
Bloom, 1978). certain precursor events which herald the occur
If w e look at the aforesaid two definitions of rence of mas m ovem ents but these are generally
R.J. C horley et. al and A.L. Bloom it appears that the unnoticed. It may be m entioned that m ost of m ass
term m ass m ovem en t is m ore sound and appropri movements occur in m ountainous areas and hence it
ate than m ass w asting to describe enblock downslope is not possible to notice the precursor events such as
transport o f w eathered m aterials ranging from very restlessness of animals, deserting o f hives by bees
fine (soils) to very coarse and large sized rock etc. ‘Hence, if a landslide com es as a surprise to
m aterials (boulders). In fact, the definition by R.J. eyew itnesses, it would be m ore accurate to say that
Chorley and others is com prehensive one because it the observers failed to delect the phenom ena w hich
includes both the aspects of m ass m ovem ents, viz. preceded the slide’ (R.J. C horley et. al, 1985). M ass
detachm ent o f rock m aterials and their dow nslope movem ents are generally classified on the basis o f
transport w hereas B loom 's m ass w asting describes causative factors e.g. rate o f m ovem ent, direction o f
only the process o f dow nslope transport o f w eath m ovem ent, type of m ovem ent, lubricating substance
e.g. water, ice etc.
ered rock debris.
E m phasising the significance o f tectonics in The direction o f m ass m ovem ent o f rockw aste
mass w asting (m ay be ro ck disintegration) and m ass down the slope may be (i) vertical, (ii) lateral, and
m ovem ents R.J. C horley and others (1985) have (iii) diagonal. B ased on direction m ass m ovem ent
rem arked that, ‘the relation betw een m ass w asting may be divided into vertical m ovem ent, lateral m ove
and tectonics is a relativ ely clear one. W here rocks m ent and diagonal m ovem ent o f rockw aste. V erti
are shattered and re lie f is high, this is w here m ass cal m ass m ovem ent is further divided into (a) rockfall,
m ovem ent is com m on and, in fact, the denudation o f (b) collapse earthfall. L ateral m ass m ovem en t in
high m ountains m ay ........ be the result o f m ass cludes (a) block slide, (b) spread, (c) cam bering, (d)
w asting rath er than fluvial or glacial p ro cess’. sackung etc. D iagon al m ass m o v em en t is divided
It is, thus, ev id en t that m ass m ovem ent o f into (a) soil creep, (b) rockcreep, (c) talus creep, (d)
rock w astes includes the m echanism s o f detachm ent rockslide, (e) debris slide, (f) slum p, (g) d ebris flow ,
g eo m o w h o lo g y
258
(h) m ud flow, (i) solifluction, (j) avalanche etc. wasting phenom ena on the basis o f direction o f
R .J. Chorley et. al (1985) have presented m ovem ent, type o f m ovem ent and presence o f
transporting agent as given below —
exhaustive classification o f m ass m ovem ent-m ass
Table 14.1: Mass Movement-Mass Wasting Phenomena
Direction o f Vertical Lateral D iagonal
m ovem ent
Type o f m ovem ent Fall Subsidence Slide Spread C reep S lide F low
Presence o f trans No No M inor in M oderate M inor M in o r to M ajor

porting agent basal layer in basal m o d erate
or on sliding layer
surface
Types o f mass R ockfall, collapse B lock slide Spread soil creep, ro ck slide soli
m ovem ent earthfall, settlem ent cam bering rock creep, debris fluction
topple talus creep slide,soil m u d flo w
slip, slump ro c k g la
cier, ro ck
av alan ch e
Source : R.J. C horley et. al, 1985.

B ased on the rate o f m ovem ent and w ater (b) debris slides
content m ass m ovem ents are classified in 3 types— (c) debris fall
(1) L arg e-scale rapid slide o f rock w aste.
(d) rock fall
W ater is needed as lu b ricatin g ag en t for such type o f
m ass m ovem ent. L an d slid e is the typical exam ple o f (e) rock slides
this type
2. Slow m o v em en t (flow age o r slid e)
(2) S low flo w ag e o f rock w aste and w eath
ered d ebris. Partial satu ratio n o f rock d ebris is re (little w ater is required)
q u ired fo r such m ass m o v em en t and hence m oderate (i) R ock creep
q u a n tity o f w ater is n eed ed as lu b ricatin g and stim u
(ii) S oil creep
la tin g agent. R o ck creep , soil creep, so liflu ctio n etc.
are ty p ical ex am p les o f this type. (iii) S o liflu c tio n
(3) R a p id flo w ag e o f w eath ered debris. S u ffi
c ie n t q u a n tity o f w ater is n eed ed as lu bricant. E arth 3. R apid m o v em en t (flo w a g e o r slid e)
flow , m u d flo w etc. are re p re se n ta tiv e o f this type o f (enough w ater is req u ired )
m a ss m o v e m en t. (i) E arth flow
A g e n e ra liz e d c la ssific a tio n o f m ass m o v e
(ii) M u d flo w
m e n t o f ro c k w astes is p re se n te d as fo llo w s.
(iii) S h eetw a sh
Table 14.2 : Classification of mass movement
On the basis o f direction and type o f m ove
1. Very rapid movement
(n o w a te r is req u ired ) m ent the fo llo w in g types o f m ass m ovem en t o f rock
(i) Landslides w aste m ay be indentified (sim p lified sch em e o f R.J.

(a) slu m p * C horley et. al, 1985)—
....................... K ilf t
W EATH ER IN G A N D M A S S M O V E M E N T ' wxP-
Table 14.3 : Classification of Mass Movement

1. V ertical M o v em en t
(A ) F all (o f earth m aterials from very steep slopes like steep scarps and cliffs)
O n th e b a sis o f m a teria ls
(a) roc kfalls
(b) ea rth fa lls (o f allu v ia, soils, colluvia)
(c) d eb risfa ll (soils, alluvia, colluvia, vegetation and hum an stru ctu res)
(d) to p p le (ro tatio n al fall o f rock slabs, or o f earth en m aterial)
(B) S u b sid e n c e ( o f th e g ro u n d su rface)
S in k in g
(a) co lla p se (o f ro o fs o f underground caves or cavities o r lav a tu b es)
(b ) se ttle m e n t (co llap se o f ground surface due to w ith d raw al o f w ater, cru d e oil etc.)
2. L a tera l M o v e m e n t
(A ) S lid e s (m o v e m e n t o f m aterials along a horizontal fracture o r interface b etw een tw o ro c k s tra ta
(slid in g ) o f v a ry in g resistan ce e.g. sandstone-shales or lim esto n es-sh ales)
(a) b lo c k slid e (d ow nslope m ov em en t o f a single large b lo ck o f m a ssiv e ro c k on
(b lo ck g lid e) such a surface w hich has been lu b ricated by w ater)
(B) S p r e a d in g (lateral disp lacem en t o f a series o f rock blocks (m ultiple blocks) or m u d b lo ck do w n slo p e)
(a) ca m b e r in g (d rap in g o f sedim entary units)
(b) s a c k u n g (lateral spreading aw ay from anticlinal crests)
3. D ia g o n a l M o v e m e n t
(A ) C r e e p in g (d o w n slo p e m o v e m e n t o f earth en m aterials at slow velo city )
(a) s o il cre ep (m o v em en t o f m o isten ed soils d o w n slo p e)
(b ) r o c k cre ep (m o v em en t o f ro ck upon rock)
(c) ta lu s cre ep (rearran g em en t o f scree and d o w n slo p e m o v e m en t)
(B) S lid e (rapid rate o f downslope movement of large quantities of debris of varying sizes) (on the basis of materials)
(a) r o c k slid es
(b ) d e b r is slid es
(c) so il cre ep
(d ) s lu m p in g (m o v e m e n t o f fin e m aterials alo n g a cu rv ed p la n e)
(C ) F lo w s (d o m in a n t ro le o f w a te r , d o w n slo p e tran sp o rt o f w a ter-so ak ed fin e d e b ris)
(a ) e a r th flo w
(b) d e b r is f lo w
(c ) m u d flo w
Table 14.4: Sim plified classification of m ass movement (ii) debris slum p
(Land S lid es) (iii) earth slum p
S lid e s
1. Fall (t>)
(i) rock slid es
(a) R o c k fa ll (ii) debris slid es
(b) D e b r i s f a l l (iii) earth slid es
(c) E arth fall 3. Toppli s
2. Slides (i) rock top p les
(ii) debris top p les
(a) Slum p
(iii) earth top p les
(i) rock slu m p
G EO M O RPH O LO G Y
260
4 Blow s 5 L a tera l S Prea d s

(a) R o c k flow <*> sp read s
(b) SoU flow d e b ris sp re a d s
(i) debris flow (i>>) e arth sp read
(ii) earth flow
ROCK FALL B SOIL FALL
SLUMP B L O C K G L ID E
DEBRIS SLID E SLUMP AND EARTH FLOW
Slu m p
Earth Flow
F ig 1 4 .1 : D ifferen t types o f m ass m ovem ents, rock fa ll (A), soil fa ll (B), slum p (C), block glide (D), D eb ris slid e (E )o n d
s lu m p a n d earth flo w (F). Source : D.J. Varnes (1978), M .J. Selby (198%) a n d R.J. C horley et. a l (1985).
A D E B R IS F L O W B D E B R IS A V A LA N C H E
D E B R IS TOPPLE L A T E R A L S P R E A D IN G
Fig. 14.2 : D ifferent types o f mass movements : debris flow (A), debris avalanche (B), debris topple (C) and lateral
spreading (D). Source : D.J. Varnes, (1978), M.J. Selby (1982) and R.J. Chorley et. al(1985).
3. F a c to r s o f M a ss M o v em en t begin to m ove d ow n slop e and thus m ass m ovem en t

A n y sort o f m ass m ovem en t o f weathered o f weathered debris occurs. It is apparent that m ass
debris w ith any rate w hether on h illslop e or valley m ovem ent may occur w hen either shearing forces
side slo p e d ep en d s on the ratio betw een shearing increase or shearing resistance o f m aterials decreases.
forces (sim p ly know n as stress) and resistance o f It may be pointed out that either o f the tw o p ro cesses
m aterials to shearin g forces (i.e. shearing resistance (increase in stress and d ecrease in resistan ce o f
o f m aterials) as fo llo w s — m aterials to stress) m ay operate or b oth the p roc
esses m ay operate together.
strength or shearing resistance of materials
Fs = — -------------------------------- ;— — B ased on this corollary D .J. V arn es (1 9 7 8 )
m agnitude of sheanng forces
cla ssified the factors w h ich con trol m a ss m o v em en t
w here Fs = factor o f safety o f rock w astes in tw o broad ca teg o r ies and m any
W hen the quotient o f shearing resistan ce o f su b categories— (1 ) factors w hich increase sh ear
m aterials (sim p ly strength o f m aterials) and m agn i ing forces (shear stress) and (2 ) factors w hich
tude o f shearing forces i.e. safety factor (F s) is less reduce resistance o f m aterials to shear stess. T h e
than 1.0 (i.e. w hen m agnitude o f shearing forces o f sum m arized form o f V a m e's c la ssific a tio n o f factors
h illslop e or v alley sid e slo p e e x c e e d s the'Shearing o f m ass m o v em en t h a v e b een p resen ted tin tab le
resistance o f m aterials resting on slo p e s) m aterials f4.5.
262 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Table 14.5 : Factors of Mass Movement 5. L ateral pressure

(a) w ater in cracks
Category I
(b) freezing o f w ater in cracks
Factors w hich in crease th e sh ea r strength
(c) sw elling (hydration o f clay)
(External P rocesses)
(d) m o bilization o f residual stress (pres
1. R em oval o f lateral su p p o rt (u n dercu ttin g- sure release)
steep en in g o f slope)
C ategory II
(A ) (N atural) F actors w hich d ecrease (red u ce) th e sh ear strength
(a) stream erosion o f m aterials
(b) glacial erosion 1. W eath erin g a n d o th er p h y sico ch em ica l re
(c) m arin e erosion by sea w aves action s
(d) w eathering (a) softening o f fissu red clay s
(these factors lead to rem oval o f lat (b) physical d isin teg ratio n o f gran u lar
eral support) rocks (frost action, therm al ex p an
(e) prev io u s rockfall or slide, subsid sion etc.)
ence or faulting (these factors steepen (c) hydration o f clay m ineral cau sin g
the slope) d ecrease in p articles co h esio n , sw e ll
(B ) (A n th ro p o g en ic factors) ing
(a) C o n stru ctio n o f quarries, pits, canals, (d) base ex ch an g e (ch an g es in physical
roads p ro p erties)
(b) alteratio n o f w ater levels in lakes and (e) d ry in g (d e sic c a tio n ) o f c la y s an d
reserv o irs shales (rack in g , loss o f co h esio n )
2. S u rch a rg e (lo a d in g o f slo p e) (f) rem oval o f c em en t by so lu tio n
(a) ( n a tu r a l) w e ig h t o f r a in , s n o w 2. C hanges in in terg ra n u la r fo rces d u e to w ater

(anthropogenic) w ater from pipelines, co n ten t
sew ers, can als (p o rew ater p ressu re)
(b) acc u m u la tio n o f talus (a) satu ratio n
(c) v eg etatio n , trees (b) so ften in g o f m a teria l
(d) see p a g e p ressu re o f p erco latin g w a 3. C h a n g es o f stru ctu re
te r (a) A ssuring o f sh ales an d co n so lid ated
(e) (a n th ro p o g e n ic ) co n stru ctio n o f fill, clay s
w a ste p iles, b u ild in g s (b) re m o u ld in g o f lo e ss, san d a n d sen si
3. T r a n s ito r y e a r th stress tiv e clay
(e n d o g e n e tic p ro c e s s e s ) 4. O rg a n ic
(a) e a rth q u a k e s (a) burrowing animals
(b ) v ib ra tio n s, b la stin g , traffic (b) d ecay o f ro o ts
(c) swaying of trees in wind Source : D.J. Vames, 1978, in R.J. Chorley et. al,
4. R e m o v a l o f u n d e r ly in g s u p p o r t 1985
(a) undercutting by rivers and waves Recently, man has emerged as a significant
(b) solution at depth, mining factor of mass wasting and mass movement in al
(anthropogenic) most all of the environmental conditions. His activi
(c) loss o f strength o f underlying ties (e.g. deforestation for commercial wood and
sediments increase in agricultural land; construction of roads,
(d) squeezing out of underlying plastic dams, reservoirs; urbanization on fragile hillslope,
sediments manipulation of rivers, coastal areas etc.) destabilize
hillslopes as w ell as valley side slopes and accelerate rapid w eath erin g o f an u n d erly in g w eak ro c k su ch a s
the process o f m ass w astin g and m ass m o v em en t and shale or m u d sto n e .’ T h e freq u en cy o f ro c k fa lls
increase frequency and m agnitude o f different m echa dep en d s on certain e n v iro n m en ta l co n d itio n s su ch
nism s o f m ass m ov em en t. Increased defo restatio n , as arid ity /h u m id ity facto r,lith o lo g ical a n d stru ctu ra l
cultivation on cleared hillslope, co nstruction o f roads ch aracteristics o f ro ck s, n atu re o f slo p e an d v e g e ta
and reservoirs in the H im alay as have m ade the tion etc. In hum id areas ro ck falls a re very co m m o n
m ountain eco sy stem m o re frag ile and vuln erab le to features but in h ot arid areas they are o f very rare
increase freq u en cy and m a g n itu d e o f d iffere n t types occurrence. D e b ris fa ll in v o lv es rap id rate o f fall o f
o f m ass m o vem ent. w eathered ro ck m a terials (w h ich are fin e r than the
m aterials in v o lv ed in ro ck fall) d o w n slo p e (it m ay
Lan d slid es
be h illslo p e or steep v alley sid e slo p e o f stre a m s)
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t g enerally all types from g reat height. T h e fallen m a te ria ls c o lle c t at th e
o f m ass m o v e m e n ts o f ro ck w astes in clu d in g soils foot-hill or c liff b ase and form sm all m o u n d s an d
and ice are co lle c tiv e ly called as lan d slid es w hich ridges. E a rth fa ll in v o lv es d o w n slo p e m o v e m e n t o f
are v ario u sly classified on d iffe re n t b ases i.e. d irec
finer m aterials than d eb ris fall.
tion o f m o v e m en t, ty p e and rate o f m ov em en t, n a
ture o f m a teria ls, p resen ce or ab sen ce o f lu b rican ts S lid es
etc. (tab les 14.1 to 14.4). O n an average, lan d slid es Slides, very often k n o w n as la n d slid e s a m o n g
(d o w n slo p e m o v e m e n t o f d iffere n t types o f debris general public, are m o st s ig n ific a n t o f all ty p e s o f
e n b lo ck ) are d iv id ed into five m ajo r categ o ries e.g. m ass m ovem ents. ‘M a ss-w a stin g w h erein a m a ss o f
fa ll, slid e, to p p le , flo w s and la tera l sp rea d s. On the rock or w eath ered d eb ris m o v e s d o w n h ill a lo n g
basis o f n atu re o f m a teria ls th ese are fu rth er su b d i d iscrete sh ear su rfaces is d e fin e d as a s lid e ’ (A .L .
vide into sev eral types (tab le 14.4). B loom ). It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t slid e s in v o lv e
dow n slo p e d isp la cem e n t o f b o th ty p e s o f m a te ri
Fails als— w eath ered ro ck m a te ria ls an d so ils. ‘S lid e s in
In s ta n ta n e o u s fall o f w eath ered ro ck m a teri rock or soil are ch a ra c te riz e d by m o v e m e n t a b o v e a
als in c lu d in g la rg e b lo c k s from steep h illslo p es or sharply d efin ed sh ear p lan e. In ro c k s su ch as sla te ,
earth en m a te ria ls fro m steep and cliffed v alley sid es schist, and m any sed im en tary fo rm a tio n s th e s h e a r
o f stre a m s u n d e r th e in flu en ce o f g ra v ity is called plane fo llo w s a stru ctu ra l p la n e w ith in th e ro c k su c h
fall. T h e siz e o f ro c k frag m e n ts d ep en d s on the size as a p lan e o f fo liatio n or b e d d in g — a n d it is o fte n
and p a tte rn o f ro c k jo in ts . T h is type o f m o v em en t s tra ig h t’ (M .J. S elb y , 1982). S lid e s are p ro m o te d by
in v o lv e s v e rtic a l d is p la c e m e n t o f m a teria ls w ith o u t a h o st o f co n tro llin g v a ria b le s su c h as n a tu re o f
w ater. T h e v e lo c ity o f fall is g re a te st o f all o th er slo p es (v ertical an d c liff slo p e is e s s e n tia l fo r s lid e s),
types o f m a ss m o v e m e n t. A c c o rd in g to A .L . B lo o m , m o d erate lu b ricatio n by w a te r, e a rth tre m o rs , g ra v
‘fa ll is a d is tin c t la n d slid e p ro cess, b u t it is rarely ity, v ertical and steep ly in c lin e d ro c k b e d s, b a se
in d e p e n d e n t o f s u b se q u e n t e v e n ts .’ O n th e b asis o f rem o v al etc. S lid e s are m o re fre q u e n t in c e rta in
m a teria ls fall is s u b d iv id e d in to ro c k fa ll, d eb ris fa ll lo c atio n s h av in g fa v o u ra b le c o n d itio n viz. (1 ) ste e p
and e a r th fa ll. h illslo p e o r s te e p v a lle y sid e s o f s tre a m s, (2 ) fa u lt
‘R o c k fa lls are re la tiv e ly sm all la n d slid es scarp s, (2) re ju v e n a te d flu v ia lly e ro d e d v a lle y s , (4 )
confined to th e re m o v a l o f in d iv id u a l and su p erficial sea co asts, (5) a llu v ia l riv e r v a lle y s , (6 ) d e g ra d e d
blocks fro m a c lif f b a s e ’ (M .J. S elb y , 1982). R o ck h ills and m o u n ta in s (d u e to d e fo re s ta tio n , ro a d c o n
fall (fig. 14.1 A ) is fa c ilita te d by g ra n u la r an d b lo ck stru c tio n , s e ttle m e n t e x p a n s io n e tc .).
d isin teg ratio n o f ro c k s u n d e r th e p ro c e sse s o f m e On the basis of nature of materials, direction
chanical w e a th e rin g a n d lim ite d a c tio n o f o x id a tio n and rate of movement (intensity) slides are divided
in san d sto n es. A c c o rd in g to M .J. S elb y (1 9 8 2 ) ‘m o st into (1) slump (which is further divided into rock
rockfalls a re p ro m o te d by h y d ro fa c tu rin g , stress slump, debris slump and earth slump), (2) rock
release, th e w e d g in g a c tio n o f tree ro o ts, an d o th e r slides, (3) debris slide, and (4) earth slide.
w eathering p ro c e s s e s . ... a c o m m o n c a u s e o f ro c k (1) Slumping involves intermittent sliding
falls is u n d e rc u ttin g o f a fa c e by stre a m s o r th e m o re rock fragments, rock blocks or soils downslope
264
GEOMORPHOLOGY
along a curved plane caused by rotational m ovem ent
hum an activities (quarrying). In fact, ‘slump is the
(fig. 14.1C and 14.3) an d d isp laced blocks (w hether
form o f slide m ost com m on in thick, hom ogeneous,
rock blocks or soil blocks) co v er very short distance.
cohesive m aterials such as clay. The surface of
Slum p is prom oted by un d ercu ttin g o f slope base failure beneath a slum p block is spoon-shaped, con
(w ith hillslope o r valley side slope o f stream s) by cave upw ard or o u tw ard ’ (A .L. Bloom , 1978, fig
stream s, seaw aves (in case o f co ast land) and by 14.3).
to e
Fig. 14.3 : Slump and earthflow (After A.L. Bloom, 1978).
S lu m p in g o f allu v ial d eposits o f valley sides

su rface’ (A .L. B loom , 1978). The C ross V entre
o f a llu v ial riv ers o f no rth In d ia through u ndercutting Slide o f 1925 in W yom ing, U SA and T urtle M oun
o f v alley sid es by h y d rau lic action o f the stream s tain Slide o f 1903 in A lberta, C an ad a, are typical
d u rin g w et m o n so o n p erio d is o f com m on o ccu r exam ples o f d ev astatin g landslides. T he very m as
rence. S lu m p in g is co n su m in g a large ch u n k o f rich sive landslide (rock slide), w hich o ccurred in the
ag ric u ltu ra l lands ev ery y ear along the G ang a valley north-w estern side o f N aini L ake (N ainital, U .P .) in
in U .P. an d B ihar. B ased on the nature o f m aterials 1884, w as so enorm ous that the debris filled a
in v o lv ed slu m p is su b d iv id e d into r o c k slu m p , sizeable portion o f the lake.
d e b r is s lu m p a n d ea rth slu m p .
(3) D e b ris slid e is m ore ex ten siv e and occur
(2 ) R o ck slid e (also k now n as ro ck g lid eator
larg er scale than slum p but there is little am ount o f
b lo ck g lid e ) is m o st sig n ific a n t o f all types o f slides w ater. D ebris slide is pro m o ted because o f tw o basic
w h erein la rg e ro ck b lo ck s slid e d o w n the hillslope. factors— (1) saturation o f rocks due to w ater, and (2)
‘R o c k slid e s m ay b e v ery larg e and catastro p h ic in sudden d o w n slo p e m o v em en t o f unconsolidated
m o u n tain re g io n s w h ere th e la rg e av ailab le re lie f m antle rock. T h e m aterials involved in debris slide
p e rm its a c c e le ra tio n s o f ro ck d eb ris to v elo cities as is a m ix tu re o f soils and rock fragm ents (boulders).
g re a t as th o se o f ro c k falls an d ro ck a v a la n c h e s’ T he d ebris co llects at the foot-hill or the b ase o f the
(M .J. S elb y , 1982). R o c k slid e s in v o lv e rap id m o v e valleys and fo rm s in terestin g m o rphological fea
m e n t o f m a te ria ls d o w n slo p e . S o m e tim es, the v e tures.
lo c ity is so h ig h a n d m a ss o f m a te ria ls is so e n o r
m o u s th a t ‘ro c k s lid e s c an b e d ra m a tic fo rm s o f Flow
slk fin g m a ss-w a stin g i f la rg e m a sse s o f u n w eath e red D iag o n al d o w n slo p e m o v e m en t o f ro ck frag
roek slid e d o w n h ill alo n g a slo p in g jo in t o r a b ed d in g m e n ts and so ils alo n g slid in g p la n e w ith enough
WEATHERING AND MASS M OVEM ENT 265
w ater is called flow (w hich is fu rth er d iv id ed into M u d flo w d iffers fro m ea rth flo w in th a t
so liflu ctio n , d eb ris flo w , m ud flo w , ea rth flo w , fo rm er m ay be n o ticed by th e o b se rv e r w h ile th e
rock a v a la n ch e etc.). F low in v o lv es d o w n slo p e latter can n o t be n o ticed b eca u se e a rth flo w is .n o t
rapid m o v e m en t o f ro ck d eb ris or soils satu rated very com m on. T h e w ater c o n te n t is m o re in m u d
w ith w ater like visco u s fluid. ‘D ry flow s in san d or flow than in d eb ris flo w an d ea rth flo w . M ud flo w is
silt are kn o w n , b u t m o st flow s are satu rated w ith m o st co m m o n alo n g v alle y sid e s o f a llu v ia l riv e rs
w ater. R ates o f m o v e m e n t are g reater than for creep and the d eb ris (m u d ) so p ro d u c e d is tra n s p o rte d by
but ran g e from im p ercep tib ly slow to trag ically the rivers. T h e n ece ssary c o n d itio n s w h ich p ro m o te
rapid m u d flo w s an d av alan ch es. F low s typically m ud flow in clu d e (1 ) steep an d v ertical slo p e, (2 )
m ove as lo b e s o r to u n g e s ’ (A .L . B loom , 1978). p resen ce o f u n co n so lited m a te ria ls on th e u p p e r
D e b r is flo w in v o lv es d o w n slo p e m o v em en t su rface so th a t th ese, w h en m ix e d w ith w ater, b e
o f e n o rm o u s a m o u n t o f v isco u s soils and boulders com e viscous flu id and slip p e ry , (3 ) in te rm itte n t
either sep arately o r m ix ed together, and occurs m ostly supply o f su fficie n t w ater as lu b ric a n t, a n d (4 ) a b
along riv e r v alley sid es. T h e d iffere n ce betw een sence o f v eg etatio n . B ased on th e se fa c to rs E llio t
d eb ris flo w , ea r th flo w an d m u d flo w is related to B lack w eld er (19 2 8 ) c o n sid ere d arid re g io n s as m o s t
size o f p a rtic le s an d a m o u n t o f w ater. T h e size o f favourable fo r m u d flow . C .F .S . S h a rp e (1 9 3 8 ) h as
p article d e c re a se s fro m d eb ris flow to m udflow . d ivided m ud flow into th ree c a te g o rie s on th e b a sis
‘T h e th ree te rm s fo rm a series o f pro g ressiv ely o f spatial ch ara cteristics e.g. (1) m u d flo w o f a rid
h ig h e r w a te r c o n te n t (i.e. w ater co n ten t increases regions, (2) A lp in e m ud flo w , an d (3 ) v o lc a n ic m u d
fro m d e b ris flo w th ro u g h earth flow to m ud flow ) but flow .
are o ften u se d in terch an g ea b ly . D ebris flow s have Creep
2 0 -8 0 p e r c e n t p a rtic le s c o a rse r than sand sizes, V ery slow and im perceptible d o w n slo p e m o v e
w h ereas ea rth flo w s an d m u d flow s are 80 per cent m en t o f m aterials (co llu v iu m ) is c a lle d creep . O n th e
o r m o re m u d an d sand. M u d flow is the m o st liquid basis o f m aterials in v o lv ed in su ch m o v e m e n t c re e p
“ en d m e m b e r” o f th e s e rie s ’ (A .L . B loom , 1978). is div id ed into (1) so il c re ep (fin e w e a th e re d ro c k
D e b ris flo w o c c u rs m o stly d ue to av ailab ility o f
debris as w ell as soil) and (2) ro ck creep (u n w eath ered
w ater, p re s e n c e o f lo o sely d ep o sited so ils and fine
jo in t b locks). It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t th e ra te o f
ro c k m a te ria ls , la c k o f v eg etatio n co v er, clay m in er
m o v em en t o f m a teria ls (c o llu v ia ) u n d e r c re e p is
als in th e so ils , u n sta b le slo p e, u n d ercu ttin g o f slope
so slow (a few m illim e te rs p e r y e a r) th a t it b e
(v a lle y sid e s ) by stream s, earth trem o rs etc. ‘D ebris
co m es p ractically d iffic u lt fo r th e o b se rv e rs to n o
flo w s ra n g e in size fro m a few m eters to o v e r 1000
tice it.
m e te rs in w id th a n d m ay be ten s o f m eters th ick in
p la c e s; m o re c o m m o n ly th ey are 1 to 5 m th ic k ’ (M .J. S o il creep is also c a lle d as s o liflu c tio n w h ic h
S elb y , 1982). D e b ris flo w is m o st c o m m o n on gully o ccu rs in a v ariety o f c lim a tic c o n d itio n s ra n g in g
h e a d s in th e riv e rin e tra c ts o f m a jo r a llu v ial riv ers. from tro p ical h u m id to p e rig la c ia l c lim a te s . T h e
E a r th flo w is p ro m o te d by e x c e ssiv e w ater p ro cess o f d e b ris m o v e m e n t in p e rig la c ia l re g io n s
re c e iv e d m o s tly th ro u g h ra in fa ll so th a t th e m a teria ls has been v ario u sly d e fin e d an d a n u m b e r o f te rm s
are o v e rsa tu ra te d . E a rth flo w is m o re co m m o n on h av e b een su g g e ste d . F irs t J.G . A n d e rs o n (1 9 0 6 )
p la n a r h ills id e s o r v a lle y s id e s h a v in g a llu v iu m , rich p ro p o se d th e te rm solifluction (s o lu m -s o il, flu e re
in clay m in e ra ls. flo w ) fo r slo w m o v e m e n t o f d e b ris , s o a k e d w ith
D e b ris flo w o f v o lc a n ic m a te ria ls satu rated w ater, fo rm h ig h e r to lo w e r slp e s. S o liflu c tio n te rm
w ith w a te r on v o lc a n ic c o n e s is c a lle d la h a r . H eav y w as re p la c e d by congelifluction o f J. D a y lik (1 9 5 1 )
d o w n p o u r m ix in g w ith fallin g v o lc a n ic d u sts c au ses to in c o rp o ra te o n ly s o il-flo w in th e p e rig la c ia l c li
en o rm o u s m u d flo w as la h a r on the ste e p slo p es o f m a te h a v in g p e rm a fro s t b e lo w a n a c tiv e la y e r. K .
v o lcan ic c o n e s w h ic h in flic ts g re a t d a m a g e to h u B ry an (1 9 4 6 ) u se d th e te rm cryoturbation w h ic h
m an h e a lth an d w ealth . F o r e x a m p le g re a t la h a r in c lu d e d all ty p e s o f m a ss m o v e m e n t o f re g o lith s
c re a te d on th e ste e p slo p e s o f K e lu t V o lc a n o in Ja p a n u n d er p e rig la c ia l e n v iro n m e n t. R e c e n tly , gelifhiction
in 1919 k ille d 5 5 0 0 p erso n s. is u se d in p la c e o f c o n g e liflu c tio n .
266 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Rock creep in v o lv e s d o w n h ill m o v e m e n t o f 14.6 TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSIONS OF IIA88

ro c k d e b ris h a v in g re la tiv e ly g re a t d e p th (u p to 3 0 0 WASTING AND MASS MOVEMENT
m ) bu t the m o v e m e n t is v ery slo w a n d ra n g e s b e D iffe re n t ty p e s o f m a s s w a s tin g a n d mass
tw e e n o n e m e te r to ten m e te rs p e r y ear. ‘It is d is tin m o v e m e n t c re a te d is tin c tiv e m o rp h o lo g ic a l fe a tu re s
g u ish e d from so il c re e p b y its g re a t d e p th a n d is o la on h ills lo p e a n d r iv e r v a lle y s id e s a n d c o a s ta l la n d s.
tion from d aily a n d se a so n a l c lim a tic c o n d itio n s , an d It m a y be p o in te d o u t th a t on o n e h a n d th e re is w ide
fro m lan d s lid in g by th e la c k o f a sin g le c le a rly
ra n g e o f v a ria tio n in m a ss m o v e m e n t b e c a u se o f
d efin e d fa ilu re p la n e an d slo w ra te o f d e fo rm a tio n ’
v a ry in g c o n tro llin g fa c to rs a n d c o n d itio n s , th e re is
(M .J. S elb y , 1982). T h e fo llo w in g c o n d itio n s p ro
a lm o s t u n ifo rm ity in th e r e s u lta n t m o rp h o lo g ic a l
m o te ro c k c re e p — d e fo rm a tio n o f ro ck s th ro u g h
b e n d in g , fo ld in g , b u lg in g , fra c tu rin g , sp read in g ; fe a tu re s. T h e to p o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s p r o d u c e d b y m a ss
d isto rtio n and b u ck lin g o f in clin ed ro ck b ed s o f v ary m o v e m e n t say la n d slid e s in c lu d e sc a rs , rip p le m a rk s,
ing resistan ce, m ech an ical d isin teg ratio n o f rocks etc. https://telegram.me/UPSC_CivilServiceBooks
te rra ces, m e a n d e r w id e n in g etc.
CHAPTER 15 HILLSLOPE 267-296
C la s s if ic a tio n o f s l o p e s ; s lo p e e l e m e n t s ; a p p r o a c h e s to th e s tu d y o f s lo p e
d e v e lo p m e n t-s lo p e ev o lu tio n ap p ro a c h an d p ro c e s s -fo rm a p p ro a c h (m o n o -
ro c e s s c o n c e p t a n d p o ly -p ro c e s s c o n c e p t) ; s lo p e d e c lin e th e o ry o f
E >avis ; s lo p e r e p la c e m e n t th e o ry o f P e n c k ; A . W o o d 's m o d e l o f s lo p e
e v o l u t i o n ; h ills lo p e c y c le th e o ry o f L .C . K i n g ; c o n c e p t o f R . A .S a v ig e a r ;
F is h e r - L e h m a n n m o d e l o f slo p e e v o lu tio n ; p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e m o d e l o f
A . Y o u n g ; s lo p e fa ilu re ; h ills lo p e p ro c e s s e s a n d e ro s io n .
15
HILLSLOPE
S lo p e , d efin e d as an g u lar in clin atio n s o f te r slope profile o f e ith er h illslo p e o r v alley sid e slo p e.
rain b e tw e e n hill to p s (crests) and valley bottom s, T he ch a ra cteristic a n g le or c h a r a c te r is tic slo p e ‘is
re su ltin g fro m the co m b in atio n s o f m any causative that w hich is m o st freq u en tly id e n tifie d u n d e r p a r
facto rs like g eo lo g ical stru ctu re, clim ate, vegetation ticu lar co n d itio n s o f ro ck ty p e an d c lim a te ’ (R .J.
c o v e r, d ra in a g e te x tu re and freq u en cy , d issection C horley et. al, 1985) and has m a x im u m fre q u e n c ie s
in d e x , re la tiv e reliefs (and o f co u rse d en u dational o f slope angles o f h illslo p e.
p ro c e s s e s , in c lu d in g w eath erin g , m ass w asting and T he study o f slope in g e o m o rp h o lo g y is g iv e n
m a ss m o v e m e n ts o f ro ck w astes, ero sio n and tran s m ore im p o rtan ce b eca u se , ‘n o t o n ly slo p es d o c o m
p o rta tio n o f e ro d e d m a teria ls d o w n slo p e) etc. are p rise the g reater p art o f th e la n d sc a p e , b u t as an
sig n ific a n t g e o m o rp h ic attrib u tes in the study o f integral p art o f the d ra in a g e sy stem th ey p ro v id e
la n d fo rm s o f a (flu v ia lly o rig in ated ) d rain ag e basin w ater and sed im en t to stream s. T h e re fo re , h ills lo p e s
(S a v in d ra S in g h an d R. S riv asta v a, 1975). S lope is, are an im p o rtan t co m p o n e n t o f th e c o m p le x la n d
th u s, u p w a rd o r d o w n w a rd in c lin atio n o f su rface scape th a t fo rm s a d ra in a g e b a s in ’ (R .J. C h o rle y et.
b e tw e e n h ills a n d v alley s an d form m o st sig n ifican t al 1985). T h e slo p e stu d y in v o lv e s c la ss ific a tio n ,
a s p e c t o f la n d s c a p e a sse m b la g e s. E x ce p t p lain s and d ev elo p m en t and ev o lu tio n o f h illslo p e s. B e sid e s,
te rra c e s s lo p e s are a lw a y s p e rc e p tib le and are m ore slo p e p ro file stu d y b ased on field m e a s u re m e n t o f
s ig n ific a n t in m o u n ta in o u s reg io n s. In fact, m o rp h o slope an g les and in s tru m e n ta tio n o f p ro c e s s e s actin g
lo g ical c h a ra c te ris tic s o f a g iv en reg io n are d e te r
on h illslo p e h as b e c o m e m o re im p o rta n t fo r q u a n ti
m in ed by s lo p e s o f th a t reg io n b eca u se p h y sical
tativ e a n a ly sis o f h illslo p e s an d c o n s tru c tio n o f th e o
la n d sca p es a re the re s u lt o f c o m b in a tio n s o f slo p es.
ries and m o d e ls o f th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t and e v o lu tio n .
N ot o n ly th is, slo p e s in tro d u c e v a ria tio n s an d c o m
H istorically, the research es on slope stu d y and analysis
p lex ity in th e la n d sc a p e s o f a reg io n . T h is is w hy the
m ay be g ro u p e d in tw o p h a se s. Initial phase w as
study o f d iffe re n t a sp e c ts o f slo p e s h as a lw a y s been
d o m in a te d by in te rp re ta tio n o f d iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f
a focal th e m e in g e o m o rp h o lo g y .
h illslo p e an d v alle y sid e slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t o n th e
T w o te rm s, re la te d to slo p es i.e. an g le o f b asis o f fie ld o b s e rv a tio n . D a v is ia n (slope decline)
in c lin atio n a n d in c lin e d su rfa c e , n eed c la rific a tio n . an d P e n c k ia n (parallel retreat a n d slope rep lace
A n g le o f in c lin a tio n o f th e su rfa c e o f a slo p e m e an s m ent) m o d e ls o f s lo p e d e v e lo p m e n t b e lo n g to th is
slo p e a n g le o r sim p ly slo p e w h e th e r h ills lo p e o r p h a se o f q u a lita tiv e stu d y o f s lo p e s . M odern phase
v alley sid e slo p e w h e re a s in c lin e d s u rfa c e m e a n s is d o m in a te d by q u a n tita tiv e a n a ly s is o f s lo p e s b a s e d
268 GEOMORPHOLOGY
on data derived from topographical m aps and aerial m ents o f slope p rofile are called slo p e elem ents or
photographs, m easu rem en t o f slope angles in the slop e segm en ts. It is not alw ays necessary that all the
field, and instrum entation o f p ro cesses (w eathering, slope profiles w ill com prise all the four elem ents but
m ass w asting and m o vem ent, and ero sio n ) acting on an ideal h illslope p rofile is th at w hich consists of
the hillslopes. The w orks o f R. A. Savigear, A. Y oung, sum m ital co nvexity, free-face, rectilinearity and ba
W aters etc. belong to this phase. B esides, sig nifican t sal concavity. T h e ex isten ce o f free face (cliff) ele
m ent depends on the p resen ce o f resistant strata (in
contributions in slo p e study h av e been m ad e by J.L.
the case o f hillslo p e) or u n d ercu ttin g (cliffing) at the
R ic h (1 9 1 6 ), C .K . W en tw o rth (1930), A .C . L aw son,
slope base (in the case o f co astal slope) (fig. 15.1).
E. R aize an d J. H enry (1 9 3 7 ), R .E. H orton (1945), H.
B aulig (1935), W .C . C a le f (1950), W .C . C a le f and
R. N ew C o m b (1953 ), A. W ood (1942), L .C . K ing IDEAL HILLSLOPE
(1953), A .N . S trah ler (1950), C .A . C o tton, O .M . PRO FILE
M iller and C .H . S u m m arso o (1960), S.A . S chum m 1
(1 9 5 6 ,1 9 6 7 ), S. A. S chum m an d M .P . M osley (1973), Summital
M .J. S elby (1 9 8 2 ), R .J. Sm all and M .J. C lark (1982), Convexity
Y o u n g (1 9 6 1 , 1963, 1972), S av in d ra S in g h and R. 2
Free Face
S riv a sta v a (1 9 7 5 , 1977), S av in d ra S ingh (1979).
S a v in d ra S in g h an d R .S. P an d ey (1982, 1987), \ s l e c t iii near
S av in d ra S in g h and S.P. A g n ih o tri (19 8 2 ) etc. 3
15.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SLO PE S ----------- ^ " x B a s a l

T h ere is m a rk e d v ariatio n in op in io n s reg ard k ^ ^ Q oncavity
in g the c la ssific a tio n o f h illslo p es b ecau se o f co n fu
sio n s re g a rd in g the elem en ts (seg m en ts) and form o f
slo p es. C o n v ex , free face, re c tilin e a r and co n cav e Fig. 15.1 : Elements (Segments) o f Hillslope.
seg m en ts are in fact elem en ts o f h illslo p e p ro file and (1) S u m m ita l C o n v e x ity — T h e c o n v e x seg
the fo rm s o f slo p e b u t a few g eo m o rp h o lo g ists have m e n t is fo u n d a t th e h ill c re s t (h ill to p ) an d this
re c o g n iz e d th em as ty p es o f h illslo p es. It m ay be e lem en t is ca lle d su m m ita l c o n v e x ity (o r sim ply
p o in te d o u t th a t no h illslo p e m ay be only e ith er co n v ex e lem en t). C o n v e x slo p e , if c o n v e x elem ent
re c tilin e a r (stra ig h t), o r c o n v e x or co n c a v e ra th e r it d o m in a te s th e h ills lo p e p ro file , is a lso c a lle d as
c o m p rise s m o re th an o n e e le m e n t (seg m en t), th o u g h w a x in g slo p e b e c a u se it g ro w s in h e ig h t u p w a rd and
o n e e le m e n t m ay be m o st e x te n siv e an d d o m in an t. in d im e n sio n d o w n w a rd b u t th is te rm in o lo g y o f W.
G e n e ra lly , so m e g e o m o rp h o lo g ists classify slo p es P en ck is n o t ju s tif ia b le b e c a u se n o t all c o n v e x slopes
fo r s im p lific a tio n in to c lif f slo p e (free face o r scarp n e c e ssa rily g ro w in h e ig h t a n d d im e n s io n (size).
s lo p e ), re c tilin e a r o r s tra ig h t slo p e, c o n v e x slo p e and M o st o f th e s u m m ita l c o n v e x ity d e v e lo p s b ecause of
c o n c a v e slo p e , an d if m o re th an o n e fo rm s are d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s e .g . ra in w a s h o r so il creep,
p re s e n t, th e y c all th e m c o m p o site slo p e. B u t this th is is w h y c o n v e x slo p e is a lso c a lle d u p p e r w ash
c la s s ific a tio n is n o t ju s tifia b le b e c a u se th e se are n ot slo p e .
s lo p e ty p e s (slo p e fo rm s) ra th e r th e se are slo p e (2 ) F ree F a c e — F re e fa c e e le m e n t o f hillslope
e le m e n ts (s lo p e se g m e n ts ). S o let us first e x a m in e re p re s e n ts w a ll-lik e p re c ip ito u s s lo p e o f b are rocks
th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f slo p e e le m e n ts. an d is d e v o id o f an y d e b ris . T h e s lo p e is so steep and
p re c ip ito u s th a t n o w e a th e re d m a te ria ls c an re st on
Slope Elements
it. T h e e le m e n t o r s e g m e n t is c a lle d s lo p e o f d eriv a
I f th e lo n g itu d in a l p ro file o f a h illslo p e o r
tio n b e c a u se th e re is in s ta n ta n e o u s d o w n s l o p e trans
coastal slo p e is c o n s id e re d , it b e c o m e s a p p a re n t th at p o rt o f m a te ria ls . T h e fre e fa c e e le m e n t is subjected
th e re is n o u n ifo rm ity in th e slo p e p ro file in rela tio n
to b a c k w a s tin g w h ic h f a c ilita te s p a ra lle l retreat of
to s lo p e a n g le s fro m h ill to p s to v alley flo o rs o r from
th is e le m e n t.
c l i f f c r e s t to s e a sh o re . T h e e n tire slo p e p ro file is
p u n c tu a te d b y th e p re s e n c e o f c o n v e x ity , c o n c a v ity , ( 3 ) R ectilinear E lem ent — T h e straight o r
r e c tilin e a rity a n d fre e face . T h e s e d is tin c tiv e seg - lin e a r s e g m e n t o f h ills lo p e p r o f ile b e tw e e n uppeT
HILLSLOPE
free face an d lo w er co n cav e elem en t is called recti slope. T his is why rectilin ear elem en t is called d e
linear elem en t. It is also term ed as co n sta n t or bris con trolled slop e.
u n iform o r r e g u la r slo p e b ecau se o f uniform
(4) C o n ca v e E lem en t— T h e basal seg m en t
nature o f slo p e an g le (i.e. g rad u al in crease upslope
o f an ideal hillslo p e p ro file is alw ay s ch ara cterized
by concave elem ent. T he slope an g le d ecreases as
the segm ent o f basal co n cav ity in creases (in length).
T his is w hy this seg m en t is called w a n in g slo p e.
T his elem en t is also called v a lley flo o r b a sem en t
slop e or lo w er w a sh slo p e. B asal c o n ca v ity is g e n
erally originated because o f activ e d en u d atio n m ainly
by rainw ash, rill and gu lly eo rsio n . T h is seg m en t
m ay be covered w ith d eb ris o r m ay be o f b are ro ck s.
Classification on the Basis of Slope Elements

It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t th e o re tic a lly it is
conceived that an ideal h illslo p e p ro file c o n sists o f
all the four elem en ts viz. su m m ital co n v e x ity , free
face, rectilin ear and basal c o n ca v ity b u t in p ra c tic e
it is not alw ays possible. T he escarp m en ts o f B h a n d e r
plateau (M .P., fig. 3.8) p resen t a ty p ical e x a m p le o f
ideal h illslope p ro file c o n sistin g o f all th e fo u r slo p e
elem ents b ut sum m ital co n v ex ity is n o t w ell p ro
nounced. S lightly u p slo p e d ip p in g b ed s o f m a ss iv e
V indhyan san d sto n es o f 152 m th ick n ess re stin g as
cap ro ck on u n d erly in g sh ales and m u d sto n e s h a v e
given birth to steep and p re c ip ito u s scarp s as free
face elem en t. T h e th ic k d e p o sits o f sh a le s an d
m u d sto n es b elow san d sto n es h av e b een re sp o n sib le
fo r the d ev elo p m en t o f re c tilin e a r an d b asal c o n c a v e
elem en ts.
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t sin ce d e v e lo p m e n t
o f ideal h illslo p e p ro file w ith fo u r e le m e n ts d ep e n d s
on local co n d itio n s (e.g. n atu re an d d isp o sitio n o f
ro ck s, stru ctu re o f ro ck s, n a tu re o f d e n u d a tio n a l
p ro cesses, c lim a tic c o n d itio n s, v e g e ta tio n e tc .) and
o r g ra d u a l d e c re a s e in s lo p e a n g le d o w n slo p e ). B e h en ce so m e tim es o n e o r tw o e le m e n ts d o n o t d e
c a u s e o f p r e s e n c e o f ro c k d e b ris th is e le m e n t is velop. F o r e x a m p le , fre e fa c e d o e s n o t d e v e lo p in th e
c a lle d d e b r is s lo p e . T h e a n g le o f re c tilin e a r se g re g io n s o f lo w o r su b d u e d re lie fs. O n th e o th e r h an d ,
m e n t is c o n tro lle d a n d d e te rm in e d b y a n g le o f rep o se if resistan t and w eak ro ck s are a ltern ated in a h illslo p e,
o f d e b ris a n d it is a ls o c a lle d as r e p o s e s lo p e . It m ay th e re is re p e titio n o f fre e fa c e (o n re s is ta n t ro c k s)
b e p o in te d o u t th a t th is te rm in o lo g y is c o n fu s in g a n d an d re c tilin e a r e le m e n ts (o n w e a k ro c k s). T h e s e
g iv e s th e im p re s s io n th a t r e c tilin e a r e le m e n t is a l q u e n c e o f th e se fo u r e le m e n ts c h a n g e s w ith the'
w a y s th e re s u lt o f a c c u m u la tio n o f d e b ris b u t th is is p a s s a g e o f tim e d u rin g c y c le o f e ro s io n . F o r e x a m
n o t a lw a y s tru e b e c a u s e s o m e tim e s r e c tilin e a r s e g p le , su m m ita l c o n v e x ity is d o m in a n t e le m e n t in
m e n t is o rig in a te d d u e to d e n u d a tio n a n d e x p o s u re o f y o u th fu l sta g e w h ile re c tilin e a rity b e c o m e s m o re
b are ro c k su rfa c e . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t th e re p ro n o u n c e d in m a tu re sta g e o f c y c lic d e v e lo p m e n t
m a y b e a th in la y e r o f d e b ris b u t th is is n o t s ta tio n a ry o f la n d sc a p e . W a n in g s lo p e o r c o n c a v e e le m e n t
ra th e r it is m o b ile i.e. it is in c o n s ta n t m o tio n d o w n b e c o m e s m o s t e x te n s iv e d u rin g o ld s ta g e . T h u s , w e
270 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Fig. 15.3 : Different types o f composite slopes (after R.J. Small, 1970).
m ay label a slope on the b asis o f a sin g le elem en t (iii) F ree face -re c tilin e a r-c o n c a v e slope
su ch as co n v ex slo p e, rec tilin e a r (straig h t slope), (iv) C o n v e x -re c tilin e a r-fre e face-rectilinear-
free face slope o r co n ca v e slo p e b u t in reality this is co n ca v e slo p e
rarely p o ssib le. A ny slo p e p ro file co n sists o f at least
(v) C o n v ex -rec tilin ear-free face slope (coastal
tw o elem en ts and in ste ad o f m o n o -elem e n t slope area, basal free face is d ev elo p ed due to
th e re is c o m p o s ite o r c o m p o u n d s lo p e w h ich m ay basal cliffin g by se a w aves), and so on
be o f d iffe re n t ty p e s d e p e n d in g on v ary in g c o m b i
n atio n s o f slo p e elem en ts.
Genetic Classification
(i) C o n v ex o -co n c av e slope
G e n e tic c la ss ific a tio n o f h illslo p e s involves
(ii) C o n v ex o -rec tilin ear-co n c av e slope th e m o d e o f th e ir o rig in a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. Thus, on
HILLSLOPE 271
the basis o f m ode o f gen esis hillslopes may be slope angles w hich are deriv ed eith er from to p o
classified into three types. graphical m aps and aerial p h o to g rap h s or on the
(1) T ecto n ic slo p e is generally fo rm ed due basis o f m easurem ent o f slope an g les w ith suitable
to tensional and co m p ressio n al forces resu ltin g into instrum ents in the field. A. Y oung classified slopes
the form ation o f fau lt scarps th ro u g h fau ltin g in on the basis o f slope angles o f slope p ro files into
crustal rocks, and due to tiltin g o f ro ck beds. Scarp seven m ajor categ o ries as follow s.
slope is ideal ex am p le o f tecto n ic slope. It m ay be 1. Level to gentle slope
m entioned th a t o rig in al scarp slopes are m o d ified by (a) level slope (0°— 0.5°)
denudational p ro cesses and hence they becom e com
pound slopes. (b) alm ost level slope (0.5°— 1.0°)
(c) very gentle slope (1.0°— 2.0^)
(2) E ro sio n a l slo p es are generally form ed
due to ero sio n by riv ers, glaciers and sea w aves. 2. G entle slope (2.0°— 5.0°)
E rosional slo p es d ev elo p ed by riv ers undergo se 3. M oderate slope (5.0°— 10.0°)
quential tran sfo rm a tio n and changes in different
4. M oderately steep slope (10.0°— 18.0°)
stages o f cy cle o f ero sio n i.e. convex slope in ju v e
nile (y o u th ) stage, re c tilin e a r slope in m ature stage 5. Steep slope (18.0°— 30.0°)
and co n cav e slope in old stage. M ost o f the erosional 6. Very steep slope (30.0°— 45.0°)
slopes by the stream s are valley side slopes. Sea
7. Precipitous to vertical slope (45.0°— 90.0°)
w aves form steep c liff slope through basal u n dercut
(a) precipitous slope (45.0°— 70.0°)
ting o f coastal rocks. F ree face and pedim ent slopes
are fo rm ed by fluvial erosion in arid and sem i-arid (b) w all-like slope (70.0°— 90.0°)
regions. 15.2 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF SLO PE
(3) S lop e o f accum ulation - The slopes formed DEVELOPMENT
due to dep o sitio n o f eroded sedim ents by different In the initial stage the study o f slo pe d e v e lo p
d en u d atio n al p rocesses are called aggradational m ent was based on qualitativ e in fo rm atio n rece iv ed
slop es or slo p es o f accum ulation. For exam ple, from field observations b u t the p ro b lem s o f slope
slopes o f allu v ial fans and cones form ed by rivers, continued to increase. T he m ajo r p ro b lem s o f slope
sand d unes by w ind, m orainic ridges deposited by developm ent before the g eo m o rp h o lo g ists in c lu d e
glaciers etc. are aggradational slopes. V olcanic the follow ing aspects, 1. v arying fo rm s o f slo p es, 2.
cones also com e u n d er this category. m ost slopes are co m pound slopes as they c o n sist o f
On the basis o f stage o f form ation slopes are m ore than one slope elem en ts, 3. slo p e is a th ree-
classified into (i) prim ary slopes and (ii) secondary dim ensional feature, 4. d en u d atio n b alan ce o f slope,
slopes. P rim a ry slop es are form ed due to erosion by 5. progressive changes in the form an d g rad ie n t o f
stream s, glaciers, sea w aves etc. V shaped valleys slopes w ith tim e, 6. relatio n sh ip s b etw een the p ro c
w ith convex plan o f gorges and canyons, c liff slopes esses o f m ass m o v em en ts (slid es, creep, flow etc.)
carved out by sea w aves,, steep slopes o f U shaped and slopes, 7. p arallel retreat o f slo p e and g rad in g o f
glacial valleys etc. are ex am p les o f prim ary or ero slope profile, 8. influ en ce o f g eo lo g ical stru ctu re
sional slopes. T ecto n ic slopes (e.g. fault scarp slope) and lithology (rock ty p es) on slo p e fo rm s, 9. re la
also fall in this category. S eco n d a ry slo p es rep re tionships b etw een clim ates and slo p e fo rm s etc. T h e
sent m inor slopes dev elo p ed at the base o f prim ary problem s o f slope ev o lu tio n an d d ev elo p m en t m ay
slopes. T hese slopes are form ed due to surface be approached in th ree w ays viz. th eo retica l a p
erosion and w eathering. S lopes o f talus con es are p roach , ex p erim en ta l a p p ro a ch (lab o rato ry ex
form ed due to accum ulation o f deb ris/ scree com ing p erim ents) and em p irica l a p p ro a ch (i.e. field stu d
dow n from the hillslope as a result o f m as m ovem ent
ies). T hese three ap p ro ach es m ay be fused in tw o
o f rock w astes.
categ o ries viz. (1) slo p e-ev o lu tio n a p p ro a ch and
Quantitative Classification (2) p ro cess-fo rm a p p ro a ch .
Q uantitative classification involves classifi (1) S lo p e ev o lu tio n a p p ro a ch in volves th
cation o f slopes into certain types on the basis o f study o f historical developm ent o f hillslopes. D avisian
272 GEOMORPHOLOGY
m odel o f slope decline co m es u n d er th is ap proach. esses activ e on slo p e profiles o r betw een slope types
T here are certain pro b lem s w h ich are faced by the and denudation. T he intensity o f d enudational proc
g eom oiphologists w hile attem p tin g to d escrib e h is esses is influenced by structure, rock types, clim atic
torical evolution o f slo p es e.g. 1. It b eco m es n eces con d itio n s, vegetation cover, re lie f etc. The relative
sary to find o u t origin al and initial form o f presen t variations in the influences o f these con trolling vari
day hillslope but this b eco m es very d ifficu lt because ables introduce v ariatio n s in slo p e form s and slope
o f lack o f req u isite e v id en ces and h en ce th e study is types. F o r exam ple, lim esto n es an d clay in hum id
based on sp ecu latio n s, d ed u ctio n s and th oughtful clim ate will d ifferen tly resp o n d to flu v ial processes
reasoning. M o st o f th e g eo m o rp h o lo g ists generally and hence resu ltan t slope w o u ld g reatly vary e.g. soil
assum e th at the initial fo rm o f slo p e m ig h t have been creep w ould be m o st activ e on lim esto n e s resu ltin g
vertical c liff or scarp , w hich m ig h t have undergone in the form ation o f co n v ex fo rm o f slo p e w hereas
su bsequent ch an g es and tran sfo rm atio n due to w eath clay rocks w ould be su b jected to in ten se rain w ash
ering, m ass m o v e m e n t and ero sio n and resultant resu ltin g in the d ev elo p m en t o f co n c a v e slo p e form .
p ro g ressiv e d eclin e in slope g rad ien t to attain the T his ap p ro ach also su ffers fro m so m e d iffi
p re se n t form . 2. T h e d atin g o f slope d ev elo p m en t cu lties and pro b lem s. 1. S lo p e fo rm in g p ro cesses
p oses a serio u s p ro b lem before the in v estigators. In operate so slu g g ish ly th at it b eco m es very d iffic u lt to
o rd er to so lv e this p ro b lem attem p ts are m ade to observe, m easu re and reco rd th e ir ra te s o f actio n 2.
study the m e ch an ism s and p ro cesses o f ch an g es in It is also d ifficu lt to iso late su ch p ro c e sse s w h ich
slo p e form and slope declin e. S lopes are p laced in affect slppe d ev elo p m en t b eca u se not all p ro cesses
tim e seq u en ce on the basis o f study o f slope profiles acting on h illslo p e p ro file are c o n ce rn ed w ith slo p e
in the field and th e ir relativ e d ating. T h is m ethod developm ent. F o r ex am p le, W . P e n c k re c o g n iz e d
m ay be ap p lic a b le to only th o se areas w here slope soil creep, rain w ash etc. as tra n sp o rtin g a g en ts w hich
d eclin e has not been o b stru cted . T h is m eth o d w ould tran sp o rt the w eath ered m a te ria ls d o w n slo p e . In
n ot be ap p lic a b le to v alley sid e slo p es o f such rivers fact, these p ro cesses ero d e and tra n sp o rt on ly w e a th
w h ich have fo rm ed in cised m ean d ers d ue to reju v e ered reg o lith s and n ot the so lid rock su rface. 3. M o st
n atio n b eca u se the to p o g rap h ic d isco rd an c e (the o f the p resen t day slo p es do n ot ap p ea r to be the
se g m e n ts o f valley sid es bein g o ld er than the low er resu lt o f p resen t day g e o m o rp h ic p ro c e sse s, ra th e r
s e g m e n ts) d istu rb s the seq u e n tia l pattern o f slope they rep resen t re lic t featu res o f fo rm erly d e v e lo p e d
e v o lu tio n in tim e seq u en ce. In sp ite o f th ese p ro b slopes. T he ad v o ca tes o f p ro c e ss-fo rm a p p ro a c h
le m s W .M . D av is p o stu la te d his co n ce p t o f slope argue th at the re la tio n sh ip b etw ee n p re s e n t d ay p ro c
d e c lin e (slo p e e v o lu tio n ) w h erein slo p e u n d erg o es esses and slo p es is w ith o u t d o u b t e s ta b lis h e d at le a st
se q u e n tia l b u t p ro g re ssiv e ch an g e s (d eclin e in slope in the areas o f so ft ro ck s w h ich a re s u b je c te d to
g ra d ie n t) fro m very steep slo p e d u rin g y o u th thro u g h c o n tin u o u s d en u d atio n . 4. I f th e c o n c e p t o f a s s o c ia
re c tilin e a r (u n ifo rm o r stra ig h t slo p e) slo p e o f m o d tion b etw een d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s a n d s lo p e form
e ra te a n g le d u rin g m a tu rity to co n c a v e slo p e o f very is acc ep ted then it sh o u ld a lso b e a c c e p te d th a t there
lo w a n g le d u rin g old age. O n th e o th e r h an d , som e m u st be clo se re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n c lim a tic c o n d i
g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts h av e o p in e d th a t it is n o t alw ay s tio n s and slo p e fo rm s (i.e. slo p e fo rm s v a ry fro m one
n e c e ssa ry th a t all th e slo p e s u n d e rg o p ro g re ssiv e clim a tic ty p e to o th e r) b e c a u s e c lim a te d e te rm in e s
d e c lin e in s lo p e g ra d ie n t th ro u g h tim e ra th e r som e th e n atu re o f d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s . F o r e x a m p le ,
s lo p e s m a in ta in th e ir a n g le s th ro u g h p a ra lle l retreat. fin e m a te ria ls (d e b ris ) are p ro d u c e d d u e to m ore
A c c o rd in g to a d v o c a te s o f d y n a m ic e q u ilib r iu m ac tiv e c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g in h u m id c lim a te b e
th e o ry tim e p la y s no sig n ific a n t ro le in slo p e d e v e l
c a u s e o f a b u n d a n c e o f ra in w a te r. O n th e o th e r hand,
o p m e n t b e c a u se th is p ro c e ss is tim e -in d e p e n d e n t
c o a rs e m a te ria ls (d e b ris ) a re p ro d u c d d u e to m o re
a n d slo p e p ro c e s s e s p lay m o s t im p o rta n t ro le in th e ir
in te n se m e c h a n ic a l w e a th e rin g in a rid c lim a te . B ut
d e v e lo p m e n t.
th e c ritic s o f th e c o n c e p t o f c lim a tic g e o m o rp h o lo g y
(2 ) P r o c e s s-fo r m a p p r o a c h is based on the
h av e re fu te d th is c la im an d m a in ta in th a t it is not
co n cep t that there is direct relationship betw een n e c e ssa ry th a t d is tin c tiv e s lo p e s a re p ro d u c e d in
slo p e typ es and slo p e form s, and geom orp h ic proc- d if f e r e n t c lim a te s . F o r e x a m p le , c lim a tic
HILLSLOPE
273
geomorphologists take pediments o f concave sur* cause o f substantial increase in surface ru n o ff (com
face as representativ es o f arid and scmi-arid cli ing from upslope) and debris w ith the resu lt the basal
mates but such p ed im en ts are now also found in sub- segm ent o f hillslope is subjected to m axim um ero
humid tropical as w ell as h u m id tem p erate clim ates sion w hich ultim ately form s co n cav e slope. T hus,
In fact, except perig lacial clim ate d ifferen t co m b i the convexo-concave hill slope p rofile is the resu lt o f
nations o f all the fo u r elem en ts (convex, free face, least erosion at the h ill-crest and m axim um erosion
rectilinear and co n ca v e) are found in alm ost all the at the basal segm ent by surface runoff. T h is concept
climates. T his is w hy L .C . K ing p ropounded the o f Fcnnem an suffers from the w eakness th at it does
concept o f c lim a tic u n ifo r m ita r ia n is m . not accom m odate the process o f soil creep w hich is
It m ay be c o n c lu d e d th at slope form s arc co n t m ost dom inant in hum id regions because a sizeable
rolled not by a u n iq u e facto r rath e r these arc co n tro l portion o f rainw ater infiltrates in the p o ro u s and
led by several facto rs su ch as g eo logical structure, perm eable rocks and thus m otivates soil creep on
rock types, v eg etatio n c o v e r, d ifferen t types o f w eath one hand, and infiltration o f rain w ater lessens the
ering, dip an g le, m ass w astin g and m ass m ovem ent intensity o f erosional w ork o f surface r u n o ff becau se
of rockw astes (creep , slid e s, flow etc.), earth m o v e of reduced (due to m ore infiltratio n ) ru n o ff and
ments, reliefs etc. It m ay be pointed out that in resultant overland flow on the o th er hand.
certain e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s one o f these fac G. K. G ilbert (1909), on the o th er hand, at
tors m ay be m o st d o m in a n t but that cannot be the tached m ore im portance to soil creep in the d ev elo p
only factor o f slo p e d ev elo p m en t. m ent o f convex slope o f such a h illslo p e p ro file
It is now g en e ra lly b eliev ed that geom orphic w hich has a cover o f soils. T he w ater- so aked so ils
processes ( o f w e a th e rin g , m assm o v em en t, erosion m ove dow nslope. A s we m ove aw ay fro m h ill-to p
etc.), w ith o u t d o u b t, c o n tro l the form s o f slopes and dow nslope the am ount o f soil to be m o ved d o w n
their d e v e lo p m e n t b u t q u estio n arises as to w hether w ard increases. Thus, there is m in im u m soil c o v er at
slope form is a fu n ctio n o f m o n o -p ro cess or p oly the hill crest w hile it is m axim um at the lo w er
processes. T h u s, th e re are tw o ap p ro ach es to the segm ent o f the slope b ecau se o f soil co m ing fro m
study o f p ro c e ss-fo rm ap p ro ac h o f slope studies viz. upslope. It is evident from fig. 15.4 th a t the a m o u n t
(i) m o n o -p r o c e s s c o n c e p ts , and (ii) p o ly -p r o c e s s o f soil to pass from point A d o w n w ard is m in im u m
co n c e p t. w hile it is m axim um at p o in t C in a h illslo p e h av in g
It m a y be m e n tio n e d th at sig n ifican t slope a m obile soil layer. A cco rd in g to G .K . G ilb e rt the
form ing p ro c e s s e s are s o il c r e e p (so liflu ctio n , earth total rem oval o f soils from the h illslo p e m ay b e
creep, d e b ris c re e p ), s lid e s (earth slides, d eb ris slides po ssib le only w hen th e slo p e b e c o m e s s te e p e r
etc.), f lo w s (e a rth flo w s, d eb ris flow s, m ud flow s), dow nslope so that the slope load (so ils) m ay be
slope ero sio n by o v erla n d flow , rain splash, rainw ash, totally rem oved thro u g h the p ro cess o f soil creep . In
rill and g u lly e ro sio n etc. such condition the h illslo p e assu m es co n v ex form so
(i) as to allow effectiv e m o v e m en t an d e v a c u a tio n o f
M o n o - p r o c e s s c o n c e p t is based on the
basic te n et th a t a p a rtic u la r d en u d atio n al process or debris from the slope. It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t in
process o f m a ss m o v e m e n t p ro d u ces a d istin ctiv e such situ atio n (in cre ased tra n sp o rt o f soil la y er
slope form . F o r e x a m p le , co n v ex ity and co n cavity d o w n slo p e) there w o u ld be a c c u m u la tio n o f h u g e
are c o n sid ere d to be the o u tc o m e o f soil creep and am ount o f d eb ris at the slo p e b ase and h en ce the
rainw ash resp ectiv ely . A cco rd in g to N .M . F ennm an basal slope w ill b eco m e c o n ca v e ra th e r th an co n v ex .
(1908) co n v e x o -c o n c a v e h illslo p es are the resu lt o f G ilb ert's a ssu m p tio n , th a t soil la y er on slo p e p ro files
d ifferential actio n s o f su rface ru n o ff and resu ltan t is alw ay s m o b ile, is n ot a lw ay s true b eca u se it is no t
o verland flow i.e. the crestal areas o f h illslo p e are alw ay s n ecessary th at soil la y e r on h illslo p e , e v en in
le ast ero d ed by su rface ru n o ff becau se o f lim ited hum id reg io n s, is m o b ile.
am ount o f w ater (due to lim ited space) and ero sio n A cco rd in g to A .C . L a w so n (1 9 3 2 ) su m m ita l
tools and hence rain w ash only sm o o th en s the hill convexity o f h illslope, like N .M . F en n em an , is fo rm ed
crest so as to give it co n v ex plan but the in ten sity o f by rain w ash e ro sio n b u t L a w so n 's c o n c e p t d iffe rs
erosional w ork o f ru n o ff in creases d o w n slo p e b e sig n ifican tly fro m F e n n e m a n 's c o n c e p t a s th e fo rm e r
274 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Fig. 15.4 : Relationship between soil creep and development o f convex slope (After G.K. Gilbert, 1909, in R.J. Sm all,
1970).
postulated m ost effe c tiv e rainw ash at and near h ill the zone o f erosion. The radius o f the curvature o f
tops due to under-loaded surface runoff w h ile the longitudinal profile o f h illslo p e in creases b eca u se o f
latter (Fennem an) postulated least effectiv e rainwash continuous d ep osition o f m aterials at the slo p e b ase
at the h ill-top b ecau se o f less volu m e and velo city o f com ing dow n from upslope. T h is resu lts in the
surface runoff. A ccord in g to L aw son erosion by form ation o f basal co n ca v ity . T h is lo w er zo n e is in
surface ru n o ff at and near h ill-top s b eco m es m ost
fact erosion less zon e b eca u se o f the fa ct that, ac
a ctive b ecau se surface ru n off carries le ss debris and
cording to L aw son , erosion al en ergy o f surface
h en ce there is m ore available energy o f surface
runoff decreases d o w n slo p e (in sp te o f d o w n slo p e
ru n off for erosion w hich very e ffe c tiv e ly rounds the
increase in the v o lu m e o f ru n off) b eca u se the am ount
crestal part o f the hill g iv in g it co n v ex slo p e at the
o f debris in creases d o w n slo p e and h en ce surface
top w h ile the lo w er seg m en t o f the h illslo p e b e
co m es co n ca v e due to d ep osition o f sed im en ts co m runoff b eco m es o v erlo a d ed and slu g g ish . R .J. Sm all
in g d ow n from u p slop e segm en ts. A s per postulation has rem arked, ‘A corollary o f L a w so n 's theory is,
o f L aw son there is tw o d istin ct zo n es in h illslo p e therefore, that w ith tim e r e lie f is d im in ish ed , d ivid es
p rofile viz. 1. z o n e o f e r o s io n , and 2. z o n e o f are w asted, and s lo p e a n g les stea d ily d e c lin e , m uch
a g g r a d a tio n (fig . 15.5). T he upper seg m en t is sub as en v isa g ed by D a v is ’ (R .J. S m a ll, 1 9 7 0 ). Several
jected to m axim um erosion by rainw ash w herein q u estio n s are raised again st the c o n c e p t o f L aw son .
lu n e shaped m aterials are rem oved from the crestal T h e m ost e ffe c tiv e ero sio n b y su rfa ce r u n o ff at the
part and are transported d o w n slo p e and are d ep o s h ill-to p s in sp ite o f lo w v o lu m e o f w ater d u e to
ited at the fo o t-h ill o f the slo p e. T he con tin u ou s lim ited sp a ce, and lea st ero sio n or n o ero sio n at the
rem oval o f m aterial through rainw ash results in the slo p e b ase in sp ite o f in crea sed v o lu m e o f surface
d ev elo p m en t o f sum m ital c o n v ex ity representing ru n off w ith h igh flo w v e lo c ity , as cla im ed by L aw son,
275
HILLSLOPE
is every likelihood that m ore than one denudational
cannot be easily digested. T he developm ent o f basal
processes act on slope p rofiles. H. B aulig postulated
concavity by deposition o f debris, as claim ed by
the poly-process co n cep t o f slo p e developm ent in
Lawson, is not o f com m on occurrence, instead,
1950 and refuted th e co n cep t o f ‘one process-one
active erosion (m ainly by rill and gully erosion) at
slope f o r m ' (m o n o -p ro cess co n cep t). A cco rd in g to
the slope base is responsible for the developm ent o f
basal concavity because the erosive energy o f sur B aulig different d en u d atio n al p ro cesses o p erate in
face ru n o ff increases dow nslope due to substantial dependently on slo p e p ro file (they do not operate
increase in the volum e and velocity o f runoff. It may together). It m ay be p o ssib le th a t a particular pw****
be opined that concav ities m ay be depositional or m ay be m ost active on one seg m en t o f the h illslo p e
erosional depending on local conditions. w hile other process m ay be m o re activ e on th e o th e r
segm ent o f slope. Soil cree p (so liflu c tio n ) and
(ii) P o ly -p ro c e ss c o n c e p t o f the study o f
rainw ash have been reco g n ized by B au lig as m ost
slope developm ent is n earer to reality because there
Fig. 15.5 : Development o f convexo-concave slope by rainwash erosion at the hill-top and deposition at the slope base
(after A. C. Lawson, 1932, in R.J. Small, 1970).
active slope form ing processes. Soil creep becom es and hence the process o f soil creep b eco m es slu g g ish
more active on upper segm ent o f con vexo-con cave (with tim e) but rainwash still con tin u es. T h is results
hillslope in humid tem perate regions with the result in extension o f length o f co n ca v e unit u p slop e at the
summital con vexity is d eveloped (due to soil creep). cost o f sum m ital co n v ex ity and ultim ately co n ca v e
On the other hand, m ore rills and gu llies are d ev el form spreads over entire h illslo p e. It appears from
oped due to large volum e o f water on the low er Baulig's con cep t that slo p e p ro cesses operate in
segm ent o f hillslop e and hence basal segm ent is opposite directions but this is not the truth b ecau se
subjected to intense fluvial erosion by rills and
m ost o f denudational p ro cesses operate togeth er on
gullies w hile soil creep is significantly retarded,
h illslop e.
with the result basal concavity is form ed (due to
fluvial erosion, sim ply called as rainwash). The C o n tr a ry to th e a b o v e c o n c e p t s o m e
relative significance o f soil creep (active on upper g eo m o ip h o lo g ists have o p in ed that so il creep and
segm ent) and rainwash (active on low er segm ent) rainw ash are n ot slo p e form ing p ro cesses rather they
changes w ith tim e. There is marked low erin g o f are agents o f transportation o f d eb ris p rod u ced b y
relief (relief reduction) due to continued denudation w eathering o f slo p e m aterials.
276 GEOMORPHOLOGY
15.3 MODELS OF SLOPE EVOLUTION in three w ays viz. (i) theoretically (theoretical m od
The origin (evolution) and developm ent o f els), (ii) experim entally (experim ental design mod
hiHslopes and valley-sides slopes m ay be approached els) and (iii) em pirically. A ny m odel or theory o f
slope developm ent m ust have solutions o f a few
im portant questions related to slope developm ent
e.g. (i) w hether slopes undergo parallel retreat and
m aintain their slope angles or (ii) there is progres
Y /m /m sive decrease in slope angles w ith tim e, (iii) w heth
er hillslopes are subjected to dow nw asting or
backw asting etc. B ased on these tw o basic issues o f
slope developm ent (i.e. parallel retreat and constant
slope angle - dynam ic equilibrium , and progressive
slope decline with tim e) there are tw o distinct schools
o f thoughts w hich are based on con trasting view s o f
W. Penck and W .M . D avis (fig. 15.6). S ignificant
m odels (theories) o f slope developm ent include slope
decline m odel o f W .M . D avis, slope rep lacem en t
m odel o f W . Penck, slope evo lu tio n m odel o f A.
Fig. 15.6 : Slope development according to W.M. Davis
W ood, hillslope cycle m odel o f L .C . K ing, co n ce p t
(A) and W. Penck (B).
o f slope developm ent by R .A . S av ig ear, co n ce p t o f
Fig. 15.7: Three hypotheses o f slope evolution : A. slope decline (progressive decline in slope angles as indicated by
sequential profiles from 1 to 5), B. slope repl cment, C. parallel retreat in hillslope with scarps or free face,
D. parallel retreat without free fa ce (after Young, 1972).
A .N . Strahler, p rocess-response m odel o f Fisher and placem ent theory, and (3 ) parallel retreat theory
Lehmann, Process-response model o f A. Young etc. (fig. 15.7).
F o llo w in g A . Y oun g (1 9 7 2 ) all the theories o f '1. ‘Slope decline - the steepest part o f the slope
slop e d evelop m en t m ay be grouped in 3 broad cat progressively decreases in angle, accom panied by the
eg o ries v iz. (i) slope decline theory, (2 ) slope re developm ent o f a convexity and con cavity’.
h il l s l o p e 277
2. ‘S lop e rep la cem en t - the m axim um angle

decreases th ro u g h rep lacem en t from below by g en
tler slopes, cau sin g the g reater part o f the profile to
become occu p ied by the concavity. T he concavity
may be eith er sm oo th ly curved or seg m en ted ’.
3. ‘P a ra llel retr ea t - the m axim um angle
remains constant, the ab so lu te lengths o f all parts o f
the slope ex ce p t the co n ca v ity rem ain constant, and
the concavity in c re ases in len g th ; the angle at any
(vertically co n stan t) p o in t on the concavity decreases.
This type o f ev o lu tio n m ay be su b -d iv id ed into
parallel retre at w ith a free face and w ith o u t a free
face’.
A. Y oung, 1972
(1) Slope decline theory of W.M. Davis
D avis' th e o ry o f slo p e d eclin e has its roots in
his essays on ‘the c o n v e x p ro file o f b ad lan d d iv id es’
(1892), ‘the g ra d in g o f m o u n ta in s lo p e s’ (1898),
‘the geographical c y c le ’ (1 8 9 9 ), ‘p ied m o n t bench
lands and p rim a ru m p fe ’ (1 9 3 2 ) etc. L ik e the cyclic Fig. 15.8 : Sequential stages o f slope evolution accord
developm ent o f la n d sc a p e s D av is' h illslo p e and ing to W.M. Davis.
valleyside slope a lso u n d e rg o the p ro cess o f cyclic
D avisian m o d el o f slo p e e v o lu tio n in c lu d es
developm ent w h e re in th e re is p ro g ressiv e declin e in
three aspects viz. ro u n d ed c o n v ex ity o f h ill to p s
slope angle an d s e q u e n tia l c h a n g e in slo p e form
and interfluves, g ra d ed w a ste sh eets on slope p ro
from you th (c o n v e x fo rm ) th ro u g h m atu re (rectilin
files and g rad ed va lley sid es, w h ich D av is trie d to
ear or u n ifo rm slo p e fo rm ) to o ld (co n cav e form )
explain in term s o f th eir sig n ifican ce an d o rig in .
stages. S te e p c o n v e x slo p e ev o lv e s d u rin g youth A ccording to D avis su m m ital ro u n d e d c o n v ex ity
stage o f cy cle o f ero sio n b ecau se o f active dow ncutting results from the action o f so il cre ep in h u m id
resulting in to v a lle y d e e p e n in g and w eath erin g clim ate. ‘H e d escrib e d q u alita tiv e ly th e m e c h a n ism
p ro cesses. T h e re is v e ry lim ite d slo p e retre at and o f m o v em en t in creep , by a lte rn a te d ia la tio n an d
p ractically th e re is n o d e c lin e in slo p e an g le rath e r it co n tractio n o f th e soil u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f g rav ity ,
is in c re a se d (fig s. 15 .8A an d 15.9). L ateral ero sio n and co rrectly in te rp re te d o u tc ro p c u rv a tu re ’ (A .
d o m in ates o v e r v e rtic a l ero sio n an d d iv id e su m m its Y o ung, 1972). S oil c ree p is m o tiv a te d b e c a u se o f
are ero d e d (d o w n w a s tin g o f w a te r d iv id e s) d u rin g rain w ash the in ten sity o f w h ich in c re a se s d o w n slo p e.
m ature sta g e . T h u s, d o w n w a s tin g o f w a te r d iv id es ‘R easo n in g on p rio ri g ro u n d s th a t su rfa c e w ash
results in d e c re a s e in slo p e a n g le (an d h e n ce slo p e in creases in v o lu m e d o w n slo p e , h e s u p p o se d th a t,
d ecline) an d slo p e p ro file o f sm o o th cu rv e is fo rm ed . n ear d rain a g e d iv id e s, th e ra tio o f c re e p to w ash is
Slope b e c o m e s g ra d e d (fig s. 15.8B an d 15.9B ) b e large. C reep (soil c re e p ) p ro d u c e s ‘ro u n d e d c o n
to u rs ’, and is re s p o n s ib le fo r c o n v e x p ro file o f d i
cause at e a c h p o in t on th e s lo p e p ro file th e g ra d ie n t
v id e s ’ (A . Y o u n g , 1972).
is such th a t w e a th e re d d e b ris m a y be tra n sp o rte d
(rem oved) d o w n s lo p e . B e c a u s e o f c o n tin u e d lateral T h e w e a th e re d m a te ria ls e x is tin g o n slo p e
erosion a n d d o w n w a s tin g o f w a te r d iv id e s (and p ro file s (b o th h ills lo p e an d v a lle y s id e s lo p e s ) h a s
hence m a rk e d lo w e rin g o f re lie f) th e re is m a rk e d b een te rm e d as w a s te s h e e t w h ic h c o n s ta n tly m o v e s
slope d e c lin e in o ld s ta g e so th a t th e g e n e ra l slo p e d o w n slo p e by th e a g e n ts o f tra n s p o rta tio n u n d e r th e
form b e c o m e s c o n c a v e a n d n o w h e re s lo p e an g le in flu e n c e o f g ra v ity fo rc e . T h e n a tu re , ra te a n d
becom es m o re th a n 5 d e g re e . m a g n itu d e o f d o w n s lo p e tra n s fe r o f d e b ris d e p e n d s
OEOMORPHOLOOV
Fig. 15.9 : Sequential stages o f evolution o f valley side slope according to Davis (after, R.J. Rice, 1977).
on the n atu re and am o u n t o f d eb ris and tran sp o rtin g co v ered w ith slu g g ish ly m o v in g ro c k w aste. D av is
cap acity o f d en u d atio n al p ro cesses. W hen the tran s has d efin ed g rad ed w aste sh e e t as fo llo w s, ‘a g rad ed
p o rtin g cap a city o f the tra n sp o rtin g ag en ts (actual w aste s h e e t........ is o ne in w h ich th e ab ility o f the
a v ailab le en erg y o f tra n sp o rtin g ag en ts) eq u als the tran sp o rtin g fo rces to do w o rk (to tra n s p o rt) is eq u al
req u ire d e n erg y (fo rce) to tra n sp o rt the m a teria ls i.e. to the w ork th a t th ey h av e to d o .........fro m an y p o in t
w hen the a v a ila b le en erg y fo r tran sp o rta tio n o f d e on such su rface a g rad ed slo p e le a d s th e w aste dow n
b ris an d the w o rk to be d o n e (d eb ris to be tran sp o rte d to the stream s. A t any p o in t th e a g e n c ie s o f rem o v a l
d o w n slo p e ) are e q u a lly b alan ced , the lay er o f w aste are ju s t able to c o p e w ith th e w a ste th a t is th ere
sh e e t o f d e b ris on slo p e p ro file is called ‘g r a d e d
w eath e red p lu s th a t w h ich c o m e s d o w n fro m fu rth e r
w a s te s h e e t ’. In y o u th fu l stag e u p p er slo p es are so
u p h ill’ (W .M . D av is, 1899). T h u s, th e re is b alan ce
s te e p th a t a v a ila b le en e rg y (tra n sp o rtin g cap acity )
b etw een su p p ly ,o f d eb ris an d re m o v a l o f d e b ris at all
fa r e x c e e d s th e w o rk to be d o n e (d eb ris to be m o v ed
p o in ts o f g rad ed slo p e p ro file .
d o w n slo p e ) and h e n c e d e b ris is q u ic k ly rem o v e d
a n d tra n s p o rte d d o w n slo p e b e c a u se o f th e fact th at H e h as fu rth e r o b s e rv e d th a t in the in itial
stag e g rad ed slo p e p ro file h as s te e p e r g ra d ie n t and
m a te ria ls s u p p lie d th ro u g h w e a th e rin g and ero sio n
o f u p s lo p e s e g m e n t a re fa r le ss th an the tra n sp o rtin g thin v en ee r o f c o a rse d e b ris (w a ste ) b u t as th e stag e
c a p a c ity o f th e d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s d u e to steep o f c y c le 'o f e ro sio n a d v a n c e s th e g ra d ie n t o f g ra d e d
slo p e p ro file d e c lin e s , d e b ris b e c o m e s fin e r and
g rad ie n t' o f slo p e . It m a y be p o in te d o u t th a t c o n d i
d e b ris th ic k n e s s in c re a se d . S im ila rly , th e g rad ie n t o f
tio n o f g ra d e d w a ste sh e e t b e g in s fro m th e b ase o f
th e s lo p e a n d g ra d u a lly p ro c e e d s u p slo p e . T h e e n tire v alley sid e slo p e a lso d e c re a se s as th e stag e o f c y cle
s lo p e p ro file is g ra d e d (i.e. tra n s p o rtin g c a p a c ity o f e ro s io n a d v a n c e s w ith tim e (fig . 15.9). T h e
e q u a ls th e to ta l a m o u n t o f d e b ris to be tra n s p o rte d v a lle y s id e slo p e is d o m in a te d by s u m m ita l c o n v e x
d o w n s lo p e th ro u g h o u t th e p ro file le n g th ) by th e ity (in th e u p p e r p art o f th e v a lle y sid e s ) a n d b asal
a tta in m e n t o f o ld s ta g e o f c y c le o f e ro s io n a n d the c o n c a v ity . W ith th e a d v a n c e m e n t o f c y c lic tim e
w h o le s lo p e p ro file fro m h ill to p to th e b a se is (s ta g e s ) th e ra d iu s o f th e c u rv a tu re o f v a lle y sid e
HILLSLOPE
slope profile increases because o f gradual increase tion . A cco rd in g to P en ck th e m o d e o f o p eratio n o f

in the length o f convex and concave segm ents. T his exogenetic p ro cesses d ep en d s o n th e c h ara cteristics
again denotes flattening o f slope p rofile and resu lt o f reg o lith s on hillslo p e, m e ch an ism o f w eath e rin g
ant decline in slope angle (fig. 15.9). and su rface pro cesses. H e attach e d m o re im p o rtan ce
to the p ro cess o f m ass m o v e m en ts in c o m p a riso n to
L ike cycle o f ero sio n D av is’ m odel o f slope other su rface p ro cesses. H e h as an aly se d th e m e ch a
evolution also depen d s on crustal stability for longer nism o f p ro cesses w ith so u n d re a so n in g an d h as
duration afte r the in itiatio n o f cycle. A. Y oung has attem pted to estab lish rela tio n sh ip b etw een m e ch a
rem arked that, ‘the D avisian m odel has, how ever, nism o f p ro cesses and ch a ra c te ristic s o f fo rm s. A c
great flexibility co m b in ed w ith in tem al.logical co n cording to P en ck th e m e ch an ism o f su rfa c e p ro c
sistency, w hich ren d ers it un assailab le by critical esses is affected and c o n tro lled by th e p ro p e rtie s o f
attacks w ith its ow n w eapons, those o f abstract form s and in turn th e la tter a lso u n d e rg o c h a n g e s an d
q u alitativ e re a s o n in g ... D av is'th e o ry is a clear state transform ation. P en ck has d e sc rib e d se v e n p ro p e r
m ent o f a type o f slo p e ev o lu tio n , and is cap ab le o f ties o f form s and 3 p ro p erties o f p ro cesses.
being tran slated into q u an titativ e term s. C o n so n an t
w ith its rela tio n to the cy cle o f ero sio n , the theory Properties of Forms
im plies th at slo p e form is tim e-d ep en d en t; possibly 1. D eg ree o f r e d u c tio n o f r e g o lith m e a n s
this is the featu re th a t o ffers an o p p o rtu n ity o f degree o f b reak in g o f reg o lith s in to fin e m a te ria ls . It
m ay be m en tio n ed th at fine te x tu re d soil h as h ig h e r
in d irect te stin g by field o b se rv a tio n ’ (A. Y oung,
degree o f red u ctio n than co a rse te x tu re d sto n y so ils.
1972)
The degree o f red u ctio n (c o m m in u tio n ) d e p e n d s on
(2) Slope Replacement theory of W. Penck the rate o f w eath erin g an d d e n u d a tio n . It m a y b e
It m ay be m entioned, at the outset, that W alther m entioned th at P en ck u sed d e n u d a tio n as th e p ro c
P en ck is m o st m isu n d e rsto o d g eo m o rp h o lo g ist o f ess o f rem oval (tra n sp o rta tio n ) o f slo p e d e b ris an d
the w orld b eca u se o f his (i) in co m p lete w ork due to not as erosional p ro cess.
h is u n tim ely d eath , (ii) his o b scu re com p o sitio n in 2. M o b ility o f r e g o lith is th a t p ro p e rty o f
d iffic u lt G e rm a n lan g u ag e, (iii) ill d efin ed te rm in o l reg o lith w hich d eterm in e s d o w n slo p e m o v e m e n t o f
o gy, (iv ) m isle a d in g rev ie w by W .M . D avis, (v) slope m aterials by d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s ( o f m a ss
fau lty tra n sla tio n in E n g lish language, (vi) som e m o v em en t). H ig h er the m o b ility o f re g o lith , m o re
c o n tra d ic to ry id e as etc. P rev io u sly P en ck 's co n cep t th e d o w n s lo p e tr a n s f e r o f s lo p e m a te r ia ls b y
o f slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t w as w id ely u n d ersto o d as d en u d atio n al p ro cesses an d v ic e v ersa. M o b ility
‘p a r a lle l r e tr e a t o f s lo p e ’ but his real co n cep t on d ep en d s on ro ck p ro p e rtie s an d d e g re e o f re d u c tio n .
slo p e e v o lu tio n c a m e to lig h t, as slo p e rep la cem en t *3. T h ic k n e s s o f r e g o lith m e a n s th ic k n e s s o f
m o d e l, a fte r E n g lis h tran sla tio n o f P en ck 's w ork i.e. m o b ile o r static c o v e r o f lo o se m a te ria ls o n h ills lo p e
‘D ie M o rp h o lo g isc h e A n a ly s e ’ by C zech and B osw ell and it is d irec tly re la te d to d e g re e o f re d u c tio n ( th e
and ag ain by M . S im o n s in 1962. h ig h e r th e d e g re e o f re d u c tio n o f r e g o lith th e th ic k e r
T h e m a in g o a l o f P e n c k 's m o rp h o lo g ic a l sy s th e reg o lith an d v ise v e rsa ) a n d is in v e rs e ly re la te d
tem w as to fin d o u t th e m o d e o f d e v e lo p m e n t and to rates o f d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s (th e h ig h e r th e
causes o f cru sta l m o v e m e n t on the b asis o f ex o g cn etic rate o f d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s i.e. th e h ig h e r th e ra te o f
p ro cesses an d m o rp h o lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ristic s. In o th er rem o v a l o f slo p e m a te ria ls d o w n s lo p e , th e th in n e r
w ords, P en ck so u g h t th e in te rp re ta tio n o f d ia stro p h ic th e c o v e r o f re g o lith a n d v ic e v e rs a ).
h istory o f re g io n s on th e b a sis o f th e in te rp re ta tio n o f 4. E x p o s u r e o f s lo p e s u r fa c e m e a n s d e g re e to
p resen t-d a y la n d fo rm c h a ra c te ristic s . T h e r e fe r e n c e w h ich th e ro c k s u n d e r re g o lith a re u n c o v e re d a n d a re
sy stem o f P e n c k 's m o d e l is th a t th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f m a d e a v a ila b le fo r re d u c tio n b y w e a th e rin g . E x p o
la n d fo rm s o f a g iv e n re g io n are re la te d to the te c su re o f ro c k s u n d e r re g o lith is in v e rs e ly r e la te d to the
to nic a ctiv ity o f th a t reg io n . th ic k n e s s o f re g o lith .
P e n c k 's ‘m o rp h o lo g ic a l s y s te m ’ h a s tw o im 5. Rock property includes all those aspects of
p o rta n t p a rts viz. ( 1) m a n n e r (m o d e ) o f a c tio n o f lithology and geological structure which influence
p r o c e sse s, a n d (ii) d e d u c tiv e m o d e l o f s lo p e e v o lu the degree of reduction and mobility o f regolith.
280 GEOMORPHOLOGY
6, C lim ate - O nly those aspects o f clim ate are esses). It dep en d s on the rate o f d enudation o r rate
considered w hich influence the rate o f reduction and o f rem oval o f m aterials from slope surface (direct
denudation (rem oval o f m aterials). relationship). It m ay be clarified that renew al o f
7. Slope a n g le becom es independent variable exposure is not a process in itse lf b ut is the result o f
in the initial stage o f slope evolution but later on it rem oval o f regoliths becau se bare rock surface, after
becom es partly dependent on the rate o f denudation. the regolith m aterials are rem o v ed and are trans
ported d o w nslope, is ex p o sed to w eathering p ro c
Properties of Processes esses.
1. R ed u c tio n m eans m ode o f breaking o f
T hough W . P en ck has d escrib e d in terrela
regolith into fine particles. The m echanism o f co m
m inution o f regolith is con tro lled by w eathering tionships betw een the p ro p erties o f fo rm s an d p ro c
p rocesses w hile the rate o f breaking o f regolith esses but A. Y oung has fu rth er a tte m p te d to ratio n
depends on rock characteristics, clim ate and ex p o alize these in terrelatio n sh p s afte r m a k in g certain
sure o f slope surface o f solid rocks. m odifications and has tran sfo rm e d P en ck 's m o d e l o f
2. D e n u d a tio n is related to rem oval (trans slope evolution into p r o c e ss-r e sp o n se m o d el o f
p o rt) o f regolith m aterials dow nslope. T he rate o f slop e evolu tion (fig. 15.10).
d enudation o f m aterials (rem oval o f m aterials) is
B a sic P rem ises of P e n ck 's Model
dependent on the rate o f w eathering, m obility o f
(1) T he form o f h illslo p e is d e p e n d e n t on th
regolith. clim ate and slope angle.
relativ e rates o f v ertical ero sio n by s tre a m s a t th e
3. R en ew al o f ex p o su re m eans uncovering slope base and d en u d atio n (rem o v a l o r tra n s p o rta
o f solid ro ck surface, u n d er regolith, and its ex p o tion o f slope d eb ris d o w n slo p e o r fro m th e slo p e
sure to the processes o f reduction (w eath erin g p ro c base).
^ R ED U C TIO N MOB ILI TY^
A
I _
I
i
( r d en u d atio T T )— CffT x Ep o su R E F j) \o
c I
A -f-
S L O P E ANGLE
| | Independent variable
---- > Short term effect + Direct relation
( ) Dependent variable
---- > Medium term effect - Inverse relation
Mobility property of process
c= £ > Lo n g term effect 4 Differential relation
Denudation property ot process
O Non-parametric
* Relation not direct relation
Fig. 1 5 .1 0 . D iagram atic representation o f the system o f interaction betw een p ro c esse s a n d fo r m p ro p erties a s described
b y W. P en ck m the fo r m o fp ro c e ss-re sp o n se m o d el b y A. Young (1972). *
281
fdULSLOPE
(2) The form o f hillslope is not directly con lesser duration. S uch effects are called sh o rt-term
trolled by slope processes because these act as agents effects. T he factors affecting reg o lith s are o f
of removal (transportation) o f w eathered slope de d iu m -term effects (1 ,0 0 0 to 10,000 y ears) w h ile th e
bris dow nslope. The m ajor role o f denudational factors affecting slopes are o f lo n g -term effects
processes (transportational processes) is to expose (10,000 to 100,000 years). Y oung has fu rth er su g
bare rock slope surface (by rem oving slope debris) gested that for the testin g o f P en ck ian m odel on
for w eathering processes. quantitative base ro ck p ro p erties sh o u ld be d iv id ed
(3) The retreat o f slope unit backw ard de into tw o independent variab les o f ro ck p ro p erty viz.
pends on the gradient o f hillslope. S teeper gradient (i) those w hich in fluence d eg ree o f red u ctio n and (ii)
facilitates m ore active retreat than gentle gradient. those w hich d eterm ine m ob ility o f reg o lith . S im i
(4) T he slope retreat occurs in parallel m anner larly, clim atic variables should be g ro u p ed in to tw o
which results in the replacem ent o f low er segm ent of independent variables viz. (i) th o se w h ich in flu en ce
slope profile by new unit o f gentle gradient. degree o f reduction and (ii) th o se w h ich in flu en ce
(5) ‘F lattenin g o f slopes alw ays takes place rate o f denudation (rem oval o f w eathered m aterials).
from below u p w ard ’.
Explanation of Penck's Model
(6) T he form o f valley side slopes o f stream s
(Deductive Model of Slope Evolution)
depends on 3 rates o f stream erosion i.e. 1. acceler
For the ex p lan atio n o f ev o lu tio n o f hill slo p e
ating rate o f erosion, 2. d ecelerating rate o f erosion,
Penck selected a steep rock c liff o f h o m o g e n e o u s
and 3. co n stan t rate o f erosion, w hich produce co n
com position. The up p er surface o f the slo p e u n it is
vex, concave and rectilinear slope form s respec
tively. surm ounted by level su rface (fig. 15.11, A '— F ').
There is a river at the foot o f the slo p e w h ich is
(7) T here is uniform rate of w eathering o f
neither eroding nor d ep o sitin g b u t is c a p a b le o f
rocks o f slopes.
rem oving all the m aterials c o m in g at the fo o t-h ill
(8) A s Ihe required m obility is attained, the from upslope seg m en ts (fig. 15.11(A )) ‘In a u n it
rem oval o f w eathered m aterials begins and the rate tim e a superficial layer o f rock, o f a d e fin ite th ic k
o f rem oval (d en u d atio n ) m atches with the rate o f ness the sam e every w here, is lo o sen ed an d rem o v e d .
w eathering. The method o f rem oval is that loosened particles o f
(9) T h ere are an g u lar breaks o f slope (breaks rock crum ble aw ay and fall dow n. F o r this to happen
o f g ra d ie n t) h av in g b ase-lcv els and the developm ent the gradient must be too great to allow the little pieces of
o f g rad ien t o f slo p e seg m en t is independent o f low er rock, just loosened by w eath e rin g b u t n o t fu rth e r
basal lev els o f break s o f g radient. A. Y oung (1972) co m m in u ted and red u ced , to rem a in at rest. T h is
has rem ark ed , ‘Pcnck d o es not say, as som e c o m gradient is av ailab le for each u n it o f ro c k face e x c e p t
m en tato rs h av e assu m ed he does, that a sm oothly- the lo w est’ (P en ck , 1924). T h u s, th e slo p e face
a cceleratin g rate o f ero sio n w ill produce an angular except the lo w est seg m en t (A-B, fig . 15.11 (A)
b reak o f s lo p e .’ und erg o es p arallel re tre a t d u e to u n ifo rm ra te o f
A. Y o u n g (1 9 7 2 ) afte r m ak in g certain m o d i w eath erin g and in sta n ta n e o u s re m o v a l o f w e a th
fications in the re la tio n sh ip s, in terrela tio n sh ip s and ered m a teria ls fro m slo p e se g m e n ts. T h e lo w e s t
interactions in the p ro p e rtie s o f fo rm s and p ro cesses, seg m en t d o es n o t e x p e rie n c e p a ra lle l re tre a t b e c a u se
its slo p e an g le is n o t su c h th a t it m a y atta in re q u ire d
as described by P enck , has p resen ted P en ck ian m odel
in the form o f 4p ro cess-resp o n se m o d e l’ (fig. 15.10). m o b ility w h ich m ay h e lp in th e re m o v a l o f w e a th
F irstly, he d iffere n tiated b etw een d e p e n d e n t and ered m a te ria ls. T h u s, th e lo w e s t s e g m e n t o f in itia l
c lif f slo p e fa c e (A - A', fig . 15.11(A) is re p la c e d by
in d ep en d en t v ariab les. S eco n d ly , he id e n tified th ree
closely rela ted pairs o f p ro p erties e.g. (i) d eg ree o f a n ew (y o u n g ) u n it o f g e n tle slo p e a n g le (A-B) a n d
red u ctio n and m o b ility , (ii) th ick n ess o f re g o lith an d th e c lif f slo p e p ro file n o w c o n s is ts o f tw o slo p e u n its
exposure, and (iii) d en u d atio n al p ro cesses and re viz. A-B an d B- B' (fig . 15.11 (A a n d B).
new al o f ex p o su re. T he effects on the ra te o f p ro c The same process is repeated during second
esses becom e o p eratio n al fo r the w h o le y e a r o r fo r
time interval all along the slope except A- B' scg
282 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(profile B in fig. 15.11 (B ). T h e sam e process is

rep eated durin g th ird tim e interval (uniform rate o f
w eath erin g and p arallel retreat) and th e initial slope
profile (A -A ‘) reach es th e p o sitio n o f D -D ' and
gentle slope seg m en t ex ten d s from A to D due to
p arallel retreat. D u e to rep etitio n o f the sam e m echa
nism durin g su cceed in g stages o f tim e intervals the
po sitio n s o f slope p ro files shift to E - E \ F - F ... and
so on and lo w est g entle slope se g m e n t extends
grad u ally from A to A -B , A -C , A -D , A -E , A -F
p o s itio n s ........ and so on. T h u s, sm all seg m en ts o f
new basal slopes i.e. A -B , B -C , C -D , E -F co m b in e
to g eth er and form a co n tin u o u s slo p e o f u n ifo rm
grad ien t (A -F). ‘T his is the b asal slope ... the fo llo w
ing statem en t m ay th erefo re be m ad e; a steep ro ck
face left to itself, m oves b ack u p slo p e, m a in tain in g
its original grad ien t; and a b asal slo p e o f le sse r
g radient develops at its ex p en se' (P en ck ). It m ay b e
pointed out th at step p ed slo p e p ro file d u e to p a ra lle l
retreat o f ro ck face o f th e slo p e as sh o w n in fig . 15.11
(A ) is not p o ssib le in reality . ‘It re su lts m e re ly fro m
the arbitrary d iv isio n o f slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t in to
‘given in terv als o f tim e ’. In th e field th e slo p e w o u ld
be rectilin ear one, and w o u ld b e o c c u p ie d by u n i
form ly th ick la y e r o f w e a th e re d d e tritu s m o v in g
dow n from the b ase o f th e o rig in a l slo p e u n it to the
riv e r’ (R .J. S m all, 1970).
In fact, the parallel retreat o f slo p e segm en ts
except the lo w est segm ent, ultim ately results in the
developm ent o f con cave slo p e profile (sh ow n by
dotted line in fig. 15.11 (B )). If the parallel retreat is
occurring on both the sid es o f an interfluve, then
after the rem oval o f free face or steep segm en ts on
both the sid e s the in te r flu v e is s u b je c te d to
dow nw asting and thus there is su c c e ssiv e low ering
o f altitude (a to b, b to c, c to d, fig . 1 5 .1 1(C )) and
consequent slop e flattening results in slo p e d eclin e.
Fig. 15.11: Parallel retreat and slope replacement model Penckian m odel o f slop e d evelop m en t is nearer to
o f Penck (M odified after W. Penck, also in reality in the field . If w e look at Bhander plateau
R.J. Small, 1970). (M .P., fig. 3.8►) it clearly appears that the upper free
m en tan d thus the n ew slo p e face (B - B ') undergoes face segm ent o f m a ssiv e sandstones o f Bhander
parallel retreat and reaches the p osition o f C -C (in escarpm ents is under the p rocess o f parallel retreat
fig. 15.11 (A ) and B in 15.11 (B ). The B -C segm en t and the low er seg m en t o f rectilinear slo p e ( o f shales)
does not exp erien ce parallel retreat due to lack o f is exten d in g u p slope. T he parallel retreat is com p lete
required degree o f m ob ility and thus non -rem oval o f over Sharda Pole hill (fig. 3.8) and hence dow nw asting
m aterials, w ith the result the lo w e st seg m en t (A -B ) has resulted into the d ev elo p m en t o f co n v ex o -co n -
is again replaced by n ew unit o f further g en tle slo p e
H s x s to fe 283
inclination extends upslope. A new slope unit o f still

A gentle gradient develops at the base o f initial basal
slope. Later on, this slope unit is also replaced by
new slope unit o f further gentle gradient. T his m echa
nism repeats itself and thus a new slope unit o f gentle
slope is produced at the base o f slope segm ent. T hus,
‘flattening o f slope alw ays occurs from slope base
and proceeds u p slo p e’.
A. Y oung (1972) has pointed o ut tw o errors in
this second m odel o f Penck e.g. (i) the ap plication o f
the m echanism o f rockfall and instan taneous re
e moval o f debris from c liff slope to the reg o lith -

covered slope is unrealistic, and (ii) P en ck's assu m p
tion that all parts o f basal slopes o r its la ter re p la c e
ment slopes are equally ex p o sed to w eath erin g is
erroneous. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at p erio d o f e x p o
sure is m axim um at the lo w est seg m en t o f slo p e
profile and decreases upslope and b eco m es zero a t
the intersection p o int o f upper slo p e segm ent.
c Penck has also pro p o sed a m o d el o f d e v e lo p

m ent o f slope form s on the b asis o f rate o f stream
erosion. In the case o f acceleratin g rate o f stream
erosion, the valleyside slope beco m es co n v ex w h ile
decelerating rate o f erosion cau ses the d e v e lo p m e n t
of concave valley side slope. O n the o th e r h an d ,
constant rate o f stream ero sio n resu lts in the d e v e l
opm ent o f rectilin ear slo p e (fig. 15.12).
Fig. 15.12 : P enck’s model o f slope development. A. Con Evaluation
cave slope form due to decelerating rate of
It m ay be em p h asised th a t ‘the in itial n e g lect,
stream erosion, B. Constant or rectilinear
subsequent m isinterpretations (by W .M . D av is, faulty
slope due to constant rate o f erosion, C.
translation in E n g lish ) and b e lated re c o g n itio n o f
convex slope due to accelerating rate o f ero
Penck's w o rk ’ (A . Y o u n g , 1970) has g iv e n b irth to
sion. A - E = successive river positions.
num erous co n tro v e rsies re g a rd in g P e n c k 's d e d u c
P en ck has a lso ap p lied his m odel to explain tive m odel o f slo p e ev o lu tio n . A c c o rd in g to Y o u n g ,
the d e v e lo p m e n t o f d e b ris co v ered slope. R ed u ctio n P enck no w h ere m e n tio n e d a n g u la r b re a k o f slo p e in
begins at the basal slo p e and co n tin u es till the entire his orig in al w ritin g s in the c a se o f a c c e le ra tin g ra te
basal slo p e a tta in s such m o b ility that the debris o f stream ero sio n . It m ay be th a t in c a s e o f a b ru p t
resting on the slope b eco m es m obile. T he req u ired increase in the rate o f e ro sio n c o n v e x b re a k o f
m obility (fo r the rem o v a l o f d eb ris) on basal slope is g rad ien t is p ro d u ced , ‘th e ste e p e r slo p e b e lo w it w ill
m uch h ig h er than on the c lif f slo p e becau se the w ork p ro g ressiv ely u p slo p e , re p la c in g the g e n tle r
g radien t o f the fo rm er is very low in co m p ariso n to unit a b o v e ’ (A . Y o u n g , 1972).
the latter. W ith the atta in m e n t o f this situ atio n (re It is not c le a r fro m th e c lo se p e ru s a l o f th e
q uired m o b ility at the basal slo p e) the ro ck d eb ris in te rp re ta tio n s o f P e n c k 's m o d e l by so m e s c ie n tis ts
b egins to m o v e d o w n w a rd on all seg m en ts o f slope as to w h e th e r slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t ta k e s p lace in
profile. T h e d eb ris d o es not m ove from the lo w est d iscrete stag es, ‘o r w h e th e r th is w as ju s t a d e v ic e to
slope seg m en t b eca u se o f lack o f su ffic ie n t slo p e be ad o p ted fo r e x p la n a to ry p u rp o s e s , th e s ta g e s
gradient. T h u s, the basal slo p e h av in g its o rig in al b ein g re g a rd e d as in fin ite ly s m a ll’ (Y o u n g ). It is a lso
284 GEOM ORPHOLOGY
n o t c le a r w h e th e r slo p e p ro file , d u rin g its e v o lu tio n o f free face d e c re a se s). T h u s, the lo w e r segment o f
a ry s ta g e s , c o n s is ts o f se v e ra l in te rs e c tin g re c tilin e a r free face b u ried u n d e r d e b ris c o v e r b eco m es con
s e g m e n ts (fig . 1 5 .1 1 (B )) o r it b e c o m e s co n c a v e sta n t slo p e . A c o n v ex ro ck slo p e is fo rm ed under
p ro file . ‘T e x tu a l p a s s a g e s can b e fo u n d in su p p o rt o f d e b ris co v e re d c o n s ta n t slo p e. T h is sim p le co n d itio n
e ith e r in te rp re ta tio n o f h is m e a n in g ; on b a la n c e the m ay get d is tu rb e d w h en a stre a m b e c o m e s activ e on
la tte r a lte rn a tiv e se e m s in d ic a te d , an d is su p p o rte d d e b ris c o n s ta n t slo p e. D u e to stream actio n w eath
by th e d ia g ra m o f slo p e e v o lu tio n in h is la ter p a p e r ered m a te ria ls are re m o v e d from th e lo w e r segm ent
on th e B la c k F o re s t (A . Y o u n g , 1972). H. M o rten sen
o f slope. A cco rd in g to W o o d ’s assu m p tio n the stream s
(1 9 6 9 ) h as e x p re s s e d d o u b t a b o u t the p a ra lle l retreat
are c o m p e te n t e n o u g h to re m o v e all the m aterials
o f c lif f ro c k fa c e by u n ifo rm rate o f w ea th e rin g . It
co m in g from u p slo p e s e g m e n t o f free face d u e to
m a y be m e n tio n e d th a t P e n c k 's m o d e l b eco m es v alid
w eath e rin g . In o th e r w o rd s, th e re is b a la n c e b e
w h e re th e re is c o n tin u o u s an d in sta n ta n e o u s re
tw een th e a v a ila b le e n e rg y (tra n s p o rtin g c a p a c ity o f
m o v a l o f re g o lith s fro m slo p e b u t th e m o d el b e
stre a m s) an d th e w o rk to be d o n e (w e a th e re d d e b ris
c o m e s in v a lid w h e re re m o v a l o f re g o lith o ccu rs in
to be rem o v e d ). T h is situ a tio n ( o f e q u ilib riu m ) leads
s ta g e s (M o rte n s e n ). A . Y o u n g (1 9 7 2 ) h as e v alu ate d
P e n c k 's m o d e l a n d h as re m a rk e d , ‘G iv en th ese q u a li to the d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n s ta n t d e b ris slo p e i.e. the
fic a tio n s , P e n c k ’s m o d e l p re se n ts a h y p o th e sis o f len g th o f d e b ris slo p e re m a in s c o n sta n t. T h e re g u la r
slo p e ev o lu tio n in w h ich g entle slope succeeds steeper, re tre a t o f free face th ro u g h b a c k w a s tin g re s u lta n ts in
b u t in a m a n n e r v ery d iffe re n t fro m th e D av isian re g u la r e x te n sio n o f c o n s ta n t slo p e b u t no d e b ris can
s c h e m e ........... In P e n c k 's sy stem p arallel re tre a t o nly rest on this e x te n d e d c o n s ta n t slo p e , w h ic h is c a lle d
ta k e s p la c e on an in itia l re c tilin e a r slo p e; su ch a d e n u d a tio n a l c o n s ta n t s lo p e (fig . 1 5 .1 3 B ). T h u s,
slo p e is tra n s fo rm e d in to a c o n c a v e fo rm rela tiv e ly c o n sta n t slo p e c o n s is ts o f tw o s e g m e n ts e .g . (i)
e a rly in its e v o lu tio n a ry h isto ry , and d e v e lo p m e n t lo w e r a g g r a d a tio n a l s e g m e n t (fig . 1 5 .1 3 B ) a n d (ii)
th e n p ro c e e d s by su c c e s s iv e re p la c e m e n t fro m b e d e n u d a tio n a l s e g m e n t (fig . 1 5 .1 3 B ) w h ic h is a lso
lo w . I f th is re p la c e m e n t is n o t in d isc re te sta g e s b ut
ca lle d as s lo p e o f d e r iv a tio n o r tr a n s p o r ta tio n
c o n tin u o u s , th en no p a rt o f the c o n c a v e slo p e re
s lo p e an d is an e x a m p le o f r e c tilin e a r s lo p e . A s th e
tre a ts p a ra lle l to i t s e l f (A . Y o u n g , 1972).
m ech an ism o f re tre a t o f free face th ro u g h b a c k w a stin g
(3) A. Wood's Model of slope evolution c a u se d by w e a th e rin g c o n tin u e s , th e r e c tilin e a r se g
A . W o o d p re se n te d h is c o n c e p t o f slo p e d e m e n t e x te n d s u p slo p e a n d u ltim a te ly re a c h e s th e
v e lo p m e n t in 1942 th ro u g h h is re se a rc h p a p e r e n ti d iv id e su m m it w h en th e free fa c e e le m e n t c o m
tled , ‘th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h ills id e s lo p e s ’ p u b lish e d p le te ly d isa p p e a rs o r say w h en th e p ro c e s s o f re tre a t
in th e P ro c e e d in g s o f G e o lo g ic a l A sso c ia tio n o f o f free face is fin a lly c o m p le te d .
L o n d o n . W o o d 's c o n c e p t o f slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t in
T h e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f free fa c e re s u lts in the
c lu d e s (a) p a ra lle l re tre a t o f slo p e an d (b) a d ju stm e n t
ro u n d in g o f d iv id e (in te rflu v e ) s u m m it an d th e d e
b e tw e e n ra te o f w e a th e rin g an d rate o f tra n s p o rta
v e lo p m e n t o f s u m m ita l c o n v e x ity . W ith th e m a rc h
tio n o f w e a th e re d m a te ria ls (d o w n slo p e re m o v a l o f
o f tim e lo w e r s e g m e n t o f c o n s ta n t slo p e b e c o m e s
m a te ria ls ). H e s e le c te d a c lif f slo p e w ith free face
c o n c a v e (fig . 15.13 C ). T h u s , th e e n tire slo p e p ro file
e le m e n t fo r th e p u rp o s e o f e lu c id a tio n o f h is c o n
c o n s is ts o f th re e e le m e n ts i.e. s u m m ita l c o n v e x ity ,
c e p t. T h e c l if f s lo p e m ig h t h a v e b een fo rm e d e ith e r
te c to n ic a lly (fa u ltin g ) o r e ro s io n a lly . T h e free face r e c tilin e a r ity a n d b a s a l c o n c a v ity a n d an id e al
is s u b je c te d to w e a th e rin g w h ic h c a u s e s its re tre a t c o n v e x o -r e c tilin e a r -c o n c a v e s lo p e is fo rm e d . T he
th ro u g h b a c k w a s tin g . T h e w e a th e re d d e b ris is tra n s e v o lu tio n o f slo p e still c o n tin u e s a n d th e su m m ital
p o rte d d o w n s lo p e a n d a c c u m u la te s a t th e slo p e fo o t c o n v e x an d b a sa l c o n c a v e u n its e x te n d at th e e x
(b a s e ). T h e a c c u m u la tio n o f d e b ris e x te n d s u p s lo p e p e n se o f re c tilin e a r u n it. U ltim a te ly , th e re c tilin e a r
w ith the re s u lt th e lo w e r s e g m e n t o f free face s lo p e u n it d isa p p e a rs and c o n v e x o -c o n c a v e slo p e is form ed.
is c o n tin u o u s ly c o v e re d w ith d e b ris a n d th u s is W ith th e m a rc h o f tim e th is slo p e is s u b je c te d to
b u rie d u n d e r d e b r is c o v e r (fig . 1 5 .1 3 A ). C o n s e g ra d u a l w a s tin g a n d d e c lin e in s lo p e a n g le (fig-
q u e n tly , the le n g th o f fre e fa c e d e c re a s e s (i.e. h e ig h t 15.13 C ).
HILLSLOPE
285
Fig. 15.13 : Slope development according to A. Wood (in R.J. Small, 1970).
Evaluation and co n fu sio n s (reg ard in g the slo p e d ev e lo p m e n t) in

T h e m odel o f slo p e ev o lu tio n o f A. W ood is, reality. It is not likely th at c o n v ex ity and c o n ca v ity
in fact, g e o m e tric a l in ap p ea ran ce and indeed is very w ould ap p ea r in the last p h ase o f slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t.
in terestin g b u t it is u n ab le to so lv e som e p ro b lem s W o o d fails to p resen t c o n v in c in g a rg u m e n t fo r th is
286
GEOMORPHOLOGY
situation. The transform ation o f co n stan t debris slope A lthough this is severe in d ictm en t o f any study of
into concave form m ay be accep ted , at least co n cep the natural env iro n m en t, it co u ld be m aintained that
tually, but it is very d ifficu lt to d ig est the arbitrary he w as co n cern ed to p resen t a broad view, based
assum ption o f tran sfo rm atio n o f convex rock slope upon reco n aissan ce ob serv atio n s on a w orld scale
buried u n d er co n stan t d eb ris slope into concave previously unp aralleled in geom orphology, and that
slope form . If the co n stan t d eb ris slope is once this is no bar to su b seq u en t d etailed investigations of
transform ed into co n ca v e form due to stream ero p articu lar aspects' (A. Y oung, 1972).
sion, then this co n cav e form is sup erim p o sed on the A fter a careful ob serv atio n o f S outh A frican
convex rock slope w h ich is ero d ed dow n due to landscape he o b serv ed that h um id tem p erate clim ate
rem oval o f o v erly in g debris. and areas could not be ‘n o r m a l’ for landscape de
velopm ent, as claim ed by W .M . D av is, because
(4) H illslope c y c le theory of L .C . King
m ost o f the top o g rap h ic featu res had been m odified
T h e K ing's co n ce p t o f.h illslo p e evo lu tio n is, by P leistocene glaciatio n ; and m o st o f the p resen t
in fact, re la te d to his b ro ad er schem e o f landscape day landform s are relict featu res d ev elo p ed in the
ev o lu tio n , w hich in clu d es the concepts o f ‘river
past periglacial clim ate. T hus, acco rd in g to K ing,
c y c le ’ (1 9 5 1 ), ‘h illslo p e c y c le ’ (1953) and ‘la n d
subtropical sem i-hum id reg io n s are ‘m o st n o r m a l’
sca p e c y c le ’ (1962). It m ay be m en tio n ed that K ing's
for landscape ev o lu tio n . H e also reje cted th e basic
m o d e l is b ased on the co n cep ts o f A. W ood (1942),
tenet o f clim a tic g eo m o rp h o lo g y th a t ‘th e v a ria
T .J. F a ir (1 9 4 8 , 1949), W . P en ck (1924) and R.E.
tions in slope fo rm s and slo p e elem en ts d e p e n d on
H o rto n (1 9 4 5 ). In fact, K ing d id not survey slopes in
clim atic types i.e. slope fo rm s vary from o n e cli
th e field and did not m easu re slope m aking and
m atic type to the o th e r’ and m a in ta in e d th a t, ‘o u r
co n tro llin g p ro cesses but based his m odel on field th e sis w ill be th a t th e b a s ic p h y s ic a l c o n tro ls
o b serv atio n s alone. ‘K ing's o p inions lack a basis o f o f la n d sc a p e re m a in th e sa m e in all c lim a tic
d etaile d field o b serv atio n s; no m easu rem en t o f e i en v iro n m en ts sh o rt o f frig id o r e x tre m ely a rid ’
th e r p ro cess or form ap p ears in his pub lish ed w ork. (K ing, 1957).
Fig. 15.14 : Components o f a standard hillslope (L.C. King. 1962).

A ccord in g to K ing a standard (id ea l) hill co n v ex ity , free fa ce, rectilinearity and basal concav-
s lo p e c o n s is ts o f all the four elem en ts e.g . sum m ital ity (fig- 15.1 4 ). S uch ideal h illslo p e is the na
HILLSLOPE
287
products o f norm al processes o f slope evolution

in v o lv in g flu v ia l p ro c e ss (flo w in g w ater) or
m assm ovem ent or both. He further m aintains that
full developm ent o f slope elem ents depends on local
conditions i.e. resistant and strong bedrocks and
bold and sufficient reliefs. If either o f these condi
tions are absent, free face (scarp) and debris slope do
not develop and thus a w aning convexo-concave
slope is form ed.
The evolution o f hillslope is, in fact, related to
the concept o f pediplanation cycle of King. A ccord
ing to King pediplain form ation is the result o f twin
processes i.e. scarp retreat and pedim entation. In
the initial stage o f hillslope developm ent, the scarp
face experiences parallel retreat due to backwasting
caused by w eathering of exposed rocks. This parallel
retreat of scarp contrails the evolution of entire
hillslope. A ccording to King the debris slope just
below the scarp or free face does not extend upslope
and hence it is neither capable o f obscuring nor
destroying the free face element. It means that there
is a balance between the supply of debris from upslope
Fig. 15.15 : Pediplanation cycle and hillslope evolution
and rem oval o f debris dow nslope on this section i.e.
according to L.C. King.
debris slope. Sim ilarly, there exists balance between
debris supply and debris removal at hill crest and face) is the active elem ent o f slope retreat. W herever
hence it rem ains constant. The gradual parallel retreat scarp is absent, the present slope form is not the result
o f free face and rectilinear elem ents (debris slope) of present geom orphic processes. B ased on this as
results in the form ation o f pediment o f concave plan sumption King has maintained that extensive convexo-
at the base o f the hillslope. As the parallel retreat of concave slopes o f the tem perate regions o f the north
free face and debris slope continues, their lengths ern hem isphere are, in fact, relict form s and are not the
decrease and pedim ents extend upslope at the cost of result o f present day processes rather they are the
rectilinear and free face elem ents. Ultimately, upper result o f past periglacial processes. T hese have not
slope elem ents m ainly free face disappear and pedi been formed due to scarp retreat rather these have
m ents extend upto hill crest. Thus, an extensive developed because o f w eathering and erosion o f
erosion surface o f concave slope is formed. This weak rocks.
surface is called pediplain, which is, in fact, the Evaluation
product o f coalescence o f several pedim ents (fig.
King’s model o f slope evolution is, in fact, not
15.15). Thus, the w hole process o f developm ent of
original concept o f his ow n rather it is am algam ation
pediplain and the entire process o f slope evolution
of views o f earlier w orkers like A. W ood, T.J. Fair,
during this period is called ‘pediplanation cycle and
R.E. H orton etc. and is a story-like deductive and
‘hillslope evolution cy cle’.
im practicable b ut interesting description. H is co n
K ing has further m aintained that if the scarp is cept is based on extensive reconnaissance o b serv a
absent due to lack o f resistant rocks and bold relief tions alone. N o field survey and instrum entation of
then the process o f slope evolution would be entirely slope m aking processes have been undertaken. King
different from the process o f parallel retreat and has used assertions rather than ev id ences in support
pediplanation. There will be regular decrease in m axi o f his m odel. ‘E vidence from the w ork of o thers is
m um slope angle and extensive convexo-concave selectively m ustered in support o f preconceived views.
slope is produced. A ccording to K ing the hillslope An exam ple is the arg u m en t p u t fo rw ard involving
w ith scarp is considered norm al because scarp (free the hydrological distinction b etw een laminar and
288 geom orphology
turbulent flow o f water; it is asserted that turbulent slope elem ents (crestal convex, free face, rectilinear
flow on the upper slope elem ent gives place to lam inar and basal concave elem ents) whrein scarp or free
flow on pedim ent. This has never been experim en face elem ent is subjected to parallel retreat. A few of
tally verified. W here there exists clear field evidence
the detached hills having sandstone capping are the
contradicting a view, the circum stances are dism issed
exam ples o f m esas characterized by flat top but
as not ‘norm al’ (A. Y oung, 1972)’. A. Y oung (1972)
steep scarps on all sides. T hese scarps are experienc
has further rem arked, ‘his w riting lacks objectivity.
The value o f King's w ork is in setting up hypotheses ing parallel retreat due to backw asting. (fig. 3.8).
for testing; they are not p ro v en ’. (5) Concept of R.A. Savigear
If K ing's view s are considered in Indian con U n lik e o th e r g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts B ritis h
text, som e o f his ideas becom e relev an t and are geom orphologist R.A. S avigear (1952) postulated
validated. The author after having close observa his concept o f slope d evelopm ent on the basis of
tions and selective m easu rem en t o f slope angles in field evidences rather than on deductive reasoning.
certain parts o f foreland o f Indian peninsula viz. H is concept, thus, is nearer to reality and ground
C h o ta n ag p u r h ig h lan d s (B ih ar), R ohtas plateau truth. He closely observed and studied the ch aracter
(B ihar), K aim ur ranges, R ew a plateau, B hander pla istics of a few slope profiles at the head o f the
teau (M .P .) etc. has n o ticed precipitous scarps (free C arm arthen Bay in South W ales and postulated that
face elem en t) w hich are undergoing the process o f both parallel retreat and slope d ecline played im por
parallel retreat due to backw asting caused by physico tant role in slope developm ent. Som e tim es these
c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g o f w ell jo in te d m assiv e processes work together in a single region o f u n i
sandstones (of scarps) resting over shales and siltstones form environm ental conditions. H e id entified one
form ing d ebris or rectilin ear slope. B hander plateau such slope profile in the eastern part o f the C arm arthen
having im posing escarpm ents on its eastern, south Bay w hich consisted o f basal free face (scarp slope),
eastern and southern sides consists o f all the four m iddle rectilinear elem ent w ith slope angle o f 32°
Limited
Summital
® - -------------^ ^ C o n v e x ity
Major rectilinear
Slope Section
Broader
Summital #
_______Convexity N.
V_/
Limited rectilinear
Slope Section \
Recently
28° ) \
active
cliff
Basal
^ ^ -«^ concavity •
Marsh
Fig. 15.16: Slope development - cliff slope according to R.A. Savigear, 1952).
h il l s l o h e
and u p p er lim ited su m m ital co nvex elem ent. T he field d ata o b tain ed th ro u g h m e a su re m e n t o f slo p e
angle o f re c tilin e a r slo p e is such that the w eathered angle in carefully selected areas o f u n ifo rm co n d i
and eroded m aterials are rem oved from the rectilin tions in term s o f g eological stru ctu re, lith o lo g ical
ear slope d u e to g rav ity and are tran sp o rted dow n the ch aracteristics, clim atic co n d itio n s, v eg etatio n , soil,
free face o r scarp slope. T he m aterials co m in g at the relief etc. He first m easu red m a x im u m slo p e a n g les
base o f free face are in stan tan eo u sly rem o v ed by sea in a region o f uniform en v iro n m en tal co n d itio n s and
w aves and thus basal free face slope is m aintained then calcu lated m ean m a x im u m slo p e a n g le a fte r
but it ex p erien ces p arallel retreat (fig. 15.16A). On averaging m axim um an g les. O n th e b asis o f clo se
the other hand, th ere are co n v ex -rectilin ea r-co n - perusal o f m axim um slope an g les and m ean m ax i
cave slo p es in the w estern p art o f the C arm arthen
m um slope angles he p o stu la ted th at th ere w as very
Bay w here basal c o n ca v e slope has dev elo p ed b e
little deviation o f in d ividual m ax im u m slo p e an g les
cause o f a c c u m u la tio n o f d eb ris at the slope base
from m ean m axim um slo p e an g les in a given lo c a l
(fig. 15.16B ) as the m a teria ls co m in g from upslope
ity. A ccording to S trah ler the h illslo p es h av e d e v e l
cannot be rem o v e d by sea w av es b ecau se the sea has
oped uniform m axim um slo p e an g le so th a t slo p e
receded an d th u s sea w av es do n ot reach the slope
base. m aterials m ay be effectiv ely tran sp o rte d d o w n slo p e.
Such slope, from w hich debris is rem o v ed d o w n slo p e
A c co rd in g to S av ig e ar rectilin ear slope at
easily, has been term ed by S trah ler as eq u ilib riu m
c o n sta n t an g le o f 32° can be m ain tain ed only when
slo p e w hich is co n tro lled not by a sin g le fa c to r b u t
th ere is effectiv e rem o v al o f m aterials from its base
by all those factors w hich are in v o lv ed in th e d e v e l
but if th ere is no rem o v al o f m aterials from slope
base, the d e b ris com in g from upslope accum ulates at opm ent o f slopes. S lig h t ch an g e in any one o f the
the b ase o f re c tilin e a r slope and thus the low er factors m ay distu rb the eq u ilib riu m slo p e a n d m a y
se g m e n t o f slo p e is p ro tec ted from w eathering and w arran t re a d ju stm e n t o f e q u ilib riu m c o n d itio n .
e ro sio n al p ro c e sse s w h ereas the upper part o f the S trahler drew th ree in feren ces fro m his em p irica l
slope p ro file co n tin u e s to retreat due to w eathering. study o f slope d ev elo p m en t—
T h is m e c h a n ism effects d eclin e in slope angle. He (i) In any one lo cality th ere is u n ifo rm m a x
has also in fe rre d th a t the d ev elo p m en t o f sum m ital
m um slope angle on all retreatin g slo p es, (ii) it is no t
c o n v ex ity ta k e s p la ce at the later stage o f slope
necessary th at all such slo p es are o f the sam e ag e in
d e v e lo p m e n t. ‘It d o es seem p o ssib le, to ju d g e from
term s o f ev olution, and (iii) it is m o re likely th a t
the e v id e n c e in C arm arth en B ay, that both parallel
retre at an d slo p e d e clin e are ten ab le theories, and slopes having un ifo rm m ax im u m slo p e a n g le s u n
th a t tw o m e c h a n ism s can ex ist to g eth er in one small dergo the p ro cess o f p arallel retre at ra th e r than slo p e
area in re s p o n s e to d iffe re n t co n d itio n s o f slope-foot decline.
ero sio n o r d e p o s itio n ’ (R .J. S m all, 1970). A fter a d etailed stu d y o f slo p e p ro file s in
It m a y be m e n tio n e d th a t d iffe re n c e in fluvially originated drainage basins S trahler attem pted
lith o lo g ical c o n d itio n s m ay also lead to parallel to establish co rrelatio n b etw een v alley side o r g ro u n d
retreat as w ell as slo p e d eclin e in clo se p roxim ity. slope and ch an n el g rad ien t o r slo p e. A c c o rd in g to
F or e x a m p le , the B h a n d e r scarp s and d etach ed hills him valley side slo p es are p o sitiv e ly c o rre la te d w ith
(m esas) h av in g sa n d sto n e cap p in g resti ng ov er shales channel slope i.e. w h erev er v alley side slo p e is
(fig. 3.8) (S a tn a d istric t, M .P .) are ex p erien cin g steep, the ch an n el slo p e is also sle e p so th a t w e a th
p arallel re tre a t w h ile th e S h ard a P ole hill located ered and eroded m aterials co m in g fro m the v alley sid e
very clo se to B h a n d e r scarp s is e x p erien cin g slope slopes m ay be e ffectiv ely tra n s p o rte d by the ch an n e l
decline as the sa n d sto n e c a p p in g has been finally d o w n stream . C o n v e rse ly , g en tle v alley sid e slopes
rem oved due to p arallel re tre a t and thus the hill is gen erate relativ ely le sse r d e b ris an d h e n ce th e chan
s u b jected to d o w n w a stin g w h ich h as p ro d u ced nel g rad ien t a lso b eco m es g en tle. F o llo w in g S tra h le r
co n v ex o -co n cav e slope. su ch c o n d itio n (p o sitiv e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n v alley
side slope and c h a n n e l slo p e ) m a y be possible on ly
(6) Concept of A.N. Strahler w hen the slo p e m a k in g an d c o n tro llin g factors re
T h e co n cep t o f A .N . S trah ler, an A m erican m ain co n stan t. C h an g e in any of the factors may
g eo m o rp h o lo g ist, on slo p e d ev elo p m en t is b ased on d istu rb such c o n d itio n and relationship. For exam-
290
GEOMORPHOLOGY
pie, tw o valley sid e slo p e s h av e u n ifo rm an g le but the ch an n el d o w n stream easily. O n the o th e r hand, if
o ne is co v ered w ith v e g e ta tio n w h ile the o th e r one the channel is aw ay from the base o f valley sides, the
is devoid o f v eg etatio n . T h e v e g e ta tio n -c o v e re d m aterials co m in g from up slo p e are d ep o sited at the
valley side w o u ld g e n e ra te less d e b ris b eca u se o f base and hence the valley side slope becom es gentle.
low d eg ree o f d e n u d a tio n and h en ce ch an n e l g rad i
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t th e view s o f S trahler
en t w ould b e g en tle in c o m p a riso n to v eg etatio n -fre e very m u ch fall in lin e w ith th o se o f R .A . S avigear in
valley sides an d a sso c ia te d ch an n e l g rad ie n t b ecau se that p arallel retre at and m a in ten a n ce o f steep slope
in this case v alley sid es are su b jected to m o re d e n u angle is possible w here m aterials co m in g from upslope
datio n , g en era te m o re d eb ris and h en ce channel are rem o v ed from the slo p e b ase an d slope d eclin e
g rad ie n t w o u ld be rela tiv e ly steep e r so th a t all the b eco m es o p erativ e w h ere m a te ria ls a c c u m u la te at
loads m ay be tra n sp o rte d d o w n stream . the slope base.
A cco rd in g to S trah ler, if the ch an n el g rad ien t (7) Fisher-Lehmann Model of slope evolution
is steep e n ed e ith e r d u e to reju v e n atio n or due to O. F ish er (1 8 6 6 ) an d O. L e h m a n n (1933
ch an g e in d is c h a rg e -lo a d ratio co n seq u en t upon cli 1934) p o stu la ted p ro cess r e sp o n se m o d el o f slope
m a tic ch a n g e , the steep e n in g o f valley sid e slope ev o lu tio n . It m ay b e p o in ted o u t th a t p ro c e ss-re -
b eco m es m o re co m m o n than p arallel retreat. He sp o n se m o d el is rela ted to th e m e c h a n ism o f slope
fu rth e r m a in ta in s th a t w h e re v e r the la n d sca p e ev o lu fo rm in g p ro cesses and th e ir re sp o n se i.e. c h a n g e s in
tion is c o n tro lle d by b a se-le v el, w h erein slo p e g rad i slope form d u rin g a giv en tim e sp an . F irst, F ish e r
en t d e c re a se s w ith tim e, then the p o ssib ility o f slope ap p lied this m o d el fo r the e x p la n a tio n o f c liff re c e s
d e clin e c a n n o t be ru led out. T h e valley side slope sion in 1866. T h e in itial fo rm o f th e c liff slo p e is
b eco m es s te e p e r o nly in th o se c o n d itio n s w here w all-lik e steep slo p e w ith p re c ip ito u s scarp (free
riv e r ch an n e l to u c h es th e slo p e b ase so th at all the face elem en t) and th ere is a c c u m u la tio n o f d e b ris at
d eb ris co m in g fro m u p slo p e m ay be tran sp o rte d by the fo o t o f the cliff. A .C . L a w so n also d e d u c e d the
Fig. 15.17: Slope development according to O. Lehmann. Parallel retreat o ffre e face-1, II, III successive recessions o f
fre e face, p - C liff angle, a - scree angle, FABCH- rock core, Source : A. Young, 1972.
process o f c liff rece ssio n in 1915 w h ile O. L eh m an n co n tin u o u s p arallel retre at d u e to b a c k w a s tin g cau sed
added a few m o re v aria b les for the ex p lan atio n o f by w eath e rin g o f e x p o se d ro c k s o f fre e fa c e elem en t.
developm ent o f c liff slo p e in 1933 and 1934 e.g. A ro ck c o r e is fo rm ed d u e to c lif f re c e s s io n a n d
angle o f cliff, scree an g le, ratio o f ro ck -scree v o l acc u m u la tio n o f sc re e at th e fo o t o f c liff. T h is r o c k
ume. T hey d ed u ce d the c o n c e p t o f p arallel retre at o f co re is b u ried u n d e r sc re e c o v e r. It is a s s u m e d th a t
scarp (free face ) sectio n o f the c lif f slo p e. T h e model there is no c h a n g e in th e fo rm o f r o c k c o r e . T h e
of cliff recession is g en era lly k now n as Fisher- h eig h t o f free face (h ) g ra d u a lly d e c re a s e s b e c a u se
Lehmann model (A . Y o u n g , 1972). o f g rad u al a c c u m u la tio n o f scree.
A cco rd in g to th is m o d el it is assu m ed th at the T h is m o d el e n v isa g e s th a t if th e c lif f fa c e is
initial form o f slo p e is re c tilin e a r-fre e face w h erein su b jected to g rad u al p a ra lle l re tre a t a n d th e re is
initial h e ig h t is d e n o te d by h and slo p e an g le by (3 acc u m u la tio n o f scree at its (c liff) b a se th e n th e fo rm
(fig. 15.17). It is fu rth e r assu m ed th at the su rface at o f ro ck co re b u ried u n d e r sc re e w o u ld b e c o n v e x .
the top o f c lif f and at its b o tto m is flat and plain (as T h e lo w est p o in t o f c o n v e x ro c k c o re b e c o m e s
show n in fig. 15.17). T h e en tire sectio n o f free face tan g en t to initial c lif f a n g le ((3). W h e n th e p ro c e s s o f
(scarp) is e x p o s e d to w e a th e rin g p ro cesses. B ecau se p arallel retre at is c o m p le te a n d th e e n tire fre e fa c e
o f im p act o f w e a th e rin g p ro c e sse s a w eath e red lay er (scarp ) is rem o v e d d u e to p a ra lle l re tre a t a n d sc re e
o f u n ifo rm th ic k n e s s is d e ta c h e d and falls d o w n in a accu m u latio n , th e h ig n e st p o in t o f c o n v e x ro c k c o re
unit tim e. T h is d is lo d g e d w eath e red la y er o f scree (H ) b eco m es ta n g e n t to sc re e a n g le ( a ) . T h e c h a n g e s
a c c u m u la te s at th e fo o t o f the slo p e. T h u s, the slope in initial c liff an g le ((3) h av e in s ig n ific a n t c o n tro l on
an g le o f n ew ly fo rm e d re c tilin e a r slo p e d ue to acc u the shape o f sc re e -c o v e re d ro c k c o re as it re m a in s
m u la tio n o f scree is less than the angle o f original co nvex in plan. I f the c lif f a n g le ((3) is le ss th a n 90°,
(in itia l) free face ((3). C liff u n d erg o es the p ro cess o f the lo w er se g m e n t o f ro ck c o re is re la tiv e ly o f g e n tle
F G H H
A B I D = D A FG I A CJE = D A F H J
Fig. 15.18: A m odel o f c liff recession and slope development according to O. Fisher. Source : R.J. Rice, 1977.
GEOM ORPHOLOGY
m
slope. On the other hand, ch an g e in scree an g le ( a ) ter).
has greater im pact on the form o f rock core. A s the (ii) S lo p e retre at su b ject to control by
angle o f scree slope increases, the steep n ess o f rock rem o v al (o f accu m u lated scree).
core also increases and vice-versa. (iii) R em o v al o f reg o lith (scree) e n
If the entire m ass o f scree is rem o v ed du rin g tirely by su rface tran sport.
parallel retreat o f cliff, the resu ltan t relict ro ck su r (iv) R ate o f su rface tran sp o rt (is) p ro
face p roduced by parallel retreat gives birth to re c ti p o rtio n al to sin <f>an d d istan ce from
linear slope w hich is called d en u d a tio n a l slo p e. It c re st (o f cliff), (fig. 15.19A 1).
m ay be m en tio n ed th at the steep n ess o f ro ck core M o d e l 2. (i) U n im p e d ed rem o v a l (o f reg o lith ),
depends on the steep n ess o f initial c liff an g les i.e. if b u t no basal e ro sio n (o f a c c u m u
the initial c liff slope an g le is very steep, the co n v ex lated reg o lith by flo w in g w ater).
ity o f rock co re w o u ld also be very steep as show n in (ii) S lo p e retre at su b je c t to co n tro l by
fig. 15.18, rem o v al (o f acc u m u la te d reg o lith ).
Fig. 15.18 portray s an exam p le o f very steep (iii) R em o v al o f re g o lith e n tire ly by
c liff hav in g initial angle o f 90°. B ecau se o f w eath e r su rface tran sp o rt.
ing o f ex p o sed rocks o f c liff face a lay er o f w eath (iv) R ate o f su rface tra n s p o rt (is) p ro
ered ro ck o f uniform th ick n ess (A F G I in fig. 15.18) p o rtio n al to sin <})an d d is ta n c e fro m
is rem o v ed an d is d ep o sited at the c liff fo o t (A B ID ).
crest, (fig. 1 5 .1 9 A 2 )
It m ay be m en tio n ed th at the v o lu m e o f w eath ered
ro ck equals the v olum e o f scree d ep o sited at the c liff M o d el 3a. (i) U n im p e d e d b a s a l r e m o v a l ( o f
b ase as fo llo w s— reg o lith ), b u t n o b a sa l e ro s io n (o f
acc u m u la te d re g o lith by flo w in g
T he v o lu m e o f A BID (scree) = CZH A FG I
w ater).
(w eath erin g loss)
(ii) S lo p e re tre a t s u b je c t to c o n tro l by
D u rin g the seco n d u n it o f tim e G B C H section
rem o v a l (o f a c c u m u la te d re g o lith ).
is w eathered and rem o v ed and is d ep o sited over
p reviously d ep o sited scree slope. (iii) R e m o v al o f re g o lith e n tire ly by
d ire c t re m o v a l.
V o lu m e o f A C JE = v o lu m e o f □ □ A F H J
(w eathering loss) (iv) R ate o f d ire c t re m o v a l (is) p ro p o r
tio n al to sin <}) o r (M o d e l 3b).
T he co n v ex rock co re (A B C H ) is very steep
b ecau se the initial c liff an g le is very steep (90°). SH M odel 3b. (i) U n im p e d e d b a s a l r e m o v a l ( o f
d en o tes fin a l scree slo p e w hen the p arallel retre at o f reg o lith ), b u t n o b a sa l e ro s io n ( o f
a c c u m u la te d re g o lith b y flo w in g
c lif f face is co m p lete d .
w ater).
(8) Process-response model of A. Young (ii) S lo p e re tre a t s u b je c t to c o n tro l by
A . Y o u n g (1 9 6 3 ) and F. A h n ert (1 9 6 6 and w eath e rin g .
1970) in d e p e n d e n tly d e v e lo p e d p ro c e ss-re sp o n se
(iii) R ate o f w e a th e rin g (is) p ro p o rtio n a l
m o del o f slo p e d e v e lo p m e n t b u t the m o d e ls a p p e a r
to sin <|) (ra te o f s u rfa c e tra n s p o rt
m o re o r less id e n tica l. Y o u n g has c o n stru c te d his
im m a te ria l).
m o d els ‘on c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e in teractio n o f p ro c
M o d e l 4. (i) U n im p e d e d b a s a l r e m o v a l ( o f
esses and form , calculated by the m eth o d o f in teratio n ’.
re g o lith ), b u t n o b a s a l e ro s io n (o f
T h e fo llo w in g d e sc rip tio n o f Y o u n g 's m o d e l is, in
a c c u m u la te d re g o lith b y flo w in g
fact, literal re p ro d u c tio n o f Y o u n g 's v ersio n fro m
w ater).
his book ‘S lo p e ’ (A . Y o u n g , 1972).
(ii) S lo p e re tre a t s u b je c t to c o n tro l b y
Basic Assumptions re m o v a l ( o f a c c u m u la te d re g o lith ).
Model 1. (i) U n im p ed ed b asal rem o v a l ( o f
(iii) R e m o v a l o f re g o lith p a rtly b y su r
scree), but no basal erosion ( o f fa c e tra n s p o rt a n d p a rtly b y d ire c t
accum ulated scree by flo w in g w a re m o v a l. ~
HILLSLOPE 2f3
(iv ) R ate o f su rface tran sp o rt and rate (v) R ate o f w eath erin g - co n v ersio n o f
o f d irec t rem o v al b o th proportional rock to reg o lith - (is) p ro p o rtio n al
to sin <|>.
to sin <|>and in v ersely p ro p o rtio n al
Model 5. ( 0 U n im p e d e d b a s a l re m o v a l (o f to reg o lith th ickness.
reg o lith ), b u t no b asal ero sio n (o f
acc u m u la te d reg o lith by flow ing (vi) R egolith thickness (is) proportional
w ater). to total reg o lith w eath ered u p slo p e
(ii) S lo p e re tre a t su b je c t to co n tro l by o f a g iven p o int, an d in v ersely p ro
re m o v a l ( o f accu m u lated regolith). p o rtio n a l to ra te o f d o w n slo p e
(iii) R e m o v a l o f reg o lith entirely by tran sp o rt at the point.
d ire c t rem o v a l. M od el 6. (i) Im p ed ed basal rem o v al.
(iv ) R a te o f su rfa c e tra n sp o rt (is) p ro (ii) W h ere g ro u n d lo ss o ccu rs, slo p e
p o rtio n a l to sin (j) and to reg o lith (is) su b ject to co n tro l by rem o v a l;
th ic k n e ss. w here g ro u n d g ain o ccu rs, slo p e
FlS -15.19: Process-response m odel by A. Young. A = successive profiles developed by m odels 1 to 6. B = comparison
o f profiles developed by m odels 1, 2 and 3. Reproduced fro m A. Young, 1963 an d 1972
294 G E O M O R PH O L O G Y
' -
(is) subject to control by accum u co n cav ity is fo rm ed in m odel 4, Model 5 includes
lation (o f regolith). interaction b etw een reg o lith th ick n ess, w eathering,
and rate o f tran sp o rtatio n o f regolith. T h ere is gradual
(iii) R em oval o f regolith entirely by increase in reg o lith th ick n ess d o w n slo p e on convex
surface transport. elem en t but there is rapid in crease in regolith th ick
(iv)
Rate o f surface transport (is) pro ness d o w n slo p e on co n cav e e lem en t (fig. 15.19A5).
portional to sin f and distance from M o d e l 6 is alm o st sim ilar to m odel 1. T h e difference
crest (o f cliff). lies in the fact th at th ere is no u n im p ed ed rem oval o f
N ote : M atter in the brackets has been added by reg o lith from the slo p e base in m o d el 6 and hence
the author. there is accu m u latio n o f reg o lith a t the slope base
resu ltin g in the d ev elo p m e n t o f basal co n ca v ity (fig.
Explanation of Young's Models
15.19A 6).
It is p ertin en t to p o in t o ut that Y o u n g c o m
puted the evo lu tio n o f slo p e p ro files on the b asis o f A. Y oung (1 9 7 2 ) has claim e d th at, ‘alth o u g h
co n stru cted w ith d im en sio n le ss p a ra m e te rs, actual
assu m p tio n s and not on the b asis o f p ro cess m e as
slope d im en sio n s m ay be ap p lied to slo p e m o d els,
urem ent. M odels 1, 2, and 3 are d e p en d e n t on the
to g eth er w ith o b serv ed or a ssu m ed rates o f actio n o f
m echanism o f soil creep , su rface w ash and solution processes. T he tim e req u ired fo r a g iv en a m o u n t o f
loss resp ectiv ely . T he ev o lu tio n o f slope profiles profile ev o lu tio n m ay then be c a lc u la te d .’ Y o u n g
according to m o d e l 1 o ccu rs w hen soil c reep p rocess has attem p ted to calcu la te the tim e re q u ire d fo r the
becom es o p erativ e. It is a p p a re n t from fig. 15.19A1 dev elo p m en t o f slope p ro file o f tw o d iffe re n t h e ig h ts
that there is g rad u al ro u n d in g o f the an g u lar ju n c tio n on the basis o f assu m ed rates o f d o w n slo p e tra n s p o rt
at the crest (fig. 1 5 .1 9 A l) b u tth e r e is ‘no g ro u n d loss and d irect rem oval o f d eb ris. In th e case o f m o d e l 1,
at the lo w er p art o f the s lo p e ’ (Y oung). T he rounding if the h eig h t o f in itial slo p e is 10m an d a ssu m e d
o f crestal a n g u la r ju n c tio n o ccu rs d ue to soil creep. do w n slo p e tran sp o rt o f re g o lith is 0.5 cm -7cm /year
T h e g rad u al ro u n d in g o f crest leads to grad u al in and there is no d ire c t rem o v a l o f re g o lith fro m slo p e
crease in su m m ital co n v ex ity w h ich u ltim ately e x base, then the ro u n d in g o f a n g u la r ju n c tio n an d
tends upto the slo p e base. It is sig n ifican t to observe d ev elo p m en t o f c o n v ex ity w o u ld o c c u r in 1 5 ,0 0 ,0 0 0
th at u n d er m odel 1 th ere is no d ev elo p m en t o f y ears b u t if the h e ig h t o f in itia l slo p e is 100 m then
co n ca v ity even in th e late stag e o f slo p e d ev elo p the tim e req u ire d fo r the ro u n d in g o f a n g u la r ju n c
m ent- T h ere is g rad u al d ecre ase in m ax im u m slope tio n an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n v e x ity w o u ld be
an g le but g rad u al in c re ase in co n v ex ity an d d ecrease 150 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 y ears. If the ra te o f d o w n slo p e tra n s
in p ro file cu rv atu re. p o rt o f reg o lith is in c re ased to 3 .0 cm V cm /year, th en
the ro u n d in g o f 10 m - h ig h slo p e w o u ld b e c o m p le te
A c c o rd in g to model 2 slo p e ev o lu tio n is in i
in 2 ,6 0 ,0 0 0 y ears an d the tim e re q u ire d fo r the
tia te d w ith g rad u al re tre a t o f in itial re c tilin e a r e le
ro u n d in g o f 100 m - h ig h slo p e w o u ld be o n ly
m e n t an d c o n s e q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n t o f su m m ital c o n
2 6 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 y ears. In the case o f m o d e l 5, if the
v ex ity . T h e d o m in a n t slo p e fo rm in g p ro cess is sur
assu m ed rate o f d ire c t re m o v a l o f re g o lith fro m
face wash. T h e le n g th o f slo p e p ro file in c re a se s w ith slo p e b ase is 0 .0 0 5 cm p e r y e a r fo r 10 m - h ig h slo p e,
tim e b u t c u rv a tu re d e c re a se s as en v isa g e d in m odel
the tim e req u ire d fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f slo p e w o u ld
1. C o n tra ry to m o d e l 1, c o n c a v ity d e v e lo p s in the
be 1,00,000 y ears an d 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs fo r 100 m -
la st s ta g e o f s lo p e e v o lu tio n (fig. 15.19 A 2). In model
hig h slo p e. If the a ssu m e d ra te o f d ire c t re m o v a l o f
3 s lo p e d e v e lo p m e n t is d o m in a te d by p a ra lle l retre at
re g o lith is in c re a se d to 0 .0 2 c m /y e a r, th e n th e d e v e l
w h ile model 4 c o m b in e s th e a s s u m p tio n s o f m o d els
o p m e n t o f lO m -h ig h a n d 100 m -h ig h slo p e w o u ld
1 a n d 3 w h e re in it is d e d u c e d th a t slo p e e v o lu tio n is re q u ire 2 5 ,0 0 0 y e a rs an d 2 ,5 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs re s p e c
c o n tro lle d b y b o th soil c re e p a n d s o lu tio n loss b u t tiv ely .
th e in c lu s io n o f o n e a d d itio n a l a ss u m p tio n o f d ire c t
re m o v a l o f re g o lith d iffe re n tia te s th e p ro c e s s o f 15.4 SLOPE FAILURE
s lo p e e v o lu tio n in m o d e l 3 fro m m o d e l 1 a s th e re is S lo p e failure refers to d isp la cem en t o f slop e
n o d e v e lo p m e n t of c o n c a v ity in m o d e l 1 (e v e n in th e m aterials and their d o w n slo p e m o v em en t in differ
la s t s ta g e of s lo p e e v o lu tio n ) b u t lo n g , p e d im e n t-lik e ent form s cau sed by a h ost o f factors e .g . inclination 4
HILLSLOPE
and intensity o f jo in tin g , ro c k stren g th , ro ck c o m rain w ater is v ery h ig h an d n o su rfa c e ru n o f f is

plexes, clim atic fa c to rs m a in ly th ro u g h w ater p re s g en erated if th e soil is d ry b u t if th e d u ra tio n o f
sure w ithin th e slo p e , g ro u n d w a te r c o n d itio n s, in fil rain sto rm s b eco m es rela tiv e ly lo n g e r an d ra in fa ll
tration o f ra in w a te r a n d m e lt-w a te r, w e a th e rin g fac in ten sity is also h ig h th en in filtra tio n ra te d e c re a se s
tor, hum an fa c to rs (d e fo re s ta tio n , c o n stru c tio n o f and su rface ru n o ff is g en era ted . T h e e ro sio n o f
roads and b u ild in g s, d a m s an d rese rv o irs etc., m in h illslo p e and its m o d ific a tio n by su rfa c e ru n o ff
ing, blasting etc.). d ep en d s on its v elo city w h ich d e p e n d s on th e n atu re
T ypes o f s lo p e fa ilu re in c lu d e fa lls (rock o f slo p e su rface in term s o f su rficia l m a te ria ls an d
falls, slab failu res, to p p lin g failu res, ro ck avalan ch es, v egetation co v er, su rface ro u g h n e ss, v o lu m e an d
soil fall, e a rth fa ll, d e b ris fall), slid es/la n d slid es depth o f w ater and slo p e an g le. A c c o rd in g to M a n
(block slid e -b lo c k g lid e , ro c k slid e s, d eb ris slid es, n in g eq u a tio n th e v elo city o f o v e rla n d flo w o r
soil slip, slu m p in g ), flo w s (earth flo w , d eb ris flow ! su rface ru n o ff m ay be ex p re sse d as fo llo w s—
mud flow ), c r e e p (so il c re e p , ro c k creep , talu s creep),
spreads (ro c k sp re a d s, d e b ris sp read s, earth sp read s) v = d 2* s 1/2
etc. n
w here v = flow velocity
T h e fa c to rs an d ty p e s o f slo p e failu re (m ass
d = depth o f flow o f w ater
m ovem ent o f ro c k w a s te ) h a v e b een d iscu ssed in
d e ta il in 'c h a p t e r 1 4 , ‘ w e a t h e r in g a n d n = roughness index
m a ssm o v e m e n t’ (see se c tio n 14.5 o f C h a p te r 15). S = slope inclination
T he ero siv e p o w er o f su rface ru n o ff d e p e n d s
15.5 HILLSLOPE P R O C E S S E S AND EROSION on flow velocity o f o v erlan d flo w , n a tu re o f su rficia l
H illslo p e p ro c e s s e s in c lu d e th o se ero sio n al m aterials, slope an g le, v eg etal c o v e r etc.
processes w h ic h m o d ify slo p e fo rm such as creep, R a in s p la s h refers to ero sio n o f lo o se su p e r
overland flo w , ra in s p la s h , rain w ash , th ro u g h flow , ficial m atters by the d ire c t im p a c t o f fa llin g ra in
rill and g u lly e ro s io n etc. B esid e s, slo p e pro cesses drops. It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t th e in te n sity o f
also in c lu d e th o se tra n s p o rta tio n a l p ro cesses w hich splash ero sio n d ep en d s on th e k in e tic en erg y o f
rem ove d e b ris d o w n slo p e . S o il creep or so liflu ctio n falling raindrops. I f th e slo p e is c o v e re d w ith v e g e ta
is, in fact, tra n s p o rta tio n a l p ro c e ss w hich facilitates tion, the splash ero sio n b eco m es m in im u m to n il
mass b ut slo w m o v e m e n t o f m o iste n e d and lo osened because the fallin g rain d ro p s are in te rc e p te d by
soil so ak ed w ith w a te r w h ic h acts as lu b ricato r. Soil v egetation co v er and h en ce th e k in e tic en e rg y o f
creep p la y s m a jo r ro le in ro u n d in g the hillslo p e drops is m ark ed ly red u ced . T h u s, it is a p p a re n t th a t
m ainly c re sta l ro u n d in g an d in g iv in g co n v ex slope rain sp lash b eco m es m o re e ffe c tiv e on v e g e ta tio n
form to hill c re s t (i.e. su m m ita l co n v ex ity ). free slo p es w here fallin g ra in d ro p s d ire c tly h it th e
O v e r la n d flo w o r p o p u la rly k n o w n as s u r surface w ith full k in etic en erg y .
face r u n o ff is c o n s id e re d to be e ffe c tiv e ag en t and
‘T he co m b in atio n o f w a te r on slo p e (su rface
process o f slo p e e ro s io n an d slo p e m o d ificatio n . T h e run o ff) p lu s rain d ro p im p act p ro d u c e s an in te rm e d i
surface flo w o f w a te r re su ltin g fro m rain fall parallel ate value o f ero sio n . In o th e r w o rd s, the sh e e t o f
to the slo p e is c a lle d o v e rla n d flo w or su rface runoff.
w ater d issip ates the ra in d ro p en e rg y to so m e ex te n t
The rainw ater receiv ed th ro u g h rainstorm s on hillslope
but rain d ro p im p act, n e v e rth e le ss, p ro v id e s se d i
m oves in d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s viz. (i) a p o rtio n o f
m ent to the flo w in g w ater an d so e ro sio n c o n tin u e s ’
rainw ater is re ta in e d on slo p e su rface and is held (C h o rley et. al, 1985).
there until it is fin a lly e v a p o ra te d , (ii) a p ortion
infiltrates d o w n w a rd an d m o v e s v ertically to m eet Throughflow, also k n o w n as interflow , re
g roundw ater ta b le, (iii) re m a in in g w ater m o v es la t fers to lateral flo w o f in filtra te d w a te r d o w n th e
erally p arallel to h illslo p e to b eco m e o v erlan d flow slo p e b elo w slo p e su rface. It b e c o m e s m o re e ffe c
or surface ru n o ff. It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t su rface tive on those slo p es w h ic h are d e n se ly v e g e ta te d
ru n o ff o ccu rs w h en th e ra in w a te r and rain fall in ten b ecau se d en se v eg etatio n a llo w s m a x im u m in filtra
sity ex ceed s th e in filtra tio n rate w h ich is d ep en d e n t tion o f ra in w a te r as fallin g ra in d ro p s are in te rc e p te d
on the n atu re o f su rficia l m a teria l, rain fall am o u n t, by fo rest c a n p p y and th u s ra in w a te r re a c h e s th e
intensity an d d u ratio n . In itially , in filtratio n rate o f g ro u n d su rface very slo w ly in th e fo rm of aerial
GEO M O RPH O LO G Y
s t r e a m l e t s w h ic h c a rry ra in w a te r th ro u g h le av es, e ffe c tiv e on v e g e ta tio n fre e s te e p slo p e s. T h e p attern

tw ig s , b ra n c h e s a n d s te m s o f tre e s to th e g ro u n d o f rills d e p e n d s on th e s te e p n e ss o f slo p e s. T h ey
s u rfa c e . T h is in filtra te d ra in w a te r a fte r re a c h in g a b e c o m e d e n d ritic on g e n tle s lo p e s b u t b e c o m e p ar
c o m p a ra tiv e ly im p e rm e a b le la y e r m o v e s d o w n th e allel o n s te e p slo p e s. T h e in te n sity o f rill ero sio n
slo p e b e lo w th e u p p e r s u rfa c e as th ro u g h flo w or in c re a se s d o w n slo p e . M o st o f b a sa l s e g m e n ts o f
in te rflo w w h ic h c a u s e s slo p e fa ilu re th ro u g h s lu m p h illslo p e s rig h t fro m th e H im a la y a s to th e E astern
in g a n d c o lla p s in g o f u p p e r slo p e su rface. B esid e s, an d W este rn G h a ts, w h e re v e g e ta tio n h a s been partly
in te rflo w a lso c a rrie s m a tte rs in s u sp e n sio n an d o r c o m p le te ly re m o v e d , h a v e b e e n g re a tly rille d and
s o lu tio n . S o m e tim e s , in te rflo w le a d s to th e p ro cess g u llie d an d th e p ro c e s s is b e c o m in g m o re a n d m o re
o f p ip i n g w h ic h c a u s e s th e fo rm a tio n o f tu n n e ls v ig o ro u s w ith th e e x p o s u re o f u n d e rly in g ro c k s and
u n d e rn e a th a n d a fte r so m e tim e th e r o o f c o lla p se s d e v e g e ta tio n .
d u rin g s tro n g ra in s to rm s .
F o llo w in g C h o rle y et. al it m a y b e c o n c lu d e d
R illin g , a lso k n o w n as rill an d g u lly ero sio n , th a t ‘h illslo p e e ro sio n can ta k e m a n y fo rm s , the
is a n o th e r s ig n ific a n t m e c h a n is m o f slo p e ero sio n . s im p le st tw o b e in g e ro sio n by c re e p a n d o v e rla n d
R illin g r e fe rs to lin e a r e ro s io n o f su p e rfic ia l lo o se flow , b u t th ere c an be c o m b in a tio n s o f th e tw o
m a te ria ls as w e ll as ro c k b e d s th ro u g h co n c e n tra te d p ro cesses an d e v en se a so n a l c h a n g e s in th e in te n s ity
lin e a r flo w o f w a te r k n o w n as rill. R illin g is m o re o f each p ro c e s s ’ (C h o rle y et. al, 19 8 5 ).
CHAPTER 16 CYCLE OF EROSION, REJUVENATION AND POLYCYCLIC RELIEFS 297-307
O rig in an d e v o lu tio n o f th e c o n c e p t ; g e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le o f D a v is ;
P e n c k 's m o d e l o f c y c le o f e r o s io n ; n o rm a l c y c le o f e r o s i o n ; i n t e r r u p tio n s
in c y c le o f e ro sio n ; re ju v e n a tio n ; to p o g ra p h ic e x p r e s s io n s o f r e j u v e n a
tio n an d p o ly (m u lti) c y c lic reliefs.
16
CYCLE OF EROSION, REJUVENATION
AND POLYCYCLIC RELIEFS
16.1 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE CON o f youth, m atu re and old ). T h e e a rth 's s u rfa c e is
CEPT affected by tw o ty p es o f fo rces viz. (i) e n d o g e n e tic
C y c lic c o n c e p t w as p ro b a b ly p o stu la ted first fo rces and (ii) e x o g e n e tic fo rc e s w h erein e n d o g e n e tic
in g eo lo g y by S c o ttis h g e o lo g is t Jam es H u tto n in forces create v ertical irre g u la ritie s on th e e a rth 's
1785 w h en h e p ro p o u n d e d th e c o n c e p t o f ‘cy clic surface by fo rm in g sev eral ty p e s o f r e lie f fe a tu re s o f
n atu re o f th e e a r th h is t o r y ’ an d the d ictu m o f ‘no d ifferen t d im en sio n s w h ereas e x o g e n e tic p ro c e s s e s
vestige o f a b e g in n in g ; n o p r o s p e c t o f a n e n d ’ and o rig in atin g from the a tm o sp h e re (riv e rs, w in d , g la
‘p resen t is k e y to th e p a s t ’ . T h e co n c e p t o f cyclic ciers, sea w aves, g ro u n d w a te r, p e rig la c ia l p ro c e s s e s
nature o f th e e a rth h is to ry w as la te r on tran sfo rm e d etc.) try to rem o v e th e v ertical irre g u la ritie s c re a te d
into the c o n c e p t o f ‘u n ifo r m ita r ia n is m ’ w hich states by the e n d o g en e tic fo rc e s a n d u ltim a te ly b e c o m e
that ‘th e sa m e p h y s ic a l p ro c e sse s an d law s that su ccessfu l in b rin g in g d o w n th e re lie fs to lo w fe a
o p erate to d a y , o p e ra te d th ro u g h o u t g e o lo g ic tim e, tu reless p lain ca lle d as a p e n e p la in . T h e w h o le
alth o u g h n o t n e c e s s a rily a lw a y s w ith the sam e in ten p eriod o f the creatio n o f re lie f fe a tu re s by e n d o g e n e tic
sity as n o w .” P ro b a b ly b a s e d on th is in h e ritan c e o f p ro cesses and th e ir d e stru c tio n by e x o g e n e tic p ro c
H u tto n 's c o n c e p t o f th e c y c lic n atu re o f the earth esses is called c y cle o f e ro s io n w h ic h D a v is d e fin e d
h istory an d th e e v o lu tio n a ry c o n c e p ts o f C h arles as fo llo w s, “G e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le is th e p e rio d o f tim e
D arw in (o rig in o f s p e c ie s th ro u g h n atu ral selec tio n ) d u rin g w h ich an u p lifte d la n d m a s s u n d e rg o e s its
W illia m M o r r is D a v is (1 8 5 0 -1 9 3 4 A .D .) p resen te d tra n sfo rm a tio n b y th e p ro c e s s o f la n d s c u lp tu re e n d
his c o n c e p t o f c y c le o f e ro s io n u n d e r th e title o f ing in to a lo w fe a tu re le s s p la in - a p e n e p la n e ” .
‘g e o g r a p h ic a l c y c le o f e r o s io n ’ in th e y e a r 1899 T h e c o n c e p t o f ‘g e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le ’ o f D a v is
th o u g h th e c o n c e p t o f ‘c o m p le te c y c le o f r iv e r lif e ’ w as sev erely c ritic is e d b y G e rm a n g e o g ra p h e rs a n d
w as alre ad y p ro p o u n d e d by h im in 1889. T h e D av is' the te rm ‘cycle’ w as d e s c rib e d as c o n fu s in g a n d
m odel o f g e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le o f e ro sio n w as b ased on h e n c e u n te n a b le . W a lth e r P e n c k th o u g h a c c e p te d
the b asic c o n c e p t o f ‘s e q u e n tia l c h a n g e in la n d fo rm s th e b asic c o n c e p t o f c y c le o f e ro s io n b u t re je c te d th e
th ro u g h tim e like th e e v o lu tio n o f an o rg an ic lif e ’. D av isian m o d el o f g eo g rap h ical c y c le an d p ro p o u n d e d
A c co rd in g to D av is la n d fo rm s u n d erg o seq u en tial his o w n m o d e l o f c y c le o f e ro s io n . In s p ite o f s e v e re
ch an g e s th ro u g h tim e (p a ssin g th ro u g h th ree sta g e s c ritic ism in G e rm a n y th e D a v is ia n m o d e l o f geo
298 GEOMORPHOLOGY
graphical cycle o f ero sio n w as ad o p ted by m o st o f 16.2 GEOGRAPHICAL C YC LE OF DAVIS

the contem porary and su b se q u en t g eo m o rp h o lo g ists W illia m M o r r is D a v is , an A m e ric a n
all over th e w orld. It m ay be safely arg u ed th at g eo m o rp h o lo g ist, w as the first g eo m o rp h o lo g ist to
D avisian m odel o f cy cle o f ero sio n , say the first p resen t a g en eral th eo ry o f lan d fo rm d evelopm ent.
general theory o f lan d fo rm d ev elo p m en t, d o m in ated In fact, his th eo ry is the o u tco m e o f a set o f theories
the entire field o f g eo m o rp h o lo g y and g eo m o rp h o and m o d els p resen te d by him fro m tim e to tim e e.g.
logical in v e stig atio n s rig h t from its in cep tio n in (i) ‘co m p lete cy cle o f riv e r lif e ’, p ro p o u n d ed in his
1899 to 1950 th ro u g h o u t th e w orld. H is ‘cycle o f essay on “T h e R iv e rs an d V alley s o f P en n sy lv an ia’
e ro sio n ’ w as b asica lly co n ce rn ed w ith the ev o lu tio n in 1889, (ii) ‘g eo g rap h ical c y c le ’ in 1899, (iii)
o f lan d fo rm s in h u m id te m p erate areas b u t th e cyclic ‘slope e v o lu tio n ’ etc. H e p o stu la te d th e cy clic co n
c o n c e p t w as la te r on ap p lied to alm o st all the cep t o f p ro g ressiv e d ev elo p m e n t o f ero sio n al stream
g eo m o rp h ic p ro cesses e.g. arid cy cle o f erosion valleys u n d er the co n ce p t o f ‘c o m p le te cy cle o f
(W .M . D av is, 1905), g lacial cy cle o f ero sio n (D avis, riv e r-life ’, w hile th ro u g h ‘g e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le ’ he
1900, 1906), m a rin e cy cle o f ero sio n (D avis, 1912 describ ed the seq u en tial d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n d fo rm s
and D .W . Jo h n so n , 1919), k arst cycle o f erosion through tim e.
(B eed e, 1911 a n d C v ijic , 1918), p erig lacial cycle o f T he general theory o f la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t
ero sio n (L .C . P eltier, 1950) etc. o f D avis is not the ‘g eo g rap h ical c y c le ’ as m a n y o f
C .H . C rick m ay su g g ested m o d ificatio n s in the g eo m o rp h o lo g ists b eliev e. H is th e o ry m ay be
D av isian m odel o f ‘g eo g rap h ical c y c le ’ in 1933 and ex p ressed as fo llo w s—
d escrib e d the p ro cess o f p a n p la n a tio n to be m ore “T h ere are seq u en tial c h a n g e s in la n d fo rm s
p o w e rfu l a n d e ffe c tiv e th an D a v is ’ p ro c e ss o f through tim e (p assin g th ro u g h y o u th , m a tu re a n d old
p en ep la n a tio n in the ev o lu tio n o f landform s. A c stages) and th ese seq u en tial c h a n g e s are d ire c te d
c o rd in g to C rick m ay the end pro d u ct o f the cycle o f tow ards w ell d efin e d en d p ro d u c t-d e v e lo p m e n t o f
erosion w ould be p a n p la in and not the peneplain. p en ep lain .”
L .C . K ing p ro p o sed a new cy cle o f ero sio n nam ed as T he basic g oal o f D a v isia n m o d e l o f g eo
‘th e cycle o f p e d ip la n a tio n ’ to ex p lain the ch ara c grap h ical cy cle and g en eral th e o ry o f la n d fo rm d e
teristics and ev o lu tio n o f lan d fo rm s o f arid and v elo p m en t w as to p ro v id e b a sis fo r a sy ste m a tic
sa v a n n a reg io n s o f A frica as he found D avisian d escrip tio n and g en etic c la ss ific a tio n o f la n d fo rm s.
m odel o f g eo g rap h ical cy cle u nfit to ex p lain the T h e referen ce sy stem o f D a v isia n g e n e ra l th e o ry o f
lan d fo rm s o f the afo resaid reg io n s. J.C . P ugh (1966) lan d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t is “ th a t la n d fo rm s c h a n g e in
and M .F . T h o m as (1 9 6 6 ) p ro p o u n d ed the co n ce p t o f an o rd erly m a n n er as p ro c e sse s o p e ra te th ro u g h tim e
‘sa v a n n a c y cle o f e r o s io n ’ to acco u n t fo r the d e v e l su ch th at u n d er u n ifo rm e x te rn a l e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n
o p m e n t o f la n d fo rm s o f sem i - arid sav an n a reg io n s d itio n s an o rd erly seq u e n c e o f la n d fo rm d e v e lo p s ”
o f A frica. A .N . S tra h le r (1 9 5 0 ), J.T . H ack (1 9 6 0 ) (R .C . P alm q u ist, 1975). V a rio u s m o d e ls w e re d e v e l
and R .J. C h o rle y (1 9 6 2 ) reje cted the ev o lu tio n ary o p ed on the b asis o f th is re fe re n c e sy ste m e.g.
c o n c e p t o f la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t as ad v an ced by n o rm al cy cle o f ero sio n , arid c y c le o f e ro s io n , g la
W .M . D av is and his fo llo w ers and p le ad ed fo r the cial cy cle o f e ro sio n , m a rin e c y c le o f e ro s io n etc.
co n ce p t o f ‘tim e -in d e p e n d e n t la n d fo rm s ’ in ste ad o f T h u s, ‘g e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le ’ is o n e o f th e sev eral
D av isian c o n c e p t o f ‘tim e -d e p e n d e n t la n d fo r m s ’ p o ssib le m o d e ls b a se d on D a v is ’ re fe re n c e s y ste m o f
an d ad v a n c e d the c o n c e p t o f ‘d y n a m ic e q u ilib r iu m la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t.
m o d el’ o f landform developm ent. R ecently, ‘tecton o- D av is p o s tu la te d h is c o n c e p t o f ‘g e o g r a p h i
g eom orp h ic m o d el’ o f M arie M o risaw a (1 9 7 5 ,1 9 8 0 ). ca l c y c le ’ p o p u la rly k n o w n as ‘c y c le o f e r o s io n ’ in
‘ep iso d ic e r o sio n th e o r y ’ o f S .A . S ch u m m an d 1899 to p re s e n t a g e n e tic c la s s ific a tio n an d sy stem
R .W . L ich ty (1 9 6 5 ) etc. have b een su g g e ste d to atic d e sc rip tio n o f la n d fo rm s. H is ‘g eo g rap h ical
ex p la in th e la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e se m o d e ls c y c le ’ h as b e e n d e fin e d in th e fo llo w in g m an n er.
are, in fact, m o d ifie d fo rm s o f D a v isia n m o d e l o f “G e o g ra p h ic a l c y c le is a p e rio d o f tim e d u r
la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t. in g w h ic h an u p lifte d la n d m a s s u n d e rg o e s its tran s
CYCLE O F ER O SIO N , REJU V EN A TIO N A N D POLYCYCLIC
RELIEFS 299
formation by the process o f land sculpture ending
tion in d ifficu lt G erm an lan g u ag e, (iii) ill-d efin e d
into low featureless plain or peneplain (Davis called
p en ep lan e).” term in o lo g y , (iv) m islead in g rev iew by W .M . D avis
and (v) som e co n trad icto ry ideas.
A c c o rd in g to D a v is th re e facto rs v iz stru c
A cco rd in g to P en ck lan d fo rm d ev elo p m en t
ture, p ro c e ss a n d tim e p la y im p o rta n t ro les in the
should be in terp reted by m ean s o f ratios betw een
origin and d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n d fo rm s o f a p articu la r diastro p h ic p ro cesses (en d o g en etic, or rate o f uplift)
place. T hese th re e fa c to rs a re ca lle d as ‘Trio of
and erosional p ro cesses (ex o g en etic, o r rate o f v er
D a v is’ an d h is c o n c e p t is e x p re s s e d as fo llo w s—
tical incision).
L a n d s c a p e is a fu n c tio n o f stru c tu re , p ro cess Penck is supposed to h ave delib erately avoided
and tim e ” (a ls o c a lle d as s ta g e s by D av is' fo llo w ers). the use o f stage co n ce p t in h is m o d el o f lan d scap e
Structure m e a n s lith o lo g ic a l (ro ck types) d ev elo p m en t eith er to u n d erm in e th e cy clic co n ce p t
and stru c tu ra l c h a ra c te ris tic s (fo ld in g , fau ltin g , jo in ts o f W .M . D avis o r to p resen t a n ew m o del. A cco rd in g
etc.) o f ro c k s . T im e w a s n o t o n ly u sed in tem p o ral to O .D . V on E n g eln (1 9 6 0 ) “P en ck fo u n d escap e
co n tex t by D a v is b u t it w as a lso u sed as a p ro cess from the co n cep t o f cy clic ch an g e m a rk e d by the
itse lf le a d in g to a n in e v ita b le p ro g re ssio n o f change stages youth, m atu rity and o ld a g e ” . In the p la ce o f
o f la n d fo rm s. P rocess m e a n s th e ag en ts o f d en u d a ‘sta g e ’ he used the term entwickelung m ean in g
tion in c lu d in g b o th , w e a th e rin g and ero sio n (ru n thereby ‘development’. T h u s, in th e p la ce o f you th ,
ning w a te r in th e c a s e o f g e o g ra p h ic a l cy cle). m ature and old stages he used th e term s aufsteigende
entwickelung (w ax in g or acc elera ted ra te o f d e v e l
A d e ta ile d d is c u s s io n on D av is' g eo g rap h ical
opm ent), gleichformige entwickelung (u n ifo rm
cycle h as b e e n p re s e n te d in C h a p te r 3*(see p ages 65
rate o f d evelopm ent) and absteigende entwickelung
to 69).
(w aning or d eceleratin g rate o f d e v elo p m en t).
16.3 P E N C K 'S MODEL OF CYCLE OF EROSION A d etailed d iscu ssio n on P en ck 's m o d e l o f
It m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t G erm an scien tist cycle o f erosion h as b een p resen te d in chapter 3 (see
W a lth e r P e n c k p le a d e d fo r th e reje ctio n o f D av isian pages 69 to 72).
m o d el o f g e o g r a p h ic a l c y c le b ased on tim e -d e p e n d
16.4 NORMAL CYCLE OF EROSION
en t se rie s o f la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t an d p resen ted
T he cy cle o f ero sio n by flu v ial p ro cesses
his ow n m o d e l o f ‘m orphological system ’ or ‘m or
(running w aters or riv ers) is calle d n o rm al c y c le o f
phological a n a ly sis’ fo r th e e x p la n a tio n o f la n d
ero sio n b ecau se o f the fact th a t flu v ial p ro c e sse s are
scap e d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e m a in g o al o f P en ck s m odel
m o st w id esp read (co v erin g m o st p arts o f th e g lo b e)
o f m o rp h o lo g ic a l sy ste m w as to fin d o u t th e m o d e o f
and m o st sig n ifican t g e o m o rp h ic ag en t. E v en w ater
d e v e lo p m e n t a n d c a u s e s o f cru sta l m o v e m e n t on the
also p lays im p o rtan t ro le in g la cial, and arid reg io n s.
basis o f e x o g e n e tic p ro c e s s e s an d m o rp h o lo g ical
W . M . D av is co n sid e re d h u m id te m p e ra te areas as
c h a ra c te ris tic s . T h e re fe re n c e sy stem o f P en ck s
m o d el is th a t th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f la n d fo rm s o f a th e m o st n o rm al case fo r flu v ial c y c le o f e ro sio n b u t
th is claim is d eb atab le .
g iv en re g io n a re re la te d to th e te c to n ic activ ity o f
th a t re g io n . T h e la n d fo rm s, th u s, re fle c t th e ratio T h e n o rm al c y c le o f e ro s io n b e g in s w ith the
b etw ee n th e in te n s ity o f e n d o g e n e tic p ro c e sse s (i.e. u p liftm e n t o f any la n d m a ss w ith re fe re n c e to sea
ra te o f u p liftm e n t) a n d th e m a g n itu d e o f d is p la c e lev el. A s th e la n d rises, th e riv e rs are o rig in a te d and
m e n t o f m a te ria ls by e x o g e n e tic p ro c e s s e s (the rate th e ir e ro sio n al w o rk starts. T h e ra te o f u p lift in the
o f e ro s io n a n d re m o v a l o f m a te ria ls). b eg in n in g far e x c e e d s th e ra te o f e ro sio n w ith the
P e n c k is p e rh a p s th e m o s t m isu n d e rsto o d re su lt ab so lu te re lie f (a b so lu te a ltitu d e fro m sea
g e o m o rp h o lo g is t o f th e w o rld . It is n o t y et sure le v el) an d re la tiv e re lie f re g is te r in c re a se . A fte r
w h e th e r h e u s e d th e w o rd ‘c y c le ’ o r n o t in his m o d el so m e tim e u p liftm e n t o f th e la n d sto p s a n d e ro sio n
o f la n d fo rm d e v e lo p m e n t. P e n c k 's v ie w s c o u ld n ot b e c o m e s m o re activ e. T h e la n d a rea , te c o n ic a lly ,
b e k n o w n in tru e se n se an d c o u ld n o t be in te p re te d in re m a in s sta b le i.e . th e re is c ru sta l sta b ility fo r lo n g
rig h t p e rs p e c tiv e b e c a u se o f (i) h is in c o m p le te w o rk
d u e to h is u n tim e ly d e a th , (ii) h is o b sc u re c o m p o si n o r s u b sid e n c e o f la n d area . T h e re is p ro g re s s iv e
d e v elo p m en t o f riv e r v alley s in seq u en tial o rd er and
th e w h o le land area p ro g ressiv ely p asses th ro u g h
th ree su ccessiv e stag es o f y o u th , m a tu re and old
(sen ile o r p e n u ltim a te ) an d is u ltim ately tran sfo rm ed
into low featu reless p lain o f u n d u la tin g surface.
T hus, th e p e n u ltim ate en d p ro d u c t o f n o rm al cy cle o f
e ro sio n is called p e n e p la in w h ich is ch ara cterized
by u n d u la tin g su rface w ith resid u al co n v e x o -c o n
cav e low h ills kn o w n as ‘m o n a n o c k s’, u n a k a s ’ and
‘m o so r e s’.
T h u s, the la n d area has to p ass th ro u g h the
su c c e ssiv e stag es o f its d e v elo p m en t rig h t from the
u p liftm e n t o f la n d m ass to its tran sfo rm atio n into
p e n e p la in o f ex ce ed in g ly low reliefs. W .M . D avis
h as d iv id e d th e w h o le d u ratio n o f n o rm al cycle o f
ero sio n in to th ree su ccessiv e stag es o f y o u th (ju v e
nile), m a tu re (eq u ilib riu m ) and o ld (p en u ltim ate or
sen ile) an d each stag e has been fu rth er d iv id ed into
th ree su b stan g es e.g. early , m id d le and late (for
ex am p le, early youth , m id d le youth and late youth
and so on). T hus, th e lan d scap es also b eco m e young,
m atu re and old w ith the ad v an cem en t o f norm al
cycle o f erosion. L ike landscape dev elo p m en t through
three su ccessiv e stag es, the d e v elo p m en t o f riv er
valleys also passes th ro u g h th ree su ccessiv e stages
o f th e ir d ev elo p m en t and th e riv ers b eco m e young or
yo u th fu l riv ers, m atu re riv ers and old riv ers (fig.
16.1). T h e fo llo w in g are the ch ara cteristic features
o f su ccessiv e stag es o f the no rm al cycle or erosion.
1. Youthful Stage
C o n se q u e n t stream s (w h ich fo llo w the re
g io n a l slo p e) are o rig in ated w ith the u p liftm e n t o f
lan d are a d u e to e n d o g e n e tic forces. In the b e g in
n ing, th e stream s are less in n u m b e r and sh o rt in
len g th . V e ry few trib u ta rie s o f th e m a ste r c o n se
q u e n t stre a m s are o rig in a te d . T h e slo p es are d o m i
n ated by n u m e ro u s rills an d g u llies ra th e r than big
stream s. T h e se rills an d g u llie s le n g th en th e ir lo n g i
tu d in a l p ro file s (in c re a s e th e ir le n g th s) th ro u g h
h e a d w a r d er o sio n . G ra d u a lly an d g rad u ally the
m a in stre a m s d e e p e n th e ir v alley s. T h e o rig in and
e v o lu tio n o f trib u ta rie s o f m a ste r stre a m s g iv e b irth
to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d e n d r itic d r a in a g e p a ttern .
T h e riv e rs are c o n tin u o u sly en g a g e d in ra p id rate o f
Fig. 16.1: Stages o f river-cycle or life history o f rivers
d o w n c u ttin g o f th e ir v a lle y s (v alley in c isio n ) b e
1. early youthful stage (lakes and falls)
c a u se th e tra n s p o rtin g c a p a c ity o f th e riv e rs is m a x i youthful stage. 3. early maturity. 4.
m u m d u e to h ig h v e lo c ity o f flo w ra te an d k in e tic and 5. old stage.
^ < X B O F EROSION, REJUVENATION AND POLYCYCLIC
energy b e c a u s e o f v e ry s te e p c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t. H ig h s io n d o m in a te s o v e r v a lle y in c is io n th r o u g h
tran sp o rtin g c a p a c ity e n a b le s th e riv e rs to ca rry b ig d o w n c u ttin g . T h e c o n v e x slo p e o f v a lle y s id e s is
boulders (to o ls o f e r o s io n ) o f fa irly g o o d siz e (larg e p ro g re ssiv e ly tra n s fo rm e d in to u n ifo r m or r e e t i lm -
size) a n d c a lib re (a n g u la r b o u ld e rs ) w h ic h h e lp in e a r s lo p e a n d th e g o rg e s a n d c a n y o n s c h a ra c te riz e d
the p o th o le d r illin g o f th e riv e r b e d s. It m ay be by d e e p an d n a rro w v a lle y s a re re p la c e d b y b ro a d
m entioned th a t p o th o le d r illin g is th e m o s t ac tiv e an d flat v alley s.
and p o w e rfu l p r o c e s s o f v e rtic a l e ro s io n (v alley
T h e riv e rs d e p o s it b ig b o u ld e rs a t th e fo o th ill
d eep en in g ) in th e ju v e n ile sta g e o f th e n o rm a l c y cle
zo n es d u e to su d d e n d e c re a s e in c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t
o f ero sio n .
and h en ce m a rk e d d e c re a se in th e tra n s p o rtin g c a
T h e v a lle y b e c o m e s v ery n a rro w an d d eep p acity o f th e riv e rs. T h e s e m a te ria ls fo rm a llu v ia l
w ith a im o s t v e rtic a l s id e w a lls d u e to c o n tin u o u s fa n s an d a llu v ia l c o n e s. T h e g ra d u a l e x p a n s io n o f
active d o w n c u ttin g o f th e v a lle y flo o rs a t e x c e e d th e se fan s and c o n e s d u e to th e ir c o n tin u o u s g ro w th
ingly fa st ra te . T h e v a lle y s id e slo p e s are c o n v e x in re su lt in the fo rm a tio n o f e x te n s iv e p ie d m o n t p la n ts
plan. T h u s , th e r e s u lta n t ju v e n ile v a lle y s are V - th ro u g h the c o a le s c e n c e o f s e v e ra l fa n s a n d c o n e s.
sh aped a n d a re c a lle d g o r g e s a n d c a n y o n s. T h e In terstre am area s o r w a te r d iv id e s a re c o n tin u o u s ly
valley flo o rs a re s tu d d e d w ith n u m e ro u s p o t h o les n arro w ed d u e to b a c k w a s tin g c a u s e d by a c tiv e
w h ic h a r e th e r e s u l t o f p o th o le d r illin g . T h e lateral ero sio n and v alley w id en in g . T h u s , in te rs tre a m
in te r s tr e a m a r e a s o r w a t e r d iv id e s (lan d are a b e areas are tra n sfo rm e d in to n a rro w rid g e s . T h e m a jo r
tw een th e v a lle y s o f tw o m a jo r s tre a m s) are e x te n riv e r ero d es d o w n to its b a s e le v e l ( s e a le v e l) a n d
sive a n d w id e a n d th e s e a re le a s t a ffe c te d by b eco m es ‘g r a d e d ’. T h u s, th e lo n g itu d in a l p ro f ile o f
d e n u d a tio n a l p r o c e s s e s b e c a u s e v a lle y w id e n in g by the m a ste r riv e r b e c o m e s th e p r o file o f e q u ilib r iu m
lateral e ro s io n is le s s e ffe c tiv e in th e early and w h erein th e re is b a la n c e b e tw e e n a v a ila b le e n e rg y
m id d le y o u th s ta g e s . T h e v a lle y th a lw e g s (lo n g itu and the w o rk to b e d o n e i.e. b a la n c e b e tw e e n th e
dinal p ro f ile s o f th e riv e rs ) are c h a ra c te riz e d by tran sp o rtin g c a p a c ity an d to tal s e d im e n t lo a d to b e
n u m e ro u s r a p id s a n d w a te rfa lls w h ic h a lw ay s re tran sp o rte d . B e c a u se o f m a rk e d d e c re a s e in c h a n n e l
ced e u p s tre a m . M o s t o f th e w a te rfa lls an d k n ick g rad ie n t riv ers ad o p t sin o u s c o u rs e s a n d d e v e lo p
p o in ts d i s a p e a r b y la te y o u th . T h e r iv e r s are n u m ero u s m e a n d e r s an d lo o p s in th e ir c o u rs e s .
u n d e rlo a d e d (n o t h a v in g th e re q u ire d am o u n t o f E x ten siv e flo o d p la in s are fo rm e d d u e to s e d im e n
s e d im e n t lo a d a c c o r d in g to th e ir tra n s p o rtin g c a p a c tatio n o f allu v ia. R iv e rs fre q u e n tly c h a n g e th e ir
ity) a n d th u s a v a ila b le e n e rg y is m o re th an the w o rk co u rses b e c a u se o f g e n tle to le v e l s lo p e s o f th e flo o d
to b e d o n e . T h e riv e r s a re w ell in te g ra te d by th e en d p lain s. N u m e ro u s o x -b o w la k e s a re fo rm e d d u e to
o f y o u th w h e n m a x im u m re la tiv e re lie fs are fo rm ed . stra ig h te n in g o f h ig h ly m e a n d e rin g lo o p s . D e p o s i
R iv e r c a p tu r e is th e m o s t c h a ra c te ristic fe a tio n o f se d im e n ts on e ith e r sid e o f th e riv e r v a lle y s
tu re o f th e ju v e n ile s ta g e o f th e n o rm a l c y c le o f lead s to th e fo rm a tio n o f n a tu r a l le v e e s .
e ro sio n . M a in riv e rs h a v in g s te e p e r ch a n n e l g ra d i 3. Old S ta g e
e n ts a n d m o re v o lu m e o f w a te r c a p tu re sm a lle r
T h e o ld stag e is c h a ra c te riz e d by fu rth e r d e
s tre a m s o f re la tiv e ly lo w c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t th ro u g h
c re a se in c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t, a lm o s t to ta l a b s e n c e o f
h e a d w a rd e ro s io n . v alley d e e p e n in g , d e c re a s e in th e n u m b e r o f trib u
2. Mature Stage tary stre a m s a n d fla tte n in g o f v a lle y s. T rib u ta ry
M a rk e d v a lle y d e e p e n in g th ro u g h v ertical stre a m s a lso a tta in th e b a s e le v e l o f e ro s io n a n d a re
e ro sio n d u rin g y o u th fu l sta g e re s u lts in p ro n o u n c e d g rad ed . L a te ra l e ro s io n a n d c o n s e q u e n t b a c k w a s tin g
d e c re a se in c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t an d c o n s e q u e n t d e e lim in a te s m o st o f itn e rs tre a m a re a s. V a lle y s b e
c re a se in flo w v e lo c ity w ith th e re s u lt th e arriv a l o f c o m e b ro a d a n d flat c h a ra c te riz e d b y c o n c a v e slo p e s
early m a tu rity is h e ra ld e d b y m a rk e d d e c re a se in o f v alley sid e s. D o w n c u ttin g o f th e v a lle y s is to ta lly
v a lle y d e e p e n in g d u e to (i) d e c re a se in c h a n n e l ab se n t. W e a th e rin g p ro c e s s e s a re m o s t a c tiv e . T h u s ,
g ra d ie n t, (ii) d e c re a se in th e v elo city o f riv e r flo w , la te ra l e ro s io n , d o w n w a s tin g a n d w e a th e rin g c o n
(iii) d e c re a se in th e tra n s p o rtin g ca p a c ity etc. C o n s e tin u o u sly d e g ra d e th e la n d r e s u ltin g in to g ra d u a l
q u en tly , v alle y w id e n in g th ro u g h ac tiv e la te ra l e r o lo w e rin g o f a b s o lu te a ltitu d e a n d w a te r d iv id e s .
geo m o rpholo gy
In terstre am a re a s an d w a te r d iv id es are rem arkably

red u ced in h e ig h t an d are c h an g e d to lo w lan d but
they still rise a b o v e th e su rro u n d in g areas. T ran s
p o rtin g cap a c ity o f th e riv e rs b eco m es m inim um
b eca u se o f very low ch an n e l g ra d ie n t an d th u s the
riv ers b eco m e o v e rlo a d e d . C o n se q u e n tly , sed im en
tation b eco m es m o st a c tiv e d u rin g th is stage. T he
riv ers ad o p t h ig h ly m e a n d e rin g co u rse s. T h e e x ten
siv e flo o d p lain s w ith lev el to g e n tle slo p e s (2°-5°)
and very low ch an n e l g ra d ie n t m a k e th e riv e r flow so
slu g g ish th a t the m ain c h a n n e l o f th e riv e r is d iv id ed
into n u m ero u s d is trib u ta rie s and th u s th e riv e r b e
co m es b r a id e d . V alley sid es are b o rd e re d b y e x te n
sive natural lev ees w h ich are a lso k n o w n a s b lu ffs
w hich d en o te the farh te st lim it o f re c u rre n t flo o d s o f
the co n ce rn ed riv ers. R iv ers d e p o s it and fo rm e x te n
sive d e lta s at th e ir m o u th s if o th e r e n v iro n m e n ta l
co n d itio n s rem ain fa v o u ra b le fo r d e lta fo rm a tio n .
The, en tire la n d sc a p e is c o n v e rte d in to e x te n
sive flat plain o f u n d u la tin g s u rfa c e e x c e p t a few
resid u al c o n v e x o -c o n c a v e h ills w h ic h p ro je c t a b o v e
the g en eral flat su rfa c e an d th u s b re a k th e m o n o to n y
o f reliefless^ flat p la in , c a lle d as p e n e p l a in . T h e se
resid u al h ills, the re su lt o f d if f e r e n tia l e r o s io n , are
c alled m o n a d n o c k s on th e b a sis o f M o n a d n o c k h ills
o f the N o rth -E a s t A p p la c h ia n s in N e w E n g la n d
reg io n (U S A ). T h e w h o le la n d s c a p e is d o m in a te d by
c o n c a v e slo p e, m in im u m a v a ila b le e n e rg y , both
p o te n tial (b e c a u se o f v ery lo w h e ig h t) a n d kinetic
en erg y (d u e to v ery lo w c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t) a n d m ax i
m u m e n t r o p y (m e a n s m a x im u m d is o rd e r o f relief,
as the w h o le a re a is c h a ra c te riz e d b y featu reless
p e n e p la in ).
T h is id eal n o rm a l c y c le o f e ro s io n can pass
th ro u g h its all th e th re e s ta g e s (i.e. y o u th , m a tu re and
o ld ) and th e p e n e p la in c a n be fo rm e d o n ly w h en the
reg io n re m a in s in sta n d still p o s itio n fo r lo n g e r
d u ra tio n o f crustal stability b u t th e a v a ila b ility o f
su c h c o n d itio n is o f re m o te p o s s ib ility b e c a u se the
ea rth is very m u c h u n s ta b le . T h e p la te te c to n ic s have
a lso re v e a le d th a t p la te s are a lw a y s m o b ile and
h e n c e lo n g p e rio d o f c ru s ta l s ta b ility is not po ssib le.
T h u s , th e s m o o th fu n c tio n in g a n d c o m p le tio n o f
n o rm a l c y c le o f e ro s io n is v ery o fte n d is tu rb e d due
16.2 : Stages o f norm al cycle o f erosion— J. initial to te c to n ic e v e n ts a n d a lso d u e to c lim a tic ch an g es.
stage, 2. early youth, 3. late youth, 4. early T h e d is tu rb a n c e in th e c y c le o f e ro s io n is called
m a tu rity , 5. m a tu rity a n d 6. o ld sta g e interrupion o f norm al cycle o f erosion which is
(peneplain). ca u se d by c h a n g e s in sea level (either due to upliftm ent
CYCLE o f e r o s i o n , r e j u v e n a t i o n a n d p o l y c y c l i c r e l i e f s
or subsidence o f o c e a n ic b o tto m s o r d u e to g la c ia by p o sitiv e m o v e m en t o f b ase le v el (d u e to s u b sid

tion and d e g la c ia tio n d u rin g g r e a t ice ages, like en ce o f lan d m ass o r rise in sea l e v e l ) sh o rte n s th e
C arboniferous G la c ia tio n o f th e G o n d w a n alan d d u r cy clic tim e as it a d v an c es fo rw a rd e.g . if th e c y c le is
ing C a rb o n ife ro u s p erio d an d P leisto cen e G la c ia in y o uth stag e, it m ay ad v a n c e (d u e to p o s itiv e
tion o f the n o rth ern h e m isp h e re d u rin g P leisto cen ce m o v em en t o f b ase le v el) to m a tu re sta g e o r if it is in
period), u p liftm e n t o r su b sid e n c e o f land areas, the m atu re stag e, it m ay a d v a n c e to o ld stag e. C o n
volcanic e ru p tio n s an d c lim a tic ch an g e s. T h e in ter v ersely , n eg ativ e ch an g e in b a se lev el o f e ro sio n
ruption o f n o rm al c y c le o f e ro sio n by v o lcan ic e ru p (due to u p liftm e n t o f la n d m ass o r fall in se a le v e l)
tions or c lim a tic c h a n g e s is c a lle d ‘a c c id e n t’. T he len g th en s th e cy c lic tim e as th e c y c le is p u s h e d
interruptions c a u s e d by n e g a tiv e ch an g e s in base b ackw ard e.g. if th e c y cle is ru n n in g th ro u g h la te
m atu re stag e and th e re is e ith e r su d d en u p liftm e n t o f
level (lo w e rin g o f b a se le v e l-m a x im u m lim it o f
lan d m ass o r fall in sea lev el, th e c y c le g o es b a c k to
vertical e ro s io n by riv e rs ) d u e to fall in sea level
y o uth stage c h a ra c te riz e d by re n e w e d v ig o u r o f
(because o f th e s u b sid e n c e o f th e o cea n ic flo o rs) and
valley in cisio n k n o w n as re ju v e n a tio n . T h u s, th e
u pliftm ent o f la n d m a s s are c a lle d reju v en a tio n ,
cy cles p u n ctu ated by in te rru p tio n s a re c a lle d as
w hich m e a n s re n e w e d v ig o u r o f e ro siv e cap acity o f in terru p ted cy cles w h ich le a d to o c c u rre n c e s o f
the riv ers. R e ju v e n a te d riv e rs are ag ain en g ag e d in several cy cles in a re g io n 1. S u ch c y c le s are c a lle d
valley d e e p e n in g at m u c h fa ste r rate and th u s the p o ly cy cles. If the p o ly c y cles (m u lti-c y c le s ) o c c u r in
cycle o f e ro s io n is d riv e n b a c k to y o u th fu l(ju v en ile) su ccessio n , they are c a lle d s u c c e s s iv e c y c le s o f
stage. S e v e ra l in te re s tin g la n d fo rm s, lik e valley in ero sio n and the la n d sc a p e s re s u ltin g th e re fro m a re
valley to p o g ra p h y o r m u lti-s to re y e d v alley s, paired c a lle d p o ly c lic o r m u l t i - c y c l i c l a n d s c a p e s .
terraces, in c is e d m e a n d e rs , n ick p o in ts and nick p o in t A pplachian R egions o f the U .S . A . and C h o ta n a g p u r
w ater falls, u p lifte d p e n e p la in s , d eep ly en tren ch ed R egion o f In d ia p re se n t ty p ical e x a m p le s o f p o ly c lic
gorges an d c a n y o n s w ith in b ro ad flat v alley s etc. are lan d scap es w h ere se v e ra l c y c le s h a v e b e e n c o m
form ed d u e to re ju v e n a tio n . T h e la n d fo rm s resu ltin g pleted. P aired te rra ces, v alley in v a lle y to p o g ra p h y ,
from se v e ra l c y c le s o f e ro sio n , w h eth er co m p lete or and incised m e an d ers o f th e D a m o d a r V a lle y a t
in c o m p le te , are c a lle d p o ly c y c lic la n d f o r m s or R ajro p p a in H azarb ag h (B ih a r) a n d v a lle y in v a lle y
m u ltic y c lic la n d fo rm s, e.g . C h o ta n a g p u r reg io n re p to p o g rap h y and p aire d te rra c e s , D h u n w a d h a r fa lls
resen ts m u ltic y c lic la n d fo rm s. and incised m ean d er o f the N arm ad a riv e r at B h e ra g h a t
n ear Jab alp u r (M .P .) are in d ic a tiv e o f re ju v e n a tio n
16.5 INTERRUPTIONS IN C Y C LE OF EROSION, and p o ly c y clic reliefs.
REJUVENATION, AND PO LYCYCLIC RE It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t th e in te rru p tio n o f
L IE F S cy cle o f ero sio n is g en era lly d iv id e d in to tw o c a te g o
Meaning ries i.e. if th e in te rru p tio n is su c h th a t th e p e rio d o f
D a v is ia n c y c lic c o n c e p t e n v isa g e s g rad u al cy cle is eith e r le n g th e n e d (d u e to r e ju v e n a tio n ) o r
se q u e n tia l c h a n g e s in u p lifte d la n d m ass th ro u g h the sh o rten ed , it is sim p ly c a lle d as in te r r u p tio n o f
stag es o f y o u th , m a tu re an d o ld c u lm in a tin g into the cy cles. It m ay a lso he c a lle d as b a s e le v e l c h a n g e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f lo w fe a tu re le s s p lain ca lle d as in terr u p tio n . I f the in te rru p tio n is su c h th a t th e
p e n e p la in . T h e c o m p le tio n o f su ch g e n e ra liz e d and c h a p te r o f o n g o in g c y c le is c lo s e d a n d a n e w c y c le is
ideal form o f c y c le o f e ro sio n d ep e n d s on tecto n ic in itiated a fte r a g ap o f lo n g tim e , su c h in te rru p tio n is
stab ility o f lo n g e r p e rio d o f tim e, w h ich is seld o m c alled as a c c id e n t w h ic h is c a u s e d e ith e r d u e to
p o ssib le in th e n a tu re as th e e a rth is u n stab le. T h u s, c lim atic c h a n g e s o r v o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s . S u p p o se , a
the c y cle o f e ro sio n is lia b le to fre q u e n t in te rru p tio n s flu v ial c y cle o f e ro s io n is ru n i n g th ro u g h m a tu re
w hich cau se in e q u ilib riu m c o n d itio n in the cy clic stag e, an d if th e re is a w id e s p re a d v o lc a n ic fis s u re
m o d el. A ny so rt o f o b sta c le in th e n o rm al fu n c tio n flow le ad in g to p o u rin g o f im m e n se v o lu m e o f la v a
in g o f c y c le o f e ro sio n is ca lle d in te r r u p tio n o f resu ltin g in the o b lite ra tio n o f all th e e x istin g s tre a m s,
c y cle. T he b asic c a u se s o f in terru p tio n m ay be c li th en th e c h a p te r o f c y c le o f e ro s io n w o u ld b e c lo se d .
m a tic o r te cto n ic o r bo th . T e c to n ic facto rs arc rela ted N ew set o f s tre a m s w o u ld a p p e a r on n e w s u rfa c e
to p o sitiv e an d n eg ativ e m o v e m en t o f b ase lev els o f a fte r the la v a is c o o le d an d s o lid ifie d a n d a fre s h
erosion. The in terru p tio n s in cy cle o f ero sio n cau sed c y c le o f e ro s io n w o u ld sta rt. *
304 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Interruptions due to Vulcanicity and Climatic tive change (d u e to fall in sea-lev el). T h e b ase level
Changes (Accidents) ch an g es cau sed d u e to sea-lev el c h an g e s are eustatic
T he ch ap ter o f any cy cle o f ero sio n is closed (w id sp read ). B ase level o f ero sio n also c h an g e s due
d ue to p erm an en t in terru p tio n s caused by volcanic to tecto n ic facto rs i.e. su b sid en ce o f la n d m ass causes
eruption and clim atic ch an g es. T he w id esp read v o l po sitiv e ch an g e w h ereas u p liftm e n t o f lan d m ass is
canic fissu re flow cau ses u p w ellin g and pou rin g o f resp o n sib le for n eg ativ e ch an g e. It m ay b e m en
im m en se volum e o f basaltic lava w hich co v ers larger tioned that su ch ty p e o f s u b sid e n c e or u p liftm e n t o f
area and o b literates su rface d rain ag e and reliefs landm ass m ay be o r m ay n o t b e re la te d to sea-level.
w h ich resu lts in the p erm an en t in terru p tio n and P o sitiv e ch an g e o f b ase level (o r rise in b ase level)
clo su re o f the ex istin g ch a p te r o f ex istin g fluvial sh o rten s the p erio d o f c v cle o f ero sio n w hereas
cy cle o f ero sio n . T h e fresh cy cle o f ero sio n m ay start neg ativ e ch an g e o f b ase lev el (o r fall in b ase lev el)
only w hen the fissu re flow ceases, lavas arc cooled lengthens the cy clic tim e. S ec o n d ly , p o sitiv e ch an g e
an d so lid ified , new su rface is fo rm ed and new sets o f o f base level o f ero sio n is in d ic a tiv e o f a c c e le ra te d .
stre a m s are in itiated . It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at such allu v iatio n (d ep o sitio n ) w h ereas n e g a tiv e c h an g e
in te rru p tio n s in the fluvial cy cle o ccu rred o v er In cau ses accelerated ero sio n (re ju v e n a tio n ). It is e v i
dian p en in su la during C retaceous period w hen D eccan den t that reju v en atio n is the m o st im p o rta n t fa c to r o f
la v a flo w s co v ere d v ast areas o f the D eccan plateau interru p tio n in th e flu v ial c y cle o f e ro sio n an d g en
in c lu d in g C h o ta n a g p u r p lateau and even southern esis o f p o ly cy clic (m u lti-c y c lic ) re lie fs a n d h e n c e it
p a rts o f th e V in d h y an up lan d cau sin g clo su re o f the needs d etaile d d iscu ssio n .
J u ra s sic c y cle o f ero sio n . T h e new T ertiary cycle
w as in itia te d only afte r the D eccan trap p ean lavas Rejuvenation
w ere cooled and solidified and m onsoon clim ate set in. R eju v en atio n sim p ly m e a n s a c c e le ra tio n o f
ero siv e p o w er o f the flu v ial p ro c e s s (riv e rs ) c a u se d
C lim a tic in terr u p tio n s (accid en ts) o ccu r due
by a variety o f facto rs. R e ju v e n a tio n le n g th e n s th e
to m a jo r ch an g e s in the c lim ate o f the co n cern ed
reg io n , fo r ex am p le, if th e flu v ial cy cle o f ero sio n in p eriod o f cy cle o f e ro sio n . F o r e x a m p le , if th e c y c le
a h u m id re g io n is p assin g th ro u g h m a tu re stag e, and o f ero sio n is p assin g th ro u g h se n ile sta g e (o ld s ta g e )
th e re is su d d en c lim a tic c h a n g e le ad in g to o n set o f ch a ra c te riz e d by g en tle c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t, s lu g g is h
e ith e r e x tre m e dry c o n d itio n s o r e x tre m e cold c o n d i river flow and b ro ad and sh allo w allu v ial v alley s, afte r
tio n s, th e n th e cy cle o f ero sio n is in terru p ted to such rejuvenation (caused eith er d u e to su b stan tial fall in
an e x te n t th a t the c h a p te r o f cu rre n t c y cle o f ero sio n sea-level or d ue to u p liftm en t o f la n d m a ss) th e c y c le is
is c lo se d an d a n o th e r set o f cy cle eith e r arid cy cle (if interrupted and is d riven b ack to ju v e n ile (y o u th ) stage
th e c lim a te b e c o m e s e x tre m e h o t and arid ) or g lacial characterized by steep ch an n e l g ra d ie n t a n d a c c eler
o r p e rig la c ia l c y c le ( if th e c lim a te b eco m es g la cial/ ated valley incision. R eju v en atio n is o f 3 ty p e s —
p e rig la c ia l o r su b -g la c ia l) sets in. It m ay be m e n 1. Dynamic Rejuvenation
tio n e d th a t if th e re are m in o r c h a n g e s in th e clim ate,
C a u ses :
th e n th e c h a p te r is n o t clo sed , ra th e r it (cy cle) is
e ith e r a u g m e n te d o r slo w ed d o w n . S u p p o se, if the (i) u p liftm e n t in the la n d m a ss
c lim a te b e c o m e s m o re h u m id le ad in g to in c re ased (ii) tiltin g o f lan d area
a m o u n t o f ra in fa ll, th en the su rfa c e ru n o ff and stream (iii) lo w erin g o f o u tlet
d is c h a rg e w ill a u to m a tic a lly in c re ase w h ich w o u ld 2. Eustatic Rejuvenation
c a u s e lo c al in te rru p tio n in th e c y cle by a c c e le ra tin g Causes : c h a n g e s in se a-le v el due to
th e ra te o f e ro s io n (c a se o f re ju v e n a tio n ), the effects
(i) d ia stro p h ic e v e n ts (s u b sid e n c e o f s e a -flo o r
o f w h ich m a y sp read o v e r la rg e r areas.
o r rise o f c o a sta l la n d )
interruptions due to Base level Changes (ii) g la c ia tio n c a u s in g fall in s e a -le v e l
A n y c h a n g e in th e b a se lev el o f e ro sio n (d e 3. Static R ejuvenation
te rm in e d by the se a -le v e l) c a u s e s in te rru p tio n s in the Causes :
c y c le o f e ro sio n o r m a y in itia te n ew c y c le w h e th e r
(i) d e c re a se in th e riv e r lo a d
th e p re v io u s c y cle is c o m p le te o r not. C h a n g e s in
(ii) in c re a se in th e v o lu m e o f w a te r a n d c o n se
b ase level o f e ro sio n are b a sic a lly o f tw o ty p e s i.e. q u e n t sc re a m d is c h a rg e d u e to in c re a se d
positive change (d u e to rise in se a -le v e l) an d nega ra in fa ll o r m e lt-w a te r x
CYCLEOF EROSION, REJUVENATION AND POLYCYCLIC RELIEFS
(iii) increase in w ater volum e o f the m ain river tributaries. T h e nick points and re su lta n t w a te rfa lls
due to riv er capture on Burha river (B urhagaugh falls 142 m , G utam ghaugh
falls, 36.57 m and G h araghughra falls, 7.62 m ) a
C auses of Rejuvenation
tributary o f the N. K oel river, on P an d ra river (G h ag n
A s p ointed o ut earlier, the basic cause for falls o f 43 m), on the Sankh river (S ad nighaugh falls
rejuvenation o f fluv ial cy cle o f erosion (acceleration o f 61 m), on the Jori river (Jalm ighaugh falls o f 37 m ),
o f erosive p o w er o f the riv er) is neg ativ e change in on the G haghra river (N indighaugh falls o f 45.72 m )
the base level o f ero sio n (w h ich is d eterm in ed by the etc. indicate rejuvenation.
sea-level) w h ich is cau sed by a h o st o f factors.
L o w erin g o f o u tlets o f stream s also cau ses
N egative c h a n g e o f b ase lev el o f ero sio n is alw ays rejuvenation due to release o f e x tra v o lu m e o f w a te r
related to n eg ativ e ch an g e in sea-level (fall in sea- in the co n cern ed river. S u ch re ju v e n a tio n (d u e to
level) w h ich is also called as eu sta tic m o v em en t as increase in the v o lu m e o f w ater) a lso o c c u rs w h en
it is w id esp read an d global ph en o m en o n . It m ay be the w ater supply su d d en ly in c re a se s d u e to riv e r
pointed o u t th a t fall in sea-lev el (and hence causing capture (supply o f ex tra w ater o f the c a p tu re d stream
negative m o v e m e n t/c h a n g e in base level o f erosion) to the cap to r stream ).
steepens th e ch an n el g rad ien t resu ltin g into increased
kinetic en e rg y o f th e flu v ial p ro cess w h ich resorts to Topographic e x p re ssio n s of rejuvenation
valley in c isio n w ith ren ew ed vigour. and poly (multi) c y c lic reliefs
T he typical la n d fo rm s re s u ltin g fro m in te r
T h e eu sta tic n eg ativ e ch an g e in sea-level is
ruptions in the flu v ial c y cle o f e ro sio n a n d fro m
caused d u rin g g la cial ag es w hen m ost o f seaw ater is
rejuvenation resu ltin g in the fo rm a tio n o f a m o sa ic
locked on th e c o n tin e n ts as th ick c o v er o f ice sheets.
o f poly or m u lti-cy clic la n d fo rm s in c lu d e to p o
T he c o n se q u e n t lo w e rin g o f sea-level cau ses steep
grap h ic d isco rd a n ce, v a lley in v a lle y o r m u lti-
ening o f c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t o f stream s w hich are, in
sto rey ed v a lle y s, u p lifte d p e n e p la in s , in c is e d
fa c t, r e ju v e n a te d a n d a re e n g a g e d in a c tiv e
m ean d ers, p a ired te r r a c e s, n ic k p o in ts e tc.
d o w n cu ttin g o f th e ir valley s. T he P leisto cen e g la
T o p o g r a p h ic d is c o r d a n c e re fe rs to th e c re a
ciation o f the n o rth ern p arts o f N. A m erica and
tion o f older to p o g rap h ic fo rm s a b o v e an d y o u n g e r
E u rasia c a u se d w id e sp re a d reju v en atio n in the tem
form s below . In o th er w o rd s, w h en th e to p o g ra p h ic
perate an d tro p ic a l zo n es. F o u r riv er terraces o f the
accordance or u n ifo rm ity fro m th e to p o f th e riv e r
R ed riv e r o f th e U .S .A h av e been related to four
valley to its bottom is not m ain tain ed ra th e r is d is
p eriods o f a d v a n c e m e n t o f ice sheets i.e. N eb rask an ,
turbed due to in terru p tio n in flu v ial c y c le o f e ro s io n
K a n sa n , Illin o in and W isco n cin glacial periods o f
caused by reju v e n atio n , th e re s u lta n t to p o g ra p h ic
the P le isto c e n e Ice A ge. ex p ressio n is called to p o g r a p h ic u n c o n f o r m i ty o r
N e g a tiv e c h an g e in sea-lev el cau sin g reju v e d is c o r d a n c e w h erein th e u p p e r p a rt o f th e v a lle y
n ation lo c a lly an d re g io n a lly is also cau sed because rev eals the sign o f sen ile o r m a tu re sta g e w h e re a s th e
o f su b sid e n c e o f s e a -flo o r in relatio n to co astal land lo w est part o f th e v alley b e lo n g s to y o u th sta g e . T h e
due to te c to n ic facto rs. riv er d ev elo p s flat and s h a llo w v a lle y at th e e n d o f
L o c a l o r regional upliftm ent o f landm ass causes
m atu re and b e g in n in g o f se n ile sta g e b u t if th e re is
su d d en n eg ativ e c h an g e in th e b a s e le v e l o f e ro s io n
in terru p tio n in the flu v ial cy cle o f ero sio n and re ju
cau sed eith er by fall in se a -le v e l o r u p liftm e n t o f
venates the flu v ial p ro cesses (stream s). S u ch type o f
lan d m ass, the riv e r is re ju v e n a te d a n d b e g in s a c tiv e
regional re ju v e n a tio n c a u se d by secu la r rise in the
d o w n cu ttin g o f its v alley d u e to in c re a s e d e ro s iv e
landm ass has b een rep o rte d from sev eral p arts o t the p ow er. T h u s, a d eep an d n a rro w v a lle y is fo rm e d
C h o tan ag p u r H ig h la n d s o f B ih a r w h ich ex p erien ced w ith in flat an d b ro a d v a lle y . T h is n ew d e e p an d
3 phases o f u p liftm e n t in resp o n se to thrfee ep iso d es n arro w v alley is fla n k e d by te rra c e s o n its e ith e r sid e
o f up liftm en t o f the H im a lay as d u rin g T ertiary p e w h ich re p re s e n t e a rlie r o ld e r v a lle y . S u c h to p o g ra
riod. T he Patlands o f th e R an ch i p lateau and P lam au phy is ca lle d ‘valley in valley topograp hy’ o r ‘tw o
uplands (B ihar) w ere su b jected to an u p liftm e n t o f storeyed valley* o r ‘tw o-cycle valley’. B y th e m a rc h
305 m resulting in the in terru p tio n o f fluvial cy cle o f o l tim e th e re ju v e n a te d riv e r d e e p e n s its v a lle y to th e
erosion an d reju v en atio n o f the N. K oel riv e r and its n ew b ase lev el an d th u s fo rm s s e c o n d b ro a d a n d fla t
GEOMORPHOLOGY
306
valley w ithin the first broad and flat valley form ed
during first cycle o f erosion. S uppose, if there is
w
Old St
II
again upliftm ent o f landm ass o r fall in sea-level, the
cycle is again interrupted and the riv er is reju v e D B New SL
nated. C onsequently, again a n arrow and d eep valley
is form ed w ithin previously form ed tw o storeyed Nick
valley. N ow , there are tw o paired terraces on eith er Point
side o f new deep and narrow valley. T hus, the
resultant form o f the valley is called three storeyed
valley. Such to p o g rap h ic form s, w here there are
m ore than on valley in a sin g le river's cross profile,
are called ‘m u lti-sto rey ed or m u lti-cy clic v a lley s’. Fig. 16.4 : Graphic presentation o f nick points.
E xam p les : T he D am o d ar valley at R ajroppa
the H im alay as d u rin g T ertiary o ro g en y . N early all
in H azaribagh (B ihar) is a typical exam ple o f p o ly
the m ajo r riv ers o f the U .P. H im a lay as are flan k ed by
cyclic valley or to p og rap h ic d iscordance w hich is
three sets o f terraces on th eir eith e r side.
ch aracterized by tw o-sto rey ed valley. T he D am o d ar
riv er d ev elo p ed its broad and flat valley o f senile U p lifted p en ep la in s are fo rm ed d u e to in te r
stage b efo re the onset o f T ertiary upliftm ent. The ruption caused by reju v e n atio n c o n s e q u e n t u p o n
river w as reju v en ated due to u p liftm en t o f landm ass regional upliftm en t. T h e u p lifted p e n e p la in s are
d u rin g T ertiary p erio d caused by the side effects o f rep resen ted by th eir rem n a n ts o f a c c o rd a n t su m m it
the H im alayan orogeny and thus the D am o d ar ex ca levels w hich rise ab o v e the g en era l g ro u n d su rfa c e
vated its new deep and n arrow valley o f youthful o f th e p re s e n t-d a y p la n a tio n s u rfa c e . U p lif te d
stage w ithin its broad and flat valley o f senile stage. p en ep lain s are, in fact, th e re su lts o f su c c e ssiv e
The B hera river com ing from over the R anchi plateau cycles o f erosion w h erein sev eral flu v ia l c y c le s o f
m akes a w ater fall w hile jo in in g the D am odar river erosion are co m p lete d in su ccessio n . T h re e u p lifte d
p en ep lain s have been id e n tifie d in th e A p p la c h ia n s
(w h ic h are in d ic a tiv e o f s u c c e s s iv e p h a s e s o f
upliftm en t, c o n seq u en t re ju v e n a tio n an d c y c le s o f
ero sio n ) e.g. (from o ld e r to y o u n g e r) v iz. S c h o o le y
p en ep la in (after S ch o o ley M o u n ta in ), H a r r is b u r g
p e n e p la in ( a f te r H a r r is b u r g M o u n t a i n ) , a n d
S a m m erv ille p en ep la in . T h e P a tla n d o f th e R a n c h i
P lateau is a ty p ical e x a m p le o f u p lifte d p e n e p la in
w hich is h ig h e r th an th e ce n tra l R a n c h i p la te a u (6 1 0
m a.m .s.l). T h e g ra n itic -g n e issic su rfa c e (9 1 0 m
a.m .s.l) o f the w estern h ig h la n d s h as a c a p p in g o f
154 m th ick b asaltic lav a (n o w w e a th e re d to la te rite s)
co v er o f C re ta c e o u s p erio d . P rio r to C re ta c e o u s la v a
Fig. 16.3 : Example o f poly-cyclic valleys and paired
flow the en tire R an ch i p la te a u , in c lu d in g th e p re s e n t
river terraces— T = \ Terraces.
w estern h ig h la n d s, w as p e n e p la in e d by J u ra ssic p e
an d thus p re se n ts an e x a m p le o f a h an g in g valley. rio d , the w estern p a rt o f w h ic h re c e iv e d la v a c o v e r o f
S uch to p o g rap h ic d isc o rd a n c e is also o b se rv a b le in 154 m th ic k n e ss d u rin g C re ta c e o u s p e rio d . T h is
the alley o f th e N a rm a d a riv e r a t B h e ra g h a t (d o w n w estern p a rt (6 1 0 m + 154 m la v a ) w a s u p lifte d by
stream from D h u n w a d h a r falls, 15 km aw ay from 305 m in T e rtia ry e p o c h an d th u s th e g ra n itic -
J a b a llp u r city in M .P .). g n e issic su rfa c e o f 9 1 5 m h e ig h t ly in g b e lo w 154 m
T h ree sto rey ed v alley s h av e been lo c ated in thick lateritic b asalt is an ex am p le o f u p lifted p eneplain
th e H im a lay as w h ere th e riv e rs w ere re ju v e n a te d (fig. 16.5). T h e N o rth K o el a n d its n u m e ro u s trib u
th rice d u e to th re e m a jo r e p iso d e s o f u p liftm e n t o f ta ries h av e d is s e c te d p a tla n d s a n d s e g m e n te d th e m
307
GYCXB OF BROSION, REJUVENATION AND POLYCYCLIC RELIEFS v 1
into se v e ra l s m a ll ta b le a u s lo c a lly k n o w n as b u tte s) su c h as N e t a r h a t p a t, ^ k a m a * * P _ ’

•pats* (w hich are fin e ex am p les o f m esa s and Rudni pat, Jam ira pat, R aldam i p at, B an gru p a i
Fig. 16.5 : Sketch map o f Pat lands and Ranchi plateau, Bihar.
In c is e d m e a n d e r s - F iv e altern ativ e term s K n ick p o in t, sim p ly c a lle d as n ic k p o i n t or

are in use fo r riv e r m e a n d e rs viz. in cised m ean d ers, only ‘n ic k ’ rep resen ts b re a k s in slo p e in th e lo n g itu
entrenched m e a n d e rs, in tren ch ed m eanders, in closed dinal pro file a riv e r c a u se d by re ju v e n a tio n (fig .
m eanders an d in g ro w n m e a n d e rs. In cised m ean d ers 16.4). T his is w hy n ic k p o in t is a lso c a lle d a s h e a d
are the re p re s e n ta tiv e fe a tu re s o f reju v e n atio n and o f reju v en a tio n w h ich re g is te re s g ra d u a l re c e s s io n
p o ly cy clic re lie fs an d are d e v e lo p e d th ro u g h v ertical upstream . T h ese b reak s in c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t or n ick
erosion le a d in g to v alle y in c isio n co n se q u e n t upon points d en o te su d d en d ro p s o f e le v a tio n in th e lo n g i
renew ed e ro s iv e p o w e r d u e to reju v e n atio n . T he tu d in al p ro file o f th e riv e rs an d a llo w w a te r to fa ll
n arrow an d d e e p m e a n d e rs fo rm ed d ue to a c c e le r dow n v ertically g iv in g b irth to w a te rfa lls o f v a ry in g
ated rate o f v alle y in c isio n cau sed by reju v en atio n d im en sio n s. T h e se are c a lle d as n ic k p o i n t f a lls or
w ithin s im p le b ro ad m e a n d e rs (h av in g w id e and sim ply nick faU s. H u n d ru fa lls (7 6 .6 7 m ) on the
sh allow v a lle y s ) d e v e lo p e d by lateral ero sio n d u rin g S u b a rn a re k h a riv e r (n e a r R a n c h i c ity ), Johna or
1st cy cle o f e ro s io n are c a lle d in cised m ean d ers G a u tam d h ara falls at th e c o n flu e n c e o f the Raru and
w hich are fu rth e r d iv id e d in to (i) e n tre n c h e d m e a n G u n g a riv ers (to th e e a s t o f R a n c h i c ity ), D a ssa m
ders (h a v in g u n ifo rm slo p es o f b o th the v alley sid es falls (3 9 .6 2 m an d 15.24 m ) on the K anchi river (east
o f m e a n d e r lo o p s), an d (ii) in g ro w n m e an d ers w h ich o f R an ch i city ), B u rh a g h a u g h fa lls (1 4 8 m ) on the
h ave u n eq u al slo p e s o f v alley sid es w h erein o ne side B u rh a riv er, a trib u ta ry o f the N orth K o el river,
o f the v alley re p re s e n tin g c o n c a v e sid e is d eep ly D hu n w ad h ar 1alls on the Narm ada river (near Jabalpur,
u n d ercu t and the o u te r sid e (co n v ex sid e) is c h a ra c M .P .), m a jo r fa lls o f R ew a p la te a u — M .P . (e.g .
te rized by g en tle v alley slo p es. T h e m e an d erin g C h ach a i falls - 127 m on the B ih a r river, K evti falls
v a lle y o f th e K a r o r i v e r d o w n s t r e a m f ro m - 98 m on th e M a h a n a n a d i, T o n s o r Purw a fa lls - 7 5
P h e ru ag h au g h falls at th e so u th ern m arg in o f the m on th e T o n s river, O dda fa lls - 1 4 5 m on the O dda
R an ch i p la te a u h as been c o n sid e ra b ly in cised d u e to nadi e tc .) are the ex a m p les o f nick p oin ts ca u sed by
reju v e n a tio n and h en ce p resen ts an ideal e x a m p le o f rejuvenation.
in c ise d m ean d er. T h e D am o d ar g o rg e n ear R ajro p p a Paired terraces (fig . 1 6.3) are a lso s ig n ifi
is typical ex am p le o f in cised m ean d er. S im ila rly , cant features o f p o ly -c y c lic reliefs. T h ree pairs o f
B heraghat g orge o f the N a rm a d a n e a r Ja b a lp u r
terraces are found in the H im a la y a s in d ica tin g three
(M .P .) is fine e x a m p le o f in cised m e an d er.
p h ases o f u plift and co n seq u en t reju ven ation .
CHAPTER 17 DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, EROSION SURFACES AND
PENEPLAINS 308-333
M e a n i n g a n d c o n c e p t ; e r o s io n s u r f a c e s — m e a n in g , id e n tif ic a tio n o f
e r o s i o n s u r f a c e s , d a t in g o f e r o s io n s u r f a c e s ; e r o s io n s u r f a c e s o f
C h o t a n a g p u r h ig h la n d s ; d e n u d a tio n c h r o n o lo g y o f p e n i n s u l a r I n d i a ;
(ii)
17
DENUDATION CHRON OLOGY, EROSION SURFACES
AND PENEPLAINS
17.1 MEANING AND CONCEPT im p rin ts o f g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l p ro c e s s e s d u rin g p a st

D e n u d a tio n c h ro n o lo g y sim p ly m e an s re c o n g e o lo g ic a l p e rio d s a fte r p a rtia lly e ra s e d in itia l im
stru c tio n o f d e n u d a tio n a l h isto ry o f a g iv en reg io n . p rin ts (fe a tu re s) in th e b e g in n in g . P a lim p s e s t re fe rs
T h is is p rim a rily b ased on ‘h is to r ic a l o r c h r o n o to th a t m a n u s c rip t w h ic h h as b e e n w ritte n , e ra se d ,
lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h o f la n d fo rm stu d y w h ich in v o lv es an d re w ritte n se v e ra l tim e s. S im ila rly , p a lim p s e s t
th e b asic co n c e p ts ‘th a t th e re is seq u e n tia l c h a n g e in to p o g ra p h y re p re s e n ts c o m p le x to p o g ra p h ic fe a
landform s through tim e ’, ‘p rin cip les o f uniform itarian- tu res o f a reg io n w h ic h h a v e b e e n w ritte n (c h a ra c te r
is m ,’ ‘cy c lic n a tu re o f e a r th ’s h is to ry ’, ‘p a lim p se st ized by to p o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s ) by g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l
to p o g ra p h y ’ an d D a v isia n m o d e l o f ‘c y clic e v o lu p ro c e sse s, e ra se d (p re v io u s g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l fe a
tio n o f la n d fo rm s ’. T h e p rim a ry g o al o f this a p tu res p a rtia lly d e s tro y e d by s u c c e e d in g p ro c e s s e s )
p ro a c h is to re c o n s tru c t th e c h ro n o lo g ic a l h isto ry o f and re w ritte n (p ro d u c tio n o f n e w re lie fs on o ld e r
d e n u d a tio n o f a g iv e n re g io n k n o w n as d e n u d a tio n su rfa c e s) se v e ra l tim es.
c h ro n o lo g y an d ‘to id e n tify , d a te an d in te rp re t A n a tte m p t is m a d e to r e c o n s t r u c t th e
p la n a tio n su rfa c e s d e v e lo p e d in p a st c y c le s and g e o m o rp h ic h isto ry o f th e re g io n c o n c e rn e d o n th e
su b c y c le s o f e r o s io n ’ (R .J. S m all, 19 7 0 ). b asis o f p re s e n t an d re m n a n t (re lic t) la n d fo rm s fo l
H isto ric a l a p p ro a c h o r d e n u d a tio n c h ro n o l lo w in g th e d ic tu m o f ‘p r e s e n t is k e y to th e p a s t ’.
o g y a p p ro a c h in v o lv e s d e s c rip tio n o f la n d fo rm e v o T h is m e th o d o f la n d fo rm s tu d y is p o p u la rly k n o w n
lu tio n th ro u g h s u c c e s s iv e s ta g e s o f g e o lo g ic a l tim e as d e n u d a tio n c h r o n o lo g y (d e n u d a tio n a l h is to ry o f
o r say c y c lic tim e in v o lv in g lo n g e r g e o lo g ic a l tim e a g iv e n fe g io n ). ‘T h e p rin c ip a l o b je c tiv e ( o f this
an d la rg e r s p a tia l sc a le s. ‘In th is ty p e o f a n a ly sis th e m e th o d ) is to id e n tify , d a te a n d in te rp re t p la n a tio n
e m p h a s is is p la c e d o n th e h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u rfa c e s d e v e lo p e d in p a s t c y c le s a n d su b c y c le s o f
th e la n d sc a p e , b a s e d on th e c y c lic c o n c e p t o f D a v is, e r o s io n ’ (R .J. s m a ll, 19 7 0 ) o n th e b a s is o f e v id e n c e s
on th e a s s u m p tio n th a t e v id e n c e o f th e p a s t c h a ra c te r o f d ra in a g e d e v e lo p m e n t, r iv e r c a p tu re , re lic su r
o f th e la n d s c a p e is still a p p a re n t in its p re s e n t f o r m ’ fa c e s a n d p a s t te c to n ic e v e n ts. T h e d e g re e o f p re c i
(C .A .M . K in g , 19 6 6 ). In fa c t, d e n u d a tio n c h r o n o l s io n o f la n d fo rm a n a ly s is re s ts o n d e d u c tiv e p o w er
o g y is b a s e d o n th e c o n c e p t o f ‘p a lim p s e s t to p o g r a o f th e re s e a r c h e r a n d le v e l o f q u a lita tiv e an d q u an
p h y ’ w h ic h m e a n s s u c h a s u rfa c e w h ic h b e a rs th e tita tiv e d e s c rip tio n o f re lic fe a tu re s .
DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, EROSION SURFACES AND PENEPLAINS 309
T h e d e n u d a tio n c h ro n o lo g y approach suffers 17.2 EROSION SURFACES

from certain perc e p tib le w eaknesses. T his approach (1) MEANING
is highly d e d u c tiv e because u n know n events and T h e alm ost plain topographic surfaces having
their re s p o n s e s are d e scrib ed on the basis o f very undulating ground surface and rem n a n t low reliefs
lim ited k n o w n in fo rm a tio n and evidences. In fact, caused by dynam ic w heels o f denudational proc
the p a st g e o m o rp h ic history is reconstructed on the esses and cutting across geological form ations and
basis o f very sm all parts o f the earlier landforms. structures are generally called erosion or planation
‘An im p o rta n t critic ism w hich has been levelled surfaces. Erosion surfaces form significant elem ents
ag ain st the d e n u d a tio n ch ro n o lo g y approach is that o f landscape o f a given region and provide p ro m i
it s u c c e e d s in e x p la in in g directly only very small nent clues for the reconstruction o f denudation c h ro
nology (erosional.and depositional history) o f that
parts ot the ex istin g landscape, nam ely the frag
region. R.J. Small has c o m m e n te d that ‘it is perhaps
m ents o f fo rm e r (erosion) surfaces w hich have been
unfortunate that by constant usage geom o rp h o lo g ists
d iss e c te d and a lm o st totally destroyed in som e cases
have given the term ‘erosion s u rfa c e ’ a very lim ited
by m o re r e c e n t e r o s io n ’ (R.J. Sm all, 1970). S e c and specialised m eaning. It is, in fact, alm ost un iv er
o n d ly , historical ap p ro ach is highly deductive and sally used to describe only flat or near-flat erosional
s p e c u la tiv e b e c au se the old erosion surfaces and plains, formed very close to base-level and resulting
r e m n a n t fo rm s have been so greatly modified by from cycles o f erosion that have reached well b e
s u b s e q u e n t p ro cesses that it be c o m e s difficult or say yond the stage o f youth and in m any instances into
the stage o f old age. T hus, peneplains, p anplains,
im p o s s ib le to find out their original form s and initial
pediplains and planes o f m arine ero sio n are all
h e ig h ts . T h ird ly , the d ating o f erosion surfaces is erosion surfaces in the accepted sense o f the term’
a ls o h ig h ly s p e c u la tiv e as valid geological evidences (R.J. Small, 1970). Besides, etch plains, c ry o p la in s
are not av a ilab le . (by periglacial processes) etc. are also m ajo r e ro sio n
Pig. 17.J : A = Structural surface and U = planation or erosion surface, after R.J. Small, 1970.
GEOMORPHOLOGY ^
surfaces. B esides, th ere are so m e m in o r ero sio n rath er it has ex p erien ced several phases o f positive 1
su rfaces viz. valley sid e b en ch es (terraces), riv er (rise) and n eg ativ e (fall) ch an g es due to clim atic 'M
terraces, m arin e ben ch es (p latfo rm s), m arin e flats, ch an g es (glacial and in terg lacial ice ages) and tec
m arin e terraces, raised b each es etc. tonic m ovem ent (upliftm ent and subsidence o f coastal
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th at ero sio n o r plan atio n lan d and sea flo o r) in th e p ast g eo lo g ical and
su rfa c e s w id ely d iffe r fro m ro c k -c u t stru c tu ra l g eo m o rp h ic h isto ry o f the earth e.g. C arboniferous
b en ch es, as ero sio n su rfaces cu t acro ss geolo g ical and P leisto cen e ice ag es p u n ctu ated by interglacial
fo rm atio n and stru ctu re s w h ile stru ctu ral su rfaces p eriods. E ven Q u atern ary p erio d reg istered several
are stru ctu ra lly co n tro lled . F o r ex am p le, if h o rizo n p h ases o f sea-lev el ch an g es w h ich effected changes
tal so ft (w eak ) ro c k b ed s o v erlie h o rizo n tal resistan t in base levels o f ero sio n . ‘A t the o n set o f Q uaternary
(h ard ) ro c k b ed s (fig. 17.1 A ), soft ro ck beds are era, the sea-lev el w as som e 60 0 ft (1 8 2 .88m ) higher
m o re or less u n ifo rm ly eo rd ed and th u s are alm o st than p resent; and som e au th o rities h ave even sug
e n tire ly re m o v e d and u n d erly in g relativ ely hard g ested that at som e stag e in the T ertiary it m ay have
ro ck b ed s are e x p o se d to en v iro n m en ta l processes. stood at a h eig h t o f nearly 2 0 0 0 ft O .D . (4 1 0 m ).
T h e su rfa c e o f su ch lith o lo g ical fo rm atio n is called T h ere is indeed a case for reg ard in g m o st landform s
stru c tu ra l su rface. It is, th u s, ap p are n t th at structural below 600 ft (182.88 m ) as o f w h o lly Q u atern ary
su rfa c e s are fo rm ed d u e to rem o v al o f ov erly in g origin, and those above 600 ft as o f T ertiary age-
w e a k stra ta by d e n u d a tio n a l p ro cesses and parallel tho u g h som e glacial and p erig lacial m o d ific a tio n s
to th e e x p o s e d u n d e rly in g stra ta and th e ir dip angle. o f these m u st o f co u rse be e n v isa g e d ’ (R .J. S m all,
O n th e o th e r h an d , e ro sio n su rfaces are fo rm ed due 1970). It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t p o st-Q u a te rn a ry
to e ro s io n o f d iffe re n t ro c k ty p es (so ft and hard) and true ero sio n su rfaces are d iffic u lt to b e fo u n d b e
d if f e r e n t g e o lo g ic a l s tru c tu re s (fo ld e d , fau lted , cau se these co u ld n ot be fo rm ed d u e to la c k o f
u n ic lin a l e tc .) alik e ( 1 7 .IB ). ‘S trictly sp eak in g , o f su fficie n t tim e req u ired fo r the c o m p le tio n o f such
c o u rse , all p arts o f the lan d su rface th a t are not surfaces. T h at is w hy ero sio n su rfaces y o u n g e r than
d ire c tly d e p o s itio n a l in o rig in are su rfaces o f e ro T ertiary era are n ot fo u n d b u t p a r tia l e r o sio n su r
sion. T h u s the d ip and s c a rp -slo p e s o f a cuesta, fa c e s m ig h t h av e d ev elo p ed .
a lth o u g h o w in g th e ir form in larg e m e asu re to the It is, th u s, e v id e n t th a t n o p o st-T e rtia ry ero
in flu e n c e o f g e o lo g ic a l stru c tu re , are ‘su rfa c e s ’ p ro sion su rface m ay be p o ssib le. T h e su rfa c e s m ay be o f
d u c e d by w e a th e rin g and e ro s io n ’ (R .J. S m all, 1970). T ertiary p erio d or o ld e r th an T e rtia ry . I f this is the
case, the ero sio n su rfaces m ig h t h a v e undergone
(2) IDENTIFICATION OF EROSION SURFACES
su b stan tial ch an g e s d u e to lo n g e r p e rio d o f their
In sp ite o f th e fact th at id e n tific a tio n and
fo rm atio n and ex isten ce. T h e c h a n g e s m ig h t have
re c o g n itio n o f e ro sio n s u rfa c e s in the field is a
been e ffected by e ro sio n al an d d e p o s itio n a l p ro c
d iffic u lt a n d te d io u s ta sk , a d v o c a te s o f D av isian
esses, tecto n ic m o v e m e n ts (u p liftm e n t an d s u b sid
c y c lic m o d e l o f la n d sc a p e d e v e lo p m e n t an d d e n u d a
en ce), sea-le v el c h a n g e s c a u sin g tra n s g re s s io n a l and
tio n c h ro n o lo g y h a v e m a d e c o m m e n d a b le attem p ts
r e g r e s s i o n a l p h a s e s a n d to s o m e e x t e n t b y
fo r s o lu tio n o f th is p ro b le m . It m a y be p o in te d o ut
an th ro p o g e n ic facto rs in lo c a liz e d a rea s.
th a t it is v e ry d iffic u lt fo r e ro sio n su rfa c e s to be
fo u n d v e ry c lo s e to p re s e n t s e a -le v e l (b a se le v el o f T h e id e n tific a tio n an d d e te rm in a tio n o f e ro
e ro s io n ) b e c a u s e , a f te r th e ir fo rm a tio n (p e n e p la n a - sio n su rfaces are a c c o m p lish e d o n th e b a sis o f cer
tain m o rp h o m e tric te c h n iq u e s e .g . a ltim e tric fre
tio n ), th e s e h a v e b e e n la rg e ly a ffe c te d by te c to n ic
q u en cy h is to g ra m s a n d c u rv e s a n d su p erim p o sed
m o v e m e n ts ( u p liftin g , s u b s id e n c e , u p w a rp in g etc.).
p ro file s an d field ch e c k s.
M o s t o f th e e ro s io n s u rfa c e s h a v e b een u p lifte d and
th u s th e re is e v e ry lik e lih o o d th a t th e y m u s t e x ist T h e fre q u e n c y m a x im a o f s p o t h e ig h ts, sum
r e la tiv e ly a t h ig h e r e le v a tio n s . I f th e e ro s io n s u r m it le v e ls, b e n c h e s an d s h o u ld e rs as rev e a le d by
fa c e s a re fo u n d c lo s e to th e p re s e n t s e a -le v e l, it fre q u e n c y h is to g ra m s an d c u rv e s o f th e se variables
s e p a ra te ly an d to g e th e r u sin g ru n n in g -su m -c la ss in
c le a r ly m e a n s th a t it h a s e x p e rie n c e d s u b sid e n c e
te rv a ls in d ic a te d iffe re n t le v e ls o f s u rfa c e s b u t this
r e s u ltin g in th e lo w e rin g o f its h e ig h t. It is a lso
te c h n iq u e d o e s n o t re v e a l th e fa c t as to w h e th e r these
im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t s e a -le v e l in its e lf is n o t s ta b le
are stru ctu ra l and tecto n ic surfaces o r are erosion height o f 1000-1200 ft (305 m - 366 m) (X I), (ii) at
su rfaces. T h e n atu re o f su rfaces (w h eth er structural the height o f 800 feet (240 m) (X 2) and (iii) at the
o r e ro sio n a l) m ay be d eterm in ed by field o b serv a height o f 500 feet (150 m) (X 3). B esides, a fourth
tion an d g ro u n d ch ec k s. T h e altim etric frequency (though w eak) frequency peak is observed at the
h isto g ra m an d cu rv e (fig. 17.2) o f the B elan basin height o f 1350-1400 ft. (427 m ). T hese surfaces
(U .P .) rev ea l th ree freq u en cy m ax im a viz. (i) at the (from higher to low er elevations) are, in fact, K aim ur
312 GEOM ORPHOLOGY
su rface (427 m ), P an n a su rface (1000 - 1200 ft o r d eterm ined on the basis o f minute field observations
305 m - 366 m ), R ew a su rface (8 0 0 ft o r 240 m ) and and field checks. Fig. 17.3, depicting superimposed
T ran s-G an g a-Y am u n a su rface (500 feet or 150 m). profiles o f the B elan basin (U .P .) reveals four ero-
T he cro w d in g o f sev eral serial p ro files at the sam e sion surfaces viz. (i) K aim ur surface, (ii) Panna
lev el d en o tes a su rface, the n ature o f w hich (i.e. surface, (iii) R ew a surface and (iv) Trans-Yamuna-
w h eth er o f stru ctu ral o r ero sio n al o rigin) m ay be G anga surface as referred to above.
BELAN BASIN AND ENVIRONS

1750-
A S UPERI MPOSED
1500- P ROFI LES
K ai m u r Surface
1250- panna Surface
1 00 0 - ewa S u r fa ce
750
500H
T r a n s Yam u n a Ganga s u r f a c e
projected
profiles
1175 0—i COMPOSI TE
1500-
1250-
1000 “
750
500H
Fig. 17.3 : Superimposed profiles o f the Belan basin, after R. Srivastava, 1976.
T he nature o f m od ificatio n o f ero sio n su r m o d ificatio n s by en v iro n m en tal factors than y o u n g e r

faces depends on a num ber o f factors viz. ag e o f the su rfaces. T h e ch an g e s an d m o d ificatio n s o f old
surfaces, thickness o f later d ep o sits on th e su rfaces, su rfaces m ay be n eg ated o r m in im ized only when
relative hardness o f rocks o f w hich the su rfaces h ave th e se are p ro tec ted by o v erly in g th ick layers o f later
been form ed, num ber o f sp acin g o f stream s (i.e. deposition o f sedim ents brought dow n by denudational
stream frequency and d rain ag e d e n sity ) etc. It is p ro cesses. T h e d e g re e o f ch an g es an d m odifications |
sim ple assum ption that, o ld er th e e ro sio n su rfaces, s u ffe re d by ero sio n su rface d ep en d s on the relative
greater the m o d ificatio n s and ch an g e s i.e. o ld er re sista n c e o f ro ck s fo rm in g th o se surfaces. F o r e x - 1
erosion surfaces are su b jected to m o re ch a n g e s and a m p le, if th e ero sio n su rface co n sists o f re s is ta n t j
r
p. V' ■. ■ ,
D E N U D A TIO N C H R O N O L O G Y , E R O SIO N SU R FA C ES AN D PEN EPLA IN S
rocks, then a fte r its u p liftm e n t relativ ely longer m ight have been o f uniform elevation everyw here
period o f tim e w o u ld be req u ired fo r the com pletion and m ight have been continuous but at later dates the
o f next c y cle o f ero sio n b ecau se o f slow rate o f extensive surface m ig h t have been segm ented into
denudation, w h ile th e ero sio n surface form ed o f num erous parts due to selective but vigorous dissec
w eak ro ck s, w h en u p lifted , w o u ld be pen ep lain ed in tion by rejuvenated stream s. It m ay be pointed out
relativ ely sh o rt p erio d o f tim e d ue to faster rate o f that this m ethod (h eig h t correlation) should be ap
d en u d atio n . B ased on th is b asic p rem ise it m ay be plied w ith caution and utm ost care because there is
in ferre d th a t if tw o ero sio n su rfaces are found side by possibility that the original surface m ight have been
side at th e sam e elev atio n but th eir lithological deform ed due to tectonic m ovem ents m ainly w a i t
c h a ra c te ristic s are d iffe re n t i.e. one surface has d e ing and tilting. The height correlation m ethod yields
v elo p ed on re s is ta n t ro ck s w h ile the o th er has d ev el convincing result in the identification and subjective
o ped on re la tiv e ly so ft and w eak rocks, then the dating o f erosion surfaces o f the C h o tan agpur high
fo rm er e ro s io n s u rfa c e w o u ld be m uch o ld er than the lands and R anchi plateau. F o r exam ple, the R anchi
la tter su rfa c e . T h e e ro sio n su rfaces hav in g high plateau was peneplained during Jurassic period (prior
stream fre q u e n c y an d h ig h d rain a g e density suffer to the C retaceous lava flow ), the w estern part o f
m ore m o d ific a tio n s an d are d e stro y e d m uch earlier w hich received basaltic lava during C retaceous p e
than the s u rfa c e s h a v in g p o o r stream frequency and riod and was subsequently uplifted during T ertiary
low d ra in a g e d e n s ity . epoch and is nam ed as ‘p a t la n d ’ (3500 feet o r 1065
T h ere is v a ria tio n in th e n atu re and form o f m a.m. s.l.). The patland has been seg m ented and
erosion su rfa c e s. T h e re la tiv e ly y o u n g er surfaces fragm ented by the N orth K oel and its trib utaries into
(i.e. late T e rtia ry an d p re -Q u a te rn a ry su rfaces) and num erous m esas and b u tte s , locally know n as ‘p a t s ’
form ed on re s is ta n t ro c k s are fo u n d in the form o f (e.g. N etarhat pat, Jam ira pat, K ham arpat, R aldam i
e x te n siv e p la te a u s h a v in g ac c o rd a n t heights and pat, Rudni pat, B agru pat, L o ta p at etc.) h aving
fla t-to p p e d in te rflu v e s . T h is is b ecau se o f the fact accordant height. Inspi'te o f this, h eig h t co rrelatio n
m ethod is generally used fo r dating the p o st-T ertiary
th at su ch s u rfa c e s are le a st d issected by stream s due
and Q uaternary (if any) erosion su rfaces and n o t fo r
to lack o f re q u is ite p e rio d o f tim e. O n the o th er hand,
the pre-T ertiary surfaces.
if the s u rfa c e s a re o f p re -T e rtia ry o r M eso zo ic age,
th ese are fo u n d in m u c h d isse c te d co n d itio n w herein E rosion surfaces are also ten tativ ely dated on
the s u rfa c e s a re se g m e n te d into n u m ero u s parts the basis o f g eo lo g ical u n c o n f o r m ity . It generally
w h ich e x is t in th e fo rm o f a c c o rd a n t su m m it levels. happens that the ero sio n su rfaces, after th e ir fo rm a
I f th e s u rfa c e s a re o ld e r th an M e so z o ic , then there is tion, receive sedim ents and are, thus, b u ried u n d er
e v e ry p o s s ib ility th a t th e su rfa c e m ig h t h ave been thick co'ver o f sed im en ts and rem ain p ro tected from
o b lite ra te d b y th e d y n a m ic w h eels o f d en u d atio n al env iro n m en tal p ro cesses so lo n g as su rficial co v e r is *
n ot rem oved. S o m e tim es th e su rficial co v ers o f
p ro c e s s e s .
sed im en ts are rem o v ed , th e b u ried su rface is re su r
(3) DATING OF EROSION SURFACES rected and is ex p o sed to e n v iro n m en ta l co n d itio n s.
T h e c o rre la tio n a n d d a tin g (to d eterm in e age) C o n seq u en tly , th e ex p o sed ero sio n su rface is su b
o f d iffe re n t e ro s io n s u rfa c e s d e v e lo p e d d u rin g d if je c te d to ch an g es and m o d ific a tio n s by d en u d atio n al
fe re n t g e o lo g ic a l p e rio d s h a v in g v ary in g e n v iro n p ro cesses. In su ch cases, th e d atin g o f ero sio n su r
m e n ta l c o n d itio n s is d iffic u lt g eo m o rp h ic p ro b lem . face b eco m es d iffic u lt b u t w h e re v e r the ero sio n
T h e m o s t p re v a le n t a n d w id e ly used m e th o d o f su rface is w ell p ro tec ted u n d er su rficia l d ep o sits, the
d a tin g o f a p a rtic u la r e ro sio n su rface is th e c o rre la d atin g o f th e su rfa c e b e c o m e s easy p ro p o sitio n . T h is
tio n o f th e c o n c e rn e d su rfa c e w ith su ch ero sio n
m e th o d is also n o t free fro m p itfalls b eca u se ev en the
su rfa c e , d e v e lo p e d at o th e r p la ce, the ag e o f w h ich is
su rficia l d e p o sitio n m ay a lso ex p e rie n c e ch an g e s
alre a d y k n o w n . T h e h e ig h t c o r r e la tio n , a m eth o d
and m odifications due to w eahtering processes, m ixing
ap p lie d fo r d a tin g p u rp o se, in v o lv e s th e in c lu sio n
o f o ld e r d e p o sits w ith n e w e r d e p o sits etc. It m ay also
a n d c o n s id e ra tio n o f all th e re m n a n ts o f th e su rface
h a v in g a c c o rd a n t su m m it le v els. It is b e lie v e d th a t b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e g e o m o rp h ic p ro c e sse s in
th e e n tire e ro s io n su rfa c e a t th e tim e o f its fo rm a tio n v o lv e d in th e fo rm a tio n o f a p a rtic u la r su rfa c e are not
314 geo m o rpholo gy
alw ays the resu lt o f clim ate. F o r ex am p le, if the uppermost part. On the basis o f such cy cle o f depo
surficial sed im en ts o f m arin e orig in are found o v er sition the su ccessiv e stages o f erosion o f highland,
an erosion surface, it is n o t n ecessary th at th e u n d er subsequent slop e decline and developm ent o f ero
lying ero sio n su rface is th e resu lt o f m arin e process. sion surface are understood.
It m ay be p o ssib le th a t the co n ce rn ed su rface m ight The determ ination o f the m ode o f origin of
have been fo rm ed by flu v ial p ro cess clo se to the sea erosion surfaces and their dating are also accom
co ast and the m arin e sed im en ts m ig h t have been plished on the basis o f drainage patterns developed
deposited on su ch su rface in tw o w ays viz. (i) m arin e on those surfaces. This in volves the reconstruction
sedim ents restin g o v e r n earb y h ig h m arin e su rface o f the evolutionary history o f drainage o f the con
(coast lan d ) m ig h t h av e reac h ed flu v ially o rig in ated cerned region.
erosion su rface th ro u g h so il creep an d slu m p in g or
R a d io ca rb o n d a tin g is an o th e r very useful
(ii) the rise in sea-le v el m ig h t h ave cau sed tran sg res
m ethod o f d eterm in in g th e a b so lu te a ge o f erosion
sion o f sea w ater u p to flu v ially o rig in ated erosion
surfaces b ut this m eth o d can n o t be ap p lied fo r those
surface w h ich m ig h t h av e facilitated d ep o sitio n o f
surfaces w hich w ere fo rm ed p rio r to th e ev o lu tio n o f
m arin e sed im en ts on it. T he su b se q u e n t reg ressio n al
organic life or w here o rg an ic fo ssils have been
phase o f se a cau sed by n eg ativ e ch an g e (fall) in sea-
com pletely d estro y ed .
level m ig h t h av e c a u se d re tre a t o f sea w ater and thus
th e ero sio n su rface h a v in g m a rin e sed im en ts m ight 17.3 EROSION SUR FA C ES OF CHOTANAGPUR
h av e b een freed fro m sea w ater and ex p o sed to HIGHLANDS
en v iro n m en ta l c o n d itio n s. T h e d ev elo p m en t o f co n T he p resent description is entirely b ased (rather
seq u en t stream s on su ch su rface m ig h t have d ep o s is adapted) on th e c lassical w o rk o f P ro f. R .P . S in g h
ited flu v ial sed im en ts o v er m arin e sed im en ts and (G eom orphological E v o lu tio n o f C h o ta n a g p u r H ig h
thus the m ix in g o f m a rin e and flu v ial sedim ents lands, 1969, N G S I, V aran asi, pp. 1 0 8 -1 2 0 ), w h o h as
restin g o v e r an ero sio n su rface co m p licates the id en tified the fo llo w in g ero sio n s u rfa c e s on th e b asis
p ro cess o f d atin g o f su ch ero sio n surfaces. T hus, the o f in terp retatio n o f p ast c y cles o f ero sio n (c o m p le te
d atin g o f ero sio n su rfaces on the b asis o f sed im en ts and in co m p lete), g eo lo g ical stru c tu re , d e p o s its o f
restin g o v e r th em sh o u ld be d o n e w ith g reat care and se d im e n ts ., d r a in a g e s y s te m a n d p a t t e r n s ,
preca u tio n . A cc o rd in g to L .C . K ing the d escrip tio n m o rp h o m etric tech n iq u es, field o b se rv a tio n s etc.
o f sed im en ts re stin g o v er an ero sio n su rface gives
clu e o n ly fo r the e n d d a te o f the fo rm atio n o f the (1) PRE-DALMA SURFACE
su rface by fin a l p ro c e s s e s . T h e en tire p ro cess o f the T h e g eo m o rp h ic h isto ry o f C hotanagpur b e
fo rm atio n o f th e su rfa c e is n o t rev e a le d by this gins from th e u p liftm e n t o f th e re g io n in A rchaean
m ethod. A c c o rd in g to h im th e G o n d w a n a p ed ip lain p erio d w h ich re su lte d in th e form ation o f folded
su rface in S o u th A fric a w as fo rm ed p rio r to the stru ctu re o f C h h o ta n a g p u r re g io n and adjoining ar
b reaking o f G o n d w a n a la n d b u t th ese su rfaces have eas. In itially , tre llis d ra in a g e pattern d evelop ed in
b een w ro n g ly d ated as T e rtia ry b ec a u se th e se carry c o n fo rm ity w ith the fo ld e d structure. T he uplifted
la n d m ass w as eroded dow n to base le v e l and thus
the d ep o sits o f M io c e n e p erio d .
w as peneplained by flu vial c y c le o f erosion known
A nother m ethod o f dating o f erosion surfaces as pre-D alm a c y c le o f erosion but this c y c le was
and determ ining o f m echanism o f the form ation o f interrupted due to lava flo w . T h ou gh no perceptible
erosion surfaces in v o lv e s the interpretation o f s e ev id en ces o f upliftm ent during lava flo w are avail
quence o f sedim entation in another area but c lo se to able but fold ed lava sh eets in Porhat h ills speak o f
the concerned surface. It gen erally happens that the the upliftm ent ev en after la v a flo w . It is very difficult
eroded m aterials o f highland are d ep o sited in the to trace and id en tify p re-D alm a erosion surface
nearby lo w ly in g areas. T he seq u en ce o f d ep o sitio n b ecau se several c y c le s o f ero sio n have succeeded
o f sedim ents from b elo w (in the b eg in n in g ) upward pre-D alm a c y c le and h en ce the e v id e n c e s o f initial
in volves con glom erates h avin g boulders, co b b les (first) c y c le and ero sio n surface h ave been com*
and pebbles fo llo w ed by m ed iu m -sized particles in p letely obliterated due to p o ly c y c lic re lie fs. A t som e j
the m iddle and fin e grained cla y and marl in the p la ces the Dalma lava sheet has succeeded j
DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, EROS,ON SURFACES
AND PENEPLAINS
in&sTcso ^ : r onrace •
Dhanjori highlands w h e re p r e - D a l ^ T u V f a c 'Y "
eroded. Som e sort o f tectonic m ovem ents resulted in
the form ation o f vertical faults but the horizontal
315
been o v erlain b y Dhai^jori sandstone - co n g lam erate! ch aracter o f sedim ents could be m aintained and
preserved. The region was peneplained by Triassic
(2) PRE-CAMBRIAN EROSION SURFACE period.
Fluvial processes were dominant from Dalma
(5) GONDWANA SURFACE
lava flow to pre-Cambrian period and thus granke
gne.ss base was exposed due to continued fluvfal P erm ian-T riassic cycle o f erosion was inter
rupted during late Jurassic and early C retaceous
eros.on. Consequently, dissected gneiss surface wa
periods due to volcanic eruptions and w idespread
Ko lhSa n h
K EigSh la
T nSd s but
KnCrth< f0rraitleS are a*ai" found in lava flow s. P eninsular India w as separated from
a" ,g andsbuttheseare younger than Dhanjori G ondw analand during C retaceous period. R apid flu
unconformity because ‘Kolhan sandstone-conglom-
vial erosion started due to origin o f m onsoon cli
erates have been deposited horizontally on dis
m ate. T his fluvial cycle o f erosion is called as
sected gran„ -----ite surface. oSim i m ilarly,
n a r i y , ‘Vindhy
V i n d t l ) an G o n d w a n a cycle and the surface produced by this
sandstones and lim e s to n e ’
sandstones and lim estones’ have been deposited on a ____, or cycle is called G ondw ana surface. T he identical and
‘p r e -C a m b r ia n g r a n it e s u r f a c e ’ in the north-west contem porary G ondw ana surfaces are also found in
ern part o f the Chotanagpur region. other parts o f G ondw analand viz. South A m erica,
(3) CARBONIFEROUS EROSION SURFACE A frica, P eninsular India, A ustralia etc. T his cycle is
also called as p r e - te r tia r y cycle w hich w as term i
G o n d w a n a la n d w a s e x te n siv e ly and in ten
nated by D eccan trap in India. M ost o f the drainage
s iv e ly g la c ia te d d u r in g C a rb o n ife ro u s p erio d , the
lines (stream s) w ere obliterated due to lav a cover.
e v id e n c e s o f w h ic h a re fo u n d in th e fo rm o f glacial
T he G ondw ana surface w as extensive, undulating
b o u ld e rs in th e c o a l s e e m s o f T a lc h ir co al m ines o f
and low in elevation and sloped eastw ard i.e. to
O ris s a (in th e c a s e o f C h o ta n a g p u r h ig h lan d s). The
w ards p r e - te r tia r y sea. It is estim ated that the
p r e - e x is tin g c y c le o f e ro s io n w as in terru p ted (rath er elevation in the east and w est m ig h t have been 305
th e c h a p te r o f c y c le o f e ro s io n w as clo sed ) due to m and 488 m respectively. Som e sort o f u pliftm ent
C a r b o n ife r o u s g la c ia tio n . T h e ice sh eets co v ered the o f this surface can n o t be ruled out. T his resulted in
e x is tin g s u r f a c e s a n d r o u n d e d th e h ills and peaks as breaks in slopes at certain places.
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f e a r lie r c y c le s . T h u s, th e p re-ex ist-
(6) T ertiary p erio d reg istered three p h ases o f
in g to p o g r a p h y w a s so g re a tly c h a n g e d an d m o d ified
up liftm en t as a co n seq u en ce o f H im alayan orogeny
by a d v a n c in g ic e sh e e ts that all the ev id en ces o f
w hich effected u p liftm en t o f ex istin g surface, tilt
earlier c y c le s and la n d sca p es w ere destroyed. Thus ing, faulting, su b sid en ce etc. T h e first upliftm ent
a m o n o t o n o u s t o p o g r a p h y m igh t have been form ed o ccu rred d urin g M io cen e p erio d w hen C h o tanagpur
d u e to C a r b o n ife r o u s g la cia tio n . T here m ight have w as uplifted by 305 m. C o n seq u en tly , the stream s
b een a b se n c e o f w e ll d ev elo p e d and established w ere reju v en ated and new cycle w as initiated. S ec
d rain age s y ste m on this surface. M arshes, sw am ps ond p h ase o f u p liftm en t o ccu rred d u rin g P liocene
and la k es m ig h t h a v e b een form ed by retreating ice p eriod w hen the w estern p art o f C h o ta n ag p u r was
u p lifted by an o th er 305 m. T h e th ird ph ase o f
gration o f stream s m ig h t have g iv en birth to the u p liftm e n t w as upto 214 m to 305 m. T h e total
e v o lu tio n and d e v e lo p m e n t o f w e ll d ev elo p ed drain- u p liftm e n t o f so u th -w estern C h o ta n ag p u r was 915
age system . m (3 0 0 0 ft). T h e hig h ly d issected m arg in s o f R anchi
p lateau , H azarib ag h p lateau , K olhan - B aghm undi
(4) PERMIAN-TRIAS9IC EROSION SURFACE
H ig h la n d s rev eal T ertiary u p liftm en t o f the region.
A n e w ch apter o f denudation and landscape
B reak s in lo n g itu d in a l p ro files o f the S u b am a re k h a
d e v e lo p m e n t w a s added to the geom orp h ic history
(H u n d ru g h a u g h falls), the K anchi (D assam g h au g h
o f the C hotan agp u r region after the retreat o f Car
falls), the R aru (G a u ta m d h a ra o r Johria falls) stream s
b o n ifero u s ic e sh eets. T h e highlands w ere greatly
etc. in d icate u p liftm e n t o f R an ch i p la teau an d re ju
d en u ded. T h e area w a s reuplifted during T riassic
v en atio n o f th e se stream s. B reak s in lo ngitudinal
period and the G on d w an a form ation w as rapidly
316 GEOMORPHOLOGY
p ro files o f u p p er re a c h e s o f th e N o rth K oel, the ran g es ru n n in g fro m In d o re to B h o p al, through
S ankh and th e B u rh a riv e rs v alid ate u p liftm e n t o f B ag h elk h an d e x ten d u p to S asaram in B ihar. K aim ur
w estern R an ch i p la te a u an d P alam au u p lan d d u rin g ran g es form escarp m en ts alm o st p arallel to the Son
la te T ertiary ep o ch . T h e tran sv erse sectio n s o f m ajo r valley. M alw a p la teau has b een so g reatly d issected
stream s o f the C h o ta n ag p u r h ig h lan d s rev eal m arked by th e stream s th at th e w h o le area ap p ears as ravinous
in cisio n o f v alley s d u e to reju v en atio n . reg io n . B u n d elk h an d reg io n h as b een m o st severely
rav in ated and C h am b al rav in e s are fa m o u s w orld
T e rtia ry c y c le o f ero sio n b eg an w ith the
over. T he D eccan ta b le la n d ex te n d s in trian g u lar
u p liftm en t o f the w estern C h o tan ag p u r. T h is cy cle
tab u lar fo rm to th e so u th o f th e N a rm a d a valley.
w as in terru p ted b eca u se o f m id -tertia ry u p liftm en t
T h is trian g u lar ta b lela n d is b o rd e re d by h ills and
and th u s m id -te r tia r y cy c le , also k now n as H u n d ru
ran g es on all o f its th ree sid es. S a tp u ra h ills e x te n d
fa lls c y cle (R .P . S in g h ) w as initiated . Ju v en ile stages
from R ajp ip la in the w est to R a jm a h a l h ills in the
o f stream s a lo n g th e m a rg in s o f plateau s presen t
east. T he d o m ed stru ctu re o f S a tp u ra is b u rie d u n d e r
s ig n ific a n t e v id e n c e s o f th is cycle. N u m ero u s w ater
D eccan lava in th e w est w h ile in th e e a s t M a h a d e o
falls are fo u n d in N .E .— S.W . d irectio n . T h ese falls
hills (P ach m arh i h ills) o f G o n d w a n a sy ste m b e c o m e
are c h a ra c te riz e d by steep scarp s, tru n cated strata,
p rom inent reliefs. M aikal hills co m p o sed o f A rch aean
d e e p an d n arro w g o rg es, etc. T ertiary cy cle o f e ro
shield and D eccan trap s are sig n ific a n t re lie fs n e a r
sio n w as a lso in terru p ted in the S.E. C h o tan ag p u r
A m ark an tak . T h e se are fu rth e r e x te n d e d e a s tw a rd in
d u e to m o d e ra te n atu re o f upliftm en t.
the form o f S u rg u za, R an ch i an d H a z a rib a g h ra n g e s .
T h e p re se n t la n d scap e o f C h o ta n ag p u r region T he m o st o u tsta n d in g c h a ra c te ristic fe a tu re o f th e
is p o ly c y c lic in origin and presen ts and ideal ex am p eaks o f the hill ran g es o f P e n in s u la r In d ia is th a t
p le o f p a lim p s e s t to p o g r a p h y .
they have flat to p s ra th e r th an sh a rp e d g e s. S a tp u ra s
1 7 .4 DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY OF PENIN have been affected by fa u ltin g a c tiv ity to th e la rg e s t
SULAR INDIA ex ten t and th u s th e stream s flo w th ro u g h d e e p a n d
T he p resen t d escrip tio n on d en u d atio n c h ro narrow Ngo rg es. T h e v alley s o f th e N a rm a d a a n d th e
nology' o f P en in su la r In d ia has been based (rather Tapi riv ers to the n o rth and so u th o f S a tp u ra s r e s p e c
ad ap ted ) on sch o larly w o rk s o f R.P. S in g h e.g. tively are fine ex a m p le s o f rift v a lle y s. It m a y b e
‘G eo m o rp h o lo g ical E v o lu tio n o f C h o tan ag p u r H ig h m en tio n ed th at th e N a rm a d a an d T a p i riv e rs flo w
la n d s, 1969 and ‘L an d sca p e C y cles o f P en in su lar o p p o site to the g en eral slo p e o f D e c c a n p la te a u (i.e.
In d ia, 1967 and rep rin te d in 1983. w estw ard ).
W este rn G h a ts e x te n d fro m th e e s tu a ry o f th e
(J) PRESEN T PHYSICAL S ET UP
T ap i riv e r in th e n o rth to th e C a p e C o m o rin in th e
T h e p re s e n t p h y sical set up o f P en in su la r
S outh. T h e step p ed fe a tu re s o f th e w e s te rn fa c e o f
In d ia is the re s u lt o f d iffe re n t p h ases o f u p liftm e n t,
the W e ste rn G h a ts in d ic a te e v id e n c e o f fa u ltin g
d e n u d a tio n , la v a flo w etc. T h e p re se n t la n d sca p e
activ ity . V ery few s tre a m s c u t a c ro s s th e W e s te rn
m o saic is c h a ra c te riz e d by p o ly c y c lic reliefs. P e n in
G h ats. T h e E a s te rn G h a ts e x te n d in d is c o n tin u o u s
su la r In d ia is b o rd e re d by o ld an d h ig h ly d isse c te d
m a n n e r fro m M a y u rb h a n j in th e n o rth to N ilg iri in
re lic t m o u n ta in s and h ills. A ra v a lli ra n g e s ex ten d
th e so u th . T h e e a s tw a rd flo w in g m a jo r s tre a m s (e.g.
fro m G u ja ra t to D elh i in the n o rth -w e st an d re p re
M a h a n a d i, G o d a v a ri, K ris h n a , P e n n e r, K a v e ri e tc .)
sen t o ld e st c ru sta l p a rt o f th e c o u n try an d in sp ite o f
h av e d isse c te d a n d s e g m e n te d E a s te rn G h a ts . N ilg iris
h ig h d e g re e o f d e n u d a tio n th ro u g h a g e s still h av e
jo in E a s te rn G h a ts w ith W e s te r n G h a ts . P a lg h a t
su ch p eak s w h ic h are 1220 m to 1525 m (4 0 0 0 to
5 0 0 0 ft) at m e an s e a -le v e l w h e re in M t. A b u is th e s e p a ra te s A n n a m a la i h ills fro m N ilg iris . T h e n o rth
h ig h e st p e a k { 1693 m o r 5 6 5 0 feet a .m .s.l.). A few e a s te rn s e g m e n t o f A n n a m a la i h ills is k n o w n as
s tre a m s c u t th e A ra v a llis a c ro ss a n d d ra in to w a rd s P a ln i h ills. In th e n o rth -e a s t, th e h ills o f P e n in s u la r
A ra b ia n S e a (e .g . M a h i, L u n i) a n d a fe w m e e t th e I n d ia a re k n o w n a s A s s a m h ills .
Y a m u n a (e .g . C h a m b a l a n d B an as). M a lw a p la te a u T h e In d ia n p e n in s u la h a s u n d e rg o n e d iffe re n t
is stffTOunded by V in d h y a n ra n g e s . In fa c t, V in d h y a n p h a s e s o f e x te n s iv e f a u ltin g , tiltin g a n d fo ld in g
ra n g e s a p p e a r as e sc a rp m e n ts o f rift v alley s. V in d h y a n a c tiv itie s in g e o lo g ic a l p a s t. F a u ltin g h a s b e e n re-
DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, BROS.ON SURPACBS AND
PENEPLAINS
317
K,f r e n in su lar In d ia sedim entaries. D harw ar system o f rocks includes
p la tea u , D e c c a n ta b le la n d ,3 MyTore ' n l ^ ^ D harw ar sedim entaries o f D harw ar and Bellary dis
Chotanagpur plateau etc. Tributaries o f ,h ! n tricts o f K arnataka, Sausar series o f K arnataka and
the Subam arekha and the N - u Damodar, C hotanagpur, Chipli series o f B alaghat andChindwara
districts o f M .P., G ondite series o f Re w a and Jabalpur
pl.tnnus TTie Peninsular I n d ,.h « n ^ n l i S ? districts o f M .P., K odurite series o f V isakhapatnam
district o f A ndhra Pradesh, D alm a traps in Singhbhum
^
reliefs
" dh'“
representatives o f polycyclic
* ”« C d istrict o f B ihar and A ravalli series. The D harw ar
form ations have suffered m axim um m etam orphism
and lack in fossils. R ocks are not found in their
(2) LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION original horizontal m anner, rath er these have been
The present landscape mosaics of Peninsular greatly deform ed by tectonic activities (folding,
have f volved through different phases of nu fauting, tilting etc.).
merous cy cles o f erosion, sedimentation, lavaflows (2) P ruana group o f rocks com prises tw o .
orogenesis, metamorphism, faulting, tilting, eustatism m ajor categories i.e. (a) C uddapah system o f rocks,
r e s u rre c tio n o f p a la e o la n d fo rm s etc. an d thus the and (b) V indhyan system o f rocks. Rocks o f Cuddapah
p re s e n t la n d s c a p e is an e x a m p le o f p a lim p s e s t to system w ere deposited from C am brian period to
p o g ra p h y . A b o u t h a lf o f th e o ld e st stru ctu res has pre-A lgonikan period and these include shale, slate,
b e e n e x p o s e d d u e t o 'p r o l o n g e d d e n u d a tio n o f quartzite and lim estone. The rocks have been greatly
s u p e r in c u m b e n t fo rm a tio n s an d co v ers. If w e look m etam o rp h o sed and hence lack in fossils. T he
in to th e c y c lic d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n d sca p e o f P en in C uddaph form ations are divided into tw o groups viz.
s u la r I n d ia , it a p p e a rs th a t n u m e ro u s ev id en ces o f upper and low er C uddapah. T hese rocks are found in
p o s itiv e a n d n e g a tiv e c h a n g e s in sea-lev el (and the form o f K rish n a series in K rish n a v alley ,
h e n c e in b a s e le v e l o f e ro s io n ), la v a flo w s, clim atic N allam alai series in N allam alai ranges, C heyar se
c h a n g e s , in te r r u p tio n s in c y c le s o f ero sio n etc. are ries in C heyar valley, P apaghani series in P apaghani
valley, D elhi series in D elhi hills etc. V indhyan
c le a rly o b s e r v a b le . ‘W h ile th e im p rin t o f som e cy
form ations include an extensive area o f 1,00,000
c le s h a s b e e n p re s e r v e d a n d can be d ecip h ered , that
km 2w hich extends from Sasaram o f B ih ar in the east
o th e rs h a v e b e e n o b lite ra te d by th e cea se less m arch
to C hittorgarh in the w est. V indhyan form ations
o f t i m e ’ (R .P . S in g h , 19 6 0 ). include sedim entary rocks e.g. sandstones, shales,
(3) GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE lim estones etc. T hese are further d ivided into low er
G e o lo g ic a l s tru c tu re p la y s an im p o rtan t role and upper V indhyans w herein Sem ri series (in Son
in t h e e v o lu t io n o f la n d s c a p e s . T h o u g h , s o m e o f th e valley), K arnool series (A ndhra P radesh), Bhima
in itia l str u c tu r e s o f P e n in s u la r I n d ia h a v e d is a p series (B him a valley), and Palni series (Jodhpur and
p e a r e d d u e to p r o lo n g e d d e n u d a tio n , y e t th e e x is tin g C hittorgarh o f R ajasthan). Som e chunks o f V indhyans
s t r u c t u r e i s c o m p e t e n t e n o u g h t o s p e a k o f its m o r are also found in M alw a plateau and B undelkhand.
p h o lo g i c a l f e a t u r e s . T h e g e o l o g y a n d str u c tu r a l h is (3) D ra v id ia n grou p co n sists o f several sys
to r y o f P e n in s u la r I n d ia is r e la te d to th e r ig id m a s s e s tem s o f rocks o f w hich u pper V in d h y ans are m ost
o f G o n d w a n a la n d . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t io n o f s t r a n g r a p h .c sig n ifican t. T h ese w ere d ep o sited in C am brian pe
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f P e n in s u la r I n d ia i s " e ' ™ uda_ rio d in riv er valleys. T he m ajo r constituents are
t h e r e c o n s t r u c t io n a n d in t e r p r e ta tio n sandstones and conglom erates. T hese include Bhander
tio n c h ro n o lo g y . T h e g e o lo g ic a l h isto ry o f the re series, R ew a series and K aim ur series m ostly in M.P.
g io n b e g a n w ith th e fo rm a tio n o f A rc h a e a n g ro u p o and R o h tas p lateau o f B ihar. T he rock beds have
r o c k s a n d te rm in a te d w i t h t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f r e c e n t
alm o st p reserv ed th eir h o rizontal character.
s e d im e n ts o f A ryan group (r e c e n t d e lta d e p o s it s ,
(4) A ry a n g ro u p * T h e rocks o f A ryan group
r e c e n t r a is e d b e a c h e s , c o ra l c o a s t etc.). T h e p ro cess
w ere fo rm ed from P erm ian to Ju rassic periods.
o f s e d im e n ta tio n s till c o n tin u e s.
G o n d w a n a system o f ro ck s is the m o st significant
(1 ) A r c h a e a n g r o u p o f rocks con sists o f
c o n stitu e n t o f th is group. M o st o f the G ondw ana
A rchaean granites and g n e isse s and Dharwarian
318
GEOKKHU’HOLOGY
ro ck s w ere d ep o sited in riv e r valleys and have been If we look into the geological history o f the
least distu rb ed and d efo rm ed and hence they alm ost P eninsular India, it appears th at no evidences of
m a in ta in th e ir o rig in a l h o riz o n ta l d is p o s itio n . large-scale subm ergence u n d er sea and orogenesis
G o n d w an a fo rm atio n s co n tain m o st o f Indian coals are found. E vidences o f only local transgression o f
(98 p er cent). W ith referen ce to depth G ondw ana se a are fo u n d w h en C u d d a p a h and V indhyan
form ation is d iv id ed in to 3 categ o ries viz. (a) low er sedim entaries are su p p o sed to have been formed
G o n d w an a system (P erm ian to C arboniferous), (b) under m arine en v ironm ent. L ater transgression, if
m id d le G o n d w an a system (T riassic period), and (c) any, involved only co astal areas. T earing events in
upper G ondw ana system (Jurassic period). G ondw ana the valleys o f the Son, the D am odar and the Mahanadi
fo rm a tio n is w id ely fo u n d in G o d av ari valley, riv e rs m ig h t h av e o c c u rre d d u e to H ercynian
M ah an ad i v alley, V en g an g a and W ardha (trib u tar orogenesis. The foreland o f Indian peninsula was
ies o f G o d av ari) valleys, K utch and K athiaw ar o f indirectly affected by the side effects o f the Himalayan
G u ja ra t, w e s te rn R a ja s th a n , D a m o d a r V a lle y , orogeny during T ertiary ep och, resu lting in local
V isak h ap atn am etc. L o w er G ondw anas are found in ized upliftm ent, upw arping, d o w n w arp in g etc.
th e form o f T alch ir series, D am odar series and The denuded o u tcrops o f the P en in su lar India
R aniganj series w hich have very rich deposit o f coal. reveal the fact that initial o ro g en esis resulted in the
T h e m id d le G ondw an as include M aleri sub-series, form ation o f w estw ard tilted folds fo llow ed by in
M ah ad eo sub-series and P anchet sub-series. tense folding resu ltin g in the form ation o f north-
T here w as an extensive lava flow during northw est oriented an ticlin o riu m . T he form ation o f
C retaceo u s period w hich covered an area o f 2,00,000 D elhi - A raw alli ranges b ecam e resp o n sib le for the
square m iles (5,18,0 0 0 k m 2) o f P eninsular India. The developm ent o f N .E .— S.W . tren d in g synclinorium .
depth o f lava sheets ranges betw een 2000 feet (610 A rchaean m ountains are supposed to have been
m ) to 5000 ft (1520 m ), the g reatest thickness being peneplained before D a lm a and D h a n jo r i la v a flow s.
10,000 feet (3050 m ). D eccan lava traps are found in A ccording to R.P. Singh the lan d scap e d ev elo p m en t
G ujarat, M aharash tra, S au rastra (G ujarat) and w est o f the Peninsular India has passed th rough the fo l
ern M .P. but som e patches o f trappean lava are also low ing stages - (present description is ad ap ted v er
found in B ihar. D eccan traps are divided into (i) sion o f R.P. S ingh's research p ap er en titled , ‘la n d
low er traps (5000 ft or 1520 m thick), (ii) m iddle scape cycles o f P en in su lar In d ia ’.
traps (4000 ft or 1220 m ), and (iii) upper traps (1500 (1) P r e - D h a r w a r L a n d s c a p e -T h e geom or
ft or 457 m). phic history o f P en in su lar In d ia b eg an w ith the
T he T ertiary sy stem o f rocks includes clay, prim eval original solid cru stal su rface w h ich suf
gravels, san d sto n es and lim esto n es o f E ocene period fered the activ ities o f d en u d atio n and sedim entation
in G ujarat; sandy lim estones o f O ligocene to Pliocene for longer period o f tim e. T h ese sed im en ts (know n
in K ath iaw ar and th e ex tre m e eastern and w estern as p re-D h arw arian sed im en taries) w ere buckled,
m arg in s o f the p e n in su la ; (from lo w er to upper) folded and m etam o rp h o sed sev eral tim e s and thus
arg illaceo u s sed im en taries, san d sto n e - lim esto n es, basal g ran ites and g n eisses o f P en in su la r In d ia were
clays, m arl and calcareo u s ro ck s in K utch area; form ed. T h ere w as in tru sio n o f m a g m a in these
lim estones o f E o ce n e p erio d in B ik an er, Jo d h p u r ro ck s at certain lo calities, th e e v id en ces o f w hich are
and Jaisalm er o f R ajasth an ; fo ssilife ro u s d ep o sits still o b serv ab le in the form o f c h a m o c k ite s o f N ilgiri,
from E ocene to P liocene periods on entire C orom ondal P alni and S h ev ro y . It is su rm ised th a t five ancient
coast; lim esto n es h av in g fo ssils o f m o llu scs, co rals, g e o sy n c lin e s m ig h t h av e e x isted b efo re Cambrian
fo ram in ifera etc. on M a la b a r c o a s t etc. p erio d e.g . Dharwar geosyncline (w h ich extended
T h e P lio c e n e d e p o s its in c lu d e P lio c e n e fro m p re se n t D h a rw a r to M y so re ), Eastern Ghat
laterites, u p p er C u d d a lo re sa n d sto n es, san d d u n e s o f g e o sy n c lin e , S a tp u ra g e o sy n clin e, A ravalli
R ajp u tan a, lo ess, ra ise d b e a c h e s on se a c o a sts, geosyncline, an d Delhi geosyncline.
P o rb an d ar san d sto n es, g rav els o f p re -P a la e o lith ic (2) Dharwar Landscape Cycle - T he D harw ar
age, low -level la terites, o ld e r a llu v ia o f N a rm a d a e ro sio n c y c le b e g a n w ith th e fo rm atio n o f initial
and G odavari v alley s etc. m o u n ta in s o u t o f th e a fo re sa id g eo sy n clin es. T hese
m ountains are su p p o sed to have been peneplained o f a few stream s becam e truncated because these
by the d y n am ic w h eels o f fluvial erosion before could not be covered w ith advancing ice sheets.
Cam brian period, though according to Heron Aravallis T alchir basin is supposed to be in lim nological stage,
are co n sid ere d to be p en ep lain ed by M esozoic era. as a result o f w hich boulders w ere deposited upto the
The activ ities o f ero sio n , sedim entation and m ag- depth o f 15 to 30 m (50 - 100 ft). In fact, lakes w ere
m atie in tru sio n s and lav a flow s co n tin u ed for longer form ed due to initial m oraines w hich (lakes) enabled
period o f tim e. N u m ero u s lo n g itudinal consequent deposition o f boulders at a later date, the lim nological
and som e tra n sv e rse stream s w ere form ed with stage o f T alchir basin w as term inated because o f on
A rach aean fo ld in g . E v id e n c e s o f sed im en tatio n set o f w arm condition w hich facilitated the deposi
(Dhanjori conglom erates) and igneous activity (Dalma tion o f rocks, rich in iron content. R aniganj and
and D h an jo ri la v a flo w s) h av e been found in these Panchet ranges are the result o f such form ation. The
valleys. A rc h a e a n la v a flo w s played sig n ifican t role H ercynian m ovem ent caused tearin g o f p eninsular
in co n tro llin g the la n d sc a p e d ev elo p m en t right from gneissic surface w hich resulted in the form ation o f
M adhya P rad esh , th ro u g h C h o tan ag p u r to M edinipur several tectonic troughs. Such activ ities w ere m ore
o f W est B e n g a l an d u n in teg rate d d rainage system frequent in the basins o f the M ahanadi, the D am o d ar
w as ev o lv ed . and the G odavari rivers w herein sin king valleys
(5) C a m b r i a n L a n d s c a p e C y cle w as initi allow ed sedim entation upto th o u san d s o f feet in
ated w ith th e a b la tio n and o b literatio n o f ice sheets thickness. It may be m entioned th at the process o f
from V in d h y a n ran g es, w h ich co n tin u ed for longer sedim entation in these valleys was accom plished by
p erio d o f tim e c o v e rin g V in d h y an form ations resu lt ‘melt-water stream s’ (due to deglaciation o f ice sheets).
ing in s u b sta n tia l ch a n g e s in reliefs and drainage. (7) G o n d w a n a L a n d s c a p e C y cle - T he C a r
A ra v a llis w e re lo w e re d in h eig h t due to intensive boniferous glaciated surface is sep arated fro m su b
d e n u d a tio n b u t th e A ra v a llis co u ld be peneplained s e q u e n t G o n d w a n a s e d im e n ta r ie s b y a n
only by th e en d o f Ju ra ssic p erio d and beginning of u n c o n fo rm ity . G o ndw ana sed im en ts are still p re
C re ta c e o u s p e rio d . T h o u g h there w as significant served in tectonic basins, tho u g h th ese h av e been
reduction in reliefs o f P eninsular In d iad u e to Cam brian greatly m odified. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at R ajm ah al
cy cle o f e ro s io n , b u t still reco g n isib le reliefs could basalt (due to lava flow ) w as also fo rm ed d u rin g th e
be p re s e rv e d . phase o f G ondw ana sed im entation. T h e p en in su la
w as peneplained by the end o f M eso zo ic e ra i.e. by
(6) C arboniferous Glaciation and Land
early C retaceous period. T he areas n ot affected by
scape - T h e e n tire G o n d w a n alan d (including S.
intensive d enudation w ere ch ara cterized by the fo r
A m e ric a , A n ta rc tic a , A frica, M alag asi, P en in su lar
m a tio n 'o f d ep o sitio n al lan d fo rm s (a g g rad atio n al
In d ia , a n d A u s tra lia ) w as ex ten siv ely g laciated d u r
landform s). It is in terestin g to n ote th a t th e g en era l
in g C a rb o n ife ro u s p erio d . T h o u g h ev id en ces o f C ar
slope o f P en in su lar In d ia w as d ire c te d n o rth w ard
b o n ife ro u s g la c ia tio n h av e been m o stly destro y ed
during G o n d w an a cy cle o f ero sio n b u t la te r on this
d u e to u p liftm e n t a n d su b se q u e n t d en u d atio n , yet
slope axis c h an g ed d ue to tiltin g . T h o u g h most of the
so m e s c a tte re d re lic s o f th is g laciatio n en ab le us to
G o n d w an a ero sio n su rfaces h av e b een d e stro y e d
s u p p o se th a t th e ax is o f th e g la ciatio n m ig h t have
due to su b seq u en t ero sio n b u t th e ir trac es are still
b een o v e r A ra v a llis fro m w h ere the ice sh eets m ig h t
fo u n d in T a m il N a d u , M a d h y a P r a d e s h and
h av e sp re a d in e a ste rn an d so u th -easte rn d irectio n s
M ah arash tra. R .P. S in g h h as o p in e d th a t relics of
alo n g th e ax is o f A ra v a lli - H azarib ag h ranges.
G o n d w an a su rface m ay also be fo u n d on Aravallis
S u ffic ie n t e v id e n c e s h av e b een fo u n d to d e m o n
strate th e e x te n t o f C a rb o n ife ro u s g laciatio n from and V in d h y an ran g es.
R ajm ah al to G o d a v a ri an d fro m R an ig an j to N agpur. (8) Fragm entation o f Gondwanaland and
T h e re w e re flu c tu a tio n s in C a rb o n ife ro u s sea-lev els Post-Gondwana Landscape Cycle - G o n d w a n alan d
d u e to a d v a n c e m e n t an d re tre a t o f ice sh eets w h ich w as frag m e n ted in m id -M e so z o ic e ra an d P e n in su la r
re su lte d in tm sg re ssio n o f sea on land. T h e p rev io u s In d ia w as ta g g ed w ith A sia. T h e m a rg in a l tra c ts o f
cy cle o f e ro sio n w as te rm in ated b ecau se o f sp read o f th e p e n in su la w ere tra n sg re sse d by s e a se v e ra l tim e s
ice sh eets on e x istin g to p o g rap h y . T h e lo w er reach es resu ltin g in th e fo rm a tio n o f h o riz o n ta l s tru c tu re o f
g eom orphology
k r a c t a fo rm a tio n - K utch received m arine sedim ents.
o f extensive area betw een A frica and Indian penin
N e w la n d fo rm s w e re a d d e d d u e to e ro sio n o f su la and su b seq u en t evolution o f the A rabian Sea
G ondw ana cy cle d u rin g p o st-G o n d w a n a cy cle in W estern G hats determ i ne the drainage axis of present
eariy C retaceo u s p erio d . It is b eliev ed th a t this cycle d rain ag e system b u t the N arm ada and the Tapi rivers
o f erosion w as co m p leted , the ev id en ces o f w hich are not conform al to this drainage axis as they flow
are still p reserv ed in th e form o f be v elled su rfaces o f w estw ard. In fact, these rivers flow through rift
U d agam andlam (O O ty ) and C o rd m u m ran g es, high valleys w hich have been form ed due to side effects
sum m its o f the E a ste rn G h ats, relics in M ah arash tra o f the H im alayan orogeny. V indhyan and Kaimur
and M ad h y a P ra d e sh an d h ig h lan d s o f V in d h y an ranges to the north o f the N arm ada - Son troughs,
ranges. S atpura and M ahadeo ranges to the south o f the
(9) C r e ta c e o u s - E o c e n e L a v a F lo w - T here N arm ad a valley, and A janta ranges to the south of
w as lav a flo w in the n o rth - e aste rn sectio n o f the Tapi valley are in the form o f scarps. U pw arping at
P en in su la i.e. in R a jm a h a l are a d u rin g C retaceo u s a later date in n orth-south direction caused breaks in
period co v e rin g an a re a o f 3 ,9 6 ,9 1 7 k m 2 and pre- long profiles o f the N arm ada, the Tapi and the
e x istin g to p o g ra p h ic featu res w ere ex ten siv ely m o d i G odavri rivers. T he evidences o f breaks in the long
fied as the p re v io u s to p o g ra p h y w as b u ried un d er profiles o f rivers caused by tilting o f Indian penin
la v a sh eets. T h ere w as fu rth e r ex ten siv e lav a flow sula are presently found in the form o f nick points
d u rin g E o ce n e p e rio d w h ich co v ere d the denuded (w ater falls). In fact, som e o f the rivers o f the
A rch aean , V in d h y a n an d L e m e ta surfaces. T hus, peninsula w ere reju v en ated due to T ertiary uplifts,
D eccan la v a flo w c o v e re d an area o f 5 ,1 8 ,0 0 0 km 2 tilting an d 'w arp in g w hich is evid en ced by the p res
extending from K ath ia w a rto N ag p u r and from M alw a ence o f m ulti-level plateaus, h ighlands, nick points
to D h arw ar. T h is la v a fo rm a tio n is called as D eccan follow ed by w aterfalls and gorges. T he presen ce o f
trap w h ich w as s u b je c te d to sev ere w eath e rin g and r a is e d b e a c h e s (30 m - 45 m ) validates negative
ero sio n al p ro c e sse s fo r fairly a lo n g p erio d u nder change in sea-level (fall in b ase level o f erosion) and
m o n so o n clim a tic c o n d itio n s. T h e b asaltic lava w as co nsequent reju v en atio n o f stream s.
e x ten siv ely w e a th e re d to fo rm la terites, the w ell Such to p o g rap h ic feature is considered to be
d ev elo p ed p ro files o f w h ich are o b serv ab le over the resu lt o f cenozoic erosion cycle w hich is charac
C h o ta n a g p u r an d M a h a b a le sh w a r p lateau s. T he p ro terized by acco rd an t sum m it levels. M y so re p lateau,
lo n g e d d en u d a tio n o f b a sa ltic su rface by fluvial N ilgiri, C o rdm um -A nnam alai ran g es are w ithout
p rocess re su lte d into th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f hills, ridges, d o ubt the ex am p les o f C en o zo ic p e n ep lain s which
valleys, p la in s etc. A few o f th e se hills are still are ch aracterized by relict d en u d ed h ills re p re se n t
o bserved. It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t th e se hill ranges ing D avisian m o nadnocks. T h e h ig h - le v el surfaces
h av e b een fo rm e d b e c a u se o f d e n u d a tio n an d n ot due o f K hondalite and ch am okite rocks in A n d h ra Pradesh
to fo ld in g and u p liftm e n t. In th e reg io n o f V in d h y an and O rissa rep resen t highest erosion surface. The
fo rm atio n s b a sa ltic c o v e r h as b een rem o v e d d ue to gn eissic su rface o f B astar ran g e (6 1 0 m — 9 1 5 m )
denudation at certain p laces an d h en ce o ld er V indhyan rep resen ts second erosion surface while dissected
topographic features h av e b een u n covered. T h e scarps dom es o f K eonjhar, M ay u rb h an j a n d Sundargarh .
o f b asaltic p la te a u a re still u n d e rg o in g the p ro cess o f districts (610 m ) o f O rissa re p re se n t t h i r d e ro s io n
p arallel re tre a t d u e to b a c k w a stin g . W h e re v e r the surface.
p arallel re tre a t is o v e r a n d th e la te ritic c o v e r has E x ten siv e w arp in g o c c u rre d d u rin g Q u ater
been rem o v ed , th e h ills h a v e b een m o d ifie d to c o n i nary p erio d w h ich re ju v e n a te d m o s t o f th e rivers
cal shape h a v in g a lm o s t c o n v e x o -c o n c a v e slo p e resulting in the d ev elo p m en t o f n u m e ro u s nick points,
p lan. S uch h ills p re se n tly c o n s titu te sig n ific a n t la n d w aterfalls and g o rg es in th e ir lo n g itu d in a l profiles.
scape c o m p o n en ts o f P e n in s u la r In d ia. T h e reju v e n atio n in itia ted v alley d eep e n in g and
(10) Cenozoic Landscape Cycle - T h e to p o h ead w ard ero sio n . S ig n ific a n t re su lta n t w aterfalls
graphic reliefs o f P e n in s u la r In d ia w ere p e n e p la in e d in clu d e S iv a sa m u n d ra m falls (3 0 0 ft o r 91 m ), G oka
beforeT ertiary epoch. T h e w estern m argins o f W estern falls (1 8 0 feet o r 55 m ), G y rso p p a fa lls (8 5 0 feet or
G hats o f In d ia c a m e in to e x iste n c e d u e to su b sid e n c e 2 5 9 m ), D h u n w a d h a r fa lls (3 0 ft o r 9 .1 4 m ) etc.
DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, EROSION SURFACES AND
PENEPLAINS 321
Xhere w as la rg e -sc ale ch an g es and m odifications in
surface and other older rocks due to transgression o f
« a ,n f SyStem' K ham bat (C om bay - sea during Pleistocene period. G ujarat experienced
A hm edabad-S on traces o f tran sg ressio n al phase o f recent upliftm ent w hile em ergence o f land occurred
sea are fo u n d o n th e m o st severely denuded surfaces
in K ham bat (C om bay) area. The present coastal
(,.e. C u d d ap ah and V m d h y an Seas). C u d dapah sea is
tracts are characterized by raised beaches, sand
supposed to h a v e e x ten d ed up to N ilgiri hills and
dunes, lagoons and alluvial deposits.
over certain parts o f M ad h y a P radesh. T h e interven
ing areas b e tw e e n V in d h y an and C u d d ap ah seas are 17.5 DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY AND ERO
devoid o f m a rin e fo ssils. T h e V in d h y an sea m ight SION SURFACES OF BELAN BASIN
have e x ten d ed fro m A rav allis in the w est to Sasaram The present description o f denudation chro
in B ihar in th e east. T h e N arm ad a and Son valleys nology and erosion surfaces o f the Belan basin
are su p p o se d to h a v e b een co v ered by B izaw ar sea representing V indhyan form ation o f sedim entaries
but this m ig h t h av e b een o b literated before C uddapah and Q uaternary sedim entation is reproduced from
sed im en tatio n . V in d h y a n sea w as further extended the research paper entitled, ‘G eom orphological evo
due to su b sid e n c e o f su rface to the north-w est o f lution and erosion surfaces o f the B elan b asin ’ pub
B u n d elk h an d fa c ilita tin g d ep o sitio n o fG w allio rsy s- lished by S avindra Singh, and R enu Srivastava,
tem as o b s e rv e d by O ld h am . 1976 (N ational G eographical Journal o f India, V ol.
22, Nos. 3-4, pp. 124-138).
(3) C u d d a p a h - V in d h y a n L a n d s c a p e C y
cle w as in itia te d w ith the u p liftm en t o f C uddapah Physiographic Personality
and V in d h y a n fo rm a tio n s. S tream s com ing out o f The Belan basin, occupying a synclinal trough
the W e ste rn G h a ts an d so u th ern slopes o f Satpuras pro b ab ly o f u p p er V in d h y an age b etw ee n th e
started to d u m p se d im e n ts, b ro u g h t dow n by them , V indhyan scarps o f the northern bank o f the S on
into C u d d a p a h S ea. S im ilarly , the stream s taking river (K aim ur range) in the south and w ater divide o f
th eir s o u rc e s fro m th e A rav allis and northern slopes the G angetic tributaries and northern offshoots o f its
o f S atp u ras b eg an to d ep o sit sedim ents into V indhyan own in the north (24° 35' N — 25°2' 30" N and 8 1°45'
Sea. T h u s , th e re e x iste d th ree d rain ag e axes o f E — 83°15' E) is bordered by C ho tan ag pur p lateau in
A ra c h a e a n d ra in a g e viz. W estern G hat drainage the S.E. and the Tons valley in the w est. T he basal
axis, S a tp u ra d ra in a g e ax is and A ravalli drainage rocks are sandstones and shales o f K aim ur, R ew a
a x is . N u m e r o u s c o n s e q u e n t, s u b s e q u e n t and and B hander series o f upper V indhyans. O verlying
o b s e q u e n t s tre a m s d ev elo p ed w ith the origin o f Q uaternary deposits include (from lo w er to upper)
V in d h y a n ra n g e s. T h e ev o lu tio n o f this new d rain gravel - m ottled clay form ation, red -b row n gravel-
age sy ste m re s u lte d in the read ju stm en t o f existing sand form ation, yellow silt form ation, caliche fo r
A ra v a lli a n d S a tp u ra d rain a g e system s. m ation, buried soil layer, aeolian sand fo rm atio n ,
and m odern soil horizon.
(4 ) V in d h y a n G la c ia tio n - T he ex isten ce of
b o u ld e r b ed o f th e Son v alley, tillites o f the Ken The p resen t relief features o f the entire B elan
V a lle y , P a n d a v a falls and ‘fluvial c o n tin e n ta l d e basin resem ble the usual lan d scap e o f the hilly tract
p o s its ’' o f S em ri se rie s v alid ates the co ro llary o f and are m arked w ith subdued relief. T he southern
g la c ia tio n o f the V in d h y an ran g es. It is supposed part is ch aracterized by V in d h y an scarpland o v er
th a t th e u p p e r p a rts o f V in d h y an ran g es m ight have looking the Son valley in the south, acting as an
been co v e re d w ith g la ciers and hen ce the sources o f effective w ater divide b etw een the B elan and the
stream s m ig h t h av e been o b literated . It is fu rth er Son system s. It is a strik in g featu re th at no tributary
b eliev ed th at the su rro u n d in g areas o f these glaciers ex cep t G h ag h ar and seasonal to rren ts descen d the
m ig h t h av e been c h a ra c te riz e d by p erig lacial p ro c scarp to m eet the Son fro m the so u th b u t th e B elan
esses. B u t the tru n ca ted stream s (as th e ir sources receiv es a n u m b er o f trib u taries from the northern
w ere co v ere d w ith ice) m ig h t have b ecom e su ccess face o f the scarp. In the ex trem e so u th -eastern p art o f
ful in m a in tain in g th e ir m id d le and lo w er co u rses. the basin, B ijaig a rh h ig h lan d s h av in g en tren ch ed
G laciers w ere soon ab lated , region receiv ed m arine v alleys h av e rare sim ilarity w ith th e g eneral re lie f o f
d ep o sit o v er its g n eissic p en ep lain su rface, lava the basin. Jag g ed b etw een V in d h y an scarps (Kaimur
322
GEOMORPHOLOGY
h ills) in th e so u th and M irzap u r hills in the north the w est direction. T his faulting w as responsible for
B elan riv e r has c u t steep banks rising to co n sid er northw ard shifting o f the Son valley and also the
ab le h eig h ts w hich in som e cases ex ten d upto 18 tilting o f the northern b lock to the north which is
m “ 2 0 m . T he h ills b o rd erin g the basin are plateau proved from the fact that, ‘the V indhyan sandstones
- like at th e ir c rests and slo p es h av e been carved out w hich are exposed in the Son gorge above 1000 ft
in a series o f step s g u id ed by p ro m in en t jo in t planes (305 m) from sea-level rising upto 1500 ft. (457 m )
in th e ro c k fo rm atio n . T h e B elan riv er and its trib u are seen betw een 750— 1000 ft (229— 305m ) in the
taries h av e fo rm ed rec ta n g u la r drain ag e pattern B elan valley and buried below the G anga alluvium
w h erein m o s t o f the stream s jo in the B elan river at w ith exposures along the river, one o f w hich forms
a p p ro x im a te ly rig h t an g le guided by the jo in ts o f the base o f C h u n ar F o rt’ (R.L. Singh, 1974).
ro ck s. T h e A d w a riv er, a trib u tary stream o f the
A series o f rapids, deep pools, variation in the
B elan riv er, cu ts th ro u g h an alm o st peneplained
attitudes o f rock-beds, deflections in the rivercourses
v alley w ith s lig h t u n d u latio n . O ccasionally sm all
at certain places are the clear cut testim ony o f a
ro u n d e d to e llip so id a l m o u n d s p rom inently stand to series o f faults w hich occurred during T ertiary pe
fo rm th e p en e p la in e d terrain , alth o u g h to the w est of riod. The displacem ent o f flaggy beds in the rock
th e A d w a v alley h ig h m esas and buttes carved out of sequence and the presence o f conchoidal fracture
th e R e w a series o f the U p p er V indhyan form ations, clearly indicate that the region m ight have been
fo rm c o n sp ic u o u s lan d m ark topography o f the area. displaced along the fault plane.
T h e B e la n -S e o ti lo cality is also ch aracterized by the
As regards the erosional history o f the B elan
p re se n c e o f sev eral m esas and buttes representing
basin and environs, the upper V indhyan rocks w ere
th e re lic s o f ero sio n surfaces. N um erous falls are
exposed to continuous processes o f w eathering and
lo c a te d on the B elan and its trib u taries w hich have
erosion but the region could not attain its m aturity
b een o rig in a te d by freq u en t faulting by tectonic
until C retaceous period w hich is indicated by K aim ur
im p u lses.
erosion surface (R. S. D ubey, 1968) in the southern
D en u d ation C h ro n o lo g y part o f the basin. ‘The problem w hy the V indhyans
T h e g eo lo g ical histo ry o f the basin begins w ere not peneplained even after a long period from
w ith the sed im en tatio n o f V in d h y a n S ea during C am brian to C retaceous could be ex p lained by as
A lg o n ik a n era, w hen u p p er V in d h y an sandstones sum ing the possibility o f the V in d h y an rocks being
and sh ales w ere d ep o sited . I f the filling o f V indhyan protected by the cover o f ice fo r som e tim e ’ (R. S.
se a -p a rt o f the B elan basin is taken to be com plete D ubey, 1964). F o llo w in g D .N . W ad ia (1 9 6 1 ) tw o
u pto P erm ian p erio d , the reg io n m ust have ex p eri glacial periods in the past, one d u rin g the upper
en ce d sev eral tecto n ic and g rad atio n al processes C arboniferous and other d u rin g B u n ter age o f the
w h ich re su lte d into th e ev o lu tio n o f p resen t to p o g ra low er T riassic p eriod m ig h t h av e acted as co v erin g
p h y o f th e basin. ‘W h a tso e v e r m ig h t h ave been the sheets o f the V in d h y an rocks.
g e o g ra p h y o f the a re a d u rin g its stag e o f in itiation, T he P an n a su rface o f R .S . D u bey (1 9 6 8 ) in
th e p re s e n t su rface m o rp h o lo g y w ith resp ect to d rain R ew a P lateau is scanty in the B elan b asin o w in g to
ag e, slo p e, re lie f etc. b ears a d eq u a te rela tio n sh ip the fact th at E o cen e p erio d m ig h t h av e not been
w ith th e re g io n a l an d lo cal fau lts, w hich are n u m e r m uch activ e in raisin g the reg io n u p to required
o u s in the r e g io n ’ (R . L. S in g h , 1974). B efo re the h eight. T h e T ertiary grits an d g rav els o f M iocene
in itia tio n o f fa u ltin g in th e B elan basin in p articu la r p erio d are sep arated by u n co n fo rm ity from the U p
a n d e a ste rn V in d h y a n u p la n d in g e n e ra l, tw o m ain p er V in d h y an b ed ro ck s. L a te r T ertiary earth m o v e
a ltitu d in a l zo n e s, as o b se rv e d by R .L . S in g h , m ig h t m en t d u rin g p o st-P lio c e n e p erio d w as responsible
h a v e e x is te d viz. (i) v a lle y o f th e S on so m e w h e re at fo r slig h t u p h eav a l w h ich resu lted in to th e form ation
th e e le v a tio n o f 1000 ft (3 0 5 m ) ab o v e se a -le v e l and o f R ew a ero sio n su rface in the w estern part o f the
b asin . T h e n o rth w a rd tilt o f th e so u th ern upland
(ii) h ig h la n d s o n b o th th e b a n k s o f the S o n risin g to
so u th o f th e B elan b asin d u e to T e rtia ry te cto n ic s and
a b o u t 2 5 0 0 ft (7 6 2 m ) a b o v e se a -le v e l. T h e reg io n
a su b se q u e n t sy n c lin e fo rm atio n resu lted into the
s o u th o f th e B e la n b a s in se e m s to h av e e x p e rie n c e d
g rad in g o f th e B elan riv e r an d attain in g its present
tw o e p is o d e s o f re v e rs e fa u ltin g ru n n in g in east-
d e n u d a t io n c h r o n o l o g y , e r o s io n s u r f a c e s a n d p e n e p l a in s
m ature sta g e . T h e c o n tin u o u s d en u d atio n al p ro c dissectio n and the rem o v al o f g rav el-m ottled clay
esses d u rin g Q u a te rn a ry e p o c h u ltim a tely form ed form ation m ak in g un co n fo rm ity betw een V indhyan
tra n s -Y a m u n a -G a n g a su rfa c e at the lo w est level. form ation below and red-gravel-sand form ation above.
T h e s tra tig ra p h y o f Q u a te rn a ry allu v ial d e A partial o x idation intro d u ced speckling in clay
posits o v e r V in d h y a n b e d -ro c k s help s in re c o n form ation.
stru c tin g th e c o m p le te c h ro n o lo g y o f the clim atic T h e aeolian p h ase m ark ed by relativ e aridity
events. T h e la te n tic cru sts ly ing o v er U pper V indhyans w as again resto red and red g rav el-san d s w ere depos
are s u g g e s tiv e o f h u m id w arm tro p ical clim ate re ited o v er w hich d ev elo p ed g u llies an d arroys a t later
lated to u p p e r P le is to c e n e in te rg la c ia l p erio d w hich date d u rin g hum id p h ase related to post-glacial p e
w as fo llo w e d b y an e p is o d e o f c o ld g lacial clim ate riod. T he w avy natu re o f b o u n d ary betw een red-
rela ted to la te s t P le is to c e n e g la c ia l p erio d d u rin g gravel-sand form ation and subsequent deposits clearly
w hich g ra v e l-m o ttle d c la y w a s fo rm e d o v e r lateritic indicates a hum id perio d o f p ro n o u n ced and net
cru st an d s o m e w h e r e o v e r V in d h y a n fo rm atio n s erosion and p ro lo n g ed p h ase o f w eath e rin g w hen the
d ire c tly . T h e c o ld c lim a tic p h a se is also su p p o rted process o f ‘ru b ificatio n ’ w as in p rogress (H .L. M ovius
by th e re c o rd s o f fa c e tte d , g ro o v e d and straited Jr. cited by K irk B ry an and C .A . A lb ritto n Jr., 1943).
g rav els, c o b b le s a n d b o u ld e rs fro m the e x ca v atio n in T his hum id phase co u ld n o t last lo n g and w as su b se
the B e la n v a lle y a b o u t 32 k m S .S .W . o f M irz a p u rb y quently ch an g ed to p ro n o u n ced arid c lim atic p h ase
K ris h n a s w a m i a n d H u k k u . T h e c o ld clim atic phase again d u rin g w hich a th ick e n v elo p e o f lo e ssic d e
later on c h a n g e d in to in c re a s e d a rid ity w ith the resu lt p o sit co v ered alm o st all th e e a rlie r d ep o sits. T h e
la rg e -sc a le tra n s p o r ta tio n o f b ig b o u ld e rs and c o b reap p earan ce o f rela tiv e h u m id ity ag ain w as re sp o n
sible for so lu tio n and p ittin g o f th e u p p e r h o rizo n o f
bles w a s s to p p e d a n d th e y w e re d e p o site d in situ.
the calich e fo rm atio n . T h is h u m id p h ase w as te m
A f te r th e e x p iry o f c o ld p h a se and c o n se q u e n t po rarily in terv en ed by a sh o rte r p e rio d o f arid p h a se
a rid ity , r e la tiv e h u m id ity in c re a s e d re su ltin g into w hen n u m ero u s lo essic m o u n d s w ere fo rm ed . T h e
p ro n o u n c e d ra in fa ll w h ic h a c c e le ra te d la rg e -sc ale p resen t day clim ate, still e x p e rie n c e s d ry sp e ll b u t
tra n s p o rta tio n o f la rg e - s iz e d b o u ld e rs an d p eb b les th e ru n o ff is su fficie n t fo r g u lly in g an d a rro y in g th e
an d c o n s e q u e n t d e c r e a s e in th e g ra in -siz e d u rin g p resen t d ay su rfaces. T h e d e n u d a tio n ch ro n o lo g y o f
tra n s p o rta tio n . T h is h u m id c lim a te a c c elera ted the th e B elan b asin m ay b e p re se n te d in ta b u la r fo rm as
d y n a m ic w h e e ls o f e ro s io n re s u ltin g in to in ten se fo llo w s—
F ro m Y o u n g est to the O ld est

C lim a te G e o lo g ic a l E r o sio n S u rfa ces
E r a s /E p o c h P e r io d
E v e n ts
P resen t day soils T ra n s-Y a m u n a -G a n g a
P re se n t d ay m o n so o n
Q u a te rn a ry R ecent
c lim ate, rela tiv e ly , S u rface
h u m id
(a) re la tiv e ly arid airb o rn e san d d ep o sits;
H o lo c e n e
(b ) re la tiv e ly h u m id b u ried soil lay er,
so lu tio n an d p ittin g o f
c alich e d e p o s it s ;
(c) H o t an d arid F o rm a tio n o f p e d o c a lic
c lim a te p a la e o so l, d e p o sitio n o f
lo e ssic sed im e n ts;
P o s t-g la c ia l R e la tiv e ly h u m id T re n c h in g a n d e ro sio n o f

re d -b ro w n -g ra v e l-m o ttle d
c la y , d e e p w e a th e rin g an d
ru b ific a tio n .
L ate glacial, R elatively hum id T renching and erosion o f —
interglacial boulder m ottled-clay
period form ation. .
L atest C old glacial, arid D eposition o f boTildej- —
P leistocene m ottled clay, fro st action
glacial period etc.
U p p er W arm tropical F orm ation o f lateritic —
P leisto cen e hum id crusts over V indhyan
in terg lacial bed-rocks
R ew a E rosion Surface
T ertiary P lio cen e — H igh-level laterite —
M io cen e — T ertiary grits and gravels P an n a S urface (rare in
B elan basin)
O lig o cen e — F aulting, m iddle T ertiary —
earth m ovem ents, fau ltin g .
E o cen e — F aulting, low er T ertiary —
earth m ovem ents
M e so z o ic C retaceo u s — K aim ur E rosion
(S e c o n d a ry S u rface
P a la e o z o ic C arb o n ifero u s C o ld C overing o f ice sheets
(P rim a ry ) X X X
U N C O N F O R M IT Y
A lg o n ik a n P u ran a — U pper V indhyan form ation
(1) K aim ur series
(2) R ew a series
(3) B hander series
Erosion Surfaces o f R ew a plateau at 60 0 to 7 0 0 m (R .S D u b ey , 1968)

T h e d e ta ile d g e o lo g ic a l stru ctu re , tecto n ic and 4 5 0 -5 0 0 m su rface in th e B ija ig a rh p la teau ,
a n d d e n u d a tio n a l h isto ry o f th e B elan b asin su g g est K aim ur hills and southern up lan d o f eastern V in d h y an
so m e d is tin c t e ro sio n su rfa c e s b u t m o re o r less they u p lan d (R .L . S in g h 1974) an d it can b e c o rre la te d
d o n o t a p p e a r to be re p re se n ta tiv e s o f co m p lete w ith th e 1000-m su rface o f C h o ta n a g p u r p la te a u in
cy c le s b u t th e y o w e th e ir e x iste n c e to in terru p tio n s th e east (J.A . D u n n , 1938). T h is su rfa c e b elo n g in g
in the cy cles. S o m e o f th e m o rp h o m e tric a ttrib u tes p ro b ab ly to C re ta c e o u s p erio d is fo u n d o v e r K aim u r
h ills o v erlo o k in g S on v alley .
viz. slo p e, re la tiv e re lie fs, a ltim e tric fre q u e n c y h is
to g ram s a n d c u rv e s (fig. 17.2) an d s u p e rim p o se d
(2) Panna s u r f a c e is n o t fu lly re p re se n te d
th e B elan b asin e x c e p t th e e x iste n c e o f so m e patch es
p ro file s (fig. 17.3) h e lp in re c o g n iz in g e ro sio n su r
o v e r V in d h y a n sc arp la n d an d re sid u a ls o v e r R ew a
faces. G re a te r in c id e n c e o f fre q u e n c y at 5 0 0 ft (1 5 0
su rface. In th e e x tre m e so u th -w e ste rn p a rt an d ad
m ), 800 ft (2 4 0 m ) a n d 1 3 5 0 -1 4 0 0 ft (4 2 0 m ) h eig h t-
jo in in g e a ste rn p ro je c tio n o f R e w a p la teau , P an n a
g ro u p s (fig . 17.2) a n d p a ra lle lis m o f s u m m it p eak s
su rfa c e is lo c a te d at th e e le v a tio n o f 1000 ft (3 0 5 m ).
d isp la y e d by su p e rim p o se d p ro file s (fig . 17.3) in d i
T h e sam e su rfa c e is fre q u e n tly fo u n d o v e r R ew a
c a te th e e x iste n c e o f fo u r e ro s io n su rfa c e s. A ll o f
p la te a u at th e e le v a tio n o f 4 0 0 -5 0 0 m . S o m e so rt of
th e se fo u r s u rfa c e s h a v e a lre a d y b een id e n tifie d by T e rtia ry u p h e a v a ls in th e m id d le M io c e n e p erio d
R .S . D u b e y (1968) m R e w a p la te a u . m u st h a v e in te rru p te d th e O lig o c e n e - M io cen e
(1) Kaimur surface a t th e e le v a tio n o f 1350- cy c le p ro d u c in g a M io c e n e su rfa c e in th e fo rm o f
1400 f t (420 m ) is re p re s e n ta tiv e o f B h a n d e r s u rfa c e P a n n a su rface.
DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY. EROSION SURFACES AND
PENEPLAINS
(3) Rewa surface at the elevation o f 800 ft
The basal rocks o f Ranchi plateau belong to
(240 m ) m th e B elan basin has its co u n terp art in the
D harw arian ancient sedim entaries which have been
Rewa p la teau at 3 0 0 -3 5 0 m. T his su rface is fre
intruded by granitic batholiths. T hese rocks were
quently fo und in the B elan basin. T he post-P liocene
further m etam orphosed by orogenetic movements.
uph e a v al m a y be h e ld r e s p o n s ib le fo r the e v o lu tio n
Rewa su rface. G ranites and greisses are the main lithological ele
ments o f Ranchi plateau and in m ajority of cases
(4) Trans-Yam una-G anga surface (150 m) they project above the peneplain surface like mounds *
^ Q
benC° ^ re la te 5 wuilh ^ e T r a n s - Y a m u n a surface and dom es. Ranchi plateau has been affected by
o f R.S. D u b e y , w h i c h m ig h t h a v e b e e n fo rm e d by the several phases o f earth movements (mainly orogenetic)
d e s tru c tio n o f th e n o r th e r n p a r t o f the R e w a surface o f different ages and m agnitudes. Tertiary period
d u rin g P l e i s t o c e n e a n d re c e n t p e rio d . T h e surface is registered successive upliftm ents i.e. the upliftm ent
w id e ly lo c a t e d in th e w e s te r n a n d ce n tral p art o f the of the western Ranchi plateau by 305 m in early
basin. T ertiary, second upliftm ent of 305 m between m id
dle and late T ertiary and third upliftm ent o f 91.44 m.
17.6 DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY AND ERO
SION SU RFACES OF RANCHI PLATEAU Denudation Chronology
T h e R a n c h i p la teau , sp read ov er Ranchi d is The geom orphological history of the Ranchi
trict and e n v iro n s , is a sig n ifican t physiographic plateau is very much com plicated as several chap
c o n stitu en t o f th e C h o ta n a g p u r H iglands and con ters of upliftm ents, intrusion and effusion o f lavas,
sists o f fiv e d is tin c t p h y sio g rap h ic units viz. (i) interruptions o f fluvial cycles, clim atic changes etc.
w estern h ig h la n d s o r P a t reg io n , (ii) central Ranchi have introduced com plexity in the present fandform
plateau, (iii) so u th e rn d issected low er plateau, (iv) com ponents o f the region. The earliest chapter o f the
eastern lo w e r p la te a u , an d (v ) n orthern escarpm ents. geom orphic story o f the plateau began w ith the
The p re se n t d e s c rip tio n o f d en u d atio n chronology Archaean folding of Dharwarian sedim entaries, which
was follow ed by subaerial cycle o f erosion, w hich
and e ro sio n s u rfa c e s o f the R anchi plateau is being
was further interrupted (at least in the southern part
rep ro d u ced fro m th e research p ap er o f Savindra
o f the plateau) by D aim a lava flow . T hus, pre-D alm a
S ingh (1 9 7 8 b ) e n title d , ‘P h y sio g ra p h ic regions,
landscapes and surface w ere obliterated. T he in ter
la n d fo rm s an d e ro sio n su rfaces o f the Ranchi pla
rupted cycle w ent on sculpturing the pre-D alm a
te a u ’ p u b lish e d in N atio n al G eo g rap h er, Vol. 13,
surface and subsequent basaltic lava o f D alm a flow
No. 1, pp. 4 3 -6 5 . and granite-gneissic form ations o f the plateau.
R a n c h i p la te a u p ro p e r (20° 21' N -23° 43'N
The w hole o f the C h otanagpur region ex p eri
and 8 4 UE -8 5 °5 4 'E ) c o v e rin g the en tire d istrict of
enced glacial phase during upper C arboniferous
R anchi is th e so u th -w e s te rn p art o f the C h o tan ag p u r
period but the relics o f glaciation are not found o ver
p la te a u . It is se p a ra te d from P alam au U pland in the the Ranchi plateau except in the coal fields o f N orth
w est by th e N . K oel riv er, in the north it overlooks and South K arnapura. T his glacial phase m ust have
the rift v a lle y o f the D am o d ar h aving w all-like closed the ch ap ter o f earlier cycle and m ight have
e s c a rp m e n ts fro m w h ich sp u rs ex ten d upto the river obliterated p re-C arb o n ifero u s lan d scap es.T h e w ith
c h a n n e l, in the e a st it is b o u n d ed h a lf w ay by the draw al o f ice sheets m ight have ushered in a new era
S u b a ra n a re k h a v alley and in the south gently d e of fluvial cycle, w hich term ed as P erm ian -T riassic
sc e n d s to th e d is tric t b o u n d ary w h ere d issected low, cycle m ight have reduced the region to a peneplain,
fo re st-c la d sm all p la te a u s are c o n sp ic u o u s features. o f w hich the w estern part w as uplifted upto 305 m,
T h e w estern e sc a rp m e n t (o f P atlan d ) reg isters a upon w hich C reta ceo u s lavas w ere seated. T h e
s te e p rise in th e w est fro m the su rface ol the central T ertiary period reg istered th ree p h ases o f u p lift and
R anchi p e n e p la in su rfa c e and is ch a ra c te riz e d by a hence in terru p tio n s in cycle took place several tim es.
s e rie s o f la te rite -c a p p e d sm all ta b le -la n d s sep arated T h e m arginal areas ot the p lateau ch aracterized by
by d e e p g o rg es. T h e R anchi p lateau has an average w aterfalls, knick p o in ts and breaks in slopes in
e lev atio n o f 1066 m in the w est, 685 m in the central ch an n el g rad ien t and ju v e n ile ch aracters o f the riv
p art an d 305 m in the east and south. ers w h ere they d escen d from the escarp m en ts, tell
326
GEOMORPHOLOGY
th e s to ry o f T e rtia ry u p liftm e n ts a n d c o n s e q u e n t N o d o u b t, th e a ltim e tric fre q u e n c y h isto g ra m s
r e ju v e n a tio n . an d c u rv e s , c lin o g ra p h ic c u rv e s a n d su p e rim p o se d
S in c e T e rtia ry u p liftm e n ts , th e p la te a u h as p ro file s o f R a n c h i p la te a u c le a rly in d ic a te 4 su rfaces
b e e n d o m in a te d b y h o t a n d h u m id c lim a tic c o n d i at the h e ig h t o f (1 ) 1 0 0 0 -1 10 0 m , (2 ) 9 1 5 m , (3 ) 6 1 0
tio n s fa v o u rin g flu v ia l p ro c e s s e s . E v e n th e Q u a te r m , an d (4 ) 3 05 m , b u t in n o c a s e th e se a re e ro sio n
n a ry p e rio d e x p e rie n c e d m in o r c lim a tic c h a n g e s in su rfa c e s.
s e q u e n tia l o rd e r fro m h o t a n d arid c lim a te th ro u g h T h e fla t u p p e r s u rfa c e (1 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 m ) h a v in g
re la tiv e ly h u m id , re la tiv e ly arid , ag ain rela tiv e ly a c c o rd a n t su m m it le v els (m e s a s a n d b u tte s ) o f th e
h u m id to p re s e n t d a y h o t an d h u m id m o n so o n c li W e ste rn H ig h e r P la te a u (P a t re g io n o r Patland) is
m a te w ith m a rk e d w in te r d ry seaso n . T h u s, the th e re s u lt o f h o riz o n ta l d is p o s itio n o f tra p p e a n
p re s e n t g e o m o rp h ic fe a tu re s , in m a jo rity , are the (D e c c a n ) la v a (b a sa ltic lav a, n o w la te ritic b a sa lt)
re s u lt o f in te rp la y b e tw e e n T e rtia ry m o v e m en ts c a u s an d the p resen t su rface w as n e v e r re d u c e d to p en ep lain
in g p ro n o u n c e d u p liftm e n t an d s u b se q u e n t flu v ial stag e, o th e rw ise th e fla t-to p p e d m e s a s m ig h t h av e
a n d lim ite d a rid p ro c e s s e s s u p p le m e n te d w ith p h y s i b een d e n u d ed in to c o n ic a l h ills a n d r id g e s as re p re
c a l a n d c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g an d m a ssm o v e m e n t o f se n ta tiv e s o f m o n a d n o c k sta g e o f la n d s c a p e d e v e l
ro c k w a ste s. o p m e n t. T h e ju n c tio n b e tw e e n g n e is s ic flo o r a n d the
b ase o f la te rite s (9 1 5 m ) h as b e e n e x p o s e d a t sev eral
Erosion Surfaces p la c e s p a rtic u la rly on th e s c a rp fa c e s an d th is ju n c
T h e re c o g n itio n an d id e n tific a tio n o f ero sio n tio n stan d s 305 m ab o v e C e n tra l R a c h i P la te a u (6 1 0
s u rfa c e s is a n o th e r c o m p lic a te d g eo m o rp h o lo g ic a l m ). Thi3 9 1 5 m su rfa c e w as o n c e a p a rt o f th e
p ro b le m . J.A . D u n n (1 9 3 1 ) h as acc ep ted the w estern e x istin g 6 1 0 m su rfa c e o f th e p re s e n t C e n tra l R a n c h i
h ig h e r p la te a u as d iffe re n t p en ep lain . S.P. C h atterjee P la te a u an d th e d iffe re n c e o f e le v a tio n is b e c a u s e o f
(1 9 4 0 ) re c o g n iz e d fo u r ero sio n su rfaces o v e r R an ch i u p liftm e n t o f th e w estern se c tio n o f th e R a n c h i
p la te a u e x c e p tin g the h ig h e r N e ta rh a t p lateau (m esa). p la te a u u p to 305 m. F o llo w in g S .C . C h a tte ije e , it
R .P . S in g h (1 9 6 9 ) ev en a c c e p tin g th ree e ro sio n m ay be fo rw a rd e d th a t th e e a ste rn a n d so u th e rn
s u rfa c e s (e.g. 1. p re -tra p s e ro sio n su rface o f the lo w e r su rfaces at th e h e ig h t o f 30 5 m m ig h t h a v e
W este rn H ig h la n d s at th e h e ig h t o f 915 m , 2. C en tral b een o n ce a p a rt o f m a in su rfa c e o f th e p re s e n t
R an ch i p la te a u su rfa c e at th e h eig h o f 6 1 0 m , an d 3. C en tral R an ch i P la te a u an d la te r on it m ig h t h a v e
lo w e r p la te a u su rfa c e at 305 m ) am en d s h is p ro p o s i b een re d u c e d to p re se n t h e ig h t b e c a u se o f m u c h
tio n as he a ssig n s tw o re a so n s fo r th e d iffe re n c e o f e ro sio n d u e to re la tiv e s o ftn e ss o f th e ro c k s o f th e
h e ig h t b e tw e e n th e g n e iss ic su rfa c e o f th e w estern reg io n .
h ig h la n d s an d c e n tra l p la te a u s u rfa c e s as he m a in
T h u s, it m ay be c o n c lu d e d th a t th e (1 ) 1000-
ta in e d , ‘It s e e m s th a t e ith e r th e p la te a u o f g n eissic
ro c k w as h ig h e r in th e e a st w h ere it w as o v erla in by
1100m surface o f th e W e s te rn H ig h la n d s is s tru c
tu ral in o rig in ; (2 ) 915 m surface o f th e g n e iss ic
la v a -flo w s o r th e d iffe re n c e in th e lev el m a rk s th e
flo o r in th e W e ste rn H ig h la n d s is u p lifte d p e n e p la in ;
e x te n t o f d iffe re n tia l e ro sio n sin ce the d e p o sitio n o f
(3 ) 610 m surface o f the C e n tra l R a n c h i P la te a u is
la v a s — th e re g io n c o v e re d by la v as h av in g b een
tru e ero sio n su rfa c e , an d (4 ) 305 m surface o f the
p ro te c te d by la v a c ap , w h ile th a t to th e ea st w as
e a ste rn an d so u th e rn R a n c h i p la te a u is th e re s u lt o f
e ro d e d d o w n to the b ase le v e l’ (R .P . S in g h , 1969).
d iffe re n tia l e ro sio n . It is o b v io u s th a t th e la st th ree
S .C . C h a tte rje e is so s k e p tic a l a b o u t the n u m b e rs o f
e ro sio n s u rfa c e s th a t h e h as g o n e to th e e x te n t o f s u rfa c e s are, in o n e w ay o r th e o th e r, p a rts o f o n c e an
s a y in g th a t, T h e r e is n o e v id e n c e o f th e a ssu m p tio n e x te n siv e e ro s io n s u rfa c e fo rm e d b e fo re th e 1st
o f th ree o r fo u r p e n e p la in s . T h e e le v a tio n s oi the ea st u p liftm e n t o f th e W e ste rn H ig h la n d s.
an d th e so u th a re d u e to e r o s io n . T h e c o rre s p o n d e n c e
17.7 PENEPLAINS
o f su m m it p la n e s o f sp u rs o f b o th g ra n ite - g n e iss and
so fte r s c h ists u p to th e o u te r e d g e o f th e h ig h e r (1) EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT
c e n tral p la te a u is re m a rk a b le featu re w h ich sh o w s P e n e p la in re p re s e n ts th e l a n d s c a p e s p ro d u ced
th a t b o th w ere re d u c e d to th e b ase le v e l’ (S .C . at the en d o f c y c le o f flu v ial e ro s io n . In itia lly , th e
C h a tte rje e , 1945). te rm p e n e p l a in w as u sed by W .M . D a v is to repre-
DENUDATION CH RON O LOG Y , EROSION SURFACES AND PENEPLAINS 327
sent featureless plain produced at the end o f geo valley sides. Thus, lateral erosion, dow nw asting and
graphical cycle o f erosion. It may be m entioned that w eathering continuously degrade the land resulting
W .M . D avis h im self adm itted that the ‘peneplain into gradual low ering o f absolute altitude and w ater
id ea ’ w as not his original one, as is apparent from his divides. Interstream areas and w ater divides are
own w riting, ‘At the beginning o f this essay I w ish rem arkably reduced in height and are changed to
to em phasize the fact that the “peneplain idea” was low land but they still rise above the surrounding
not original w ith me. The nam e is my invention, and, areas. Stream s reach their base level o f erosion and
as has som etim es happened, the introduction o f a effective erosion com es to an end and the topogra
definite nam e for a thing previously talked about phy is changed into featureless plain. R ivers adopt
only in general term s has prom oted its considera m eandering courses and are braided. Such feature
tio n ........ It w as in P o w ell’s “E xploration o f the less plain has been term ed as pen ep lain by W .M .
C olorado R iv e r” (1 8 7 5 ) th at the peneplain idea, Davis. It may be pointed out that D avis never d e
along w ith a n u m b er o f other im portant facts and fined peneplain as a broad and flat surface but he
principles, first cam e to m y n o tice” (W .M . D avis, defined peneplain as that surface w hich w as charac
1899). It is, thus, ev id en t that the concept o f peneplain terized by low reliefs and undulating and rolling
is based on the w orks o f a few geologists but the surface. It is, thus, obvious that peneplain surface is
term , peneplain, w as co in ed and used first by Davis. characterized by upstanding and low lying reliefs
A .L. B loom has fu rth er clarified that, ‘In an attem pt and m oderate gentle slope tow ards the sea so that
to describ e the form o f landscapes that have under stream s may m aintain their flow paths. W . P enck
gone lo n g -co n tin u ed w eath erin g and erosion in hu term ed the end pro d u ct o f cycle o f erosion as
m id clim ates, D avis (1889) introduced the elegant en d ru m p f characterized by concave slope.
w ord p en ep lain . He used as a root the w ord “p lain” The peneplain surface is also ex em plified by
in the g eo g rap h ical co n tex t o f a regional surface o f the presence o f som e scattered and isolated convexo-
very low re lie f near sea level. R ealizing that the concave hills w hich project above the general su r
u ltim ate base level is the lim it o f subaerial erosion, face o f peneplains. T hese relic reliefs have been
w hich like a m ath em atical lim it m ay be approached term ed by D avis as m on ad n ock s on the b asis o f
but m ig h t not be ach iev ed , he prefixed to the w ord M ount M onadnock o f N ew H am p sh ire o f the U S A
“ p la in ” the L atin d eriv atio n “p en e” m eaning al (N orth-East A pplachians). T he isolated residual hills
m ost. T h u s, p en ep lain w as introduced to the scien projecti ng above en d ru m p f su rface have been term ed
tific literatu re as a su rfa ce o f region al exten t, low m osores by W. Penck. T he resid u al hills, w hen
lo ca l relief, an d lo w a b so lu te a ltitu d e, produced located in groups on pen ep lain su rface, are called
by lo n g -c o n tin u e d flu v ia l e r o sio n ’ (A .L. Bloom , u n akas (ori*he basis o f U n ak a m o u n tain o f N o rth
1978). C arolina o f the U SA ).
It m ay be p o in ted o ut that the co n cep t o f It may be m entioned that a peneplain is a n ea r
p en ep lain h as been the su b ject m atter o f severe end p ro d u ct and not en d p ro d u ct o f cy cle o f
c riticism a n d c o n tro v e rsie s rig h t from the stage o f its erosion. This fact was also realized by W .M . D avis.
c o n c e p tio n to th e p re se n t d ay g eo m o rp h o lo g y d o m i He was convinced that it w as not possible for a
n ated by th e a d v o c a te s o f n o n -cy clic d ev elo p m en t o f landmass to be erodeS dow n to base level o f erosion
lan d scap es. to becom e a perfect plain surface. It m ay be p ossible
(2) CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES theoretically only but cannot be p ossible in reality.
%
The penultim ate stage (old stage) o f normal T im e is also an important factor o f peneplain
cy cle o f erosion is characterized by the absence o f formation as it requires lon g g eo lo g ical period (m il
valley d eep en in g and marked dow nw asting o f re lions and b illion s o f years) o f crustal stability. This
liefs by lateral erosion and w eathering p rocesses and is the w eakest point o f cy c lic con cep t as majority o f
flattening o f river v a lley s. Lateral erosion and sub the geom orp h ologists are o f the opinion that the
sequent b ackw asting elim in ates m ost o f interstream earth is unstable and hence uneventful lon g g e o lo g i
areas (w ater d iv id es or interfluves). V a lley s becom e cal period is not p o ssib le in reality. T he advocates o f
broad and flat characterized by co n ca v e slo p es o f cy c lic con cep t and peneplain form ation d o not sub-
328 GEOM ORPH O LOG Y
scribe to this objection and have presented m any first phase o f peneplanation o f the larger geom orphic
ex am p les o f perfect p en ep lain s in support o f their unit.
concept e.g. three peneplain su rfaces have been 2. R egional P en ep lain represents the sec
cited as typical ex am p les from the A pplachians ond stage o f peneplanation. R egional peneplains are
(U S A ) viz. S c h o o le y p e n e p la in , H a r risb u r g form ed when m ost o f the landm ass (geom orphic
p en ep lain and S om m erv ille p en ep lain . Besides, unit) is eroded dow n to base level o f erosion and
exam ples o f older pen ep lain s have been traced from several local peneplains coalesce together. Regional
the R ockies (U S A ), m ountainous areas o f G erm any, peneplain does not represent true peneplain as some
S outh A frica and central m a ssif o f France. It may be portions still rem ain to be peneplained. It happens
pointed out that these peneplains have been so greatly that the landm ass close to the sea co ast is alm ost
m odified by subsequent events that they are not eroded down to base level and is thus peneplained
found in their original form , rather their relics are but inland areas still have som e hig h er reliefs. Such
very m uch identified. regional peneplains slope seaw ard and recede inland
R anchi p lateau (India) presents an ideal ex and ultim ately the entire area is peneplained leaving
am ple o f peneplain. The entire Ranchi plateau was behind well m arked w ater divides though o f sub
peneplained before C retaceous lava flow and an dued relief (low relief). R esistant rocks rem ain as
extensive peneplain surface w as form ed at the height residuals and project above the general peneplain
o f 610 m a.m .s.l. This surface is still preserved on s u rfa c e as c o n v e x o -c o n c a v e h ills k n o w n as
central R anchi plateau. The w estern part, popularly m onadnocks. R egional peneplains rep resen t those
know n as ‘p a tla n d ’ was uplifted by 305 m during peneplains which are found in situ after th eir form a
T ertiary period and hence the original peneplain tion, have not been affected by tectonic events
surface o f 605 m becam e an uplifted peneplain o f (upliftm ent or subsidence) and have not received
915 m height. It may be m entioned that this surface any sedim ent cover (i.e. not buried u nder debris
w as buried under lava cover o f 154 m thickness cover) but there is rem ote possibility o f such co n d i
during C retaceous period and hence 915 m surface is tion as the earth is unstable.
still buried under lava cover (now lateritic basalt due 3. U plifted Peneplain - The local and re
to w eathering). Thus, the present surface o f 1000- gional peneplains, when uplifted due to en dogenetic
1100m o f the w estern highlands (patlands) is not forces, arecalled uplifted peneplains. Such peneplains
erosional. rather it is structural in character. are quite old and are m arkedly m o d ified by su b se
(3) TYPES OF PENEPLAINS quent events o f w arping (during up liftm ent) and
There are variations in the characteristic fea denudation. M ost o f the o lder pen ep lain s, id en tified
tures o f peneplains in term s o f com position o f land so far, are examples o f uplifted peneplains. A pplachian
scapes, processes operating on them , drainage sy s m ountains (U SA ) rep resen t th ree such u p lifted
tem, debris lying on them , sedim ents, m inor reliefs peneplains viz. S ch ooley p en ep la in , H a rrisb u rg
and hence peneplains also vary spatially. On an p e n e p la in an d S o m m e r v ille p e n e p la in . T h e
average, peneplains are classified into five categ o A pplachians w ere form ed due to A p p lach ian rev o lu
ries viz. 1. local peneplains, 2. regional peneplains, tion (orogenesis) durin g P erm ian p erio d . T h e d y
3. uplifted peneplains, 4. resurrected peneplains, nam ic w h eels o f d e n u d a tio n e ro d e d d o w n the
and 5. partial peneplains. A pplachians to base level and thus the highlands
1. were p eneplained by the end o f C retaceo u s (o f
Local P en ep lain s - The process o f planation
o f any landm ass by any g eo m o rp h ic process takes M esozoic era) and beg in n in g o f E o cen e (o f T ertiary)
place slow ly and g rad u ally through several stages. periods to form first p en ep lain , calle d as S ch ooley
Consequently, som e portion o f landm ass, under the p en ep la in w hich w as su b seq u en tly u p lifted in Ter
m echanism o f peneplan atio n , is eroded dow n to base tiary ep o ch and after p ro lo n g ed denudation second
level while other parts are still u n d er this m e ch a pen ep lain , know n as H a rrisb u rg p en ep la in , was
nism. Thus, locally pro d u ced featu reless plain o f fo rm e d . H a rris b u rg p e n e p la in (a ls o ca lled as
subdued reliefs w ithin a larg er lan d m ass is called S h en o n d o a h p en ep la in ) w as again up lifted and
local or in cip ien t p en ep la in becau se this rep resen ts th e re after was peneplained to form Som m erville
DENUDATION CHRONOLOGY, EROSION SURFACES AND PENEPLAINS > 329
pen ep lain . S im ilarly , T ien Shan m ountain o f Asia, ing into the developm ent o f v a lle y in v a lle y to p o g
Scottish uplands, Q uebeck plateau (C anada), Rockies ra p h y or tw o sto r e y e d v a lle y s w herein the upper
o f C o lo rad o (U S A ) etc. are typical exam ples o f part represents older valleys o f previous cycle and
uplifted p eneplains. T he w estern highlands o f Ranchi the low er part o f young valleys (deep and narrow )
plateau (P a tla n d s) rep resen t an uplifted peneplain. indicates rejuvenation and initiation o f second cycle
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c F e a t u r e s o f U p lif t e d of erosion. Thus, if a peneplain is an uplifted peneplain,
P en ep la in s - A few term in o lo g ies need explanation then it m ust have topographic dicordances as stated
b efo re d e sc rib in g ch ara cteristic features o f uplifted above. Secondly, an uplifted peneplain is also char
p eneplains. T h e area separating tw o w atersheds (river acterized by breaks in longitudinal profiles o f the
b asin s) or the area b etw een tw o stream s is called rivers. These b r e a k s are called h e a d s o f r e ju v e n a
in terstre a m a rea w h ile the areas having sm all sum tio n or n ic k p o in ts. T he P a tla n d s o f R anchi plateau
m its are ca lle d su m m it a rea s. W hen there is paral and P alam au u p la n d s, an e x a m p le o f u p lifted
lelism b etw ee n the altitu d es o f in terstream areas and peneplain, are characterized by num erous n ic k s
su m m it a rea s, this is called acco rd an ce and the (breaks in slope) in the longitudinal profiles o f
su m m its an d in te rstre a m areas o f equal altitudes rejuvenated rivers. F or exam ple, there are three
(a c c o rd a n c e ) are called a cco r d a n t su m m it levels nicks in the long profile o f the B urha river (a
an d a c c o r d a n t in te r str e a m lev els respectively. The tributary of the N orth Koel river, w hich drains into
u p lifte d p e n e p la in s m ay be id en tified on the basis o f the G anga river) e.g. 1st nick, in the upper reach, as
fo llo w in g c h a ra c te ristic featu res. B u rh a g h a g h w a te rfa lls (142 m ), second nick (in
the m iddle course) as S u g a b a n d h fa lls (12.19 m ),
(i) A c c o r d a n c e in S u m m it and In terstream
and third nick in the low er reach.
L e v e ls - T h e re g io n a l p en ep lain is ch aracterized by
a c c o rd a n t s u m m it le v els and in terstream levels. It is, (iii) P r e se n c e o f S e d im e n t C o v e r - T he o ld er
th us, c o n c e iv e d th at if a reg io n al peneplain (o rig i peneplains are supposed to have th ick to thin co v er
n al) has b een u p lifte d by en d o g en etic forces, then o f residual soils and w eathered m aterials (regolith).
th e re m u st be a c c o rd a n c e in the altitu d es o f sum m its, The m aterials resting o ver pen ep lain surface include
in te rs tre a m a re a s an d crests o f in terflu v es (w ater rockw astes derived through w eath erin g o f w ater
divides and alluvia in the valleys and surro u n d in g
d iv id e ). It m a y be p o ssib le th at the original peneplain
areas. T he debris co v er includes d ifferen t types o f
m ig h t h a v e u n d e rg o n e so m e m o d ificatio n s and d e
m aterials viz. laterites, clay, ch ert etc. T he resid u al
fo rm a tio n s in its o rig in al fo rm by w arping during the
soils or rockw astes are seldom fo u n d co n tin u o u sly
tim e o f its u p liftm e n t b u t the salien t features o f
all over the p en eplain surface rath er th ese are fo u n d
a c c o rd a n c e o f altitu d e s are m ore or less preserved.
in patches.
T h e u p lifte d p e n e p la in s m u st also carry m o n ad n o ck s
o f the o rig in a l re g io n a l p e n ep lain s. The o ld er u p 4. R e s u r r e c te d P e n e p la in s - S om e tim es
lifted p e n e p la in s are c h a ra c te riz e d by narrow âc regional p en ep lain s are b u ried u n d er sed im en tary
c o rd a n t s u m m it le v e ls and in terstream lev els w nile covers. Such peneplains are called b u r ie d p e n e p la in s
rece n tly u p lifte d p e n e p la in s h av e b ro ad er acco rd an t o r a re s u b m e r g e d u n d e r s e a w a te r d u r in g
su m m it le v e ls a n d w a te r d iv id es. tran sg ressio n al p h ase o f the sea and th u s receiv e
(ii) T o p o g r a p h ic U n c o n fo r m ity /D is c o r d
th ick lay ers o f m arin e sed im en ts. S u ch su b m erg ed
p e n e p la in s a re s e e n a f te r e m e r g e n c e d u r in g
a n c e - T o p o g ra p h ic u n c o n fo rm ity or d isco rd an c e
reg ressio n al p h ase o f th e sea. W h e n e v e r the surficial
m e a n s y o u n g e r la n d fo rm s (i.e. v alley s) b elow and
(su p erin cu m b en t) m a te ria ls are rem o v ed th ro u g h
o ld e r la n d fo rm s ab o v e. T h e reg io n a l p en ep lain s are
c h a ra c te riz e d by b ro a d , flat an d m e a n d e rin g riv er ero sio n , the b u ried p e n ep lain s are ex p o sed and are
v a lle y s w ith v ery lo w c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t. A fte r called r e s u r r e c te d p e n e p la in s . T h e g ran ite-g n eissic
u p liftm e n t o f re g io n a l p e n e p la in s, riv ers are re ju v e p en ep lain su rface (9 1 5 m a .m .s.l.) ly in g below b a
n a te d a n d h e n c e r e s o r t to v a lle y d e e p e n in g saltic co v er o f 154 m th ick n ess ( 1 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 m ) is an
(d o w n c u ttin g ) w ith re n e w e d en erg y (ac c e le ra te d e x am p le o f b u ried p en ep lain . T h e 6 1 0 m su rface o f
ra te o f v e rtic a l e ro s io n ) an d ca rv e o u t d eep and C h h e c h h a ri b asin o f P ala m au u p la n d (B ih a r) is an
n a rro w v a lle y s w ith b ro a d an d flat o ld v alley s re s u lt e x a m p le o f re su rre c te d p e n e p la in b e c a u se the B u rh a
330 GEOMORPHOLOGY
riv e r an d its trib u ta rie s h a v e re m o v e d o v erly in g 8. T h e earth 's cru st w ill n ot stand still long
c o v e r th ro u g h e ro sio n . en o u g h fo r the slow p ro cess o f denudation
5. P a r tia l P e n e p la in - P a rtia l p en ep lain is in to p ro d u ce a p en ep lain .
fa c t in c o m p le te p e n e p la in w h ic h is fo rm ed d u e to 9. N o p art o f th e earth rev eals even an ap
in c o m p le te o r p a rtia l c y c le o f ero sio n . In co m p lete pro x im atio n to a p en ep lain .
p e n e p la in s h a v e b een v a rio u sly te rm ed as in cip ien t D av is tried to o ffe r sta tisfa c to ry explanations
p e n e p la in s , lo c a l p e n e p la in s , b e r m s, str a th s, p a r to m o st o f the o b je c tio n s raised a g a in st peneplain
tia l p e n e p la in s etc. F o llo w in g N .M . F en n em an it th eo ry as fo llo w s (A = an sw er)—
m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t if a re g io n u n d erg o es the
A l . T o the arg u m e n t th at, ‘o n e standing upon
p ro c e s s o f se v e ra l c y c le s o f ero sio n , n o n e o f the
the crest o f one o f the m o u n tain s o f central
c y c le s is c o m p le te d b e c a u se o f a h o st o f reaso n s viz. M aine w ould hard ly fin d the evenness (o f
e a rth m o v e m e n ts (e.g . u p liftm e n t, su b sid en ce etc.), the skyline) su fficien t to g iv e the appear
c lim a tic c h a n g e s, se a -le v e l ch an g e s etc. and hence ance o f lev eln ess ev en to the e y e ’, D avis
la n d m a s s is se ld o m e ro d e d d o w n to b ase level o f rem arked, ‘Its ru g g ed n ess is gen erally so
e ro s io n to fo rm tru e an d p e rfe c t p en ep lain as ‘the great th at it is q u ite p o ssib le th at the
w o rk o f n e x t c y c le sto p p ed so m ew h at sh o rt o f the peneplain ex p lan atio n does not apply to
sta g e re a c h e d in th e first, th e th ird fell sh o rt o f the the greater part o f the area (N orthern N ew
se c o n d , so on. E ngland). L ittle w o n d er th at an o b serv er
w hose attention is given to this m o u n ta in
(4) CRITICISM OF PENEPLAIN CONCEPT
ous district, under the im p ressio n th a t its
T h e p o stu la tio n o f p en ep lain co n cep t began m ountain tops rep resen t the rem n an ts o f a
w ith initial c o n tro v e rsie s and still faces stiff o p p o si peneplain, sh ould co m e to d iscred it such
tio n from the a d v o ca tes o f n o n -cy clic theory (i.e. an ex p lan atio n ’ (D avis, 1898).
d y n am ic e q u ilib riu m th eo ry ) o f lan d scap e d ev elo p
A2. In relation to uneven altitu d es o f the up
m ent.
lands o f S outhern N ew E n g lan d and N o rth
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th at critics o f peneplain ern N ew Jersey (A p p lach ian s, U S A ) D avis
th eo ry raised a n u m b e r o f o b jectio n s and argum ents rem arked, ‘I should say th at the la ck o f
ag ain st the theory and W .M . D av is (1898) attem pted uniform ity am ong th e u p lan d s— a fact p e r
to re p ly su ch q u estio n s an d o ffered an sw ers to o b jec fectly fam iliar to th o se w ho acc ep t the
tio n s p o in t by p o in t. S o m e o f the ob jectio n s and peneplain idea is partly the resu lt o f tiltin g ,
criticism s o f p e n e p la in th e o ry are as follow s (cited and that fo r the rest th e u n ev en n ess o f the
from D avis, 1898)— uplands o f today is a n atu ral resu lt o f
im p erfect p en ep lan atio n fo llo w ed by sub-
1. C ertain reg io n s sh o w no trace o f pene-
m ature d isse c tio n ’ (D av is, 1898).
plan atio n .
2. T h e u plan d s o f S o u th ern N ew E ngland A 3. In relatio n tp frag m e n tary c o n d itio n o f
and o f N o rth ern N ew Jersey are n ot o f certain p en ep lain s D av is rem a rk ed , ‘Its
u n ifo rm altitu d e. frag em n tal c o n d i tio n 's m o st n atu ral; its
d isco v ered p arts are c o n n e c te d and the lost
3. T h e re m a in s o f certain p en ep lain s are frag
p en ep lain is resto red by a lin e o f argum ent
m en tary .
th at is p erfectly re a so n a b le in itself, and
4. C ertain so -c a lle d p en ep lain s are n ow in th at is o b je cted to o n ly b eca u se it runs
clined. c o u n te r to certain v ie w s th a t are held to be
5. T h e asserted d isc o rd a n c e o f p en ep lain su r e stab lish ed p rin c ip le s in th e science o f
face and ro ck stru ctu re is op en to qu estio n . g e o lo g y ’ (D av is, 1898).
6. T h e ro ck s o f m o n a d n o c k s are n o t p ro v ed A 4 . ‘It has been stated that uplift or tilting “is
to b e m o re re sista n t th an th o se o f the an assum ption rendered necessary to ex
ad jo in in g p en ep lain . plain the d ifference in elevation o f tbe
7. N o p en e p la in s are n o w fo u n d stan d in g supposed peneplain, but there is no evi
clo se to b ase-le v el. den ce to prove it u n less the peneplain be
. . m
DENUDATION CH RO N O LO G Y , EROSION SURFACES AND PENEPLAINS 331
p re v io u sly a c c e p te d .” D av is rem arked* A 8. T h e earth ’s cru st w ill n ot stand still long

‘W ith th is I fu lly agree. I have repeatedly enough for the slow p ro cess o f denudation
in siste d th a t it w as only by reco g n izin g the to pro d u ce a p en ep lain ’. D avis says, ‘C er
e x iste n c e o f a pen ep lain that uplift or d e tainly they (lands) do n ot stan d still long
fo rm a tio n co u ld be d eterm in ed in certain eno u g h in certain regions ; w itness the
cases; an d th at only in this w ay could m anifest effects o f u n easin ess in the varied
ce rta in stag es o f g eo lo g ical history be d is and unco n fo rm ab le stratified deposits, o r
c o v e re d ......... b u t it d o es not seem w ar in repeated ren ew als o f d issection in the
ra n te d to co n clu d e th at the peneplain theory A lp s.... B ut it has n ev er been m y intention
is in v a lid a te d b ecau se certain peneplains to im ply an ab so lu te still stan d o f the
are n o w u p lifted on a sla n t’ (D avis, 1898). earth's cru st durin g an en tire cy cle o f d en u
A 5. It h a s been su g g ested by the critics that dation. A ny sort o f m o v em en t th at d o es
th e re is ‘a v ery ev id en t general sym pathy not cause a d istin ct d issectio n o f the sur
b e tw e e n th e p resen t to p o g rap h y and rock face below the p en eplain level is ad m issi
te x tu re ’ an d th u s the ‘asserted d isco rd an ce b le .... A s to the arg u m en ts b ased on th e
o f p e n e p la in su rface and ro ck structure is slow p rogress o f den u d atio n d u rin g a b rie f
period o f observation or d u rin g p o st-g la-
o p e n to q u e s tio n ’ as it is n ot tenable. D avis
cial tim e, I can only reply th at a g eo g rap h i
h a s o b s e rv e d th at, ‘the sy stem atic relation
cal cycle m ust be so en o rm o u sly lo n g e r
o f th e se (u p la n d s in C o n n ecticu t, U SA )
than eith er o f these in terv als th a t th e ir
a n d m a n y o th e r c re st lines and uplands
evidence is n ot o f v a lu e ..........H en ce th e
s u g g e s t a p en e p la in , and the peneplain
q u e stio n re tu rn s to th e v e rity o f th e
th u s in fe rre d is strik in g ly in d ifferen t to the
peneplains; w h eth er m u ch or little tim e is
s tru c tu re s th a t it tru n cates. It m ig h t be
needed to pro d u ce th em is a seco n d ary
a rg u e d th a t th e o b serv ed d isco rd an ce o f
m atter. A bove all, a p reco n c ep tio n as to
fo rm a n d stru c tu re is o f so m e oth er origin
the insufficience o f g eo lo g ical tim e sh o u ld
th a n p e n e p la n a tio n , b u t the d iscordance
not in this day be u rged as a reaso n fo r n o t
d o e s n o t seem o p en to q u e stio n ’ (D avis,
b e l ie v in g in th e p o s s ib ility of
1898).
p en ep lan atio n ’ (D avis, 1898).
A 6 . In re s p o n s e to th e o b je ctio n that, ‘the rocks
A9. ‘N o p art o f th e earth rev eals ev en an ap
o f m o n a d n o c k s are n o t p ro v ed to be m ore
p ro x im atio n to a p en e p la in .’ In resp o n se to
re s is ta n t th an th o se o f adjoining p en ep lain ’,
this objectio n D av is rem a rk ed , ‘It is true
D a v is h a s re m a rk e d , ‘I h av e as a ru le given
th a t th e se p e n e p la in s (s u b m e rg e d an d
n o p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to th e co m p o sitio n
unconform ably b uried) are n ot today stand
o f th e m o n a d n o c k ro ck s; in deed, it has
ing in the p o sitio n in w h ich th ey w ere
g e n e ra lly se e m e d to m e reaso n ab le to
form ed, th at they m a k e a very sm all p a rt o f
in fe r th e ir g re a te r resistan c e on acco u n t o f
th e ir f o rm ’ (D av is, 1898). the earth 's actual su rface an d th a t they are
im p erfectly o p en to o b serv atio n ; b u t it
A 7. ‘N o p e n e p la in s are n o w found stan d in g
seem s to m e th a t they g iv e stro n g ev id en ce
c lo se to b a se le v e .’ In resp o n se to this
o f the v erity o f p e n e p la in s ’ (D av is, 1898).
o b je c tio n D a v is h as su b m itted that, A s far
as m y o w n u n d e rsta n d in g o f the p ro b lem is
1 7.8 PANPLAIN
c o n c e rn e d , it w as n ot at all as an assu m p
C .H . C ric k m a y e x p re s s e d d isa g re e m e n t w ith
tio n , b u t as a v ery su rp risin g co ro llary , th at
the co n c e p t o f peneplanation o f W .M . D av is a n d
I c a m e up o n th e d iffere n ce b etw een the
p ro p o sed th e m e c h a n ism o f panplanation in 1933
p re se n t and certain p arts o f the p ast w ith
re sp e c t to p e n e p la n a tio n ..........T h ere d o es to ac c o u n t fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n d fo rm s in la te r
not seem to be any severe strain upon the s tag e o f c y cle o f e ro sio n . H is th e o ry is k n o w n as
reasonably elastic form of the doctrine of cycle o f panplanation. C ric k m a y firs t e x p o se d th e
uniformitarianism in meeting the require in h eren t w eak n esses o f th e p ro cesses o f p en ep lan atio n
ments of the peneplain theory’ (Davis, 1898). at le a st in th e la te sta g e o f c y c le o f e ro s io n o f W.M.
D avis e.g. (i) the overall profile o f residual hills
p ro jectin g above planation su rface (m onadnocks) is
n ot con v ex o -co n cav e as conceived by D avis but is
steep and concave in plan ; (ii) shifting o f w ater
divides through back w astin g and divide w asting
through d o w n w earin g (dow nw asting) resulting in
p ro g ressiv e decline o f slope angle as dem onstrated
by D avis are not sig n ifican t processes in the late
stage o f cycle o f erosio n ; (iii) m o st o f the planation
surfaces are not undu latin g surfaces rather they are
m ore or less p erfect level surfaces i.e. true plains o f
d en u d atio n ; and (iv) dissected peneplains, even in
one area, are very often found at various levels or in
series, d esp ite the fact th at according to D avisian
theory the d ev elo p m en t o f a low er su rface should
in ev itab ly involve the w asting and d estruction o f a
h ig h e r su rface (R. J. Sm all, 1970). C rickm ay as
serted that these d iscrep en cies could be rem oved if
th e m ech an ism o f p an p lan atio n in v o lv in g lateral
p lan atio n (erosion) by m ean d erin g rivers w as in
v oked fo r the exp lan atio n o f lan d fo rm s dev elo p ed in
th e late stage o f cy cle o f erosion.
In te r F lu v e
Fig. 17.5 : F orm ation o f c o n flu e n ce p la in th ro u g h

gradual wasting o f interfluves through lateral
erosion and developm ent o f flo o d plains.
formed due to coalescence of flood plains (fig. 17.5).
Crickmay maintained that the process of shifting of
interfluves (water divides) and rate of divide wast
ing had been overestimated and attached undue
importance by Davis and his followers. Contrary to
this the rate o f wasting of interfluves is exceedingly
slow which (rate) is further slow ed down in the
penultimate stage o f cycle o f erosion because of
obliteration of most of reliefs. According to Crickmay
the penultimate stage o f cycle o f panplanation sets in
with the cessation o f vertical erosion and valley
deepening and lateral erosion becom es more active.
Lateral erosion causes gradual backwasting of
interfluves and hence they are gradually narrowed
Fig. 17.4 . Stages o f wasting o f interfluves by lateral ero
down and are ultimately destroyed (and obliterated)
sion.
giving birth to the developm ent o f extensive flood j
According to C.H. Crickmay panplain is the plains which are covered with thin layers o f sediments
Cn Proc*uct of the cycle of panplanation and is (fig s . 17.4 and 17.5 B ).
r - . ..
D EN U D A TIO N C H R O N O L O G Y , ERO SIO N SURFA CES AND PENEPLAINS 333
T h e f lo o d p la in s a re c h a ra c te riz e d by steep su rface w h ich is q u ite d iffe re n t from th e u n d u latin g
m a rg in s w h ic h a re c liffe d b y la te ra l p la n a tio n (e ro su rface o f D av isian pen ep lain .
s io n , fig . 1 7 .5 B ). T h e m a rg in s o f flo o d p la in s
C ric k m ay 's co n ce p t o f p an p lan atio n could
c o n tin u e to b e s te e p e n e d b y la te ra l e ro sio n u p to th e
n o t co m m an d w id er acc ep tan c e by scien tific c o m
e n d o f th e c y c le . N u m e ro u s flo o d p la in s u ltim a te ly
m u n ity . In fact, C rick m ay o v erem p h asized lateral
c o a le s c e , w h e n m a jo rity o f th e in te rflu v e s are e lim i ero sio n in the p en u ltim ate stag e o f cy cle o f erosion.
n a te d a n d th u s e x te n s iv e c o n flu e n c e p la in , te rm e d T h e fo rm atio n o f ex ten siv e p an p lain o f level a n d fiat
by C ric k m a y a s p a n p la in , is fo rm e d . T h e p an p lain , surface due to grow th and coalescence o f flood plains
th u s fo rm e d , is c h a r a c te r iz e d b y fla t a n d a lm o s t ev en could not be palatable to m any geom orphologists.
CHAPTER 18 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS 334—352
M e a n in g and c o n c e p t ; seq u en t drain age s y ste m s (c o n s e q u e n t, s u b s e
q u e n t, o b s e q u e n t and reseq u en t stream s) ; in seq u en t d ra in a g e s y s te m
(a n te c e d e n t and su p erim p o sed drainage sy ste m s) ; d ra in a g e p a ttern s
(tr e llis e d , d en d ritic , rectangular, radial, cen trip etal, an n ular, b arb ed ,
p in n a te , h errin g b o n e and parallel p a tte r n s ); river cap tu re.
18
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS
18.1 MEANING AND C O N CEPTS strea m s (w h ich fo llo w the reg io n a l slo p e an d are
T h e stu d y o f th e ch a ra c te ristic s o f d rain ag e w ell ad ju sted to g eo lo g ical stru c tu re s) su c h as
n e tw o rk o f a p a rtic u la r reg io n is a p p ro ac h ed in tw o co n seq u en t strea m s, su b se q u e n t str e a m s,
w a y s e .g . (1) d e s c r ip tiv e a p p ro a ch an d (2) gen etic o b seq u e n t strea m s and re se q u e n t str e a m s , a n d (2)
a p p r o a c h . T h e d e sc rip tiv e ap p ro ac h in v o lv es the in seq u en t strea m s (w h ich d o n ot fo llo w th e re
stu d y o f th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f the fo rm s and p attern s gional slope and are n o t ad ju sted to g e o lo g ic a l s tru c
o f th e stre a m s o f a g iv en reg io n w h ile th e g enetic tures) such as a n te c e d e n t strea m s and s u p e r im
a p p ro a c h in v o lv e s th e in v e stig a tio n o f the ev o lu tio n p osed strea m s.
o f stre a m s o f a re g io n in re la tio n to te cto n ic s,
18.2 M A JO R D R A IN A G E S Y S T E M S
lith o lo g ie s an d stru c tu re s. T h u s, d ra in a g e sy stem
re fe rs to th e o rig in an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f stream s (A) SEQUENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM S
th ro u g h tim e w h ile d r a in a g e p a ttern m ean s spatial 1. C o n se q u e n t S trea m s
a rra n g e m e n t an d fo rm o f d ra in a g e sy stem in term s o f
C o n se q u e n t stream s are th e firs t stre a m s to be
g e o m e tric a l sh ap es in th e areas o f d iffere n t rock
o rig in ated in a p a rtic u la r reg io n . T h e se stre a m s h ave
ty p e s, g e o lo g ic a l stru c tu re , c lim atic co n d itio n s and
th eir co u rses in ac c o rd a n c e w ith th e in itia l slo p e o f
d e n u d a tio n a l h isto ry e.g. trellis p attern , d en d ritic
lan d su rface. In o th e r w o rd s, th e c o n s e q u e n t stream s
p a tte rn , p a ra lle l p a tte rn etc. T h e ex a m p le s o f d ra in
fo llo w the reg io n a l slo p e. T h e s e are a lso c a lle d d ip
ag e sy ste m s are c o n s e q u e n t stream s, su b se q u en t
strea m s. In a reg io n o f fo ld e d stru c tu re (w h e n the
s tre a m s, o b s e q u e n t stream s, re se q u e n t stream s, a n
cru stal ro ck s are fo ld e d d u e to la te ra l co m p re ssiv e
te c e d e n t an d su p e rim p o se d stream s etc.
fo rces in to p arallel a n tic lin e s an d sy n c lin e s ) co n se
T h e o rig in an d s u b se q u e n t ev o lu tio n o f any q u e n t stream s are fo rm e d in th e s y n c lin a l troughs.
d ra in a g e s y ste m in a re g io n are d e te rm in e d and S u ch c o n se q u e n t stre a m s are c a lle d sy n c lin a l con
c o n tro lle d by tw o m a in facto rs viz. (1 ) n atu re o f se q u e n t s tr e a m s, w h ich b e c o m e th e m a s te r con se
in itia l s u rfa c e an d slo p e an d (2) g e o lo g ic a l stru ctu re q u en t str e a m s o f tr e llis d r a in a g e p a tte r n at m uch
(e.g. fo ld s, fau lts, fra c tu re s, jo in ts , d ip s and strik es la ter date.
o f ro c k b e d s an d ty p e s o f ro c k s). S tream s o r d rain a g e T h e first stre a m s to be in itia te d on a new ly
sy ste m s a re d iv id e d in tw o b ro ad c a te g o rie s on the em e rg e d c o asta l p la in are c o n s e q u e n t stream s w hich
b a sis o f th e a d ju stm e n t o f th e stream s to the in itial are p a rallel to e a c h o th e r an d th u s fo rm p arallel
su rfa c e a n d g e o lo g ic a l stru c tu re s e.g . (1 ) sequent d r a in a g e p a tte r n . T h e lo n g e st stre a m o f the w hole •
pfcAJPIAGE SY ST E M S A N D PA TTER N S S
. 335 .
Fig. 18.1 : D e v e lo p m e n t o f m a ster consequent and. subsequent streams over a coastal plain.
% 18.2: Development o f m aster consequent and subsequent streams in Dehra Dun valley
336
geomorphology
s y s te m o f c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s is c a lle d master con 3. Obsequent Streams
sequent (fig . 18.1). M o st o f th e stre a m s d ra in in g the T h e stre a m s flo w in g in o p p o site direction to
c o a s ta l p la in s o f In d ia are th e e x a m p le s o f c o n s e the m a ste r c o n s e q u e n t are c a lle d o b se q u e n t streams
q u e n t s tre a m s. T h e m o s t id eal la n d sc a p e s fo r the In fact, o b se q u e n t stream s are also co n seq u en t be
o rig in an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n s e q u e n t d ra in a g e sy s ca u se th ey also fo llo w th e slo p e s o f th e ranges. The
te m a re d o m e s a n d v o lc a n ic co n es. C o n se q u e n t stream s o rig in a tin g fro m th e n o rth ern slopes o f the
s tre a m s are d iv id e d in tw o ty p e s e.g. (1) longitudi w e st-e a st s tre tc h in g ra n g e s o f th e H im alayas flow
nal consequent (w h ic h fo llo w s th e ax is o f th e d e n o rth w ard to m e e t th e e a s t-w e s t flo w in g tributaries
p re s s io n o r s y n c lin e in a fo ld e d stru c tu re ) and (2) (su b seq u en t stream s) o f th e so u th w ard draining master
lateral consequent (w h ic h fo llo w s th e sid es o f the c o n se q u e n t stream s. F o r e x a m p le , th e M ahabharat
d e p re s s io n s o r th e sid e s o f th e an tic lin e s). L ateral R an g e o f the L e s s e r H im a la y a h as issu ed several
c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s g e n e ra lly jo in the m a ste r o r stream s fro m its n o rth e rn slo p es. T h e se northw ard
flo w in g stream s jo in th e s u b se q u e n t stream Sun
lo n g itu d in a l o r s y n c lin a l c o n s e q u e n t m o re o r less at
K osi w h ich ru n s w est to east, as o b se q u e n t stream
r ig h t a n g le .
b eca u se th e se are o p p o se d to th e d irec tio n s o f the
2. Subsequent Streams m a ste r c o n s e q u e n t lik e th e G a n g a an d th e Y am una.
T h e s tre a m s o rig in a te d afte r the m a ste r c o n S im ilarly , sev eral stream s o rig in a tin g from the north
s e q u e n t s tre a m a n d fo llo w in g th e ax is o f th e a n ti ern slo p es o f th e S iw a lik R a n g e d rain d u e northw ard
c lin e s o r rid g e s a n d th e strik e s o f b ed s are called to jo in e a s t-w e st su b se q u e n t stream s o f the south
s u b s e q u e n t stre a m s. S o m e o f th e scien tists have w ard flo w in g m a ste r c o n s e q u e n t o f the G anga and
o p in e d th a t th e s u b se q u e n t stre a m s o rig in ate on the the Y am u n a, n o rth o f the, S o m e sh w a r R ange of
D u n d w a R an g e (o f th e S iw a lik R an g e).T h ese north
fla n k s o f th e a n tic lin e s a n d jo in the m a ste r c o n se
w ard flow ing tributaries are the exam ples o f obsequent
q u e n t a t a lm o s t rig h t a n g le (w h ic h m e an s th a t the
stream s.
la te ra l c o n s e q u e n ts , as re fe rre d to ab o v e, are th e
s u b s e q u e n t s ) w h ile o th e r s m a in ta in th a t th e 4. R e se q u e n t S tr e a m s
s u b s e q u e n ts are p a ra lle l to th e m a ste r co n seq u en t. T h e trib u ta ry stre a m s flo w in g in the direction
S .W . W o o ld rid g e an d R .S . M o rg an (1 9 6 0 ) have o f the m aster c o n se q u e n t are c a lle d resequents. These
o p in e d th a t “ it sh o u ld be n o te d th a t all the first are o rig in a te d at m u c h la te r d a te in com parison to the
g e n e ra tio n o f trib u ta rie s to c o n se q u e n t stream s are m a ste r co n se q u e n t. S in ce th ey are o f recent origin,
s u b s e q u e n t in th e se n se th a t th ey arise su b se q u en tly and h en ce th ey are c a lle d re se q u e n t.
to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t an d in c isio n o f th e co n se q u e n t T h e re s e q u e n t stre a m s are o rig in ated during
s tr e a m s .” A c c o rd in g to th e m ’’su ch stream s, startin g the in itia tio n o f se c o n d c y c le o f e ro sio n in a folded
as g u llie s o n th e sid e s o f th e p rim a ry c o n se q u e n t stru ctu re . T h e g ra d u a l d e n u d a tio n o f folded m oun
v a lle y s , d is c o v e r an d e x p lo re b elts o f stru ctu ra l tain s d u rin g th e first c y c le o f e ro sio n results into
in v e rs io n o f r e li e f w ith th e p a ssa g e o f tim e wherein
w e a k n e s s , d u e to s o fte r strata, fau lt, o r jo in t-p la n e s,
an ticlin al rid g e s an d sy n c lin a l v alley s are converted
a n d s h a tte r z o n e s ” (W o o ld rid g e an d M o rg an , 1960,
in to a n ticlin al v a lle y s an d s y n c lin a l rid g es respec
p p . 1 7 3 -7 4 ). E . A h m a d (1 9 8 5 ) h as re m a rk e d th a t
tiv ely (fig. 18.3). T h u s, lo n g itu d in a l stream s are
“th e te rm s u b s e q u e n t m a y b e u sed g en e ra lly not to
d e v e lo p e d in th e a n tic lin a l v alley s. T h ese features
in d ic a te a c h ro n o lo g ic a l s e q u e n c e b u t a rela tio n are p e n e p la n e d 'by th e en d o f th e first cycle o f
b e tw e e n d ra in a g e on th e o n e h an d an d g eo lo g y , e ro sio n . T h e in itia tio n o f se c o n d c y cle o f erosion
s tru c tu re a n d te c to n ic s on th e o th e r. G e n e ra lly , it b eg in s w ith th e e x c a v a tio n o f new valleys in the
re fe rs to th e s tre a m s tra n s v e rs e to th e m a ste r c o n s e synclines. T hus, the stream s d ev elo p ed in the synclinal
q u e n t.” T h e A sa n riv e r, a trib u ta ry o f th e Y a m u n a p o rtio n s b eco m e re se q u e n t stream s w h ich are though
riv e r an d th e S o n g riv er, a trib u tary o f the G an g a riv er an alo g o u s to th e o rig in al lo n g itu d in a l consequent
in th e D e h ra D u n v a lle y (in filled allu v ial p lain ) are the d ev e lo p e d d u rin g th e first c y c le o f e ro sio n but, in
ex a m p le s o f s u b se q u e n t stream s w h ile the Y am u n a fact, th ey are m an y h u n d re d s o f m etres below the
an d th e G a n g a a re th e m a ste r co n seq u en ts (fig . 18.2). in itial su rface (fig . 18.3).
pRAiNAGB SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS
337
Fig. 18.3 : Inversion o f relief. The syncline a n d anlicline o f siege I have become synclinal ridge and anticlinal valley in
stage 5 which denotes the end o f the fir s t tyc le o f erosion
1. Antecedent Drainage System
(B) INSEQUENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM
A n teced en t stream s are th o se w hich are origi
T h e stre a m s w h ic h d o not fo llo w th e reg io n al
nated prior to the u p liftm en t o f land surface. In oth er
slopes and d rain a c ro ss th e g e o lo g ic a l stru ctu re s <:i
w ords, an teced en t stream s an ted ate th e upliftm ent
called in se q u e n t o r in c o n se q u e n t stream s, n
o f an upland o r m o u n tain acro ss w h ich they h av e
ent and su p e rim p o se d stre a m s are the b es p
m ain tain ed th eir p resen t co u rses th ro u g h con tin u o u s
sentative e x a m p le s o f in s e q u e n t d ra in a g e system .
338 GEOMORPHOLOGY
d o w n c u ttin g o f th e ir v a lle y s. It is, th u s, o b v io u s th a t a re a n o r th e ra te o f d o n w c u ttin g b y th e riv e rs is
i f a riv e r h a s d e v e lo p e d in a p a rtic u la r re g io n an d if know n.
th e s u b s e q u e n t u p lift o r u p w a rp in g o f th e la n d area T h e n a tu re a n d th e ra te o f u p liftm e n t o f land
a c ro s s th e p re -e x is tin g r iv e r d o e s n o t d iv e rt d r d e a re a is v ery im p o rta n t p a r a m e te r f o r th e d ev elo p
fle c t th e c o u r s e o f th e r iv e r a n d th e riv e r m a in ta in s its m e n t o f a n te c e d e n t d ra in a g e s y s te m b e c a u s e rivers
p r e v io u s c o u rs e th ro u g h d o w n c u ttin g its v alley at c a n n o t m a in ta in th e ir p r e v io u s c o u rs e s d u rin g all
th e ra te e q u iv a le n t to th e ra te o f u p lift o f th e lan d ty p e s o f u p liftm e n t. F o r e x a m p le , i f th e u p liftm e n t o f
area , th e riv e r is c a lle d antecedent o r anticonsequent th e a re a o c c u rs v e ry ra p id ly a n d is c o m p le te d w ithin
I t m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e c o n c e p t o f a n te c e d e n c e a v ery s h o rt p e rio d o f tim e , th e riv e rs d rain in g
o f a p a r tic u la r r iv e r is b a s e d o n g u e sse s a n d c o n je c th ro u g h th a t a re a c a n n o t m a in ta in th e ir p rev io u s
tu re s b e c a u s e n e ith e r th e ra te o f th e u p lift o f lan d c o u rse s b e c a u se th e ra te o f d o w n c u ttin g o f their
v alley s can n o t k e e p p a c e w ith th e ra te o f th e upliftm ent
an d th u s th e riv e rs a re d is m e m b e r e d a n d adopt
d iffe re n t c o u rs e s d e p e n d in g o n lo c a l (n e w ) c o n d i
tio n s. O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f th e r a te o f u p liftm e n t is
su ch th a t th e riv e rs a re a b le to d e g r a d e th e ir v alley s
th ro u g h a c tiv e d o w n c u ttin g (v a lle y in c is io n ) a t the
rate eq u a l to th e ra te o f th e u p lif tm e n t, th e y b e c o m e
ab le to m a in ta in th e ir p r e v io u s c o u r s e s a n d th u s they
b e c o m e a n te c e d e n t s tre a m s. T h e n a tu re a n d d im e n
sio n o f th e u p liftm e n t a ls o d e te r m in e th e a n te c e d
en ce o f th e riv e rs . It is th e lo c a l a n d n o t th e re g io n a l
u p liftm e n t w h ic h g iv e s b irth to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
a n te c e d e n t stre a m s.
T h e o rig in a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n te c e d e n t
d ra in a g e sy ste m c a n b e e x p la in e d w ith th e h e lp o f a
d ia g ra m (fig . 18.4). ‘A ’ r iv e r (fig . 18.4(1.) h a s fu lly '
d e v e lo p e d its v a lle y a n d c o u rs e in a re g io n o f a lm o st
fla t to p o g ra p h ic s u rfa c e . T h e r iv e r is flo w in g fro m
w e st to east. A t a la te r d a te th e re is u p liftm e n t o f la n d
a re a a c ro ss riv e r ‘A ’ a t p o in t B . T h e la n d is ris in g in
a fo rm o f a rid g e w ith slo w ra te o f u p liftm e n t. T h is
lo c al u p liftm e n t o f th e la n d re ju v e n a te s th e riv e r ‘A ’
d u e to w h ic h it d e e p e n s its v a lle y w ith a c c e le ra te d
ra te o f d o w n c u ttin g . I f th e ra te o f d o w n c u ttin g (v a l
ley d e e p e n in g ) e q u a ls th e ra te o f u p lift th e b e d o f th e
riv e r v alley re m a in s c o n s ta n t a n d th e r iv e r m a in ta in s
its u su al flo w d ire c tio n . R iv e r ‘A ’ in th e se c o n d
s ta g e (fig . 1 8 .4 (2 )) h as d e e p e n e d its v a lle y so m u c h
so to m a tc h th e ra te o f u p liftm e n t. It is a p p a re n t fro m
fig u re 1 8 .4 (2 ) th a t ‘A ’ riy e r h a s c u t a c ro s s th e n ew ly
u p lifte d rid g e a n d h a s m a in ta in e d its p re v io u s co u rse.
T h e riv e r c o n tin u e s to d e e p e n its v a lle y th ro u g h
a c tiv e d o n w c u ttin g so lo n g as th e u p liftm e n t c o n tin
u es. T h u s, th e riv e r d e v e lo p s v e ry d e e p a n d n arro w
g o rg e s a c ro ss th e u p lifte d la n d a r e a (rid g e ) w h erein
Fig. 18.4 : Stages o f the developm ent o f antecedent
th e v a lle y sid e s a re o f c o n v e x
stream.
d r a in a g e s y s t e m s a n d p a t t e r n s
339
vertically fro m th e v a lle y flo o r (fig. 18.4(3). It m ay
th e ir m a ster stream s and h en ce th e ir v alleys are at
be p o in ted o u t th a t trib u ta rie s o f th e m a ste r a n te c e d
h ig h e r level than th e v alley s o f th eir m aster stream s.
ent stream s c a n n o t d e e p e n th e ir v alley s at p a r w ith
T h u s, the trib u tary v alley s b eco m e h an g in g valleys.
40 (Approximately)
Fig. 18.5 : The u p p er reaches o f the Arun river (after L.R. Wager, 1937).
E x a m p le s - E x a m p le s o f a n te c e d e n t stream s fo ld in g and u p liftm e n t o f the H im a lay an ran g es.

are fo u n d in a lm o s t all o f th e fo ld ed m o u n ta in s o f the W ith the u p liftm e n t o f these ran g es d u rin g T ertiary
w orld. M a n y o f th e m a jo r H im a la y a n riv e rs are the period these rivers m ain tain ed th eir so u th w ard courses
e x am p les o f a n te c e d e n t s tre a m s e.g. th e In d u s, the th ro u g h d o w n cu ttin g th e ir v alley s in h arm o n y w ith
S utlej, th e G a n g a , th e G h a g h ra , th e K ali, th e G an d ak , the rate o f u p liftm en t. A ll o f th e se riv ers h av e fo rm ed
the K osi, th e B ra h m a p u tra etc. It m ay be p o in te d o ut d eep and n arro w g o rg es w h ile cu ttin g acro ss th e
th at th e H im a la y a n m o u n ta in sy stem c o n sists o f H im alay an ran g es. T h e In d u s riv e r h as d u g o u t a
th ree p a ra lle l ra n g e s ru n n in g fro m w est to e a st viz. 1 7,000-foot d eep g o rg e acro ss th e G re a te r H im a la
(from n o rth to s o u th ) th e G re a te r H im a la y a , the yas n ear G ilg it. It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at a g ro u p o f
L esser H im a la y a an d th e O u te r H im a la y a o r S iw alik g eo lo g ists d o es n o t b eliev e in th e a n teced en c e o f th e
R ange. T h re e k in d s o f a n te c e d e n t stream s are id e n In d u s river. A cc o rd in g to th em the Indus is an
tified in te rm s o f th e ir a n te c e d e n c e to the a fo resaid ex am p le o f co n se q u e n t stream b eca u se c o n seq u en t
th ree ran g es o f th e H im a la y a s. (1 ) T h e In d u s, the stream s m ig h t h av e d ev elo p ed on the so u th ern slopes
S u tle j, th e G a n g a , th e G h a g h ra , th e K o si, th e o f the H im alay as. T h ese riv ers m ig h t h ave e x ten d ed
B rah m ap u tra etc. are a n te c e d e n t to all o f th e th ree th e ir co u rse s n o rth w a rd th ro u g h th e p ro cess o f
ranges o f th e H im a la y a s as th ey cu t acro ss the h e a d w a r d e r o s io n resu ltin g in to g rad u al b ack w ard
G reater, th e L e sse r a n d th e O u te r H im a la y a n ran g es. shifting o f th eir w ater divides. U ltim ately , the stream s
It is believed th a t th e se riv e rs w e re p re s e n t b e fo re th e o f the so u th ern slo p es o f th e H im a lay as m ig h t have,
c a p tu re d th e s tre a m s o f th e n o rth e rn slo p e s an d th u s c o n se q u e n t s tre a m s a re d e v e lo p e d on alm ost flat
th e y m ig h t h a v e e x te n d e d th e ir c o u rse s a c ro ss th e g ro u n d su rfa c e o f th e h o riz o n ta lly b e d d e d sedim en
H im a la y a n ra n g e s. T h e A ru n riv e r h as b een q u o te d tary rocks. T h ese stream s d ev elo p th e ir valleys through
as th e b e s t e x a m p le o f a n te c e d e n t riv e r by L .R . v ertical e ro sio n (d o w n c u ttin g ). W ith th e passage of
W a g e r (1 9 3 7 ). T h e A ru n riv e r (fig . 18.5) flo w s from tim e th e lo w e r stru c tu re is e x p o s e d to th e riv er which
w e st to e a s t in its u p p e r re a c h e s fo llo w in g th e s tru c c o n tin u e s its d o w n c u ttin g an d e x te n d s its valley
tu ral g ra in o f th e re g io n to th e n o rth o f th e H im a la d o w n w a rd on th e lo w e r g e o lo g ic a l stru ctu re (say
y a s. It s u d d e n ly tu rn s d u e s o u th w a rd an d d rain s an tic lin a l fo ld s, d o m e s o r b a th o lith s) an d thus the
a c ro s s th e H im a la y a s th ro u g h se v e ra l d e e p ly e n v alley d e v e lo p e d on th e u p p e r stru c tu re is superim
tre n c h e d n a rro w g o rg e s (fig . 18.5). A few g e o lo g ists p o sed on th e lo w e r stru c tu re . T h e lo w e r stru ctu re has
o p in e th a t th e su d d e n s o u th w a rd b e n d o f th e A ru n to a c c e p t th e fo rm o f th e v a lle y a lre a d y d ev elo p ed on
r iv e r is d u e to riv e r c a p tu re . T h e a d v o c a te s o f the th e e n tire ly d iffe re n t u p p e r s tru c tu re . T h u s, the river
a n te c e d e n t o rig in o f th e A ru n riv e r m a in ta in th a t the m a in ta in s th e fo rm o f its v a lle y , th e flo w direction
c o n v e x c o u rs e o f th e riv e r a c ro ss th e H im a la y a s an d its d ra in a g e p a tte rn s as u su al. S u c h riv e rs are
c o u ld b e p o s s ib le o n ly th ro u g h a c tiv e d o w n c u ttin g c a lle d s u p e rim p o se d riv e rs. H a d th e lo w e r structure
o f th e v a lle y in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e rate o f u p liftm e n t. b een p re s e n t on th e g ro u n d , th e n a tu re o f drainage
A s e rie s o f te rra c e s o n e ith e r sid e o f th e v a lle y o f the sy stem w o u ld h a v e c e rta in ly b e e n e n tire ly different
A ru n r iv e r a ls o v a lid a te its a n te c e d e n t o rig in . b u t th e b u rie d d iffe re n t g e o lo g ic a l stru c tu re has no
(2 ) T h e riv e rs , w h ic h a re a n te c e d e n t to o naly
lte rn a tiv e o th e r th a n to a d o p t th e n a tu re o f valley
'tw o ra n g e s o f th e H im a la y a s v iz. th e L e s s e r an d the an d flo w d ire c tio n d e v e lo p e d on th e u p p e r structure.
O u te r ( S iw a lik R a n g e ) H im a la y a s , are th e Jh e lu m , S u ch stre a m s a re u n c o n fo rm a l to th e lo cal g eo lo g i
th e Y a m u n a , th e R a v i, th e R a m g a n g a etc. (3) T h e cal s tru c tu re a n d slo p e s. S u ch u n c o n fo rm a l valley s
s tre a m s, w h ic h a re a n te c e d e n t o n ly to th e O u te r h a v e b een n a m e d as ‘s u p e r im p o s e d ’ by J.W . P ow ell
H im a la y a o r S iw a lik R a n g e , in c lu d e th e K a m la , the (1 8 5 7 ) an d D. M a w (1 8 8 6 ) an d ‘s u p e r p o s e d ’ by
R a p ti, th e G o la etc. W .J. M c G e e (1 8 8 8 ).
T h e m e c h a n is m o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a su
2. Superimposed Drainage System p e rim p o s e d s tre a m an d v alley can b e e x p la in e d w ith
L ik e a n te c e d e n t stre a m s su p e rim p o se d stream s th e h e lp o f a d ia g ra m (fig . 18.6). F ig u re 18.6 d ep icts
a re a lso n o t a d ju s te d to re g io n a l g e o lo g ic a l s tru c su ch a re g io n w h ic h is c h a ra c te riz e d by a fla t g ro u n d
tu re s a n d s lo p e a n d th u s a re in s e q u e n t o r a n ti-c o n s e
su rfa c e c o n s is tin g o f h o riz o n ta lly b e d d e d sed im en
q u e n t s tre a m s . S u p e rim p o s e d stre a m m e a n s a riv e r
tary ro ck s an d th e lo w e r s tru c tu re o f a n tic lin a l fold.
w h ic h , f lo w in g o n a d e fin ite g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n
F irs t o f all a c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m (fig . 18.6 (1) d ev e l
a n d s tru c tu re , h a s in h e rite d th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f its
o p s on th e u p p e r h o riz o n ta lly b e d d e d sed im en tary
p r e v io u s fo rm d e v e lo p e d on u p p e r g e o lo g ic a l fo r
fo rm a tio n . T h e riv e r is flo w in g in h a rm o n y w ith the
m a tio n o f e n tir e ly d if f e r e n t s tru c tu ra l c h a ra c te ris
g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n an d s tru c tu re a n d lo c al slope.
tic s . In o th e r w o rd s , a s u p e rim p o s e d d ra in a g e is
fo rm e d w h e n th e n a tu re a n d c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e W ith the p a ssa g e o f tim e th e c o n se q u e n t stream
v a lle y s a n d flo w d ire c tio n o f a c o n s e q u e n t stre a m d ig s o u t its v a lle y w ith s lo w p ro c e s s o f v alle y d e e p
d e v e lo p e d o n th e u p p e r g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n an d en in g . In the s e c o n d sta g e (fig . 18.6 (2 ) th e co n se
s tr u c tu re a re s u p e r im p o s e d on th e lo w e r g e o lo g ic a l q u e n t s tre a m fu lly d e v e lo p s its v a lle y on h o riz o n
f o rm a tio n o f e n tire ly d if f e r e n t c h a ra c te ris tic s . It is tally b e d d e d s e d im e n ta ry ro c k s . N o w th e a n ticlin al
n o t n e c e s s a ry th a t th e u p p e r g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n is p art (th ird sta g e , fig . 1 8 .6 (3 ) is e x p o s e d to th e riv e r
c o n fo rm a l to th e lo w e r g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n , ra th e r as th e u p p e r h o riz o n ta l b e d s o f s e d im e n ta ry ro ck
it h a p p e n s th a t s o m e tim e s th e u p p e r ro c k c o v e r is h a v e b een re m o v e d d u e to g ra d u a l d o w n c u ttin g .
e n tire ly d if fe r e n t fro m th e u n d e rly in g g e o lo g ic a l T h is a n tic lin a l lo w e r s tru c tu re is e n tire ly d iffe re n t
fo rm a tio n v iz. th e u p p e r c o v e r m a y c o n s is t o f h o r i fro m th e u p p e r stru c tu re o f th e h o riz o n ta l b e d s o f
z o n ta lly b e d d e d s e d im e n ta ry ro c k s w h ile th e lo w e r se d im e n ta ry ro c k s b u t th e riv e r e x te n d s its v alle y on
c o v e r m a y b e c o m p o s e d o f fo ld e d s e d im e n ta ry b e d s, th is lo w e r u n c o n fo rm a l s tru c tu re o f a n tic lin e in
o r d o m e d s tru c tu re o r b a th o lith ic in tru siv e s . T h e a c c o rd a n c e w ith its a lre a d y d e v e lo p e d v a lle y on the
DRAINAGE SYSTEM S A N D PATTERNS
3 41
u pper s tru c tu re i.e. th e riv e r d e g ra d e s th e an ticlin e
any u p liftm e n t o f the land area w hile the latter
th ro u g h d o w n c u ttin g an d c o n tin u e s to d e v e lo p its
rep resen ts the m ain ten a n ce o f fo rm er course o f the
v alley fu rth e r d o w n w a rd . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f riv er
riv er and its valley in sp ite o f u p liftm en t o f the land
valley g o e s on u n h in d e re d b e c a u se th e a n ticlin e
area acro ss the riv er co u rse d ue to co n co m itan t
b eco m es a p a s s iv e fa c to r in c o n tro llin g th e d e v e lo p
v alley d eep en in g and u p w arp in g o f the land.
m en t o f th e r iv e r v a lle y as it h as no o p tio n o th e r than
to a c c e p t th e fo rm o f th e v a lle y a lre a d y d e v e lo p e d in M ost o f the riv ers o f the D eccan trap (lava)
the u p p e r s tru c tu re . region o f P en in su la r In d ia are su p erim p o sed b e
cau se new d rain ag e sy stem w as ev o lv ed on the new
su rface form ed d ue to c o o lin g and so lid ificatio n o f '
lavas eru p ted d u rin g the C re ta c e o u s an d early T e rti
ary perio d s and th ese riv ers w ere su p e rim p o se d on
the lo w er fo rm atio n after the rem o v al o f la v a co v ers.
F o r ex am p le, the S u b arn arek h a riv e r is s u p e rim
posed on D alm a and p h y llite h ills to th e w e st o f
C handil in the so u th eastern C h o ta n a g p u r p la te a u
region o f B ihar.
E x a m p le - T h e Son riv e r flo w in g a c ro ss th e
K h ain ju a ridges in the so u th ern p art o f R e w a p la te a u
(M ad h y a P rad esh ) is a fin e e x a m p le o f s u p e rim
posed riv er (fig. 18.7). T h e Son riv e r flo w s p a ra lle l
and very clo se to the K h ain ju a rid g e b e tw e e n 81° 15’
E lo n g itu d e and D eo lan d (fig. 18.7). In fact, th e
K h ain ju a ridge o f q u artz ite sa n d sto n e s m a k es th e
southern bank o f the Son v alley . T h e riv e r su d d e n ly
cuts acro ss the K h ain ju a rid g e at D e o la n d an d th e n
flow s in so u th -easterly d irec tio n (fig. 18.7). A fte r its
co n flu en ce w ith the B an as riv e r it ag ain tu rn s n o rth
w ard and cuts acro ss the K h ain ju a rid g e and flo w s in
easterly directio n .
T he Son can n o t be an a n te c e d e n t riv er, th o u g h
it cuts acro ss K h ain ju a rid g es at tw o p la c e s, b e c a u se
(i) the K h ain ju a rid g es are c o m p o se d o f lo w e r
V in d h y an as w h ich w ere fo ld ed an d w a rp e d b efo re
the d ep o sitio n o f the u p p e r V in d h y a n se d im e n ta rie s,
(ii) th ere are no e v id e n c e s to su p p o rt an y lo c a liz e d
Fig. J8.6 : Stages o f the developm ent o f superimposed
rise in the rid g es afte r C am b rian p erio d , (iii) the
drainage system.
ev id en ce o f la terites to the n o rth o f K aim u r scarp s
N o w th e c o n s e q u e n t r iv e r a n d its v a lle y a re s u p e rim d en o tes the sp read o f b asaltic la v a o f the D eccan
p o s e d o n th e a n tic lin e a n d th e r iv e r m a in ta in s trap p ean age o f C re ta c e o u s p erio d w h ich m ig h t have
u su al c o u r s e . H a d th is a n tic lin e b e e n in itia lly e x b u ried and o b literated p rev io u s d ra ia n g e lin es, an d
p o s e d to th e g r o u n d s u r f a c e , th e d ra in a g e sy s e (rv) the ab sen ce o f any sig n ific a n t stream to the n o rth
w o u ld h a v e b e e n e n tir e ly d iffe re n t. o f the Son d o es not su p p o rt id ea o f the Son b ein g
T h e f u n d a m e n ta l d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n s u p e r o ld e r than the C rectaceo u s lav a flow .
im p o se d a n d a n te c e d e n t d r a in a g e s y s t e m s j e s 1n T h u s, the Son ap p ears to be su p erim p o sed
f a c t th a t th e f o r m e r r e p r e s e n ts th e sjijperim p riv er. It m ay be arg u ed th at the D eccan la w a flo w s
o f th e v a lle y d e v e lo p e d in th e u p p e r 8® d u rin g C retaceo u s p erio d co v ere d th e w h o le o f the
fo rm a tio n a n d s tr u c tu r e o n th e lo w e r s ru ut R e w a p la teau and co n seq u en tly b u ried th e p re -e x ist
sp e c tiv e o f its ty p e s a n d c o m p le x itie s
342
geom orphology
in g d ra in a g e n e tw o rk a n d re lie fs in c lu d in g K aim u rs
h av e been rem o v ed thro u g h co n tin u o u s b u t gradual
a n d K h a in ju a rid g e s . W ith th e in itia tio n o f su b -a e ria l
flu v ial ero sio n . O n ce th e Son estab lish ed its course
c o n d itio n s d u rin g T e rtia ry p e rio d n ew d ra in a g e lines
o v e r th e lav a co v ere d su rface, it co n tin u ed to erode
b e g a n to d e v e lo p o v e r th e so lid ifie d la v a c o v e r
its v alley o v e r th e b u rie d s tru c tu re s an d thus
(b a s a ltic la v a ) a n d th e S o n d e v e lo p e d its p re se n t
its v alley b ecam e su p erim p o sed o v er th e K hainjua ,
c o u rs e th ro u g h s e v e ra l s ta g e s . T h e la v a c o v e r m ig h t
rid g es.
Fig. 18.7: Superimposition o f the Son river over Khainjua ridges o f lower Vindhyans in southern part o f the Rewa
plateau (M.P.)
18.3 DRAINAGE PATTERNS o f d iffe re n t re g io n s a n d h e n c e th e re are a lso spatial

The drainage pattern means the ‘fo rm ’ (geo v a ria tio n s in d ra ia n g e p a tte rn s . T h o u g h th e drainage
metrical forms) of the drainage systems and the p a tte rn s o f so m e re g io n s m a y b e s im ila r b u t n o t the
spatial arrangement of streams in a particular local sa m e , b u t th e re are so m e c o m m o n ch ara cteristics
ity or region. The location, number and flow direc w h ic h e n a b le u s to d is tin g u is h d iffe re n t drainage
tions of different streams of a particular region p a tte rn s . G e n e ra lly , th e d ra in a g e p a tte rn s are di
depend on the nature of slope, structural control, v id e d in to th e fo llo w in g ty p e s : ( 1 ) tre llise d pattern, j
lithological characteristics, tectonic factors, climatic (2 ) d e n d ritic p a tte rn , (3 ) re c ta n g u la r p attern, (4)
conditions, vegetal characteristics etc. Since there p a ra lle l p a tte rn , (5 ) c e n trifu g a l o r rad ia l pattern, (o)
are much variations in the environmental conditions c e n trip e ta l p a tte rn , (7) a n n u la r p a tte rn , (8) bar
D R A IN A G E S Y S T E M S A N D P A T T E R N S
343
p attern, (8) in d e te rm in a te o r c o n fu se d p a tte rn , (9) ag e p attern s are g en era lly fo rm ed in th e reg io n s o f
h errin g b o n e p a tte rn , (1 0 ) p in n a te p attern etc. c u e sta to p o g rap h y w h ere h ard b ed s b eco m e e scarp
1. Trellised Pattern m en ts and so ft b ed s are ero d ed to b eco m e v alleys o r
lo w lan d s.
T re llis e d d ra in a g e p a tte rn s are fo rm e d by the
netw ork o f trib u ta rie s an d m a ste r c o n s e q u e n t stream s 2. Dendritic Pattern
w hich fo llo w th e re g io n a l slo p e an d are w ell a d D en d ritic o r tree -sh a p ed d ra in a g e p attern is
ju s te d to th e g e o lo g ic a l s tru c tu re s. S u ch p a tte rn s are the m o st co m m o n and w id e sp re a d p attern to be
d ev elo p ed in th e a re a o f s im p le fo ld s c h a ra c te riz e d fo u n d on the e a rth 's su rface. T h e p attern is ca lle d
by p arallel a n tic lin a l rid g e s a lte rn a te d by p arallel d en d ritic on the g ro u n d th at th e n etw o rk o f trib u ta r
sy n clin al v a lle y s. S e v e ra l m a s te r c o n s e q u e n t lo n g i ies o f v ario u s o rd ers and m a g n itu d e s o f th e tru n k o r
tu dinal s tre a m s a re d e v e lo p e d in th e e lo n g a te d lo n m a ster stream resem b les th e b ra n c h e s an d ro o ts an d
g itu d in al s y n c lin a l v a lle y s . T h e s e lo n g itu d in a l riv ro o tlets o f a tree. T h e d e n d ritic p attern is a s so c ia te d
ers an d th e ir v a lle y s o c c u p y in g th e fu rro w s b etw een w ith the areas o f h o m o g e n eo u s lith o lo g ie s, h o riz o n
p arallel rid g e s a re p a ra lle l to e a c h o th er* S ev eral tal or very g en tly d ip p in g strata, fla t an d ro llin g
stream s d e v e lo p on b o th th e fla n k s o f th e rid g es and ex ten siv e to p o g rap h ic su rface h a v in g e x tre m e ly lo w
jo in th e lo n g itu d in a l s y n c lin a l s tre a m s at rig h t angle. reliefs. T h o u g h d en d ritic p attern is in d e p e n d e n t o f
T h ese trib u ta ry s tre a m s are c a lle d as la teral c o n se stru ctu ral and lith o lo g ical c o n tro ls b u t a lm o s t u n i
q u en t s tre a m s . T h u s , th e re s u lta n t n e tw o rk o f n u form lith o lo g y (p resen ce o f sam e ty p e o f ro c k s in
m e ro u s lo n g itu d in a l s tre a m s an d tra n sv e rse or la t ex ten siv e area) p resen ts m o st id eal c o n d itio n fo r th e
eral c o n s e q u e n t is c a lle d tre llis e d p attern . T h is p a t d e v elo p m en t o f d e n d ritic d ra in a g e p a tte rn . T h is p a t
tern a lso re s e m b le s th e re c ta n g u la r p attern . In fact, tern develops in a variety o f stru ctu ral and lith o lo g ical
th e tre llis e d a n d r e c ta n g u la r p a tte rn s are d iffe re n ti e n v iro n m en ts su ch as in th e m o u n ta in o u s an d h illy
a te d on th e b a s is o f s p a c in g b e tw e e n the stream s. If areas (e.g. d e n d ritic p attern is o n e o f th e d o m in a n t
th e s tre a m s a re c lo s e ly s p a c e d , th e re su lta n t p attern p attern s in th e H im a lay as), on e x te n siv e p la te a u
b e c o m e s tre llis e d w h ile re c ta n g u la r p attern is fo rm ed su rface (e.g. D eccan p la teau ), on p e n e p la in su rfa c e s
w h en th e s tre a m s a re w id e ly sp aced . T re llise d d rain - (e.g. the P e n in su la r p e n ep lain s o f In d ia , m o stly in
the basins o f th e M ah a n ad i, th e G o d av ari, th e K rish n a,
th e C au v ery , th e D a m o d a r etc.), in th e a llu v ia te d
p la in s (e.g. G re a t P lain s o f N o rth In d ia), in th e d e s e rt
p la in s (e.g. R ajasth an d e se rt), in th e g la c ia te d lo w
lan d reg io n s (e.g. N o rth E u ro p e a n p la in s an d n o rth
ern lo w la n d s o f N o rth A m e ric a ) etc.
T h e e v o lu tio n o f d e n d ritic p a tte rn is g u id e d
by th e lith o lo g ical c h a ra c te ristic s m a in ly th e p e rm e
ab ility o f u n d e rly in g ro c k s, th e a m o u n t a n d re g im e
o f rain fa ll an d re s u lta n t su rfa c e r u n o f f an d th e tim e
facto r. F irst o f all th e m a s te r o r tru n k c o n se q u e n t
stream d e v e lo p s on g en tly s lo p in g to p o g ra p h ic s u r
face. T h e m a ste r c o n s e q u e n t g ra d u a lly b u t slo w ly
le n g th e n s its lo n g itu d in a l c o u rs e th ro u g h h e a d w a rd
e ro sio n . M a jo r trib u ta ry s tre a m s o f th e m a ste r stre a m
d e v e lo p on e ith e r sid e o f th e tru n k stre a m (fig . 18.9).
T h e se trib u ta rie s a lso le n g th e n th e ir lo n g itu d in a l
c o u rse s th ro u g h h e a d w a rd e ro s io n a n d b ra n c h e s o f
trib u ta rie s are d e v e lo p e d in d u e c o u rs e o f tim e (fig .
18.9 (2). In th e b e g in n in g th e d e n d ritic p a tte rn is
Fig. 18.8: Development o f trellised drainage pattern on ‘op en ’ b e c a u se th e s tre a m s a re fe w in n u m b e r a n d
fo ld ed structure. a re w id e ly s p a c e d (fig. 1 8 .9 ( 1 ) b u t w ith th e passage
344 g eom orphology
o f tim e a d e n s e m e s h o f m u ltitu d e s o f trib u ta rie s o f a lm o s t a t rig h t a n g le b u t the c o n flu e n c e an g le in the

v a rio u s h ie ra rc h ic a l o r d e r s is d e v e lo p e d a n d th u s th e tre llis e d p a tte rn is g u id e d b y th e strik e s an d d ip angle
in it ia l o p e n n e tw o r k b e c o m e s a ‘c lo s e d p a ttern * as o f th e ro c k b e d s w h ile it is d e te rm in e d by th e lines
th e s tre a m s a re v e ry c lo s e ly s p a c e d . A t a m u c h la te r o f w e a k n e s s e s (e.g . fa u lts a n d fra c tu re s an d jo in ts) o f
d a te , i.e. in th e p e n u ltim a te s ta g e o f d ra in a g e d e v e l th e ro c k s in th e re c ta n g u la r p a tte rn . T h e seco n d line
o p m e n t, th e d e n d ritic p a tte rn b e c o m e s ‘sim p lified * o f d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e s e tw o d ra in a g e p attern s is
d u e to ‘s u r f a c e a b str a c tio n * b e c a u s e m a n y o f th e re la te d to th e sp a c in g o f s tre a m s i.e. th e rectan g u lar
tr ib u ta r ie s a re in te g ra te d d u e to a c tiv e r iv e r c a p p a tte rn is c h a ra c te riz e d by w id e ly sp a c e d trib u taries
tu r e . w h ile tre llise d p a tte rn h as a d e n s e m e sh o f closely
S lo p e a n d p e r m e a b ility o f ro c k s v e ry e f f e c sp a c e d trib u ta rie s.
tiv e ly c o n tr o l th e n u m b e r a n d e x te n s io n o f stre a m s R e c ta n g u la r p a tte rn is g e n e ra lly d ev e lo p e d in
o f d e n d r itic d r a in a g e p a tte rn . T h e d ra in a g e n e tw o rk th e re g io n s w h e re th e ro c k jo in ts fo rm rectan g u lar
o f d e n d r itic p a tte rn b e c o m e s m o s t e x te n s iv e if the p a tte rn . T h e ro c k s are w e a th e re d a n d e ro d e d along
la n d s u r fa c e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by fla t s u rfa c e , le v e l to th e in te rfa c e s o f jo in ts , fra c tu re s a n d fa u lts and thus
g e n tle s lo p e s a n d im p e rm e a b le ro c k s . In su c h e n v i su rfa c e ru n o f f c o lle c ts in su c h lo n g an d n arro w clefts
r o n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s th e p a tte rn e x te n d s b o th in (re s u ltin g fro m th e w e a th e rin g a n d e ro s io n o f jo in ts)
le n g th a n d w id th b u t i f th e re g io n is c h a ra c te riz e d by an d fo rm s n u m e ro u s sm a ll rills . T h e s e rills are
h ig h e r s lo p e a n g le s , th e p a tte rn e x te n d s m o re in fu rth e r e x te n d e d in le n g th a n d w id th an d b ecom e
le n g th th a n in w id th . T h e e x te n s iv e p la te a u s u rfa c e s c h a n n e ls . W ith th e m a rc h o f tim e a n e tw o rk o f
o f th e P a n n a p la te a u , B h a n d e r p la te a u an d R e w a s tre a m s is d e v e lo p e d w h e re in s tre a m s fo llo w the
p la te a u (M .P .) c o m p o s e d o f s a n d s to n e s c a p p in g and lin es o f w e a k n e ss (jo in ts a n d fra c tu re s). T h e trib u
th e p e n e p la in e d s u rfa c e o f th e c e n tra l R a n c h i p la ta ries jo in th e ir m a ste r stre a m s a lm o s t at rig h t an g les
te a u c o m p o s e d o f g r a n ite - g n e is s e s h av e fa v o u re d an d th u s a re c ta n g u la r d ra in a g e p a tte rn is fo rm e d
e x te n s iv e d e n d ritic d r a in a g e p a tte rn w h ile e lo n g a te d (fig . 18.10).
d e n d r itic p a tte rn h a s d e v e lo p e d a lo n g th e m id d le
a n d lo w e r s e g m e n ts o f th e e s c a rp m e n ts a s s o c ia te d
w ith th e s e p la te a u s .
Fig. 18.10 : An example o f rectangular drainage pattern.
Fig. 18.9 : Stages o f the developm ent o f dendritic drain 4. Radial Drainage Pattern
age pattern. Radial drainage pattern, also known as cen
3. Rectangular Pattern trifugal pattern is formed by the streams which
Rectangular pattern shows some degree of diverge from a central higher point in all directions.
resemblance to trellised drainage pattern as tributary It is obvious that dome structures, v o l c a n i c cones,
batholiths and laccoliths, residual hills, small table
streams in both the patterns join their master streams
DRAINAGE SY ST E M S A N D PATTERNS
lands, m e sa s a n d b u tte s, an d iso la ted u p la n d s fa v o u r b ec a u se it is c h a ra c te riz e d b y th e s tre a m s w h ic h

the d e v e lo p m e n t o f id e al rad ia l p a tte rn (fig . 18.11). c o n v e rg e at a p o in t w h ic h is g e n e ra lly a d e p re s s io n
T he stre a m s e m e rg e at th e c e n tra l p o in t o f th e a fo re o r a b asin . T h is p a tte rn is fo rm e d by a se rie s o f
said re lie fs a n d d ra in d o w n the slo p es in all d ire c stream s w h ic h a fte r e m e rg in g fro m su rro u n d in g
tions. S in c e th e s tre a m s fo llo w th e slo p es an d h en ce u p la n d s c o n v e rg e in a c e n tra l lo w la n d w h ic h m a y b e
they are b a sic a lly c o n s e q u e n t stream s. T h e se stream s ad ep ressio n , o ra b a s in or a crater lake. T h e K athm andu
re se m b le th e s p o k e s o f a w h eel o r the rad ii o f a circle. v alley o f N ep al p re s e n ts an id e a l e x a m p le o f c e n trip
If w e ta k e th e e n tire d ra in a g e n e tw o rk o f S ri L an k a, etal d ra in a g e p a tte rn w h e re in th e trib u ta ry stre a m s
it e x h ib its th e b est e x a m p le o f ra d ia l d ra in a g e p attern
o f the B ag h m ati c o n v e rg e in th e te c to n ic a lly fo rm e d
at m a c ro -le v e l. T h e lo cal u p la n d situ a te d to the
c irc u la r b asin . T h e d e p re s s io n fo rm e d at th e to p o f
so u th -w e s t o f R an ch i city h as g iv e n b irth to radial
R aig arh D o m e in th e L o w e r C h a m b a l B asin h as
d r a in a g e p a tte rn w h e re in th e S o u th K o e l. the
g iven birth to c e n tip e ta l d ra in a g e p a tte rn .
S u b a rn a re k h a , the K an ch i an d the K aro riv ers take
th e ir so u rc e s an d ra d ia te in d iffe re n t d irec tio n s.
300M
t0 m SOOXf
400M V
V
500M /
Fig. 18.12 : An example o f centripetal drainage pattern.

6. Annular Drainage Pattern
A n n u lar p a tte rn , also k n o w n as ‘c ir c u la r p a t
te r n ’, is fo rm ed w h en th e trib u ta rie s o f th e m a s te r
Fig. 18.11 : E xa m p le o f radial drainage pattern.
c o n se q u e n t stream s are d e v e lo p e d in th e fo rm o f a
H a z a rib a g h p la te a u , P a ra s n a th h ill, P an ch et
circle. S u ch p attern (fig . 18 .1 3 ) is d e v e lo p e d o v e r a
hill a n d D a lm a la v a u p la n d (all in B ih a r) h av e issu ed
m a tu re and d isse c te d d o m e m o u n ta in c h a ra c te riz e d
ra d ia l d r a in a g e p a tte rn . M o rc h a p a h a r an d L u g u hill
by a series o f a lte rn a te b a n d s o f h a rd an d so ft ro ck
o f H a z a rib a g h (B ih a r), M t. A b u (R a ja sth a n ) etc.
beds. T h e d iffe re n tia l e ro sio n o f h a rd an d so ft ro c k
p re s e n t id e a l e x a m p le s o f ra d ia l d ra in a g e p a tte rn . A t
b ed s resu lts in th e tru n c a tio n o f th e b ed s w h ich
a re g io n a l le v e l th e R o h ta s p la te a u o f S .W . B ih a r
p ro d u c e s r in g e d b e lte d s tr u c tu r e w h erein re la
p ro v in c e p re s e n ts a g o o d e x a m p le o f ra d ia l d ra in a g e
tiv ely re s is ta n t b ed s p ro je c t o u tw a rd w h e re a s th e
p a tte rn w h e re in th e K a ra m n a s a a n d th e D u rg a w a ti
w e a k e r (so ft) b e d s fo rm c irc u la r c lefts. T h e m a ste r
riv e rs a n d th e ir s o u rc e trib u tarie 's e m e rg e fro m th e
s o u th -w e s te rn c o rn e r o f th e p la te a u a n d flo w in the c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s e m e rg e a t th e to p o f th e d o m e
w e s te rn , n o rth -w e s te rn , n o rth e rn , an d n o rth -e a ste rn an d re d ia te in all d ire c tio n s d o w n th e slo p e like
d ire c tio n s w h e re a s th e trib u ta rie s o f th e S o n riv e r ra d ia l d ra in a g e p a tte rn w h e re a s trib u ta ry stre a m s
flo w in th e s o u th e rn d ire c tio n . d e v e lo p in th e c le fts fo rm e d d u e to e ro sio n o f so ft
b ed s, a ssu m e a rc u a te sh a p e a n d jo in th e m a ste r
5. Centripetal Drainage Pattern
C e n trip e ta l o r in la n d d ra in a g e p a tte rn (fig. c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s a n d th u s a n n u la r d ra in a g e p a t
1 8.12) is o p p o s ite to th e ra d ia l d ra in a g e p a tte rn tern is fo rm e d . A t a m u c h la te r d a te trib u ta rie s o f
346
GEOMORPHOLOGY
circular subsequent stream s, w hich jo in the radial
consequent, are also dev elo p ed and thus the d rain
age pattern becom es a special case o f trellised
Fig. 18.13 : An example o f annular drainage pattern.

p attern . A n n u la r d rain a g e p attern has developed
o v e r d e n u d e d d o m es in the W eald o f E n gland. The
m a tu re d issected S o n ap et d o m e o f B ih ar p resen ts an
ideal e x a m p le o f a n n u la r d rain a g e pattern.
7. Barbed Drainage Pattern

B a rb ed d rain a g e p attern , a rare kind o f d rain
ag e p a tte rn , is fo rm ed w hen the trib u tarie s flow in
o p p o site d ire c tio n to th e ir m a ster stream s. T he trib u
ta ries jo in th e ir m a ste r stream s in a h o o k -sh ap ed
bend. S u c h p a tte rn is g en era lly d ev elo p ed due to
riv e r c a p tu re (fig . 18.14).
8. Pinnate Drainage Pattern

Fig. 18.14 : Stages o f the development o f barbed drainage
P in n a te p a tte rn is d e v e lo p e d in a n arro w v al
pattern.
ley flan k ed by steep ran g es. T h e trib u tarie s o rig in a t
in g from the ste e p sid e s o f p a rallel rid g es jo in the developed in mountainous areas where broad val
lo n g itu d in a l m a ste r c o n s e q u e n t o ccu p y in g ihe v al leys are flanked by parallel ridges having steep
ley at acu te an g les (fig. 18.15). T h e d ra in a g e n e t hillslide slopes. The longitudinal consequent streams,
w o rk o f the u p p e r S on and N a rm a d a riv ers d en o tes as master streams are developed in the longitudinal
th e e x a m p le o f p in n a te d ra in a g e p attern . T h is p attern parallel valleys while tributaries, as lateral conse
re se m b le s the v ein s o f a leaf. quent, after originating from the hillslopes of the
9. Herringbone Pattern bordering parallel ridges join the longitudinal con
Herringbone drainage pattern, also known as sequent almost at right angle. The courses of the
rib pattern (like the rib bones o f human beings), is tributaries are straightened because of slope factor
Fig. 18.15 : Example o f pinnate drainage pattern.
and little d ista n c e b etw ee n th e rid g es and the lo ngi both the sides and thus fo rm s h e rrin g b o n e d ra in a g e
tudinal c o n s e q u e n t o c c u p y in g the valleys and thus pattern. T he riv ers o ccu p y in g e a s t-w e s t tre n c h e s in
the trib u tarie s are n o t allo w ed to ad o p t sinuous the H im alayas form h errin g b o n e p a tte rn . T h e T a m a r
course and jo in th e lo n g itu d in a l co n seq u en t at acute Kosi, a left bank trib u tary o f th e K osi riv e r, the u p p e r
angles (fig. 18.16). T h e term h errin g b o n e has been R ap ti (a trib u ta ry o f th e G h a g h r a r iv e r ) , the
derived fro m th e p attern o f b o n es o f h erring fish Rapti (an o th er one), the left b a n k trib u ta ry o f the
(m ainly sp in e b o n es). T h e u p p er Jh elu m riv er in the G an d ak riv e r e tc. h a v e fo rm e d s u c h d r a in a g e
V ale o f K a sh m ir re c e iv e s n u m e ro u s trib u taries from pattern.
Fig. 18.16 : An example o f herringbone drainage pattern.

10. Parallel Drainage Pattern
Parallel drainage pattern comprises numer
ous rivers which are parallel to each other and follow
the regional slope. This pattern is more frequently
developed on uniformly sloping and dipping rock
beds such as cuestas or newly emerged coastal
plains. The western coastal plains o f India represent
several examples o f parallel drainage patterns where
the streams after taking their sources from the west
ern flanks of the Western Ghats drain in straight
courses towards west to empty into the Arabian Sea.
Parallel drainage pattern has also developed on the
Eastern Coastal Plains o f India. It may be pointed out Fig. 18.17: Example o f parallel drainage pattern.
348
geomorphology
that 'a subparallel pattern is therefore essentially an
‘in itia l d r a in a g e p a tte r n ’ (fig. 18.17).
River Capture
18.4 MEANING AND CONCEPT
T h e d iv e rsio n o f the p art o f the co u rse o f a
riv e r by a n o th e r riv e r is ca lle d stream diversion or
stream capture o r stream piracy. T he riv er w hich
c a p tu re s th e c o u rse o f a n o th e r riv er is called the
capturing o r captor stream w h ile the p art o f the
stre a m w h ic h h as b e e n d iv e sted o f its co u rse and
w a te r is c a lle d captured stream . R iv er cap tu re is a
n a tu ra l p ro c e ss w h ic h is m o re activ e in the youthful
stag e o f th e v alle y d e v e lo p m e n t b ecau se the stream s
are a c tiv e ly e n g a g e d in headward erosion and val
ley lengthening b u t riv e r cap tu re also occurs during
m a tu re an d se n ile stag es o f the v alley d ev elo p m en t
th ro u g h the p ro c e ss o f lateral erosion and meander
intersection. T he stro n g er and m ore pow erful stream s
(in te rm s o f ch a n n e l g rad ie n t, stream velocity and
d is c h a rg e an d k in e tic en erg y ) cap tu re the up p er
c o u rs e s o f w e a k an d slu g g ish stream s. F ig u re 18.18
d e p ic ts the stag es o f the cap tu re o f the S arasw ati
riv e r by the Y a m u n a riv er.
T h e re are fo u r m a jo r ev id en ces o f riv er c ap
tu re viz. (i) elbow o f capture, (ii) cols or w in d gaps,
(iii) water gaps, an d (iv) m is fit or u n d e r f it streams
and valleys. T he e lb o w o f cap tu re d en o tes the p oint
(fig . 18.19 (E ) w h ere the co u rse o f the cap tu red
s tre a m h as b een d iv e rte d to the co u rse o f the cap to r
stre a m . G e n e ra lly , th e elb o w o f cap tu re denotes
s h a rp tu rn in th e c o u rse o f a riv e r alm o st at right
a n g le. T h e w a te r g ap d e n o te s the d eep and narrow
v alle y in th e fo rm o f a g o rg e fo rm ed by the cap to r
s tre a m th ro u g h h e a d w a rd ero sio n acro ss the ridge Fig. 18.18 : Stages o f the capture o f the Saraswati river
through the process o f headward erosion.
(fig. 18.19, W G ).
W in d g ap is the dry p o rtio n o f the b eh ead ed it requires certain necessary co n d itio n s. In act, the
stream ju s t b e lo w he e lb o w o f cap tu re (fig. 18.19 process o f riv er cap tu re d ep en d s on ch an n el gradient,
(w g ). T h e w in d g ap is a lso c a lle d as col. T h e m isfit depth o f river valley, vo lu m e o f w ater, velocity and
o r u n d e rfit stream is th e lo w er c o u rse o f the cap tu red disch arg e, lith o lo g ical ch ara cteristics and geological
stream . It is c a lle d m isfit b eca u se o f the fact th at the structures, stage o f cy cle o f ero sio n o r the stage of
fo rm e r v a lle y o f the c a p tu re d stream b eco m es too riv er d ev elo p m en t. A p articu lar riv er o f a locality
la rg e and w id e fo r the b eh ea d ed stream b eca u se o f hav in g d eep er valley, m ore v o lu m e o f w ater, steeper
s u b sta n tia l d e c re a se in the v o lu m e o f w a te r due to ch an n el g rad ien t and hen ce h ig h er velocity and ki
d iv e rsio n o f its w ater to the c a p to r stream . netic en erg y and flo w in g o v er less resistan t and softer
rocks than the o th e r riv er o f th at region resorts to
Ideal Conditions for River Capture m ore p o w erfu l h ead w ard ero sio n than the latter, and
Though the river capture is a natural process, thus m ay u su rp th e w ater and u p p er reaches o f the
but it does not take place in all circumstances rather w eak er river. It m ay be, thus, in ferred that river
D RA IN A G E SY S T E M S A N D PA TTERN S
cap tu re o c c u rs u n d e r th e fo llo w in g co n d itio n s - ( I )

d iv id e h av in g less steep sio p e, rela tiv e ly resistan t
steep c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t, (2
(2 )) rela tiv e ly n arro w v a i w rela
™ tiv e ly n arro w valley so
rocks and low p recip ita tio n . C o n seq u en tly , the e ro
* a t w a te r m a y n o t s p re a d in the o th e rw ise w id e and
siv e p o w er o f the fo rm er b eco m es m u c h m ore than
flat va^ y s , (3 ) h ig h e r v o lu m e o f w ater so th at veloc-
the latter. T he p o w erfu l stream p u shes th e w ater
ro ck s so th ata th e ** SUfflcientIy h iSh > (4 ) soft d iv id e b ack w ard to w ard s the side o f gentle slope
ro ck s so th a t th e riv e r m a y re so rt to rap id rate o f
through acti ve headw ard erosion. Prolonged headw ard
h e a d w a rd e ro s io n , (5 ) d e e p e r v alley than the valleys
o f o th e r n e ig h b o u rin g riv e rs, (6) lo w sed im en t load so ero sio n by m ore p o w erfu l stream flow ing on the
th at th e r iv e r m a y re s o rt to a c tiv e ero sio n etc. steep er hillsid e o f the d iv id e resu lts in the co a le s
cen ce o f the so u rces o f both the stream s on o p p o site
Types of River Capture sides o f the d iv id es. S in ce the v alley flo o r o f the
It is a p p a r e n t fro m th e a b o v e d isc u ssio n that stream o f the steep e r side o f the d iv id e is lo w er than
th e p ro c e s s o f ri v e r c a p tu r e is e ffe c te d by ero sio n o f the v alley floor o f the stream o f th e g e n tle r sid e o f th e
d iffe r e n t s o rts v iz . h e a d w a r d e ro s io n (v alley le n g th d ivide and h en ce th e fo rm er c a p tu re s the h ea d w a te rs
e n in g ), v e rtic a l e ro s io n (v a lle y d e e p e n in g o r d o w n o f the latter.
w a rd c u ttin g ) , la te ra l e ro s io n (v a lle y w id en in g ), and The p ro cess o f riv er cap tu re m ay be e x p la in e d
in te rs e c tio n o f m e a n d e r s (la te ra l e ro sio n ). H ead w ard w ith the help o f an ex am p le. C o n se q u e n t stre a m s
a n d l a t e r a l e r o s i o n is th e m o s t p o w e r f u l originate on the slo p es,o f any u p lifted la n d m ass. T h e
g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l p ro c e s s o f riv e r cap tu re. It m ay m o st active and the lo n g e st c o n se q u e n t is c a lle d the
a lso b e p o in te d o u t th a t h e a d w a rd ero sio n is m ore m aster co n seq u en t. ‘A ’ is th e m aster consequent
e f f e c tiv e in te rm s o f r iv e r c a p tu re d u rin g ju v e n ile (fig. 18. 19 I) w h ile ‘B ’ is the o th e r c o n s e q u e n t
s ta g e (y o u th f u l s ta g e ) o f riv e r d e v e lo p m e n t w hile stream show n in figure 18. 19. ‘A ! stre a m is flo w in g
la te ra l e r o s io n b e c o m e s m o re o p e ra tiv e d u rin g m a through steep er slo p e and ch an n e l g ra d ie n t th a n B
tu re s ta g e . T h e c a p tu r e o f th e c o u rse o f a p articu la r stream and thus the fo rm er h as d e e p e n e d its v alle y
r iv e r b y th e o th e r r iv e r th ro u g h th e in tersectio n o f m uch m ore than the latter, w ith the re su lt th e v alley
m e a n d e r s o c c u r s m o s tly d u rin g late m a tu rity and floor o f A stream is lo w er than the v alley flo o r o f B
s e n ile s ta g e (o ld s ta g e ). T h u s, th e fo rm s o f riv er stream . It is, thus, ap p are n t th at A stream is m o re
c a p tu r e m a y b e g r o u p e d in 3 b ro a d c a te g o rie s viz. (1) active than B stream . A few su b se q u e n t o r la te ra l
c a p tu re th ro u g h h e a d w a rd ero sio n , (2) cap tu re through co n seq u en t stream s em erg e fro m the rid g e (fig.
la te ra l e r o s io n , a n d (3 ) c a p tu re th ro u g h th e in te rse c 18. 19 I) and jo in the lo n g itu d in a l c o n se q u e n t A and
tio n o f m e a n d e r s . B stream s at alm o st rig h t an g les. F o r ex a m p le , C and
D are the trib u taries o f stream s A and B re sp e c tiv e ly .
1. River Capture Through Headward Erosion T h ese tw o trib u tarie s tak e th e ir so u rces on b o th the
M o s t o f th e r iv e r c a p tu re s o c c u r d u e to s lo p e s 'o f the sam e ridge. T he v alley o f C w o u ld be
h e a d w a r d e r o s io n . In th e in itia l sta g e o f th e ir d e v e l also d eep er than the v alley o f D stream b eca u se the
o p m e n t m o s t o f th e s tre a m s and th e ir trib u ta rie s are valley o f the m a ste r stream o f C ( A ) is d e e p e r than the
e n g a g e d in a c tiv e h e a d w a rd e ro sio n re su ltin g into valley o f the rece iv in g sream o f D (B ). T h u s, the
c o n tin u o u s c r e e p in g o r s h iftin g o f w a te r d iv id e s and head w ard ero sio n by C stream w o u ld be m o re active
le n g th e n in g o f th e ir v a lle y th a lw e g s. T h e n atu re and and v ig o ro u s than he h ead w ard e ro sio n by D stream .
in te n s ity o f h e a d w a r d e ro s io n o f an y s t^ largC y T he w ater d iv id e is g rad u ally p u sh ed b ack (to w ard s
d e p e n d s o n th e p o te n tia l e n e rg y (h e ig h t of the the so u rce o f the stream D ) b eca u se o f m ore activ e
v id e ) a n d th e s te e p n e s s o f th e s id e slo p e olt th e w a te r h ead w ard ero sio n by C stream . A tim e co m es w hen
d iv id e . G e n e ra lly , th e s id e slo p e s o f th e divide: are the C stream cu ts acro ss the rid g e and ex ten d s its
u n e q u a l. T h e s tre a m s o rig in a tin g from th e p co u rse th ro u g h d eep and narro w v alley (g o rg e) and
s lo p e s o f th e d iv id e h a v in g r e l a t i v e l y so fte r ro ck s cap tu res the co u rse o f D stream (fig. 18.19 II). N ow
a n d m o re p re c ip ita tio n a n d re la tiv e ly sh o rt ch an n el the w ater o f the u p p er co u rse o f the long itu d in al
le n g th s d e g ra d e th e ir v a lle y s th ro u g h the p ro cess o f c o n seq u en t B stream also flo w s in to the master
v a lle y d e e p e n in g m o re p o w e rfu lly and re s o it o co n seq u en t A stream via the in teg rated D and C
h e a d w a rd e ro s io n a t m o re a c c e le ra te d rate th an th o se trib u tary stream s. N ow the w ater of BEDC in the
form o f one ch an n el drains into A stream. This
s tre a m s w h ic h o rig in a te fro m th e o th e r sid e o t the
o f B stream (fro m th e s o u rc e to E p o in t, th e elbow
o f c a p tu re ) w ere d iv e rte d to w a rd s A stream v ia D
an d C s tre a m s d u e to fa llo u t o f th e first stage. C -D
stre a m s n o w flo w th ro u g h d e e p ly e n tre n c h e d nar
ro w v alley k n o w n as g o rg e (fig . 18.19 II). T his
n arro w p a ssa g e th ro u g h th e rid g e is ca lle d w ater
g a p (w g in fig. 18 .1 9 ). B -E p o rtio n o f th e fo rm er B
c o n s e q u e n t stre a m h as b e c o m e c a p tu r e d sream
w h ich tu rn s at rig h t a n g le fo rm in g an elb o w o f
ca p tu r e (E in fig. 18.19 II). H -B p o rtio n o f the
fo rm e r B c o n s e q u e n t h as n o w b e c o m e a b eh ead ed
str e a m , the u p p e r p a rt o f w h ic h is c a lle d w in d gap
l(w'g in fig. 18.19 II) b e c a u se o f d ry b ed o f the river
d u e to c a p tu re o f the u p p e r p o rtio n o f th e riv er. The
H -B p o rtio n o f th e fo rm e r B c o n s e q u e n t sream has
now b eco m e m is fit o r u n d e r fit r iv e r b e c a u se now
the e x istin g H -B stream is u n a b le to a d ju s t itse lf in
its fo rm e r v alley b ec a u se o f m a rk e d re d u c tio n in the
v o lu m e o f w ater d u e to d iv e rsio n o f its h e a d w a te rs
to A stream i via D -C stre a m s as a re s u lt o f riv e r
cap tu re. T h ere are tw o e v id e n c e s w h ic h e n a b le the
in v e stig ato rs to id e n tify the c a p tu re d s tre a m s in th e
field viz. (i) e lb o w o f c a p tu r e an d (ii) w in d g a p ju s t
to the d o w n stream sid e o f the elb o w . T h e e ro sio n a l
w ork o f the b eh ea d ed strea m b e c o m e s a lm o s t nil
b ecau se o f m ark ed red u ctio n in th e v o lu m e o f w ater.
S om e tim es, the v alley o f th e b eh ea d ed stream
b eco m es alm o st dry. O n the o th e r h an d , the ca p to r
strea m (fig. 18.19, C and A ) re so rts to m o re v ertical
ero sio n re su ltin g into a c c elera ted rate o f v alley d e e p
e n in g b eca u se o f m a rk e d in c re a se in th e v o lu m e o f
w a te r d u e to ad d itio n a l su p p ly o f w a te r o f D stream
an d h ea d w a te rs o fB stream (B -E p o rtio n ) b eca u se o f
riv e r c a p tu re . It m ay be p o in te d o ut that C and D
trib u ta ry stre a m s w ere fo rm erly flo w in g in o p p o site
d ire c tio n s (fig . 18.19 I) b u t n o w th e w aters o f D
stream flo w in th e d ire c tio n o f C stream . T h u s, such
stre a m s o f re v e rse d flo w d ire c tio n are called in
v e r te d str e a m s.
E x a m p le - A g r o u p o f g e o lo g is ts an d
g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts b e lie v e th a t th e p re se n t drainage
Fig. 1 8 .1 9 : Illustration o f river capture through headward sy ste m o f the H im a la y a s is the o u tc o m e o f p ro g res
erosion. WG = w ater Gap, wg=wind gap. siv e riv e r p ira c y d u rin g v ario u s stag es o f d rain ag e
d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e A ru n K osi, a h ead trib u tary o f the
e x a m p le illu s tr a te s th e c a p tu re o f tw o s tre a m s a t tw o
K osi riv er, h as c a p tu re d th e P h u n g C ho, a southern
s ta g e s . F irs t, D s tre a m , a trib u ta ry o f B s tre a m , w as
trib u ta ry o f th e T sa n g p o (th e u p p er p art ° f
c a p tu re d b y C s tre a m , a trib u ta ry o f A stre a m th ro u g h
B ra h m a p u tra riv e r is ca lle d T sa n g p o ) river.
a c tiv e h e a d w a r d e ro s io n . S e c o n d ly , th e h e a d w a te rs
DRAINAGE SY STEM S A N D PATTERNS m
‘ t*!
h e ad -trib u ia ries o f th e G a n g a e .g . the B h a g ira th i an d riv er) is o n ly a fe w m e tre s w id e n e a r D e h ra D u n (fig .
the V ish n u g a n g a h av e c a p tu re d th e so u rc e trib u ta r 18.2). It is e x p e c te d th a t th e S o n g riv e r m a y c a p tu re
ies o f the S u tle j riv e r. T h e w a te r d iv id e b etw ee n the th e A sa n riv e r a n d th u s th e u p p e r c o u rs e o f th e
tributaries o f th e S o n g riv e r (a trib u ta ry o f th e G an g a Y a m u n a m a y b e d iv e rte d to th e G a n g a v ia th e A sa n
river) an d th e A sa n riv e r (a trib u ta ry o f th e Y am u n a an d th e S o n g riv e rs.
RIVER CAPTURE OF SEOTI

BY BELAN
T R A N S- YAM UNA G ANG A PLAIN
24° 55'N“
KfcTVVA PLATEAU 24° 5i)/ N
Fig. 18.20: Example o f river capture through lateral erosion and consequent meander intersection.
2. River Capture Through Lateral Erosion rela tiv e ly s te e p e r c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t th a n th e o th e r
L a te ra l e ro s io n a n d c o n s e q u e n t v alley w id e n stream s re so rt to m o re la teral e ro s io n d u e to w h ic h
in g b e c o m e m o re a c tiv e an d sig n ific a n t d u rin g m a sm a lle r p a ra lle l trib u ta rie s a re c o n s u m e d b y th e
la rg e r p a ra lle l stre a m s. T h is p ro c e s s o f riv e r c a p tu re
tu re s ta g e o f riv er d e v e lo p m e n t th an v ertical ero sio n
a n d v a lle y d e e p e n in g . T h e w a te r d iv id e s b etw ee n is c a lle d str e a m a b s tr a c tio n o r n a tu r a l s e le c tio n .
p a ra lle l s tre a m s d e v e lo p e d o n s e d im e n ta ry ro ck s o f 3. River Capture Through the Intersection of Me
th e c o a s ta l p la in s are g ra d u a lly n a rro w e d d o w n d u e anders
to la te ra l e ro s io n an d v a lle y w id en in g . T h e stream s T h e stre a m s a d o p t h ig h ly s in u o u s a n d m ean*
h a v in g m o re v o lu m e a n d d is c h a rg e o f w a te r an d d e rin g c o u rs e s d u rin g th e ir la te m a tu re a n d o ld
352 g eom o rpho lo gy
s ta g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t b e c a u s e o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t T h e o ld e r ( p a la e o ) v a lle y o f th e B e la n now has

o f le v e l to g e n tle s lo p e s (0° - 5°) o v e r m a jo r p a rt o f b e c o m e m isfit valley (fig . 18.20).
th e a re a c o n c e rn e d . T h e m e a n d e rs o f tw o c lo se ly N u m e r o u s c a s e s o f r iv e r c a p tu re h av e o c
s p a c e d s tre a m s a re g ra d u a lly s h a rp e n e d d u e to c o n c u rre d in th e H im a la y a n re g io n . In fact, th e present
tin u o u s la te ra l e ro s io n a n d u ltim a te ly th e y in te rs e c t d ra in a g e s y s te m o f th e H im a la y a s is, to greater
e a c h o th e r a n d th u s r e la tiv e ly m o re p o w e rfu l s tre a m e x te n t, th e r e s u lt o f p r o g r e s s iv e s tre a m p irac y . The
c a p tu re s th e w a te rs o f th e o th e r stre a m . T h e B e la n h e a d w a rd e ro s io n h a s b e e n th e m o s t a c tiv e process
riv e r, a trib u ta ry o f th e T o n s r iv e r (w h ic h is its e lf a o f riv e r c a p tu re in th e H im a la y a s a n d th e W estern
tr ib u ta ry o f th e G a n g a riv e r), h a s c a p tu re d th e lo w e r G h a ts. T h e w a te r d iv id e b e tw e e n th e h e a d w a te rs o f '
c o u r s e o f its tr ib u ta r y th e S e o ti r iv e r n e a r D e o g h a t th e S a v itri r iv e r ( d r a in in g in to th e A r a b ia n S ea) and
( a b o u t 8 0 k m s o u th o f A lla h a b a d c ity ) th ro u g h th e K ris h n a r iv e r ( d r a in in g in to th e B a y o f B engal)
m e a n d e r in te r s e c tio n a n d n o w h a s p u s h e d its c o u rse a t th e m a r g in o f th e M a h a b a l e s h w a r p la te a u
th r o u g h th e c o u r s e o f th e S e o ti w h ile its o ld e r c o u rse , (M a h a ra s h tra ) is v e ry n a rro w . T h e K ris h n a river
n o w a n e x a m p le o f a p a la e o c h a n n e l, h a s b e c o m e m ay c a p tu re th e h e a d w a te rs o f th e S a v itri in near
q u ite n a rro w d u e to s e d im e n ta tio n a n d a n th ro p o g e n ic fu tu re. T h e p ro c e s s o f r iv e r c a p tu r e th ro u g h lateral
p r o c e s s e s (c u ltiv a tio n ) (fig . 1 8 .2 0 ). D u e to th is u n iq u e e ro s io n an d in te rs e c tio n o f m e a n d e r s is m o re active
p r o c e s s o f r iv e r c a p tu r e th e c o n flu e n c e o f th e B e la n - in th e c o a s ta l p la in s a n d th e G r e a t N o rth e rn P lains
S e o ti r iv e r s h a s b e e n p u s h e d a b o u t 6 k m u p stre a m . (In d ia ).
CHAPTER 19 MORPHOMETRY OF DRAINAGE BASINS 353-384
M e a n in g an d c o n c e p t; h isto rical p e rsp e c tiv e ; s h o rtc o m in g s ; d r a in a g e
b a sin : a g e o m o rp h ic un it ; d rain a g e b asin : h is to ric a l p e r s p e c tiv e ;
d ra in a g e b asin h y d ro lo g ical cy cle ; b asin m o rp h o m e try ; lin e a r a s p e c t s :
stre a m o rd e rin g , b ifu rcatio n ratio, law o f stre a m n u m b e rs , le n g th r a tio ,
la w o f stream len g th , sin u o sity in d ices, stre a m ju n c tio n a n g le s ; a r e a l
a s p e c ts : g e o m e try o f basin shape, law o f b a sin p e rim e te r, b a s in le n g th
a n d b asin area, area ratio , law o f b asin area, law o f a llo m e tr ic g r o w th ,
stre a m fre q u e n c y , d rain a g e d en sity , d ra in a g e te x tu re ; r e li e f a s p e c t s :
h y p s o m e tric an aly sis, c lin o g rap h ic an aly sis, a ltim e tric a n a ly s is , a v e r a g e
slo p e , re la tiv e reliefs, d issectio n in d ex , law o f c h a n n e l s lo p e , p r o f ile
a n a ly sis.
1 9
MORPHOMETRY OF DRAINAGE BASINS
19.1 M EAN IN G AN D C O N C E P T (b o th g e o m e tric a l a n d to p o lo g ic a l), b a s in a re a a n d

‘M e a s u r e m e n t o f th e s h a p e , o r g e o m e try , o f re la te d m o rp h o m e tric la w s v iz. la w o f b a s in a r e a a n d
any n a tu ra l f o r m — b e it p la n t, a n im a l o r r e lie f fe a law o f a llo m e tric g ro w th ; s tre a m fre q u e n c y , d r a in
tures— is te rm e d m o r p h o m e tr y ’ (A .N . S tra h le r, 1969) ag e d en sity an d d ra in a g e te x tu re . T h e r e lie f a s p e c t
but in g e o m o rp h o lo g y ‘m o r p h o m e try m a y b e d e in c o rp o ra te s, b e s id e s h y p s o m e tric , c lin o g ra p h ic a n d
fined as th e m e a s u r e m e n t a n d m a th e m a tic a l a n a ly sis a ltim e tric a n a ly se s, th e s tu d y o f a b s o lu te a n d r e la
o f the c o n f ig u r a tio n o f th e e a rth 's s u rfa c e a n d o f th e tiv e re lie fs, re lie f ra tio s , a v e ra g e s lo p e , d is s e c tio n
shape a n d d im e n s io n s o f its la n d f o r m s ’ (J.I. C la rk e , in d ex etc.
1970). In fa c t, m o r p h o m e tr y in c o rp o ra te s q u a n tita
19.2 H IS T O R IC A L P E R S P E C T IV E
tive stu d y o f th e a re a , a ltitu d e , v o lu m e , slo p e , p ro
M o rp h o m e tric m e th o d s , th o u g h s im p le , h a v e
files o f th e la n d a n d d ra in a g e b a s in c h a ra c te ris tic s o f
b e e n a p p lie d fo r th e a n a ly s is o f a re a - h e ig h t r e la
the a re a c o n c e r n e d ( S a v in d r a S in g h , 1 9 7 2 ). It h as
tio n sh ip s, d e te rm in a tio n o f e ro s io n s u rfa c e s , s lo p e s ,
tw o d is tin c t b r a n c h e s v iz . (i) relief morphometry
re la tiv e re lie fs a n d te rra in c h a r a c te r is tic s a s a w h o le
and (ii) fluvial morphometry. R e lie f m o rp h o m e try
sin c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e 2 0 th c e n tu ry . B u t th e
in cludes th e a n a ly s is o f te rra in c h a ra c te ristic s th ro u g h
v ig o ro u s a p p lic a tio n o f s ta tis tic a l m e th o d s f o r th e
h y p so m e tric c u r v e s , c lin o g r a p h ic c u rv e s , p e rc e n t
a n a ly sis o f d ra in a g e b a s in C h a ra c te ris tic s s ta rte d
age h y p h o m e tric c u rv e s , a re a -h e ig h t cu rv es, altim etric
freq u en cy h is to g ra m s a n d c u rv e s , s u p e rim p o s e d , a fte r th e p u b lic a tio n o f c la s s ic a l r e s e a r c h p a p e r o f
p ro jec ted a n d c o m p o s ite p ro file s , w h ic h a s s is t in R .E . H o rto n in 19 4 5 . T h e h is to r y o f th e a p p lic a tio n
d ealin g w ith d iff e re n t a s p e c ts o f la n d fo rm c h a r a c te r ol m o rp h o m e tric m e th o d s h a s p a s s e d th r o u g h th re e
istics o f a d ra in a g e b a s in o r o f a n y g e o m o rp h ic u n it. s ta g e s —
F lu v ial m o rp h o m e try in c lu d e s th e c o n s id e ra tio n of (1) The early phase o f m o r p h o m e tr ic s tu d y
lin ear, areal a n d r e lie f a s p e c ts o f a flu v ia lly o r ig i in th e 19th c e n tu ry w a s c o n f in e d to th e s tu d y o f
n ated d ra in a g e b a sin . T h e lin e a r a s p e c t d e a ls w ith te rr a in d e p ic te d o n s m a ll s c a le m a p s (m a cro -
th e hierarchical o rders o f stream s, n u m b e rs an d len g th s m orphom etry) w h e re in h e ig h ts a n d v o lu m e s o f .
o f stream se g m e n ts a n d v a rio u s re la tio n s h ip s a m o n g la n d fo rm s an d h y p s o m e tric a n d c lin o g ra p h ic (h e ig h t-
th em an d re la te d m o rp h o m e tric la w s e .g . la w s o f slo p e re la tio n s h ip s ) c h a r a c te r is tic s w e re a n a ly s e d .
stre a m n u m b e rs an d s tre a m le n g th s . T h e a rea l a s p e c t
(2 ) The secon d p h ase w a s m a rk e d w ith s o m e
in c lu d e s th e a n a ly sis o f b asin p e rim e te rs, b a sin sh ap e
im p ro v e m e n ts o v e r p r e v io u s p h a s e in th e b e g in n in g
354 geom o rpho lo gy
o f th e 2 0 th c e n tu ry , w h e re in la rg e -s c a le t o p o g r a p h i - . T h e s tu d y o f m o rp h o m e tric c h ara cteristics

c a l m a p s w e re u s e d fo r th e stu d y o f s p e c ific relief o f te rra in b e g a n w ith th e c la s s ic p a p e r o f R .L . Singh
fe a tu re s s u c h as e ro s io n s u rfa c e s , s lo p e s , v a lle y s e tc. (1 9 6 7 ) e n title d ‘m o r p h o m e tr ic a n a ly sis o f te rra in ’
D u rin g 1 9 3 0 ’s K ru m b e in in tro d u c e d s im p lifie d te c h a n d th e p u b lic a tio n o f a r e s e a rc h p a p e r by B. G hose
n iq u e s fo r th e a n a ly s is o f g e o lo g ic a l d a ta . et. al (1 9 6 7 ) o n q u a n tita tiv e g e o m o rp h o lo g y o f Luni
(3 ) T he th ird p h ase o f m icro-m orp hom etry b a s in .’ .........A c o m p re h e n s iv e re s e a rc h w o rk in the
s ta rte d w ith th e e m e rg e n c e o f ‘m o rp h o m e tric s y s fo rm o f a P h .D . T h e s is on ‘d r a in a g e b a s in c h aracter
te m ’ o f R .E . H o rto n (1 9 4 5 ) w h e re in m o rp h o m e try istic s o f th e B e la n r iv e r ’ w a s p ro d u c e d by Renu
w a s c o n c e rn e d w ith in te n s iv e stu d y o f s m a ll m o r S riv a s ta v a in 1 9 7 6 ’ ( S a v in d r a S in g h a n d S.S. Ojha,
p h o lo g ic a l u n its , p a rtic u la rly d ra in a g e b a s in s . N u 1 996). S ig n if ic a n t c o n trib u tio n s in th e fie ld o f ter
m e ro u s a d v a n c e d s ta tis tic a l a n d m a th e m a tic a l m e th rain an d b a sin m o r p h o m e tr y h a v e b e e n m ad e by
o d s h a v e b e e n a p p lie d s in c e th e n to a n a ly s e th e B im a l G h o se , S. P a n d e y , S u r e n d r a S in g h , A m alkar
d ra in a g e b a s in c h a ra c te ris tic s . N o w , a e ria l p h o to (fro m C A Z R I, J o d h p u r), R e n u S riv a s ta v a , S avindra
g r a p h s a n d s a t e l l i t e i m a g e r ie s h a v e e n r ic h e d S in g h , S .S . O jh a (fro m A lla h a b a d ), K .R . D ikshit,
m o rp h o m e tric te c h n iq u e s . V .S . K ale an d S .R . Jo g (P u n e), A . K u m a r (B hagalpur),
R .K . R ai (S h illo n g ), H .S . S h a rm a (J a ip u r), J.S . R aw at
S ig n ific a n t c o n trib u tio n s in d iffe re n t a sp e c ts
a n d R .K . P a n d e ( A lm o r a ) , N a g e s h w a r P ra sa d
o f r e lie f a n d b a s in m o rp h o m e try h a v e b e e n m a d e by
(B u rd w a n ) etc.
a h o s t o f s c ie n tis ts fro m tim e to tim e e.g . D e M a rto n e e
(1 9 3 4 ), P .S . J a v a n o v ic (1 9 4 0 ), C .P . P e g u y (1 9 4 2 , 19.3 SH O R T C O M IN G S
1947 a n d 1 9 4 8 ), R . d e S m e t (1 9 5 1 an d 1 9 5 4 ), A .N . It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t m o rp h o m e try has
S tra h le r (1 9 5 0 , 1952 , 1 9 5 4 , 1958, a n d 1 969), P. re c e iv e d m ix e d re a c tio n s fro m th e g e o s c ie n tis ts at
B iro t (1 9 5 5 ), H . B a u lig (1 9 3 9 , 1956, 1957, 1959), ev e ry stag e o f its d e v e lo p m e n t. It h a s b e e n a p p re c i
R .E . H o rto n (1 9 3 2 , 1 9 4 5 ), J. H a n s o n -L o w e (1 9 3 5 ), ated by m a n y an d a t th e sa m e tim e it h a s a lso m et
J.I. C la rk e a n d K . O rre ll (1 9 5 8 ), M .A . M e lto n (1 9 5 7 , w ith sev ere c ritic ism s by o th e rs. A s e a rly as 1894
1 9 5 8 ,1 9 5 9 ),S .A . S c h u m m ( 1 9 5 6 ,1963), J.C . M axw ell P en ck d rew th e a tte n tio n o f g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts to
(1 9 5 5 , 1 9 6 0 ), H .W . A n d e rs o n (1 9 5 7 ), D .R . C o ates w ard s th e d iffic u lty in a c c u ra te m e a s u re m e n ts o f
co m p le x la n d fo rm s o f p o ly c y c lic o rig in . H e tn e r
(1 9 5 8 ), A .J. B ro s c o (1 9 5 9 ), M . M o ris a w a (1 9 5 9 ),
(1 9 2 1 ) p o in te d o u t th e w e a k n e ss o f m o rp h o m e try in
C .W . C a rlsto n (1 9 6 3 ,1 9 6 5 ), L .M . B ru sh (1 961), R.J.
p re se n tin g th e g e n e tic e x p la n a tio n o f la n d fo rm s.
C h o rle y (1 9 5 7 ,1 9 6 2 ,1 9 6 6 ,1 9 6 9 ,1 9 7 2 ), L .B . L e o p o ld
E v en C la rk e an d O rre ll (1 9 5 8 ) a fte r a s s e s s in g the
a n d W .B . L a n g b e in (1 9 6 2 ), K .L . B o w d e n an d J.R .
re lia b ility o f a n u m b e r o f m o rp h o m e tric m eth o d s,
W a llis (1 9 6 4 , 19 6 6 ), R .B . B o y c e a n d W .A .V . C la rk
m a d e re s e rv a tio n s a b o u t its u tility a n d sig n ifican ce
(1 9 6 4 ), A .E . S c h e id e g g e r (1 9 6 5 ), W .C . A u c k e rm a n n
(R . S riv a s ta v a , 1 9 7 6 ). T h o u g h th e q u a n tita tiv e
(1 9 6 6 ), A .A . M ille r (1 9 5 5 ), V .C . M ille r (1 9 5 3 ), L .E .
g e o m o rp h o lo g y h as m a d e a c o m m e n d a b le progress
M ilto n (1 9 6 6 ), C .A . M . K in g (1 9 6 6 ), R .L . S h rev e a n d it h as trie d to fill u p th e c o n c e p tu a l vacuum
(1 9 6 6 ), K .J. G re g o ry (1 9 6 8 ), K .J. G re g o ry an d D .E . crea ted by th e d e c lin e in th e p o p u la rity o f the D avisian
W a llin g (1 9 6 8 ), V .T . C h o w (1 9 6 9 ), G .H . C o m e r an d m o d e l o f la n d sc a p e d e v e lo p m e n t, y e t an alternative
R .C . Z im m e rm a n (1 9 6 9 ), G .H . D u ry (1 9 6 9 ), A. in te rm s o f a b ro a d s y s te m a tic a p p ro a c h is still to be
F e n ira n (1 9 6 9 ), P. H a g g e t a n d R .J. C h o rle y (1 9 6 9 ), se a rc h e d o u t as th e q u a n tita tiv e w a v e h as m et w ith
J.F . D a n ie l (1 9 7 0 ), M .G . W o lm a n (1 9 6 7 ), V . G a rd in er s tro n g “o b je c tio n s fro m th e g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts w ho
(1 9 7 1 , 19 7 3 , 1974, 1976, 1 977, 1978, 1 979, 1981, b e lie v e th a t q u a n tific a tio n o f m u c h g e o m o rp h ic data
1 9 8 2 ), W .B . K irc h n e r (1 9 7 5 ), D .M . M a rk (1 9 7 4 ), is e i t h e r u n n e c e s s a r y o r im p o s s i b l e ” (S . W. |
P .M . M a th e r (1 9 7 6 ), P. M a th e r a n d J.C . D o o rn k a m p W o o ld rid g e , 1958).
(1 9 7 0 ), R .M . M c C o y (1 9 7 0 ), P .C . P a tto n an d V .R . S u ch e x tre m is t v ie w s h a v e b een expressed
B a k e r (1 9 7 6 ), K .S . R ic h a rd s (1 9 7 9 ), D .E . W a llin g b e c a u se o f to o m u c h a p p lic a tio n o f m athem atical
(1 9 7 1 ), J.S . S m a rt (19.72), J.S . S m a rt an d A .J. S u rk an e q u a tio n s in th is field . In fa c t, mere ap p licatio n o f
(1 9 6 7 ), K .J. G re g o ry an d D .E . W a llin g (1 9 6 8 ,1 9 7 1 , q u a n tita tiv e te c h n iq u e s w ith o u t k n o w in g th e ir suit- •
1 9 7 3 ), K .J. G re g o ry (1 9 6 8 , 1 9 7 6 ) etc. ab ility an d d e s ira b ility m a y n o t le a d to facu n d ity and
^ MORfH°METRV OF DRAINAGE BASINS
p ro d u c tiv ity o f th e s u b je c t b u t s o m e tim e s its
D ra in a g e b asin is ta k en to b e a n open system
m is a p p lie d 0 0 m a y le a d to s te rility a n d triv ia lity
as it is re c e iv in g e n e rg y o r in p u t fro m th e c lim a te
(Savindra S in g h , 1 9 7 7 ) as ‘q u a n tita tiv e a n d s ta tis ti
o v e r th e b asin an d is lo sin g e n e rg y o r o u tp u t th ro u g h
cal m eth o d s o f f e r n o s u b s titu te fo r o rig in a l th o u g h t
th e w a te r an d s e d im e n t lo st by th e b a s in , la rg e ly
about the p ro b le m s , b u t th e y p ro v id e a v a lu a b le
th ro u g h th e b asin m o u th (K .J. G re g o ry a n d D .E .
m ethod o f g u id in g th e th o u g h t a n d re a s o n in g in to
W a llin g , 1973) an d th u s a d ju stm e n ts an d re la tio n
profitable c h a n n e ls a n d in a s s e s s in g its v a lid ity ’
sh ip s b e tw e e n fo rm s a n d p ro c e s s e s are m a in ta in e d .
(C .A .M . K in g , 1966).
T h e d ra in a g e b asin re c e iv e s e n e rg y fro m tw o
T h o u g h m o r p h o m e tr y is a v e ry s e n s itiv e an d so u rc e s viz. (1 ) fro m th e a tm o s p h e re in th e fo rm o f
delicate to o l ( S a v in d r a S in g h , 1 9 7 6 ) a n d w h e n it is p re c ip ita tio n , an d (2 ) fro m w ith in th e e a rth w h erein
o v ercro w d ed w ith u n n e c e s s a r y a n d e x c e s s iv e m a th en d o g en etic fo rces c au sin g u p liftm e n t, w arp in g , fo ld
em atical f o rm u la e a n d e q u a tio n s , th e re s u lts b e c o m e ing, fau ltin g , tiltin g etc. p ro v id e e n e rg y (p o te n tia l)
confused a n d so th e in tu tiv e p o w e r o f th e in v e s tig a to th e e ro sio n al p ro c e sse s. O n th e o th e r h an d , th e
tor is lo st, b u t w h e n th e u s e fu l a n d e a s ie r te c h n iq u e s , d ra in a g e b asin lo ses e n e rg y (1 ) th ro u g h e v a p o ra
w hich a re w ith in th e r e a c h o f g e o g ra p h e rs , are a p tio n , tra n sp ira tio n (fro m th e v e g e ta tio n o f th e c o n
plied, m o r p h o m e tr y c e r ta in ly re n d e rs g o o d resu lts. c e rn e d b asin ) an d (2) o u tflo w o f w a te r an d se d im e n t
th ro u g h its m o u th .
19.4 D R A IN A G E B A S IN : A G E O M O R P H IC UNIT
T h e m a in ta s k b e f o r e g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts is to 19.5 D RA IN A G E BASIN S T U D Y : H IS T O R IC A L
use an id e a l u n it o f th e e a r th s u rfa c e fo r th e stu d y o f P E R S P E C T IV E
its la n d fo rm s . T h e s e a r c h f o r an id e a l are a l u nit, T h o u g h th e d ra in a g e b a sin h as re c e n tly b e e n
w ithin w h ic h th e c o lle c tio n , p ro c e s s in g , o rg a n iz a acc la im e d as th e b asic u n it in g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l
tion an d in te r p r e ta tio n o f d a ta o f th e g e o m e try o f stu d y o f flu v ially e ro d e d la n d sc a p e s (R .J. C h o rle y ,
la n d fo rm s, p a r tic u la r ly o f e ro s io n a l o rig in , can be 1969), the use o f th is u n it is v ery lo n g e s ta b lis h e d
a c c o m p lis h e d , h a s b e e n th e m a in a im o f th e (K .J. G reg o ry , 1976). T h e e x a c t o rig in o f th e c o n
g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts r ig h t fro m F e n n e m a n (1 9 1 4 ) to c e p t o f d ra in a g e b asin as to w h o re a liz e d fir s t th e
R .L. S h re v e (1 9 6 6 ). ‘Physiographic regions’ (N .M . sig n ifican ce o f fo rm s an d p ro c e s s e s o f th e d ra in a g e
F e n n e m a n , 1 9 1 4 ), ‘physiographic atom s’ an d basin, is hidden in the p ast histo ry o f g e o m o rp h o lo g ica l
‘drainage basins’ h a v e b e e n s e le c te d as id eal areal th o u g h t b u t P. P e rra u lt (1 6 7 4 ) is c o n s id e re d to b e
units to s e rv e th e p u r p o s e . B u t, o f la te, flu v ia lly p erh ap s the first in v e stig a to r, w h o v is u a liz e d th e
o rig in ated d ra in a g e b a s in h a s g a in e d c u rre n c y as a sig n ifican ce o f d ra in a g e b a sin , w h e re in h e a tte m p te d
‘g eo m o rp h ic u n it’ b e c a u s e o f its to p o g ra p h ic , h y to m e a su re ra in fa ll fo r th re e -y e a r p e rio d to e s tim a te
d rain a g e area an d ru n o ff. H e, a fte r h is in v e s tig a tio n ,
draulic a n d h y d ro lo g ic a l u n ity , w h ic h la id th e k e y
p o stu la te d th a t ‘on ly o n e -s ix th o f th e ra in fa ll o v e r
stone o f H o rto n 's ‘morphometric system’ (1 9 4 5 ),
the S ein e b asin w as n e c e ssa ry to s u sta in r iv e r flo w
w herein h e e m p h a s iz e d q u a n tita tiv e a n a ly sis o f d ra in
age basin c h a r a c te r is tic s a n d e ro s io n a l la n d fo rm s fo r a y e a r’ (K .J. G re g o ry , 1976). P h illip p e B u s c h e ,
(S avindra S in g h a n d R . S riv a s ta v a , 1 974). T h e lim p ro b ab ly fo r th e first tim e , o u tlin e d th e c o n c e p t o f
ited, c o n v e n ie n t a n d u s u a lly c le a rly d e fin e d and th e g en eral to p o g ra p h ic a l u n ity o f th e d ra in a g e b a s in
u nam biguous to p o g ra p h ic u n it a v a ila b le in a n este (C .T . S m ith , 1969).
hierarchy o f s iz e s o n th e b a s is o f s tre a m o rd e rin g an B y 1802, Jo h n P la y fa ir a p p re c ia te d th e s ig
an open p h y sic a l s y s te m in te rm s o f in p u ts of^pre n ifican ce o f d ra in a g e b a sin , a t le a st by im p lic a tio n ,
cipitation an d s o la r ra d ia tio n (L e e , 19 6 4 ) o f the
an d by m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu ry s e v e ra l p e o p le su c h
drainage b asin c o n v in c e d R .J. C h o rle y (1 9 6 9 ) to
as T .J. T a y lo r (1 8 5 1 ) stre s s e d th e p rin c ip le th a t th e *
accept it as a fu n d a m e n ta l g e o m o rp h ic u n it fo r the
d isc h a rg e o f a riv e r w o u ld d e p e n d u p o n th e a re a o f
^ o rp h o m e tric stu d y o f d ra in a g e b a sin c h a ra c te ris
d ra in a g e b asin (K .J. G re g o ry , 1 976). W .M . D a v is
tics. Since th e n d ra in a g e b a sin is b e in g freq u en tly
êlected as an id e a l a re a l u n it fo r th e a n a ly sis ol (1 8 9 9 ) fu lly v is u a liz e d th e s ig n ific a n c e o f riv e rs a n d
0rms and p ro c e s s e s o f a re g io n d e lin e a te d by the p re se n te d th e c o n c e p t o f th e sp a n o f d ra in a g e b a sin
basin perim eter. as is e v id e n t fro m h is o w n w ritin g —
356
'Although the river and hillside waste sheet do not resem b asin s attra c te d th e a tte n tio n o f a la rg e n u m b er oft
ble each other at first sight, they are only the extreme members o f g e o m o rp h o lo g ists, e n g in e e rs an d h y d ro lo g ists, who
a continuous series, and when this generatlization is appreciated, a c c ep ted th e d ra in a g e n e tw o rk an d th e b asin as a ^
one mayfairly extend the ‘river’ all over its basin and upto its very d y n a m ic ra th e r th an a sta tic u n it. C onsequently,
divide. Ordinarily treated, the river is like the veins of a leaf; s ig n ific a n t c o n trib u tio n s in th e field o f drainage
broadly viewed it is like the entire lea f (Davis, 1899). b asin stu d y c a m e fro m V .C . M ille r (1 9 5 3 ), A.N.
Jean B ru h n es u sed d ra in a g e b asin as a p a ra m S tra h le r (1 9 5 3 ), J.C . M a x w e ll (1 9 5 5 ), S. A. Schum m
ete r o f the m a jo r d iv isio n o f F ra n c e on th e b asis o f (1 9 5 6 ), H .D . A n d e rso n (1 9 5 6 ), R .J. C h o rley and
the basins o f G a ro n n e , L o rie, S ein e an d R h o n e- D .E .G . M alm (1957), D .R . C o ates (1958), R.J. Chorley
S aone, as he re a liz e d th e im p o rta n c e o f w ater as a (1 9 5 7 ), A .N . S tra h le r (1 9 5 7 ), M .A . M e lto n (1958),
link b etw ee n ea rth an d m a n 's a c tiv itie s (S m ith , 1969) A .J. B ro s c o e (1 9 5 9 ), M .A . M e lto n (1 9 5 9 ), M.
on th e a rg u m e n t th a t ‘W a te r is th e so v e re ig n w ealth M o risaw a (1959), C. W . C arlsto n (1 9 6 0 ), J.C . M axw ell
o f a state an d its p eo p le. It is n o u rish m e n t; it is a (1 9 6 0 ), L .M . B ru sh (1 9 6 1 ), R .J. C h o rle y (1962),
fertilizer; it is p o w er; it is tra n s p o rt........ w ater courses R .J. C h o rle y an d M .A . M o rg a n (1 9 6 2 ), L .B . L eo p o ld
are c e rta in ly n o t the o n ly g eo g ra p h ic a l c o n n ec tio n s and W .B . L a n g b e in (1 9 6 2 ), C .W . C a rlsto n (1963),
o f th e e a rth w ith m an , b u t th ey d o p re se n t so m e S.A . S ch u m m (1 9 6 3 ), K .L . B o w d e n a n d J.R . W allis
p rin c ip le o r p o ssib ility o f a lin k a g e ’ (B ru h n es, 1920). (1 9 6 4 ), R .B . B o y c e and W .A .V . C la rk (1 9 6 4 ), A .E.
D ra in a g e b asin , ac c e p te d as ‘natural unit’, w as S ch eid eg g er (1965), C. A .M . K in g (1 9 6 6 ), L .E . M ilton
ta k e n to be su b stitu te o f ‘political unit’ as the real (1 9 6 6 ), K .J. G re g o ry a n d D .E . W a llin g (1 9 7 1 ,1 9 7 3 ),
u n it fo r g e o g ra p h ic a l stu d y . ‘T h o u g h the co n c e p t o f R .L . Shre,ve (1 9 6 6 ), R .J. C h o rle y (1 9 6 9 ), L .B .
w a te rsh e d as n atu ra l b o u n d a ry fo r th e g e o g rap h ical L eo p o ld , M .G . W o lm a n an d J.P . M ille r (1 9 6 9 ), A .D .
u n it c am e in to c o n flic t b u t the b asic te n e t o f the A b rah am s (1 9 7 0 ), V .G a rd in e r (1 9 7 1 ), K .J. G reg o ry
d ra in a g e b asin as a n atu ra l d iv isio n fo r th e reg io n al (1973), R. S riv astav a (1 976), S a v in d a ra S in g h (1978),
stu d y c o u ld b e p re s e rv e d ’ (R . S riv a sta v a , 1976). C. S.S. O jh a (1981), D .P. U p ad h y ay (1 9 8 1 ), H .S. S h arm a
B. F a w c e tt (1 9 1 7 ) re a liz e d th e s ig n ific a n c e o f d ra in (1979), S.C. M u k h o p a d h y a y , R .K . R ai etc.
ag e b asin an d d iv id e d E n g la n d into ‘p ro v in c e s ’
m o stly on th e b a sis o f d ra in a g e basins. ‘In d eed from 19.6 D RA IN A G E BASIN H Y D R O L O G IC A L C Y C L E
th e p e rio d o f p rim a ry s e ttle m e n t and co lon isation to T he g ro u n d su rfa c e w h ic h su p p lie s rain and
th e in d u stria l r e v o lu tio n and rev o lu tio n in transport, or m e ltw a te r to a p a rtic u la r s tre a m an d its trib u ta rie s
th e d ra in a g e b a sin , and m o re p articu la rly stream w h ich drain that area is c alled d r a i n a g e b a s in w h ich
is dem a rc a te d by w ell d e fin e d p e rim e te r on th e b a sis
n e tw o rk s h a d b een d ire c tly linked w ith h u m a n a c tiv
o f w a te r divides. T o tal n e tw o rk o f m a s te r s tre a m and
ity in a v a rie ty o f w a y s' (S m ith , C .T ., 1969).
its trib u tary stre a m s o f a p a rtic u la r d ra in a g e b a s in is
It w as the y e a r 1932 w h en the d ra in a g e basin c o lle c tiv e ly c a lle d drainage network w h ic h in
a ttra c te d th e a tte n tio n o f R.E. H o rto n , an A m e ric a n c lu d e s all ty p e s o f s tre a m s viz. p e rm a n e n t (p e re n
e n g in e e r, w h o firs t o f all p re s e n te d an elab o rate n ial), se a so n a l, e p h e m e ra l etc. N o t o n ly th is, rills and
a c c o u n t o f d ra in a g e b asin c h a ra c te ris tic s and in fig u re -tip w a te r p a th s are a lso in c lu d e d in d ra in a g e
1945 h e a c k n o w le d g e d th e d ra in a g e b asin as a n etw o rk . D ra in a g e b asin h y d ro lo g ic a l c y c le in c lu d es
‘m o r p h o m e tr ic s y s t e m ’ w h e r e in h e a p p lie d in p u t o f w a te r th ro u g h p re c ip ita tio n , tra n s fe r of
m o rp h o m e tric te c h n iq u e s v ig o ro u s ly fo r the in te r w a te r (v e rtic a l an d h o riz o n ta l m o v e m e n t o f water),
p re ta tio n o f s a lie n t fe a tu re s o f d ra in a g e n etw o rk . c o lle c tio n o f w a te r in d iffe re n t s to ra g e s , tra n s fe r of
D u rin g 1950's a n d 1 9 6 0 's th e m o rp h o m e tric p ro p o s w a te r fro m o n e s to ra g e to a n o th e r s to ra g e and o u tp u t
a ls m a d e b y H o rto n w e re d e v e lo p e d in th e stu d ie s o f (e x it o f w a te r) o f w a te r th ro u g h e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n ,
d r a in a g e b a sin m o rp h o m e try , w h ic h re v e a le d re g u s u rfa c e ru n o ff, th ro u g h flo w , in te rflo w , b ase flow
la ritie s o f s tre a m n e tw o rk s a n d s u b s e q u e n tly led to a n d c h a n n e l ru n o ff.
th e s tu d ie s o f v a ria tio n in n e tw o rk c h a ra c te ris tic s T h e h y d ro lo g ic a l c y c le o f a d ra in a g e basin
a n d to in v e s tig a tio n o f s ta tis tic a l o r to p o lo g ic a l u n a ffe c te d by m a n (it m a y b e s ta te d th a t m o s t o f the
p ro p e rtie s o f n e tw o rk (K .J. G re g o ry , 19 7 6 ). In fact, d ra in a g e b a s in s o f th e w o rld h a v e b e e n m a n ip u la te d
a fte r th e c la s s ic a l w o rk o f H o rto n in 19 4 5 , d ra in a g e by m a n ) o p e ra te s in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r—
MORPHOMETRY o f d r a in a g e b a s in s 351
T h e b a sic in p u t o f a d ra in a g e b asin is rain fall fo rest is called interception storage w h ere ra in w a
w hich is in te rc e p te d first by v eg etatio n ( if th e basin ter is reta in ed by th e leav es. S o m e p o rtio n o f w a te r
has v e g e ta tio n c o v e r) a n d re a c h e s th e g ro u n d su rface o f in tercep tio n sto ra g e is e v a p o ra te d w h ile th e re
through th e le a v e s, b ra n c h e s an d stem s o f trees as m ain in g p o rtio n re a c h e s th e g ro u n d su rface as stem
‘aerial stream lets' o r stem flow. T h e can o p y o f the flow (fig. 19.1).
n a t u r a l h y d r o lo g ic a l system
i n put Storage output

L-------- --
Fig. 19 .1 : D rainage basin hydrological cycle (after D.E. Walling, 1981). . -.
W h e re v e r th e g ro u n d su rface o f the d rain ag e age (leav es). T h e ra in w a te r av a ila b le on th e g ro u n d

b asin is d ev o id o f v eg etatio n co v er, the rainfall su rface fo rm s surface storage o f w h ic h a sizeab le
reach es th e g ro u n d su rface d irectly as through fall. p o rtio n m o v e s d o w n slo p e as surface runoff, s o m e
S om e po rtio n o f rain w a te r is lo st to the atm o sp h ere p o rtio n is e v ap o ra ted , so m e p o rtio n re m a in s o n th e
th ro u g h ev ap o -tran sp iratio n from in tercep tio n stor- jground su rface w h ile so m e p o rtio n in filtra te s d o w n -
GEOMOR
358
ward into th e soils to fo rm soil moisture storage 1. Stream Ordering

(fig. 19.1) o f w h ich so m e p o rtio n is lo st th ro u g h S tre a m o rd e rin g re fe rs to th e d e term in a tio n
ev ap o ratio n and p la n t tra n sp ira tio n , so m e p o rtio n o f th e h ie ra rc h ic a l p o sitio n o f a stre a m w ith in a
ap p ears as seep ag e and sp rin g s v ia through flow d ra in a g e b asin . A riv e r b a sin c o n s is ts o f its several
an d interflow w h ile so m e p o rtio n p e rc o la te s d o w n b ra n c h e s (s e g m e n ts) h a v in g d iffe re n t p o sitio n s in
w ard to form groundwater storage. S o m e p o rtio n th e b asin a re a an d th e y h a v e th e ir o w n m o rp h o m etric
o f w ater fro m g ro u n d w a te r sto ra g e re a c h e s th e c h a n c h a ra c te ristic s a n d , th e re fo re , it b e c o m e s necessary
nel th ro u g h base flow, so m e p o rtio n m o v e s u p w ard to lo c a te th e re la tiv e p o s itio n o f a se g m e n t in the
as cap illa ry rise to ‘soil m o istu re s to ra g e ’ a n d so m e b a sin , so th a t th e h ie ra rc h ic a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f stream
p o rtio n is ro u te d fu rth e r d o w n w a rd th ro u g h d eep se g m e n ts is v is u a liz e d . T h u s , ‘stre a m o rd e r is de
tran sfer. T h e channel storage re c e iv e s w a te r fro m fin e d as a m e a su re o f th e p o s itio n o f a stre a m in the
su rface sto ra g e th ro u g h su rfa c e ru n o ff, fro m soil h ierarch y o f trib u ta rie s ’ (L .B . L eo p o ld , M .G . W olm an
m o istu re sto ra g e th ro u g h in te rflo w an d th ro u g h flo w a n d J.P . M ille r, 1 969). It w as G ra v e liu s w h o m ade
an d from g ro u n d w a te r sto ra g e th ro u g h b a se flo w . firs t a tte m p t in 1914 to d e te rm in e th e o rd e rs o f
T h u s, th e in itia l in p u t o f p re c ip ita tio n fin d s e x it stre a m n e tw o rk w h e re in h e a tte m p te d to tra c e the
th ro u g h tw o p a th s o f o u tp u t v iz . (1 ) th ro u g h stre a m s fro m th e o u tle t to th e s o u rc e lik e an ex p lo re r.
e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n fro m in te rc e p tio n sto ra g e , s u r (i) Gravelius’ Scheme of Stream Ordering
face sto rag e an d soil m o istu re sto rag e, and (2) th ro u g h H e first, id e n tifie d th e tru n k s tre a m by tra c in g it
c h an n e l ru n o ff fro m c h a n n e l sto rag e. M an affects fro m its o u tle t to its s o u rc e on th e b a sis o f g re a te s t
an d m o d ifie s th e in te rn a l p ro c e s s e s o f h y d ro lo g ic a l w id th , d isc h a rg e , h e a d w a rd b ra n c h in g a n d ju n c tio n
re g im e o f th e d ra in a g e b a sin in a v a rie ty o f w ay s (see a n g les and th u s th e tru n k s tre a m w as a s s ig n e d the
c h a p te r 30)
p o sitio n o f 1st o rd e r (fig. 19.2 C l ) . B y a p p ly in g the
19.7 BASIN MORPHOMETRY sam e p ro c e d u re he d e s ig n a te d o rd e r 2 to all th e
T h e b a s in m o rp h o m e try in c lu d e s th e an aly sis stream s w h ich jo in e d th e tru n k s tre a m o f 1st o rd er.
o f th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f lin e a r, areal an d re lie f a s N ex t, all o f th e stre a m s jo in in g 2 n d o rd e r s tre a m s,
p e c ts o f flu v ia lly o rig in a te d d ra in a g e b asin s. w ere d esig n a te d by o rd e r 3 a n d th is p ro c e d u re was
c o n tin u e d till th e m o st re m o te fin g e r-tip trib u ta rie s
19.7.1 LINEAR ASPECTS OF THE BASIN w ere assig n ed th e h ig h e st o rd er. T h is sc h e m e o f
L in e a r a s p e c ts o f th e b a sin s are re la te d to the stream o rd e rin g by G ra v e liu s w as n o t a p p re c ia te d as
c h a n n e l p a tte rn s o f th e d ra in a g e n e tw o rk w h erein th e o rd erin g w as b ased on s u b je c tiv e d e c isio n o f th e
th e to p o lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e stre a m se g in v e stig a to r at e a c h b ifu rc a tio n an d th e h ie ra rc h ic a l
m e n ts in te rm s o f o p e n lin k s o f th e n e tw o rk sy stem
o rd ers w ere n o t sy m m e tric a lly re la te d to th e m a g n i
( s tre a m s ) a re a n a ly se d . T h e d ra in a g e n e tw o rk , w h ich
tu d e o f a g iv e n se g m e n t o r lin k (M .J. W o ld e n b e rg ,
c o n s is ts o f all o f th e s e g m e n ts o f stre a m s o f a
1967 ; P. H a g g e t and R .J. C h o rle y , 1969).
p a r tic u la r riv e r, is re d u c e d to th e le v el o f g ra p h s,
w h e re s tre a m ju n c tio n s a c t as p o in ts (n o d e s) an d (ii) Horton's Scheme of Stream Ordering -
s tre a m s , w h ic h c o n n e c t th e p o in ts (ju n c tio n s ), b e R .E . H o rto n , an A m e ric a n e n g in e e r, p re s e n te d his
c o m e lin k s o r lin e s w h e re in th e n u m b e rs o f all sc h e m e o f s tre a m o rd e rin g (1 9 3 2 , 19 45) w h ic h was
s e g m e n ts a re c o u n te d , th e ir h ie ra rc h ic a l o rd e rs are o p p o site to G r a v e liu s ’ sc h e m e . A c c o rd in g to H o rto n
d e te rm in e d , th e le n g th s o f all stre a m s e g m e n ts are o rd e rin g o f s tre a m b e g in s fro m th e fin g e r - tip
m e a s u re d a n d th e ir d if f e r e n t in te rre la tio n s h ip s are trib u ta rie s, w h ic h d o n o t h a v e th e ir o w n feed e rs,
s tu d ie d . T h e n a tu re o f flo w p a th s in term s o f sin u o u sity ra th e r th e y are in d e p e n d e n t in te rm s o f su p p ly o f
is e q u a lly im p o r ta n t in th e s tu d y o f lin e a r a sp e c ts o f w ater. S u c h fin g e r-tip s tre a m s a re d e s ig n a te d as 1st
th e d ra in a g e b a s in s . T h u s , th e lin e a r a s p e c t in c lu d e s o rd e r s tre a m s. T w o s tre a m s o f first o rd e r, w h en jo in
th e d is c u s s io n a n d a n a ly s is o f s tre a m o rd e r (|i), to g e th e r, fo rm 2 n d o rd e r s tre a m ju s t b e lo w th e ir
s tr e a m n u m b e r (N ), b ifu rc a tio n ra tio (Rb), s tre a m ju n c tio n . S im ila rly , tw o s tre a m s o f 2 n d o rd e r meet
le n g th s (L \ le n g th ra tio (RL), le n g th o f o v e rla n d to m a k e th e s tre a m o f 3 rd o rd e r a n d th is
flo w (L j. V irtu o s ity in d ic e s e tc . F ig . 19.2 sh o w s c o n tin u e s till th e tru n k stre a m is g iv e n th e
d if f e r e n t c o m p o n e n ts o f a ty p ic a l d ra in a g e b asin . o rd e r (fig . 19.2 C 3 ). S im u lta n e o u s ly , 2 n d o id d f:'
MORniOMETRY OF DRAINAGE BASINS
B
M E A S U R E M E N T OF B A S IN
LEN G TH C H A N N E L SINUOSITY
MOST DISTANT
POINT
TORTUOUS
IRREGULAR
REGULAR
TRANSITIONAL
STRAIGHT
H. GRAVEL1US WOLDENBERG R.E. HORTON
A.N. STRAHLER R. L . S H R E V E A.E.SC HE 1DE6GER
Fig. 19.2: A - Components o f drainage basin; Lg = length o f overlandflow ; L = length o f master stream; Lea - distance
from the mouth o f the river to the centre o f gravity o f the basin - Lea = 0.5 L ; Lo = longest horizoftial and
straight distance from the mouth o f the main river to the most distant point on the basin perimeter. After, R.J.
Chorley. B = Channel sinuosity. C = Methods o f stream segment ordering, after M.J. Woldenberg, 1967,
ji
360 GEOMORPHOLOGY I
stream s m a y h a v e o th e r 1st o rd e r stream s an d 3rd w h en tw o stre a m seg m en ts o f eq u al o rd er m e e t and ■
o rd e r stream s m a y h a v e a d d itio n a l 1st o rd e r an d 2n d fp rm a ju n c tio n . T h e o rd e r d o es n o t increase if a
o rd e r stream s an d so on. T h u s, a c c o rd in g to H o rto n 's lo w e r o rd e r stream s e g m e n t m e ets a stream segm ent
sch em e w h en tw o stre a m s o f sam e o rd er m eet, th ey o f h ig h e r order. S trah ler's sch em e is p o p u larly know n
fo rm the n e x t h ig h e r o rd e r an d eac h stream can as ‘stream segment method’.
rece iv e trib u ta rie s o f lo w e r o rd ers th an its ow n T hus, the o b jectio n s lab elled ag ain st H ortonian
order. In o th e r w o rd s, th e stream o rd e r in c re ases sch em e w as o v e rc o m e by S tra h le r's m o d ificatio n s.
only w h en tw o stre a m s o f sam e o rd er jo in to g eth er. T h e ad v a n ta g e o f th is sim p le s c h e m e is th a t it can be
If a stre a m o r stre a m s o f lo w e r o rd e r jo in a stream o f d eriv e d m a th e m a tic a lly fro m th e c o n c e p ts o f el
h ig h e r o rd er, th e o rd e r o f th e re c e iv in g stream d o es em entary co m b in atio n al analysis (M .A . M elton, 1959)
n o t in c re a se . A fte r all o f th e stream s o f a d ra in a g e as ‘it d e sig n a te s all u n b ra n c h e d se g m e n ts as the
b a sin a re c la s s ifie d in th e firs t ro u n d , they are re c la s sam e o rd er, an d it g iv e s h ig h e st o rd e r to o n e seg m en t
s ifie d in o rd e r to d e te rm in e th e h e a d w a rd ex ten sio n ra th e r than to th e w h o le o f th e tru n k s tre a m ’ (K .J.
o f th e stre a m s o f d iffe re n t o rd ers e x c e p t th ^ 1st o rd er G reg o ry and D .E . W a llin g , 1973). S tra h le r's sch em e
stre a m s. F o r e x a m p le , o n e o f th e tw o stream s, w hich is sim p le an d easy fo r a p p lic a tio n a n d it m a in ta in s
fo rm 2 n d o rd e r stre a m , is e x te n d e d h e a d w a rd on the the o rd in al c h a ra c te r o f stre a m o rd e rin g a n d p ro
b a sis o f le n g th , lin e a r e x te n sio n , d isc h a rg e an d som e d u ces the sam e m a x im u m b a sin o rd e r as th a t o f the
tim e s b y c h o ic e (w h e n b o th th e stream s are o f the H o rto n 's sch em e b u t it su ffe rs fro m th e lim ita tio n
sa m e le n g th ) an d is re n u m b e re d as 2 n d o rd er stream (this is also in th e case o f H o rto n 's s c h e m e ) in th a t the
(p re v io u s ly it w as 1st o rd e r stream ). S im ilarly , one stream seg m en ts o f lo w e r o rd er, w h en m e e t th e tru n k
o f th e tw o s tre a m s, w h ic h fo rm a stream o f 3rd order, stream o r th e se g m e n ts o f h ig h e r o rd e r th a n th e ir
is e x te n d e d h e a d w a rd to w a te r d iv id e an d is re n u m ow n, do n ot h av e the ro le to in c re a s e th e o rd e r o f the
b e re d as 3 rd o rd e r stre a m . T h is sch em e o f re c la ssi la tter b u t the ad d itio n o f a sin g le 1st o rd e r s e g m e n t
fic a tio n c o n tin u e s till th e tru n k stream o f th e h ig h e st in the u p p er reac h es o f th e b asin can ra is e th e o rd e r
o rd e r b e c o m e s th e lo n g e st d ra in a g e lin e o f the b asin o f the tru n k stream .
(fig . 19.2 C 3 ).
(iv) Shreve's Stream-Link M agnitu
H o rto n 's sc h e m e o f stream o rd e rin g is d iffi
Method - R .L . S h rev e (1 9 6 6 , 1967) p ro p o s e d h is
cu lt, te d io u s a n d tim e -c o n s u m in g as it in v o lv es
sch em e o f ‘stre a m -lin k m a g n itu d e ’ b a se d o n th e
c la s s ific a tio n an d re c la s s ific a tio n o f stre a m s sev eral
‘in terv al s c a le ’ o f stream o rd e rin g w h e re in e a c h
tim es. S o m e o f th e fin g e r-tip trib u ta rie s are giv en
e x te rio r lin k o r 1st o rd e r s e g m e n t is g iv e n a m a g n i
o rd e rs h ig h e r th a n o n e w h ile o th e r fin g e r-tip trib u
tu d e (M ) o f 1 an d ‘ea c h s u c c e s s iv e lin k a m a g n itu d e
ta rie s o f th e 1st o rd e r w ith th e sa m e m a g n itu d e are
eq u al to th e su m o f all th e 1 st o rd e r s e g m e n ts , w h ic h
n o t u p g ra d e d .
u ltim a te ly fe e d i t ’ (P. H a g g e t an d R .J. C h o rle y ,
(iii) Strahler's Scheme o f Stream Order
1969). T h u s, c o m b in a tio n (* ) o f lin k s a n d M^
in g -A .N . S tra h le r ( 1 9 5 2 ,1 9 5 3 ,1 9 5 7 a n d in C h o w 's g iv e s a d o w n stre a m lin k m a g n itu d e o f Mj + Mr
1964) m o d ifie d th e H o rto n 's s c h e m e o f s tre a m o r
M ! * M 2 = M , + M 2 (fig . 19.2 C 5 )
d e rin g by re m o v in g th e p ro b le m o f re c la s s ific a tio n
and re n u m b e rin g o f stre a m s. A c c o rd in g to h im T h u s, in S h re v e 's s c h e m e e a c h s e g m e n t (link)
‘e a c h fin g e r-tip c h a n n e l is d e s ig n a te d as a se g m e n t h as its o w n c o n trib u tio n in in c re a s in g th e m a g n itu d e
o f 1st o rd er. A t th e ju n c tio n o f an y tw o 1st o rd e r (i.e. stre a m o rd e r) o f th e s e g m e n t w h ic h it m e ets. F or
se g m e n ts, a c h a n n e l o f 2 n d o rd e r is p ro d u c e d an d e x a m p le , if tw o 1st o rd e r (m a g n itu d e ) s tre a m links
e x ten d s d o w n to th e p o in t, w h e re it jo in s a n o th e r 2 n d m e e t, 2 n d m a g n itu d e (2 n d o rd e r) is fo rm e d d o w n the
o rd e r s e g m e n t w h e re u p o n a s e g m e n t o f 3 rd o rd e r c o n flu e n c e . W h e n tw o s e g m e n ts o f m a g n itu d e 2
resu lts an d so f o r th ’ (A .N . S tra h le r, 1 9 6 9 ). T h e s e m e e t, th e m a g n itu d e in c re a s e s to 4 (2 + 2 = 4 ) d o w n ,
stre a m s m a y h a v e a d d itio n a l s tre a m s e g m e n ts o f th e c o n flu e n c e . I f a s e g m e n t (lin k ) o f m a g n itu d e }
lo w er o rd e rs th a n th e ir o w n o rd e r a n d th u s th e se d o m e e ts th e s e g m e n t o f m a g n itu d e 4, n e x t high"
n o t a ffe c t th e c la s s ific a tio n (fig . 19.2 C 4 ). It m a y be m a g n itu d e (i.e . 5 ) is fo rm e d d o w n th e c o n f lu ^
m en tio n ed th a t th e h ie ra rc h ic a l o rd e r in c re a s e s o n ly (i.e. 4 + 1 = 5 m a g n itu d e ) a n d so o n.
M ORPHOM ETRY o f d r a in a g e b a s in s
(v) Sc Heidegger ’s Scheme of Stream Order b u t it h as b een seld o m ad o p ted b y th e g eo m o rp h o

- A .E. S c h e id e g g e r (1 9 6 5 ) p re se n te d h is sc h e m e o f lo g ists as it in v o lv es c o m p lic a te d p ro ced u res at
‘consistentiaw of stream ordering’ b ased on ‘ratio sev eral stag es an d co n su m es m u ch tim e and labour.
scale m e a s u re s ’ a n d in v o lv in g fo u r p o stu la te s o f It also d o es n o t h elp in th e c o m p u tatio n o f b ifu rc a
algebra o f c o m b in a tio n o f stre a m s e g m e n ts w h ich is tion ratio .
cu m u lativ e a s w ell as a sso c ia tiv e .
B e s id e s , M .J . W o ld e n b e r g (1967) u s e d
(a) W h en tw o s im ila r se g m e n ts (G ') are c o m S ch eid eg g er's in d ex an d its re la tio n sh ip w ith basin
b in e d , th e re s u ltin g se g m e n t has its o rd er b ifu rca tio n ratio to p re se n t h is n ew s ch em e o f stream
. in c re a se d b y an in teg er, o rd erin g w h erein he u sed W to in d icate stream
G' * G' = G' + 1 m ag n itu d e. H e p ro p o sed th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n fo r
the d eterm in a tio n o f m a g n itu d e (W , fig. 19.2 C2)—
(b) A c o m b in a tio n o f tw o seg m en ts o f lo w er
o rd e r (G ' - 1) w ith a giv en o rd er should
w = i 2 U l +1
in c re a s e th e o rd e r o f th e la tte r by one
in te g e r, l° g R b
G’ * (G' - 1) * (G* - 1) = G' + 1 w hen M = 1/2
(c) T o v a lid a te th e d istrib u tiv e law , it m u st be R b = b ifu rcatio n ratio

p o s tu la te d th a t th e seq u e n c e in w hich these J. L ew in (1 9 7 0 ) h as p ro p o se d a lte rn a tiv e o r
s e g m e n ts jo in is im m aterial, d erin g m eth o d eith e r up o n stre a m ju n c tio n s (n o d e s)
[ G * (G ’ - 1)] * (G* - 1) = G ’ * [ ( G '- l ) * ( G '- l )] or upon paths. R ece n tly , K .J. G re g o ry and D .E .
W allin g (19 7 3 ) h av e p o stu la te d th a t, ‘A sim p le
(d) T o s a tisfy th e c o m m u ta tiv e law , it does not
m eth o d o f o rd e rin g ’ u sefu l in re la tio n to p ro c e s s , is
m a tte r w h e th e r a G ' seg m en t jo in s a G"
to v isu alize eac h se g m e n t in th e n e tw o rk to b e o f
o n e , o r v ic e v ersa,
o rd er 1 and to d e v e lo p o rd e rin g a d d itiv e ly on th is
G ’ * G" = G" * G ’ b a s is .’
F ro m th e s e fo u r p o s tu la te s a g en era l law fo r the A fter a critical ev alu atio n o f d iffe re n t sch em e s
stream o rd e r m a g n itu d e h as b een su g g ested . In p ra c o f stream o rd erin g , it b eco m es a p p a re n t th a t the
tical te rm s o f c o n s is te n t o rd e rin g th e fin g e r-tip trib u sch em e o f A .N . S tra h le r is sim p le an d e a sy fo r
ta ries a re g iv e n an in d e x o f th e e x p o n e n t to base 2 ap p licatio n and it h as b een e x te n siv e ly u sed b y th e
(i.e. 2 1 = 2 ) a n d all lin k s are g iv e n an in d ex n u m b er g eo m o rp h o lo g ists fo r th e m o rp h o m e tric a n a ly sis o f
1 a n d in d e x in g o f all d o w n stre a m lin k s are c o m d rain a g e n etw o rk as it, h a v in g a slig h t m o d ific a tio n
p le te d by a d d in g th e in d e x n u m b e rs c o m b in in g u p o v er H o rto n 's sch em e, is su ite d fo r th e e x p la n a tio n
stream a t th e ju n c tio n to a g iv e n n u m b e r 1 and thus o f d iffe re n t la w s o f d ra in a g e n e tw o rk as p o s tu la te d
ea c h lin k is g iv e n an o rd e r m a g n itu d e (G ) as fo l by R .E . H o rto n an d v erifie d by S tra h le r h im se lf.
lo w s—
2. Bifurcation Ratio (R J
G = log2 2 M B ifu rca tio n ra tio (R b) w h ic h is re la te d to th e
W h e re G is d e s i r e d m a g n itu d e and M is the b ran c h in g p a tte rn o f th e d ra in a g e n e tw o rk , is d e
m a g n itu d e o f e x te rio r lin k s co n sid ere d fin ed as a ratio o f th e n u m b e r o f s tre a m s o f a g iv e n
as m a g n itu d e 1. o rd e r (N m) to th e n u m b e r o f s tre a m s o f th e n ex t
T h u s, th e o rd e rin g o f s tre a m s is c o m p le te d in tw o h ig h e r o rd e r (N^ + ,) an d is e x p re s s e d in te rm s o f th e
sta g e s (i) in d e x in g o f lin k s, an d (ii) a ss ig n m e n t o f fo llo w in g e q u a tio n —
m a g n itu d e v a lu e s w h e re in 2 b e c o m e s 1, 4 b eco m es
2 , 6 b e c o m e s 2 .5 9 , 12 b e c o m e s 3 .5 9 , 18 b eco m es
4 .1 7 etc. (fig . 19.2 C 6 ).
T h o u g h S c h e id e g g e r’s sc h e m e y ie ld s m o re w h ere N m = n u m b e r o f stream s o f a g iv e n o rd e r *
c la ss e s o f s e g m e n ts th an S tra h le r's s c h e m e a n d g iv e s N ^ + 1 = n u m b e r o f stre a m s o f th e n e x t h ig h e r
m o re a c c u ra te re fle c tio n o f se g m e n t flo w m a g n itu d e o rd e r •!/>♦>!<;
■ ‘ , ■■■ ■■'
'- ■ . . /-M M
362 GEOMORPHOLOGY X
' ■" 'Is ■‘%‘S;
Table 19.1 : Bifurcation ratio show m ore flu ctu atio n s in th e m ean bifurcation
ratios than the b asin s o f eq u al area b u t h ig h er order %
Stream O rder N um ber o f B ifurcation ratio
w ith v ariable a re a s ’ (S av in d ra S in g h et. al, 1984).
(1^) stream s (N^) (Rb)
(3) ‘M ean b ifu rca tio ratio s show stable trend
1 110 3.9 in a region o f uniform g eo lo g ical structure and
2 28 4.0 lith o lo g ies b u t th ey show v ariab le trends o v er vary
3 7 ing geolo g ical stru c tu re s’. ...S in g h et. al (1984)
2.3
have rem ark ed th a t ‘g eo lo g ical stru ctu re and associ
4 3 3.0 ated lith o lo g ies do n ot cau se sig n ific a n t variations in
5 1 __ bifurcation ratio s and this o b serv atio n holds parity
B ifurcatio. ratio, a d im en sio n less property o f w ith the co n clu sio n o f M ille r (1 9 5 3 )’.
the d rain ag e basin is su p p o sed to be co n tro lled by (4) ‘M ean b ifu rcatio n ratio s vary from about
drain ag e density, stream en tran ce angles (junction 2.0 fo r flat or ro llin g b asin s to 3.0— 4.0 fo r m oun
angles), lith o lo g ical ch aracteristics, basin shapes, tainous, hilly d issected b asin s' (R .E . H o rto n , 1945).
basin areas etc. T he studies o f bifu rcatio n ratios in T h is h y p o th esis does n ot h o ld go o d as none o f the
d if f e r e n t r e g io n s o f th e w o rld b y d if f e r e n t basins d rain in g o v er flat and ro llin g su rface o f the
g eo m o rp h o lo g ists have rev ealed the fo llo w in g b e studied reg io n s (as referred to ab o v e) show m ean
h av io u ral p a tte rn s o f b ifu rcatio n ratios and these bifurcation ratio s o f 2.0, rath e r th e v alu es range
p attern s have been ex am in ed by S av in d ra Singh, betw een 3.0 and 5.0 in the sam e w ay as they range
S.S. O jh a and S .P .A g n ih o tri on the b asis o f study o f in the bas’ins d ev elo p ed o v er h illy an d h ig h ly d is
125 d rain a g e basin s o f 6 p h y sio g rap h ic regions sected regions b u t it b eco m es cle a r th a t m ean b ifu r
hav in g d iffe re n t g eo lo g ical stru ctu re w ith asso ci cation ratios o f the basins o f m o u n tain o u s an d d is
ated lith o lo g ies, v eg etal cover, rain fall, soils etc. viz. sected regions are slightly m o re than th e m ean b ifu r
P alam au upland, R an ch i p lateau , S.E. C h o tan ag p u r cation ratios o f the b asin s o f the fla t an d ro llin g
(all in B ih ar), R ew a p la teau (M .P .), B h an d er plateau su rfaces’ (S av in d ra S ingh, et. al, 1984).
(M .P .) an d B elan b asin (U .P. and M .P .) (S ingh et. al,
(5) ‘M ean bifurcation ratios reg ister very sm all
1984) —
variation from reg io n to reg io n irresp ec tiv e o f stru c
(1) E .G iu sti an d W .J. S ch n eid er (1965) have tural c o n tro l’ (S av in d ra S ingh, et. al, 1984). ‘F o l
sh o w n th a t b ifu rca tio n ratio s w ithin a given region low ing A .N . S trah ler it m ay b e p o stu la te d th a t m e a n
te n d to d e c re a se w ith in c re asin g o rd er b ecau se ‘as b ifu rcatio n ratio s show sm all v a ria tio n fro m one
o rd e r in c re a s e s th e p e rc e n ta g e o f stream s th at c o a reg io n to an o th er and su ch v aria tio n s m ay b e as
le sc e in to a h ig h e r o rd e r trib u ta ry also in c re a s e s ........ crib ed to ch an ce v a ria tio n s ’ .
th is in c re a s e is d u e to the d im in ish in g am o u n t o f area
T h u s , it m ay b e said th at th e re is v ery little
a v a ila b le .’ ‘T h is h y p o th e sis d o es n o t h o ld go o d in
v ariatio n in b ifu rc a tio n ratio s fro m o n e reg io n to
to ta lity as e x c e p t tw o b asin s in n o n e o f 125 b asin s
an o th er, and any p ro n o u n c e d v a ria tio n , if it is, m ay
b ifu rc a tio n ra tio s re g is te r tren d o f c o n siste n t d e
be due to c h an c e o c c u rre n c e e ith e r b e c a u se o f envi
c re a se w ith in c re a s e o f o rd e r b u t on an av erag e
ro n m en tal fa c to r o r m o rp h o m e tric c o n tro l o f the
d e c re a s in g tre n d o f b ifu rc a tio n ratio s w ith in c re a s
b asin i t s e lf (S a v in d ra S in g h et. al, 1984).
in g o rd e r b e s id e s so m e e x c e p tio n s in o n e o r tw o
o rd e rs o f e a c h b asin is s u b s ta n tia te d ’ (S in g h et. al, 3. Law of Stream Numbers
1984). T h e law o f stre a m n u m b e rs rela tes to the
(2 ) d e fin ite re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e o rd e rs o f the basins
‘B a s in s o f e q u a l o rd e r b u t v a ria b le areas
te n d to h a v e th e s m a lle s t b ifu rc a tio n ra tio in the and stre a m n u m b e rs. R .E . H o rto n 's law o f stream
s m a lle s t a re a ; th e ra tio s in c re a s e w ith in c re a sin g n u m b e rs s ta te s (1 9 4 5 ) ‘th a t th e n u m b e r o f stream
a re a s u p to a c e rta in s iz e b e y o n d w h ic h th e b ifu rc a s e g m e n ts o f s u c c e s s iv e ly lo w e r o rd e rs in a given
tio n ra tio s te n d to b e c o m e c o n s ta n t’ (E . G iu sti an d b a sin te n d to fo r m a g e o m e tr ic s e r ie s b eg in n in g yvith
W .J. S c h n e id e r, 1965). T h is h y p o th e s is is n o t s u b th e s in g le s e g m e n t o f th e h ig h e s t o r d e r a n d inc^
s ta n tia te d a s ‘th e b a s in s o f e q u a l a re a b u t lo w e r o rd e r in g a c c o r d in g to c o n s ta n t b ifu rc a tio n ra tio .
MORPHOMETRY OF DRAINAGE BASINS
example, if the master stream is o f 6th order and the
1 0 2 4 -1 1023
bifurcation ratio is 4, then the number o f stream
segments from higher to lower orders (i.e. 6, 5, 4, 3, 3 3 =34‘
Table : 19.2 : Hypothetical Stream Number
2, 1) would be 1, 4, 16, 64, 256 and 1024 respec-
• tively. The law o f stream numbers is expressed in the Basin Order Stream Number Constant
following form o f n e g a tiv e e x p o n e n tia l fu n ctio n Ol) bifurcation ratio (R*,)
model— 1 256 4.0
N^ = R b(k~ ^
2 64 4.0
w here N M = n u m b e r o f stream seg m en ts o f a 3 16 4.0
giv en o rd e r
4 4 4.0
R b = c o n s ta n t b ifu rca tio n ratio
5= k 1 4.0
ji = basin o rd e r
Z N ^ = 341
K = h ig h e st o rd e r o f the b asin
T h e fo llo w in g reg ressio n e q u atio n o f n eg a
E x a m p le : (i) N u m b e r o f stream seg m en ts o f
tive ex p o n en tial function h elp s in asc e rta in in g the
1st o rd er
law o f stream n u m b er—
= N , = 4 6-1
log y = log a - bx
= N , = 4 5 = 1024
w here y = n u m b er o f stream seg m en ts
(ii) N u m b e r o f stre a m se g m e n ts o f 2nd order
x = stream order
= N 2 = 4 (6-2)
a = co n stan t
= N 2 = 4 4 = 256
b = reg ressio n c o e fficien t
H o rto n f u r th e r w o rk e d o u t th e fo llo w in g eq u atio n
(u s in g c o n s ta n t b ifu rc a tio n ra tio ) to fin d o u t the total T h e reg ressio n lin e (fig. 19.4) d ra w n on th e
n u m b e r o f th e s tre a m s e g m e n ts o f th e w h o le d ra in b asis o f ab o v e reg ressio n e q u a tio n in v o lv in g n u m b e r
age b a s in — o f stream seg m en ts (g u lly - rill se g m e n ts) a n d s tre a m
o rd er (g u lly o rd er) o f D e o g h a t g u lly (fig . 19.3,
_ R>,k
b -1 A lla h ab ad D istric t), p lo tte d on se m i-lo g g ra p h p a
IH =
R b -i per, alm o st v alid a te s th e H o rto n 's la w o f s tre a m
w h e re k = h ig h e s t o rd e r o f th e b asin n u m b e r as stated a b o v e b e c a u se th e c o e ffic ie n t o f
R b = c o n s ta n t b ifu rc a tio n ratio co rre la tio n is — 0 .9 9 3 an d th e p e rc e n ta g e v aria n c e
I f th e b a s in is o f 5 th o rd e r an d b ifu rca tio n ratio
ex p la in e d is 9 8 .6 5 .
is
So, I N =
14 4 -1
Table 19.3 : Morphometric Data of Deoghat Gullies (1991)
C u m u la tiv e m ean B asin are a
G u lly b asin o rd e r N u m b e r o f gu lly M ean len g th
le n g th (m ) (m 2)
( |i) s e g m e n ts (N ^) (m )
19.24 290
1 84 19.24 .: ,V.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
364
ordering, after Savindra Singh and A. Dubey. ^

Fig. 19.3 : Contour and drainage map o f Deoghat gullies ; stream
4. Length Ratio and Law of Stream Length
T h e p ro p o rtio n o f in c re a s e o f m e an le n g th s o f Rl l m
stream se g m en ts o f tw o su c c e s s iv e b a sin o rd e rs is
- XL.
d efin ed as le n g th ra tio (R L) an d is c a lc u la te d a c c o rd - w h en Lu — ■
ing to th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n — N,

MORPHOMETRY O F DRA IN A G E BASINS
Gully segment numberVs. Cumulative mean gully

gully basin order 1 99|
length Vs.gully basin
order 1991
2 0 0 -i
100- r= - 0 • 9 93
\ r2 = 98 - 6 5 %
z 50-
w 1*0-
“ 30-
*cm
E 2 0-
O'
%> * \
\n CT \
eO
\jr* \\
* 10- o* \
£> \
a
cn \ \m
vO \
o 5- \
S> \ !
i- k -
o 3- c* \
E \' \
T \
3
z 2c - a \
o \
*> \
1 i i i i
1 2 3 k 5
G u lly basin o r d e r (u ) Gully basi n or der ( u)
Fig. 1 9 .4 : Law o f stream number — regression line o f Fig. 19.5 :Law o f stream length— regression line o f posi
negative exponential function m o d e l: gully tive exponential function m o d e l: cumulative
segm ent number vs. gully basin order; source: mean lengths o f gully segments Vs gully basift
Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996. order; source: Savindra Singh and A. Dubey,
1996.
w h ere is th e m e a n le n g th o f all stream segm ents
(ii) T here is positive relationship betw een m ean
o f a g iv e n o rd e r (fi)
# stream len g th and b asin o rd er i.e. m ean
Z is th e su m o f le n g th s o f all stream seg m en ts o f a len g th in creases w ith su ccessiv e increas
g iv e n ord er. ing orders.
N h is th e n u m b e r o f stream seg m en ts o f a gi ven o rd e r. (iii) H o rto n 's law o f stream len g th (1 945) states
T h e fo llo w in g relatio n sh ip s are g en erally noted ‘th a t th e c u m u la tiv e m e a n le n g th s o f stre a m
b e tw e e n stre a m le n g th s an d b asin o rd e rs— s e g m e n ts o f s u c c e s s iv e h ig h e r o r d e r s in
c r e a s e in g e o m e tr ic a l p r o g r e s s io n s ta r t
(i) T o tal stream le n g th o f g iv en o rd e r is in
in g w ith th e m e a n le n g th o f th e 1 s t o r d e r
v ersely rela ted to stream o rd er i.e. total
s e g m e n ts w ith c o n s ta n t le n g th r a ti o * and
stream le n g th d ecre ase s fro m the lo w er
o rd e r to su c c e ssiv e h ig h e r o rders. th e fo llo w in g p o sitiv e ex p o n en tial fuue-
•.............. -
tion m o d el o f stream len g th h as been su g (i; S .A . S c h u m m 's m o d e l (1 9 6 3 )
g ested — ch an n e l sin u o sity = O l /E l
L,, = L i R l (,‘- |> w h ere O l = o b serv ed (actu al) p ath o f a stream

E l = e x p e c te d stra ig h t p ath o f a stream
w here L i is the m ean le n g th o f th e 1st o rd er.
O n th e b a sis o f a b o v e e q u a tio n S c h u m m id e n tified 5
R l is co n sta n t len g th ratio.
c a te g o rie s o f c h a n n e l s in u o s ity e .g . s tra ig h t course
It m a y be m e n tio n e d th a t th is is a th e o re tic a l e q u a w h en c h a n n e l s in u o s ity is 1.0, tra n s itio n a l course,
tio n w h ich m a y n o t be a p p lic a b le in its to ta lity fo r th e re g u la r c o u rse , irre g u la r c o u rs e a n d to rto u s course
d rain a g e b asin s o f n a tu ra l sy ste m as th e c o n s ta n t (w h en ch an n e l sin u o sity is m o re th a n 2 0 ).(fig . 19.2B).
le n g th ra tio is o f re m o te p o ssib ility in n atu re.
(ii) J. E . M u l l e r ’s m o d e l (1968) - M u ller
T h e re g re s s io n lin e (fig . 19.5) d ra w n on the p ro p o se d h is m o d e l o f s in u o s ity in d e x in te rm s o f
b asis o f fo llo w in g re g re s s io n e q u a tio n o f p o sitiv e h y d ra u lic an d to p o g ra p h ic s in u o s ity , w h ic h re q u ire s
e x p o n e n tia l fu n c tio n m o d e l in v o lv in g c u m u la tiv e th e m e a s u re m e n t o f c h a n n e l le n g th (C L ), valley
m e an g u lly le n g th s a n d g u lly b asin o rd e r o f D e o g h a t le n g th (V L ) an d th e s h o rte s t d is ta n c e b e tw e e n the
g u llies (A llah a b ad d istrict), p lo tted on sem i-lo g g raph so u rc e and th e m o u th o f th e r iv e r (A ir L ), an d
p ap er, ag ain a lm o s t v a lid a te s th e H o rto n 's law o f c a lc u la tio n o f a fe w in d ic e s.
stre a m le n g th s as th e c o e ffic ie n t o f c o rre la tio n is
0 ,9 9 9 an d p e rc e n ta g e o f v a ria n c e e x p la in e d is 9 9 .8 2 .
CL
lo g y lo g a + bx Cl = w h e re C l = c h a n n e l in d e x
AL
w h e re y cu m u lativ e m ean lengths o f gully
VL
seg m en ts V I = ----- w h e re V I = v a lle y in d e x
AL
a = c o n sta n t
A L = a ir le n g th
b = re g re ssio n co e ffic ie n t
x = g u lly b asin o rd er CL
S S I = ----- w h ere S S I = s ta n d a rd
VL
5. Sinuosity Indices
s in u o sity in d e x
T h e s h a p e o f th e o p en lin k in te rm s o f g e o m e t
r ic s tru c tu re o f d ra in a g e lin e in v o lv e s th e c a lc u la tio n
o f d e v ia tio n o f o b s e rv e d p a th ( 0 L) fro m th e e x p e c te d C l-V I
p a th - a lm o s t a s tra ig h t lin e (E L) o f a riv e r fro m th e H S I = % e q u iv a le n t o f
C I-1
s o u rc e to th e m o u th . In fact, n o riv e r, in p ra c tic e ,
s h o w s s tr a ig h t p a th in te rm s o f o p e n lin k as m an y V I-1
T S I = % e q u iv a le n t o f
c a u s a tiv e fa c to rs fo rc e th e d ra in a g e lin e (s tre a m ) to C I-1
d e v ia te fro m th e s tra ig h t p a th . T h e s e fa c to rs m a y be
W h e re H S I = h y d ro lo g ic a l s in u o s ity in d e x
g e o lo g ic a l a n d h y d ro lo g ic a l c o n tro ls , d ip a n g le s,
s lo p e s , a b s o lu te a n d re la tiv e re lie fs etc. T h u s , s in u T S I = to p o g ra p h ic s in u o s ity in d e x
o s ity o f a s tre a m d e n o te s th e d e g re e o f d e v ia tio n o f T h e v a lu e o f u n ity ( 1 .0 ) o f s ta n d a rd sin u osity
its a c tu a l p a th fro m e x p e c te d th e o re tic a l s tra ig h t in d e x (S S I) is in d ic a tiv e o f s t r a ig h t r iv e r c o u r se
p a th (c o u rs e ). T h e a n a ly s is o f d e v ia tio n o f th e c o u rs e w h e re a s index, v a lu e s b e tw e e n 1.0 a n d 1.5 put the
o f d ra in a g e lin e fro m th e s tr a ig h t p a th , sa y s in u o s ity , r iv e r in s in u o u s s h a p e a n d th e v a lu e m o re th a n 1.5
m a y h e lp c o n s id e ra b ly in s tu d y in g th e e f f e c t o f re p re s e n ts a m e a n d e r in g c o u r s e .
te r r a in c h a r a c te r is tic s o n th e r iv e r c o u rs e a n d v ic e T h e h y d ro lo g ic a l a n d to p o g r a p h ic a l sin u o sity
v e rs a . S im u lta n e o u s ly , th e d e g r e e o f s in u o s ity m a y in d ic e s (H S I a n d T S I) c a n b e u s e d as s ig n ific a n t
g iv e a v iv id p ic tu r e o f th e s ta g e o f b a s in d e v e lo p m o rp h o m e tric to o ls in s e a r c h in g o u t th e c a u sa tiv e
m e n t a s w e ll a s la n d fo r m e v o lu tio n . A fe w m o d e ls fa c to rs o f th e s in u o s ity a n d a ls o in d e te rm in in g th e
h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d f o r th e c a lc u la tio n o f s in u o s ity s ta g e o f th e b a s in d e v e l o p m e n t D u r in g e a rly stag e
in d ic e s a s f o llo w s — o f b a s in d e v e lo p m e n t, i f o th e r fa c to rs re m a in con-
I J
M O RPH O M ETR Y o f d r a in a g e b a s in s
the T S I (m o re than 6 0 p e r cen t) d o m in ates o v er

sta n t, G en erally , th e riv ers, w h ic h h a v e th e se values
HSI and a fte r the rem o v al o f p ro n o u n ced re lie f (sy m m etry o f m e a n d e r le n g th , m e a n d e r h eig h t, fo rm
controls in th e la te m a tu re an d old stag es, th e hy d ro - ratio an d rep etitio n o f sy m m e try ) ab o v e 6 0 p e r c en t,
logical sin o u sity (m o re th an 6 0 % ) sco res o v e r to p o are term ed as m e an d erin g riv e rs b u t so m e tim es
graphical sin u o sity . T h u s, sin u o sity in d ices ex p lain terrain and lith o lo g ical c h a ra c te ristic s o f ro ck s re
the h y d ro lo g ical an d to p o g ra p h ic a l ch a ra c te ristic s strict the riv ers to d e v e lo p m e an d ers o f e x p ec ted
o f drainage b asin s. size. ‘R ep etitio n o f sy m m e try is o f v ital sig n ific a n c e
in d ecid in g the m e a n d e rin g p ro p e rtie s o f th e stream s
6. Meander Properties
w herein the h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f re p e titio n o f sy m
‘T h o u g h J.E . M u lle r (1 9 6 8 ) e x p la in e d the
m etry is clo sely related to th e m e a n d e rin g c o u rse
controls o f sin u o s ity o f th e riv e r in a p ractical term
w hereas low p e rc e n ta g e is in d ic a tiv e o f stra ig h t
in his m o d e l b u t it su ffe rs fro m th e sh o rtco m in g o f
c o u rs e ’ (S in g h and U p ad h y ay , 1982).
arbitrary d e fin itio n o f m e a n d e rin g c o u rse o f a riv er
as p o in ted o u t b y J.C . B ric e (1 9 6 4 ) w h o has p re 7. Length of Overland Row (Lg)
sented h is m o d e ls fo r th e c a lc u la tio n and d eriv a tio n T he len g th o f o v erla n d flo w , c o n s id e re d as a
o f d iffe re n t c o m p o n e n ts o f th e m e a n d e rin g co u rse o f d o m in an t h y d ro lo g ic and m o rp h o m e tric fa c to r, is
the riv er. T h e h ig h d e g re e o f sy m m e try o f m e an d er ‘the m ean h o rizo n tal le n g th o f flo w -p a th fro m th e
length, m e a n d e r h e ig h t a n d fo rm ra tio s is th e c h a ra c d iv id e to the stream in a first o rd e r b a sin an d is a
teristics o f m e a n d e rin g p ro p e rtie s w h ich are ap p lied m easu re o f stream sp acin g an d d e g re e o f d is s e c tio n
‘to a s in u o u s stre a m th a t h as, fro m p la ce to p lace and is ap p ro x im ately one h a lf th e re c ip ro c a l o f th e
along its c o u rs e , o n e o r a se rie s o f sy m m e trica l arcs, drain ag e d e n s ity ’ (R .J. C h o rle y , 1 969). L e n g th o f
o v e r la n d flo w is o n e o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t
the le n g th o f w h ic h is re la te d to th e w id th o f the
m o rp h o m etric v ariab les, w h ic h a ffe c ts th e h y d ro -
s tre a m ’ (J.C . B ric e , 1964) (S a v in d ra S in g h , a n d D .P .
lo gical and to p o g rap h ic d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e b a s in s .
U p a d h y a y , 1982). J.C . B ric e 's m o d e l o f co m p u tatio n
It is g en erally re la te d to th e sta g e o f b a s in d e v e lo p
o f m e a n d e r p ro p e rtie s in v o lv e s c a lc u la tio n o f sy m
m ent, b u t no d efin ite p a ra m e te r o r lim it o r s c a le o f
m etry o f m e a n d e r le n g th , sy m m e try o f m e an d er
th e le n g th o f o v erla n d flo w h as b een s u g g e s te d so fa r
heig h t, s y m m e try o f fo rm ra tio an d re p etitio n o f and th u s q u alitativ ely it is g e n e ra lly o b s e rv e d th a t
sy m m e try as fo llo w s — th e early stag e is m a rk e d w ith m a x im u m le n g th o f
(i) Symmetry o f (arc) m eander length o v erlan d flo w and m a tu re an d o ld sta g e s re g is te r
m ark ed red u ctio n in L g.
100(mean deviation of arc le n g th )^
= 1 0 0 --------------------------------------T % T h e au th o r ag ree s w ith th e c o ro lla ry o f D.R.
mean arc length
C o ates* (1 9 5 8 ) th a t ‘o th e r fa c to rs b e in g c o n s ta n t,
(ii) Symmetry ui (arc) m eander height areas m o re a d v a n c e d in to m a tu rity a p p e a r to c o n ta in
sm a lle r o v erla n d flo w -le n g th s th a n y o u th fu l a re a s '
100(m ean deviation of arc h eig h t)^
b eca u se a d ra in a g e b asin o n an a v e ra g e d e v e lo p s
mean arc height
m a x im u m stre a m s e g m e n ts in its la te y o u th a n d
(iii) Symmetry of form ratio early m a tu re sta g e s a n d th u s m in im u m (s h o rte r)
len g th o f o v e rla n d flo w is fo u n d . It is im p o rta n t to
100(mean deviation o f form ratio)
= 100- n ote th at cy c lic c o n c e p t o f b asin d e v e lo p m e n t s h o u ld
mean form ratio n o t be g iv en u n d u e im p o rta n c e as le n g th o f o v e rla n d
Na flow is a lso a ffe c te d by o th e r fa c to rs viz. ra in fa ll
(iv) R ep etitio n o f sy m m e try = ^ . ^ *1 0 0 in te n sity , in filtra tio n ra te , s o ils , v e g e ta tio n c o v e rs
etc.
w h ere N a = % o f n u m b e r o f a rc s w h o se
len g th d o es not d ev iate m ore than 8. Stream Junction Angles
25 % fro m th e a v e ra g e len g th o f Geometry of angular property of drainage
m ean d ers. network is related to the junction angle of two stream
ENa = total number of meanders segments which is defined as ‘the angle, projected to
th e h o riz o n ta l, b etw een av erag e flo w -d irec tio n s, d e 1. G eom etry o f B a sin S h a p e
te rm in e d by th e en d s o f the stream seg m en ts e x te n d T h e g eo m etry o f b a sin sh a p e is o f p aram o u n t
in g fro m th e ju n c tio n p o in t to an u p stream p o in t at a sig n ifican ce as it h e lp s in th e d e sc rip tio n and com
d ista n c e eq u al to 0.2 tim es the av erag e le n g th o f the p ariso n o f d iffe re n t fo rm s o f th e d ra in a g e basins and
seco n d o rd e r s tre a m s ’ (J.K . L u b o w e, 1 9 6 4 ).L u b o w e it is also rela ted to th e fu n c tio n in g o f the u n its o f the
has re m a rk e d th a t ‘the stream ju n c tio n an g le in b asin s a n d its g en esis. T h e id e al d rain a g e basin is
crea ses as th e o rd e r o f rece iv in g stream in c re a s e s .’ u su ally o f p e a r sh a p e b u t sin c e it is d e p e n d e n t on the
A cco rd in g to S .A . S ch u m m (1 9 5 6 ) ‘w h ere th e valley size (o f th e b a sin ) a n d th e le n g th o f th e m a ste r stream
sid e slo p e is steep in rela tio n to the g rad ie n t o f the o f th e b asin an d b a sin p e rim e te r, w h ic h are them
m a ste r stream , a trib u ta ry ten d s to jo in at alm o st
selv es d e p e n d e n t o n o th e r v a ria b le s su ch as absolute
rig h t a n g l e ; b u t w h ere th e g rad ie n ts o f m a ster stream
reliefs, slo p es, g e o lo g ic a l stru c tu re a n d lithological
an d v alley s id e slo p e are a lm o st th e sam e, th e trib u
ch ara cteristics etc. an d h e n c e a w id e ra n g e o f varia
ta ry v irtu a lly p a ra lle ls th e m ain c h an n el, jo in in g it at
sm all a n g le ’. tio n in b asin sh a p e is b o u n d to h a p p e n . T h u s, various
m e th o d s h av e b een s u g g e s te d to c a lc u la te th e shapes
T h u s, th e stre a m ju n c tio n an g les m ay be c o r
re la te d w ith th e sta g e o f b asin d e v e lo p m e n t b ecau se o f th e b asin s. O n an a v e ra g e 3 su b -cate g o ries o f
‘th e e n tra n c e an g le s in m a tu re b asin s are sig n ifi b asin sh ap es h av e b een re c o g n iz e d viz. (i) circular,
c a n tly le ss th a n th o se in y o u th fu l b a s in s ’ (S.A . (ii) e lo n g ated , a n d (iii) in d e n te d . A c o m p a c t shape
S c h u m m , 1956). m ay be n o n -e lo n g a te d , n o n -in d e n te d , o r slightly
in d en ted , w h e re a s a n o n -c o m p a c t sh a p e m ay be
1 9 .7 .2 AREAL A SP E C T S OF THE BASIN
e lo n g ated , n o n -e lo n g a te d , n o n -in d e n te d o r highly
B a sin a re a is v ery im p o rta n t m o rp h o m etric
in d en ted . D iffe re n t p o p u la r m e th o d s o f com putation
a ttrib u te as it is re la te d to th e sp atial d istrib u tio n o f
o f b asin sh ap e are as fo llo w s —
a n u m b e r o f sig n ific a n t attrib u te s su ch as d rain a g e
d e n sity , stre a m fre q u e n c y , d ra in a g e te x tu re, slo p es, (i) H o r to n 's f o r m f a c t o r (F ) (1 9 3 2 )
a b s o lu te a n d re la tiv e re lie fs, d isse c tio n in d ex etc.,
th a t is w h y H .W . A n d e rso n (1 9 5 7 ) has te rm ed it as
a ‘d e v il's o w n v a ria b le b e c a u se alm o st ev ery w a te r w h ere F = fo rm fa c to r in d icatin g elonga
s h e d c h a ra c te ris tic is c o rre la te d w ith a re a .’ T he tio n o f th e b asin shape
d r a in a g e b a sin a re a is d e lin e a te d o n the b asis o f
A = b asin area
w a te r d iv id e s a n d th e area s o f all stream se g m e n ts o f
e a c h o r d e r a re m e a su re d w ith th e h elp o f d ig ital L = b asin le n g th
p la n im e te r . A ll o f th e g ro u n d su rface, w h ich d irec tly T h e v alu e o f ‘F ’ v arie s fro m O (highly elon
f e e d s th e 1 st o r d e r s e g m e n ts , are in c lu d e d in th e
g ated sh ap e) to th e u n ity i.e. 1 (p erfect circular
a r e a s o f 1st o r d e r b a sin s. T h e a re a o f seco n d o rd e r
sh ap e). T h u s, th e h ig h e r th e v alu e o f F , the m ore
s tr e a m s e g m e n ts in c lu d e s th e a re a o f 1st o rd e r se g
circ u lar th e sh a p e o f th e b asin a n d vice-versa.
m e n ts p lu s th e a re a s o f in te r-b a s in s , w h ic h are tria n
g u la r p a tc h e s o f g ro u n d s u rfa c e c o n trib u tin g d irec tly (ii) S t o d d a r t 's (1 9 6 5 ) E lip tic ity I n d e x (E )
to th e 2 n d o r d e r s e g m e n ts . T h e sa m e p rin c ip le w o rk s c riL2
E = ------
f o r a ll th e in c re a s in g s u c c e s s iv e o rd e r se g m e n ts 4A
( S in g h a n d S riv a s ta v a , 1974). T h u s, th e b asin area w h ere E = e lip tic ity in d e x
b e c o m e s a u to m a tic a lly c u m u la tiv e fro m th e 1st o r n = 3.14
d e r to th e s u c c e s s iv e h ig h e r o rd e rs.
A = b asin a re a
T h e a re a l a s p e c ts o f th e d ra in a g e b asin in
L = b asin le n g th
c l u d e th e s tu d y o f b a s in p e rim e te r, g e o m e try o f
c lo s e d lin k s i.e . b a s in s h a p e , la w o f b asin area , law T h e v a lu e o f ‘E* v a rie s fro m 1 to 0 . It is
o f a llo m e tr ic g ro w th , s tre a m fre q u e n c y , d ra in a g e a p p are n t from th ese tw o e q u a tio n s th a t *E* is in
d e n s ity , d r a in a g e te x tu r e etc. v ersely p ro p o rtio n a l to ‘F ’.
MORPHOMETRY o f d r a i n a g e b a s i n s
(iii) V C . M ille r 's C ircu la rity In d ex (C ) (1953) cases the sh ap es o f the d rain a g e b asin s d o n o t a p p e a r
to be the resu lt o f stag es o f b asin d e v elo p m en t as
area of the basin
C- to p o g rap h y and stru ctu re play im p o rta n t ro le in
area o f the circle with same
d eterm in in g b asin shape. F o r ex am p le, if a d rain ag e
perimeter as the basin b asin is ja g g e d b etw een tw o p arallel h ill ran g es, its
Or sh ap e w ill rem ain hig h ly e lo n g ated even in th e o ld
stag e o f cy cle o f ero sio n .
4 F IA
C= 2. Law of Basin Perimeter, Basin Length and
Basin Area
w here p = b a sin p e rim e te r ‘B asin area, basin p erim eter and channel length
are sig n ifican t m o rp h o m etric v aria b les w hich d e te r
T h e v a lu e o f ‘C ’ v a rie s fro m O (a lin e) to 1 (a
m in e the shape, size and g en etic a sp e c t o f d rain a g e
circle). T h e h ig h e r th e v a lu e o f ‘C \ the m o re circ u lar
basins. B asin p erim ete r can be d irec tly c o rre la te d
shape o f th e b a sin an d v ic e versa.
w ith the square ro o ts o f b asin are a and in c re a se o r
(iv) S .A . S c h u m m 's (1 9 5 6 ) E lo n g a tio n R a tio (R) d ecrease in the fo rm er in d icates in c re ase o r d e c re a se
in the latter. T he c o e fficien t o f co rrelatio n b etw ee n
diam eter of the circle with
these tw o v ariab les o f 30 sm all d rain a g e b asin s ( o f
same area as basin S.E. C h o tan ag p u r, B ih ar) stan d in g at 0 .9 9 is v ery
R =
basin length strong p ositive co rrelatio n w h ich is s ig n ific a n t a t 1
peir cen t pro b ab ility level. S im ilarly , co e ffic ie n ts o f
A_ = 2 ^ correlation betw een b asin p erim ete rs an d c h a n n e l
T hus R =
_n Vn lengths and b etw een sq u are ro o ts o f b asin areas an d
L channel lengths bein g 0.89 an d 0.98 resp ectiv ely are
Or again sig n ifican t at 1 per cen t o f co n fid e n ce lev el.
T he sig n ifican t relatio n sh ip s am o n g th ese v aria b les
f = -2 - r 2 speak the story o f g enetic asp ect o f b asin d e v e lo p
4
m ent. The first o rd er seg m en ts o f the b asin s n o tc h
T h u s, S c h u m m 's ‘R ’ is p ro p o rtio n al to the dow n the w atersh ed s from w h ich th ey tak e th e ir
square ro o t o f H o rto n 's ‘F \ T h e v alu e o f ‘R ’ varies sources through h ead w ard ero sio n . T h is p ro cess
from O (h ig h ly e lo n g a te d sh ap e) to unity i.e. 1.0 h elps in the p ro p o rtio n ate in crease o f b asin area an d
(circular sh ap e). T h u s, th e h ig h e r th e v alu e o f R, the the back w earin g o f w atersh ed s (w ater d iv id es) fa
m ore c irc u la r sh a p e o f th e b asin and vice versa. vours the in crease o f stream len g th an d b asin area
(v) C h o r le y , M a lm a n d P o g o r z e ls k i 's (1 9 5 7 ) alike. T he b ack w earin g o f d iv id es sim u ltan e o u sly
L em n isca te M eth o d (K ) increases the basin p erim eter. T h is law w orks in the
region o f h o m o g en eo u s lith o lo g y and g eo lo g ical
(based on the co m p ariso n o f the basin w ith
structure, clim ate and p lan t c o v e r b u t sig n ifican t
L em n iscate c u rv e) v ariation in re lie f c h a ra cteristics u p sets the sm o o th
fu n ctio n in g o f b asin d ev elo p m en t an d in tro d u ces
L2
K =— d ep artu res from the ab o v e la w ’ (S a v in d ra S ingh an d
4A
D .P. U p ad h y ay , 1982).
T he h ig h er the v alu e o f ‘K \ the m ore elo n g ated
shape and vice versa. 3. Area Ratio (Ra)
It is generally b e lie v e d th a t if all th e factors A rea ratio d en o tes p ro p o rtio n o f in crease o f
controlling drainage b asin s d ev elo p m en t rem ain co n m ean basin areas b etw een tw o su ccessiv e o rders
stant, the basin shape b eco m es m o re and m o re circ u and can be calcu la ted by the fo llo w in g eq u atio n as
lar w ith the ad v an cem en t o f stag es o f cy cle o f su g g ested by A .N . S trah ler (1 9 6 9 )—
erosion (and hence stages o f b asin d ev elo p m en t) and
the basin assum es p ear sh ap e in th e p en u ltim ate
Ra = _
(old) stage o f its d ev elo p m en t. B u t in m o st o f the A u -i

w h e re is m e a n a r e a o f a g i v e n o r d e r o f t h e
basin.
lOOOOOu Gully basin area Vs.
- XAt gully basin/ order
W hen An = 19 91
N, 50 0 0 0 -
i#0 0 0 0 -
w here Np. = num ber o f all segm ents o f a given 30 0 0 0 -
order
X A ji = total area o f all stream segm ents
o f the sam e order
S ince the area becom es cum ulative with in 10 0 0 0 -
cr
creasing orders and hence area ratios decrease with
increasing orders w ithin the basin.
ft) 5000-
4. Law of Basin Area *♦000-
It m ay be stated that the basin area becom es 3 000-
cu m u lativ e from 1st o rd er to successive h igher o r =O
V 2000-
ders and the trunk stream (m aster stream ) o f the rj
O
h ig h est o rd er represen ts the total area o f the w hole
c 1000-
basin. A .N . S trahler (1969) p araphrased H o rto n ’s ra
law o f stream length into law o f basin area and V
21
postu lated that, ‘the m ean basin a rea s o f successive
h ig h e r strea m o rd ers te n d to fo r m g eo m etric series
b eginning w ith m ean a rea o f the 1st o rd er basin a n d
r= 0 -9 9 k
increasing a cco rd in g to co n sta n t area r a tio ’ and 200-
sug g ested the follow in g eq u atio n o f the law o f basin r2= 9 8 • 9 6 */«
area— 1 00 f-----1------1--- 1-----
An = A , R a '1* -i) 1 2 3 U 5
G ully b a s in o rd e r(U )
w h ere A i is the m ean area o f the 1st order and
R a is the co n stan t area ratio.
Fig. 19.6 : Law o f basin area — regression line o f posi
T h e p lo t (fig. 19.6) o f m ean basin areas on a
tive exponential fu n c tio n m odel. Source:
c o n s ta n t ra tio scale (lo g arith m ic scale) on the verti
Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996.
ca l ax is a g a in st stream o rd er on an arith m etic scale
o n th e h o riz o n ta l ax is in v o lv in g the fo llo w in g re The above law almost hols good in the case of
g ressio n eq u a tio n p ro d u c e s a straig h t line o f reg res Deoghat gullies (Allahabad district) as the coeffi
sio n o f p o sitiv e ex p o n e n tia l m odel. cient of correlation is 0.994 and percentage of vari
ance explained is 98.96 per cent. But the fitted
lo g y = log a + bx
function (fig. 19.6) shows considerable underesti
w h ere y is the m ean basin area mation in the case of basin areas of 1st, 2nd and 4th
a is co n stan t order gully segments and an overestimation in the
x is basin o rd er
case of 3rd order basin areas. It may be mentioned
that whenever the area ratio within different orders
b is reg ressio n of a particular basin becomes more or less stable, the
c o efficien t law of basin area comes nearer to truth but when area
m
ratio re g iste rs la rg e v a ria tio n , th e law o f b asin are a T h e su ccessiv e in creasin g o rd ers w ith the
loses its v a lid ity . T h u s, th e rela tio n o f g eo m e tric ad v an c em en t o f flu v ial cy cle in d icate increasing
series m ay n o t b e te n a b le in cru d e sen se b u t the tim e w h erein ap p ea ran ce o f new 1st o rd er fin g er-tip
linear re la tio n s h ip b etw ee n th e se tw o v a ria b le s is no stream seg m en ts w ith acc elera ted rate o f ero sio n
d o ubt v alid ate d . d u rin g y o u th fu l stag e in creases th e o rd er o f the old er
5. Law of Allometric Growth seg m en ts. U n d er ideal c o n d itio n s o f u n ifo rm g eo
lo gical stru ctu re and clim ate, th e rate o f increase
T h e b io lo g ical law o f allo m etric g ro w th , w hich
(g ro w th ) b eco m es o rd erly an d fo llo w s the law o f
states p ro p o rtio n a te in c re a s e in all p a rts o f the o r
allo m etric g ro w th . A .N . S trah ler has su g g ested th at
gans o f liv in g o rg a n is m w ith tim e , o f o rg an s o f
if cu m u lativ e m ean len g th s an d m ean b asin areas o f
anim als an d p la n ts (w h e re in re la tiv e g ro w th o f an
d iffere n t b asin o rd ers are p lo tted on lo g arith m ic
organ b e c o m e s c o n s ta n t fra c tio n o f re la tiv e rate o f
g raph p ap er (both h o rizo n tal and v ertical scales
g row th o f th e w h o le b o d y o f th e an im al o r p la n t) has
being co n stan t ratio scale) a straig h t line o f re g re s
been in tro d u c e d b y g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts (M . M o risaw a,
sion o f p o sitiv e p o w er fu n ctio n is fo rm ed (fig. 19.7).
1957, M .J. W o ld e n b e rg , 1966, A .N . S trah ler, 1969
etc.) in th e flu v ia l s y ste m w h e re in by an alo g y the log y = log a + b log x
m e asu ra b le p ro p e rtie s o f a d ra in a g e b asin , such as w here y = cum u lativ e m ean length
stream le n g th s an d b asin a re a s, are c o m p a re d w ith
x = m ean basin area
the o rg a n s o f g ro w in g a n im a l o r p la n t and in crease
T he high d eg ree o f c o efficien t o f c o rrelatio n
a c c o rd in g to a llo m e tric g ro w th law .
o f 0 .999 and p ercen tag e o f v arian ce e x p la in e d (99.8
p er cen t) betw een cu m u lativ e m ean g u lly le n g th s
and m ean gully b asin areas o f D e o g h a t g u llies (A l
C u m u l a t i v e Me an G u l l y L e n g t h V s . M e a n
G u l l y b a s i n area 1991 lahabad district) validates the law o f allom etric grow th.
100 00 0 n
00 0 0 0 : •V /
a / 6. Stream F requ en cy
60 000- < or
</ S tream freq u en cy or d rain a g e freq u en cy is
~ uoooo-
the m easu re o f n u m b er o f stream s p er u n it a re a (m ay
£o* /
o/ be sq u are m eter, sq u are k ilo m eter an d so on). F o r th e
f 20 0 0 0 - < 6/
o* co m p u tatio n o f stream freq u en cy (S F ), th e b asin is
c -v
* lo o o o : V c o n v e n ie n tly d iv id e d in to g rid s q u a re s (m o re
°7
"•s//
8000: co m m o n ally one sq u are m ile /k ilo m e te r) d e p e n d in g
% 6000- r
on m ap scale and areal co v era g e o f th e b asin an d th e
X ‘♦000- /
n u m b er o f stream s in each g rid is c o u n te d , ta b u la te d
>» /
and q u an tified . T h e d a ta o f stream fre q u e n c y are
1 2000- /
classified into certain c a teg o ries d e p e n d in g u p o n the
• i
.£ 1 0 0 0: / n atu re o f data. T h e sp atial p a tte rn o f stream fre
% 800 - / q u en cy is stu d ied th ro u g h iso p le th (fig . 19.8A ) o r
s 600- /
B / ch o ro p le th m ap s. T h e g en era l c a te g o rie s o f stream
3 1*00- /
o / r = 0 • 9 991 freq u en cy are (i) very p o o r (S F vp), (ii) p o o r (S F p),
200- / r 2= 99 • 8 % (iii) m o d e ra te (S F M), (iv ) h ig h (S F „) an d (v) very
h ig h (S F vh).
I1 i*nVInu ------- j— i— r i i m j i i m
1 to 20 UO 60 80100 200 *00 600 7. Drainage Density
Cutty b a s i n a r e a ( K m ^ ) D ra in a g e d en sity refers to to tal stre a m le n g th s
p e r u n it area. R .E . H o rto n (1 9 4 5 ) d e fin e d d ra in a g e
Fig. 1 9 .7 : Law o f allometric growth - regression line o f d en sity as a ra tio o f to ta l le n g th o f all stre a m se g
positive p o w er fu n ctio n model. Source : m e n ts in a g iv e n d ra in a g e b a sin to th e to ta l a re a o f
Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996. th a t b a sin an d th u s it c a n b e d e riv e d as fo llo w s—
STREAM SANKH D R A IN A G E
F REQUENCY DENSITY
A B
Stream
rcqucn cy
0 -2
2 - k Dd M
2 - <♦ DRAINAGE
l »- 6 Dd H
- 6 TEXTURE
>6 Od
6 - 8 C VH
> 8
Ora i nage Tex t a r e
i n m il e
Fig. 1 9 .8 : Spatial patterns o f stream frequency (A ), drainage density (B) and drainage texture (C) o f Sankh basin, Randu
plateau, Bihar. Source : Savindra Singh, 1978a.
squares of one square mile or one square kilometer

D d = -^ - each and to measure the total stream lengths in each
Ak
grid square and to group the derived data into drain
where LK = total lengths of all stream seg age density categories viz. (i) very low (Dd^), (ii)
ments of a basin low (DdL), (iii) moderate (DdM), (iv) high (D d^ and
Afc = total area of the basin (v) very high (DdVH) drainage density categories and
to prepare isopleths (fig. 19.8B) for the study of
Horton's method (as given above) yields only
spatial distributional pattern.
a single value (of drainage density) for the entire
basin and hence it cannot be applied for the study of It may be pointed out that the m easurem ent of
spatial variations o f drainage density within a given stream lengths in grid square (with the help of
basin. The simplest way to calculate drainage den opisometer or threads) is very tedious, difficult and
sity on a regional scale is to divide the basin into grid time consuming procedure and hence
MORPHOMETRY o f d r a i n a g e b a s i n s 373
h *ioh t curve C—percentage hypsometric curve and D—model o f percent-

Fig. 19.9 : A -H ypsom etric curve, B - a r e a - h e i ig >^ dev
age hypsometric curve fo r the determin
B = equilibrium stage and H = penultimate (o stag ,, ,
a tn v iz ‘th e p ro b a b ilistic lin e in tersectio n m e th o d o t
m easu rem en t o f stream le n g th s p e r u n it are a i C \ V .C a r ls t o n W ^ B .L a n g b e in ( I960), T .W ilg a l's
a n d
calcu late d ra in a g e d e n sity h as d iv e rte d th e a tten tio n m eth 0(j (] 966) b ased on th e m e an d ista n ces fro m th e
o f interested w o rk ers in th is fie ld to e x p lo re a te n ?j* n e a re st w ater co u rse, ‘th e p h o to m e c h a n ic a l m e th o d
tiv e m eth o d s o f ra p id e s tim a tio n o f d ra in a g e en si y
374 GEOM O RPH O L
o f V in c e G a rd in e r (1 9 7 4 ), J J . D o n a h u e 's m e th o d (t i + t 2 ) / 2
(1 9 7 2 ) u sin g th e n u m b e r o f p o in ts on a re g u la r g rid t=
V2
th a t to u c h a stre a m as an in d ex o f stre a m le n g th ,
d ig itiz a tio n o f d ra in a g e lin es, S a v in d ra S in g h 's d ra in whe nt i , t 2 = number of intersections between
ag e te x tu re m e th o d (1 9 7 6 , 1978, 1981 etc.). th e s tre a m n e tw o rk and grid >
sq u are d ia g o n a ls
T h e s p a tia l v a ria tio n in d ra in a g e d e n sity
h as b een re la te d to p re c ip ita tio n e ffe c tiv e n e ss (M .A . P1 + P 2 + P 3 + P 4
M elto n , 1957), v eg e ta tio n in dex (R .J. C h o rley , 1957), an d p =
p e rm e a b ility o f te rra in (C .W . C a rlsto n , 1963), c li
w h ere P] to P 4 = n u m b e r o f in tersectio n s between
m a tic c h a ra c te r (w h e re so il, re lie f, ro c k ty p e o r
th e stre a m n e tw o rk an d grid
vegetal c o v e r a ffe c t p recip ita tio n , C .A . C o tton, 1964),
sq u are ed g es.
ra in fa ll in te n s ity (R .J. C h o rle y an d M .A . M o rg an ,
T h e d a ta o f d ra in a g e te x tu re, so d e riv e d (on
1962 ; M .A . M e lto n , 1957), stru c tu re , p a rtic u la rly
th e b asis o f ab o v e e q u a tio n ) are c la ss ifie d into five
ro c k ty p e , re la tiv e ea se in in filtra tio n o f p re c ip ita
D t c a te g o rie s e.g. (i) v ery c o a rse d ra in a g e texture
tio n in to g ro u n d s u rfa c e an d v eg etal c o v e r (S av in d ra
(ab o v e 0.8, D tvc), (ii) c o a rse d ra in a g e te x tu re (0 .8 —
S in g h a n d R e n u S riv a sta v a , 1974) etc.
0.6, D tc), (iii) m o d e ra te d ra in a g e te x tu re (0.6— 0.4,
8. D ra in a g e T extu re D tm), (iv) fin e d rain a g e te x tu re (0 .4 — 0.2, D tp), and
(v) very fine d ra in a g e te x tu re (0 .2 — 0.0 0 1 , D ^ ) ,
‘A n im p o rta n t g eo m o rp h ic c o n c e p t is d ra in
valu es in d icate stream sp acin g in m ile o r k ilo m e te r
a g e te x tu re by w h ich w e m ean th e re la tiv e sp acin g o f
in g rid sq u ares. Iso p leth s (fig. 19.8C ) are p rep ared
d ra in a g e lin e s ’ (G .H . S m ith , 1950). H o rto n (1945)
d e fin e d d ra in a g e te x tu re on th e b asis o f stream on th e b asis o f co m p u ted d ata o f d ra in a g e te x tu re o f
a given basin fo r the study o f its (d rain a g e te x tu re)
fre q u e n c y (n u m b e r o f stream s p er u n it area). In fact,
spatial pattern s.
th e te rm ‘d ra in a g e te x tu re ’ h as b een u sed lo o sely
a n d no s u c c e s s fu l a tte m p t has b een m ad e to search S av in d ra S ingh, V. G a rd in e r and S .S . O jh a.
o u t a q u a n tita tiv e p a ra m e te r fo r its calcu latio n . A c (1986) using a ‘p rin cip al co m p o n en t a n a ly s is ’ te c h
c o rd in g to S a v in d ra S in g h (1 9 7 6 , 1978) the term n iq u e for the an aly sis o f ‘spatial v ariation o f d ra in
d ra in a g e te x tu re m u st b e u sed to in d icate relativ e age density in P alam au u p la n d ’ cam e to the c o n c lu
s p a c in g s o f th e stre a m s in a u n it area alo n g a lin ear sion that d rain ag e den sity and d rain ag e te x tu re have
d ire c tio n . T h u s, h e atte m p te d to fin d o u t a new alm o st identical lo ad in g s on the stream co m p o n en t
p a ra m e te r in te rm s o f d rain a g e tex tu re (S av in d ra and ap p ear to y ield v irtu ally id en tical in fo rm atio n
S in g h , 1976, 1978) to rep la ce the d eriv a tio n o f co n cern in g this a sp ect o f b asin form . S a v in d ra Singh
d ra in a g e d e n sity . A c c o rd in g to him , ‘d rain a g e te x (19 8 1 ) o b tain ed very h ig h c o rre la tio n co efficien t
tu re re fe rs to re la tiv e sp acin g o f stream s p er unit (ab o v e 0.9) b etw een d rain a g e d en sity and drainage
le n g th in g rid sq u a re s (o n e m ile X o n e m ile o r one tex tu re d u rin g th e c o m p arativ e study o f these tw o
k ilo m e te r X o n e k ilo m e te r). T h e d eriv a tio n o f d ra in variab les in P alam au u p lan d (29 d ra in a g e basins),
a g e te x tu re is q u ic k an d e a sie r m e th o d , as it in v o lv es R an ch i p lateau (23 b asin s), S.E . C h o ta n a g p u r region
o n ly th e c o u n tin g o f stream c ro ssin g s alo n g the four (30 b asin s), B h an d er u p lan d in M .P . (15 b asin s) and
N orth A rav alli reg io n (31 b asin s) an d concluded
e d g e s o f e a c h g rid an d its tw o d ia g o n als ra th e r than
that, d eriv atio n and use o f d rain a g e d en sity m ay be
m e a su rin g th e le n g th s as is d o n e in d rain a g e den sity .
rep laced by d rain a g e te x tu re as th e latter is m uch
T h e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n is su g g ested to calcu la te
effectiv ely related to o th e r m o rp h o m etric variables
d ra in a g e te x tu re : as d rain a g e d en sity an d its (o f d rain ag e texture)
d eriv a tio n is q u ic k e r and e a sie r than drainage den- |
1
Dt = AS = ...S a v in d ra S ingh, 1 9 8 1 sity. So, the five c ateg o ries o f d rain ag e texture (Dt)
(t + p ) / 2 1.e. very co arse, co arse, m o d erate, fine and very fine ..j
w h e re D t = d rain a g e tex tu re should be taken as rep resen tativ es o f extrem ely lo w>
low , m o d erate, hig h and very high D d c a t e g o r i e s J
A S = av era g e sp acin g b etw een tw o
resp ectiv ely .
stream s
jylORPHOMETRY OF D RAIN AGE BASINS 375
19.7.3 RELIEF ASPECTS OF THE BASIN plotted on the o rd in ate and relativ e area (a/A , w h ere
The re lie f asp ects o f the d rain ag e b asin s arc a d enotes area betw een tw o su ccessiv e co n to u rs an d
related to the study o f th ree d im en sio n al featu res o f A indicates total basinal area) p lo tted on the a b
the basins inv o lv in g area, vo lu m e and altitu d e o f scissa in term s o f p ercen tag e (cu rm u lativ c) (fig.
vertical d im en sio n o f lan d fo rm s w h erein d iffere n t 19.9C and D) has pro v ed fruitful in p ro v id in g a b asis
m orphom etric m eth o d s are used to an aly se terrain for reco g n izin g stag es o f the cy cle o f ero sio n in a
characteristics, w hich are the resu lt o f b asin p ro c d rain ag e basin (S av id n ra S ingh and R. S riv asta v a,
esses. T hus, this asp ect in c lu d es the an aly sis o f the 1975). It is im p o rtan t to n o te th a t th e ty p e o f
relationships betw een area and altitude (hyposom etric hypsom etric an aly sis o f the basin ad v o cated by A .N .
analysis), altitu d e and slo p e an g le (clin o g rap h ic S trah ler is not prim arily d esig n ed to show ero sio n
analysis), av e ra g e g ro u n d slo p e, relativ e reliefs, levels but is m ore for co m p arativ e p u rp o se s b etw ee n
relief ratio, d isse c tio n in d ex , p ro files o f terrain s and one basin and an o th er to estab lish stag es o f d e n u d a
the rivers etc. tion that can be ap p lied to any basin (C .A .M . K in g ,
1966). H y p so m etric and ero sio n in teg rals (H I an d
1. Hypsometric Analysis
E l) m ay be calcu lated eith er by p la n im e te r o r m a th
H y p so m e try in v o lv es the m e asu re m en t and em atically. T he h y p so m etric in teg ral is th e ra tio o f
analysis o f re la tio n s h ip s b etw ee n altitu d e and basin volum e o r p ercen tag e o f total v o lu m e o f th e b a sin
area to u n d e rsta n d the d e g re e o f d issectio n and stage area below the curve.(fig. 19.9 C ) and th u s it re v e a ls
o f cycle o f e ro sio n . A re a -h e ig h t cu rv es, h y p so m etric the volum e o f the area u n co n su m ed by the d y n a m ic
curves an d p e rc e n ta g e h y p so m e tric cu rv es are g en w heels o f erosion (30% in fig. 19.9 C ) w h ereas th e
erally u sed to sh o w th e re la tio n sh ip s b etw een alti erosion integral (E l) is a p ro p o rtio n a te are a a b o v e
tudes an d a re a o f th e b asin . T h e b asic d ata req u ired the cu rv e (fig. 19.9C, E l= 70% ) and th u s it in d ic a te s
for the stu d y o f a re a -h e ig h t re la tio n sh ip s are areas the volum e o f area w hich has been ero d e d by e ro
betw een s u c c e s s iv e c o n to u rs and th eir resp ectiv e sional processes. T h e h y p so m etric in teg ral h as b e e n
heights. T h e a re a m ay be m e asu re d w ith th e help o f accepted as an im p o rtan t m o rp h o m etric in d ic a to r o f
p la n im e te r o r m a y b e e stim a te d by in tercep t m ethod. the stage o f basin d ev elo p m en t. A .N . S tra h le r (1 9 5 2 )
T he h e ig h t is o b ta in e d fro m th e c o n to u r m ap. related the h y p so m etric in teg ral o f a b o v e 0 .6 (o r
A r e a - h e i g h t c u r v e s in d ic a te actu al areas b e 60% ), 0 .6 — 0.35 (o r 60 % — 35% ) and b elo w 0 .3 5 (o r
tw een tw o s u c c e s s iv e c o n to u rs and h en ce h o rizo n tal 35% ) to the y o u th fu l (fig. 19.9D — E ), e q u ilib riu m
axis re p re s e n ts a re a in te rm s o f p e rc e n ta g e o f total (fig. 19.9D — B) and m o n a d n o ck (o ld ) sta g e s (fig .
area an d th e v e rtic a l ax is sh o w s h e ig h t (fig. 19.9B). 19.9D — H ) o f b asin d ev elo p m e n t re sp e c tiv e ly . B u t
T h o u g h a re a -h e ig h t c u rv e d e n o te s re la tio n sh ip b e m o re co m m o n ally y o u th fu l, m a tu re an d o ld sta g e s
tw een a ltitu d in a l z o n e s an d c o rre sp o n d in g areas but are rep resen ted by h y p so m etric in te g ra ls o f m o re
this d o e s n o t re p re s e n t actu al p ro file o f terrain and than 60% , 6 0 % — 30% and less th a n 30% re s p e c
h en ce b re a k s in slo p e a re c o m p le te ly c o n ce aled . tively. It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at ‘th e low v alu e (o f
H y p s o m e tr i c c u r v e is g e n e ra lly u sed to show h y p so m etric in teg ral, b elo w 3 0 % ) is o n ly m a in
the p ro p o rtio n o f a re a o f th e su rfa c e at v ario u s tain ed as long as a few m o n a d n o c k s g iv e re la tiv e ly
e le v a tio n s a b o v e o r b e lo w a d a to m (F .J. M o rk h o u se g reat d iffere n ce in h eig h t b e tw e e n th e h ig h e st an d
an d H .R . W ilk in s o n , 1967) an d th u s th e v alu es o f the lo w est p o in ts, w h en th e m o n a d n o c k s are c o n
a re a a re p lo tte d as ra tio s o f th e to tal area o f the basin su m ed , the in teg ral re tu rn s to a b o u t 0 .4 to 0 .6 ’ ( 4 0 ^
a g a in st th e c o rre s p o n d in g h e ig h ts o f th e c o n to u rs to 6 0 % ) (C .A .M . K in g , 1966). It m ay b e m e n tio n e d
an d h e n c e th e are a is re p re s e n te d by c u m u la tiv e th a t h y p s o m e t r i c i n t e g r a l is v e ry d e l i c a t e
p e rc e n ta g e (fig . 19.9 A ). H y p so m e tric c u rv e also m o rp h o m e tric v aria b le an d h e n c e it s h o u ld b e u se d
w ith u tm o st c a re and field c h e c k s, o th e rw is e it m a y
d o es n o t rev ea l th e actu al p ro file o f te rra in .
re n d e r m isle a d in g resu lts.
P e r c e n ta g e h y p so m e tr ic c u r v e (su g g ested
b y A .N . S tra h le r, 1952) in v o lv in g tw o ratio s o f 2. Clinographic Analysis
re la tiv e h e ig h t (h /H , w h ere h d e n o te s h eig h t b etw een Cl i n o g ra p h ic c u rv e s re p re s e n t a v e ra g e s lo p e s
tw o s u c c e s s iv e c o n to u rs a n d H in d icate s to tal h eig h t) b etw ee n s u c c e s s iv e c o n to u rs an d th u s p re s e n t p a n o -
376
ram ie view o f th e te rra in . U n lik e ar e a -h e ig h t an d C l (in fe e t)
s lo p e a n g le = ta n * = A d (jn ^
h y p so m etric c u rv es, c lin o g ra p h ic c u rv e s re v e a l th e
b reak s in slo p e a n d su d d en c h a n g e s in th e r e lie f o f
w h e re A d = a v e ra g e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n tw o sue
th e area and th e y a lso p re s e n t th e g e n e ra l tre n d o f th e
c e s s iv e c o n to u rs a n d C l is contour
su rfaces. T h e c o n stru c tio n o f c lin o g ra p h ic c u rv e s
in te rv a l. "•fr
re q u ire d a ta o f slo p e an g le s b e tw e e n s u c c e s s iv e
co n to u rs, c o n to u r le n g th s, h e ig h ts an d a re a s b e w hen A d = rl - ru
tw e e n su c c e ssiv e c o n to u rs, fo r w h ic h th e fo llo w in g w h ere rl is the radius o f lower
te ch n iq u es h a v e b een su g g e s te d — co n to u r and ru is the radius of
(i) Flnsterwalder's (1980) clinographic curve : upper con tou r.
A v erag e slo p e an g le b etw ee n tw o su ccessiv e
Cl x L
co n to u rs = tan (j) =
w h e re a is th e a r e a a b o v e th e c o n to u r. The
w h ere C l = c o n to u r in terv al
slo p e a n g le s so d e r iv e d a re p lo tte d fro m above
L = total le n g th o f c o n to u r
d o w n w a rd (fig . 1 9 .1 0 C ). W h e n s lo p e a n g le s are
A = to tal are a b etw ee n co n to u rs
v ery lo w , th e n th e s e a re e x a g g e r a te d b y m u ltip ly in g
F in s te rw a ld e r s u b stitu te d h is c lin o g ra p h ic c u rv e
by a c o n s ta n t.
(1980), w h erein len g th s o f co n to u rs are p lo tted ag ain st
(iii) M ean Slope C urve o f A .N . S trah ler (1952)
th e ir re s p e c tiv e h e ig h ts (fig. 19 .1 0 A ) by a n o th e r
c u rv e k n o w n as h y p s o c lin o g ra p h ic c u rv e w h ic h in A v e ra g e s lo p e a n g le b e tw e e n tw o successive
c o rp o ra te s h y p so m e tric d a ta and c o n to u r le n g th s c o n to u rs is
alik e. C u m u la tiv e a re a is p lo tte d a lo n g th e h o riz o n C l (in f e e t)

tal ax is an d c u m u la tiv e c o n to u r le n g th s a re p lo tte d = tan (j) =
A w (in f e e t)
alo n g th e v ertical ax is (fig. 1 9 .10B ). A v e ra g e slo p e
w h e re A w = a v e ra g e w id th b e tw e e n tw o suc
is c a lc u la te d ac c o rd in g to fo llo w in g e q u a tio n —
c e s s iv e c o n to u rs a n d C l is contour
h + L, in te rv a l.
S lope an g le = tan <j) =
Aw =
(L , + L 2 ) / 2
w h ere h = h eig h t o f the c o n tro u r j
L \ = le n g th o f lo w er c o n to u r w h e re L j L 2 = le n g th s o f tw o s u c c e s s iv e contours.
A j = in te r-c o n to u r area C lin o g r a p h ic c u r v e is d r a w n b y p lo ttin g the

s lo p e a n g le s a g a in s t th e c o n to u r h e ig h t fro m above
D e S m et su g g e ste d m o d ific a tio n in the a b o v e sch em e ■
a n d th e p ro c e s s p r o c e e d s d o w n w a r d a s s h o w n in fig*
and re c o m m e n d e d th e fo llo w in g p ro c e d u re to c a lc u 1 9 .10C .
la te slo p e a n g le b etw ee n c o n to u rs—
(iv ) A verage In ter-C on tou r W idth C urve o f D«
h x (L , + L 2) / 2 Sm et (1954)
slo p e an g le = tan =
D e S m e t s u g g e s te d to c o n s tr u c t clinographic
w h e re L i an d L 2 = le n g th s o f tw o su ccessiv e c o n to u rs c u rv e b y p lo ttin g a v e r a g e w id th b e tw e e n tw o suc
c e s s iv e c o n to u rs a lo n g th e h o r iz o n ta l a x is a n d con
(ii) Hanson-Lowe's (1935) Clinographic Curve
to u r h e ig h t a lo n g th e v e r tic a l a x is . A v e ra g e widtfc
H an so n -L o w e 's m e th o d o f th e c a lcu la tio n o f b e tw e e n e a c h p a ir o f s u c c e s s iv e c o n to u rs is plotted
av era g e slo p e b etw ee n tw o su ccessiv e co n to u rs is as h o riz o n ta l s tr a ig h t lin e a g a in s t th e concerned
b a se d on th e ax io m th a t co n to u rs are c o n ce n tric c o n to u r. T h e o u te r e d g e s o f h o r iz o n ta l a n d parallel
c irc le s and th e av era g e slo p e b etw een tw o su ccessiv e lin es o f a v e ra g e w id th a re c o n n e c te d b y s tra ig h t lift®#
c o n to u rs m ay be d eriv e d by th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la — to fo rm th e c u rv e (fig . 1 9 .1 0 D ).
MORPHOMBTRY o f d r a in a g e b a s in s
M B
© 9- Cm )
«o
2 5 0 -t
X 8“ r*
v> 7- i
w Mean slope
o i
o
*-
6-
c i
o 5- i
o k - -r-
«•-
o 3- ii 1---------1--------- r
JZ 2 3 k
2“ i contour Length
c 1- i C 0 0 0 in')
w i
mJ n 1
2 I* 6 8 10 12 I 1* 16
Area between successive c o n t o u r s ( 0 0 0 0 0 m )
(m ) D
250-
150-
50 -
0 1*0 80 120
Mean inter contour
width ( m )
strahler’s
(m )
Method
250-
150-
50-
i i i i i i* I i i i >‘
5 10 '15 202 5 30
Slop e angle ( d e g r e e )
Fig. 19.10: Clinoglraphic curves o f {A) Finsterwalder, (B) Finsterwalder, (C) Hanson-Lowe, (D) D e Smet, a n d (E)
M oseley. .
SPOT HEIGHTS +SUMMITS
1500H C la ss in te rv a l ( f e e t )
Ol
%) -------- 50
I ---- 100
-------- 150
---- 200
* Graph peak
20 30 <*0 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 115

Number of spot heig hts and sum m its
Fig. 19.11. histograms (A) and curves (B) o f freq u en cies o f spot-heights + sum m its o f Bilaspur
district (M .P ), topographical sheet no. 64F/I5. source : Savindra Singh (1972).
(v) Slope-Height Curve of Moseley i . , , ,
C1 Lowe s method or A.N. Strahler's method. Slope
ope ang es^ tween two successive con- angles are plotted along the horizontal axis while
tours may be derived on the basis of either Hanson- contour height is shown along vertical axis. Thus,
MORPHOMETRY of drainage basins
slope angles are plotted against corresp o n d in g heights d en o tes an ideal e x am p le o f a ltim e tric fre q u e n c y
and the points are co n n ec ted by straig h t line to form h isto g ra m s and c u rv e s in v o lv in g fre q u e n c ie s o f sp o t
the curve (fig. 19.10E). If the cu rv e line is straig h t h eig h ts and su m m its (clo sed c o n to u rs) o f B ila sp u r
and parallel to v ertical ax is, then it d en o tes alm o st d istric t (M .P .), to p o g rap h ical sh e e t no. 6 4 F /1 5 .
even slope in the basin. T h e sw in g o f the c u rv e to the
4. Average Slope
right o f the v ertical axis d en o tes c o n ca v ity w h ile the
S lo p es, d efin e d as a n g u la r in c lin a tio n s o f
sw ing to the left in d icate s c o n v ex ity o f slo p e profile.
terrain b etw een h ill-to p s an d v alley b o tto m s, re s u lt
3. Altlmetric Analysis ing from the co m b in a tio n o f m an y c a u s a tiv e facto rs
A ltim etry in c lu d e s the n u m erical frequency like g eo lo g ical stru ctu re , a b s o lu te and re la tiv e re
o f highlands in c lu d in g su m m its o f flats at various liefs, c lim ate, v eg etatio n c o v e r, d ra in a g e te x tu re an d
altitudes e.g. sp o t h eig h ts, su m m its (clo sed c o n freq u en cy , d is s e c tio n in d e x etc. a re s ig n ific a n t
tours), sh o u ld ers, b e n c h e s etc., w hich are b eliev ed to m o rp h o m etric a ttrib u te s in th e stu d y o f la n d fo rm s o f
preserve old ero sio n su rfa c e s and hen ce altim etric a d rain ag e basin (S a v in d ra S in g h and R. S riv a sta v a ,
analysis helps in id e n tify in g and d eterm in in g e ro 1975). C o m p u tatio n o f slo p e an g les from to p o g ra p h i
sion surfaces. H. B au lig (1 9 3 5 ) co n v in ced by the cal m aps or th ro u g h field m e a su re m e n t in v o lv e s
Hats and sh o u ld e rs on v alley sid es due to su ccessiv e tedious and tim e -c o n su m in g p ro c e d u re s. S e v e ra l
low ering o f sea lev els, ad o p ted an altim etric tech tech n iq u es o f the d e riv a tio n an d c o m p u ta tio n o f
nique for th e ir stud y . B ut it is not alw ay s necessary av erag e slo p es from to p o g ra p h ic a l m a p s h a v e b een
that all su m m its etc. are o f ero sio n al o rigin and that su g g ested from tim e to tim e e.g. J.L . R ic h (1 9 1 6 ),
C.K . W en tw o rth (1 9 3 0 ), G .H . S m ith (1 9 3 8 , 1939),
they d e m o n stra te the ex isten ce o f old erosion su r
E. R aize and J. H en ery (1 9 3 7 ), W .C . C a le f (1 9 5 0 ),
faces as they m ig h t have been o rig in ated because o f
W .C . C a le f and R. N ew C o m b (1 9 5 3 ), A .N . S tra h le r
w arping, w h ich in turn can present a form idable
(1956), O .M . M iller and C .H . S u m m e rso o (1 9 6 0 ),R .J.
p roblem fo r a ltim e tric tech n iq u es. T his problem can
E yles (19 6 5 ) etc. b u t the te c h n iq u e o f W e n tw o rth
be solved by o b se rv a tio n o f reliefs in the field and by
being easier and in v o lv in g le sse r m e a s u re m e n t an d
d raw in g sev eral a ltim e tric h isto g ram s based on nu
calcu latio n and m o re rap id p ro c e d u re th a n o th e r
m erical d a ta (and by u sin g ru n n in g -su m -class in ter
s c h e m e s h a s b e e n w id e ly u s e d b y s e v e r a l
vals e.g. 10, 20, 30 etc.). g eo m o rp h o lo g ists.
A ltim e tric freq u en cy h isto g ram s and curves W en tw o rth has p u t fo rth h is sc h e m e o f th e
represent frequencies o f spot-heights, sum m its (closed calcu latio n o f av era g e slo p es in d e g re e s w h e re in th e
co n to u rs), h ig h e st p oints in grid squares, sum m it co n to u r m ap o f the reg io n is d iv id e d in to g rid s o f o n e
areas, areas o f su m m its and benches, areas o f su m m ile X one m ile (the g rid m ay be o n e k ilo m e te r X
m its and len g th s o f sh o u ld ers and cols, sp o t-h eig h ts one k ilo rn eter if the to p o g ra p h ic a l m a p is o n m e tric
plus su m m it h eig h ts etc. T he p recisio n o f altim etric scale) each h av in g stra ig h t lin e s a t rig h t a n g le s a n d
analysis larg ely d ep en d s on the n ature o f co n to u r the n u m b ers o f c o n to u r c ro s s in g s a lo n g th e a rm s
m aps. A c o n to u r m ap h av in g a co n to u r interv al o f 5 (ed g es) o f g rid are c o u n te d an d th e n th e a v e ra g e
m or 10 feet is m o st su itab le fo r the p u rp o se. T he n u m b er o f c o n tro u r c ro ssin g s p e r m ile le n g th (o r p e r
procedure in v o lv es the c o u n tin g o f the n u m b er o f k ilo m eter le n g th ) is co m p u te d . T h e sa m e p ro c e s s is
spot heights, h ig h e st p o in ts, su m m its, m e asu rin g o f rep eated by u sin g o b liq u e g rid s o v e r th e sa m e c o n
areas o f sum m its and len g th s o f sh o u ld ers and cols, to u r m ap o f th e reg io n an d a g a in th e a v e ra g e n u m
tabulation o f d eriv ed d ata in sev eral h eig h t g ro u p s bers o f c o n tro u r c ro s s in g s p e r m ile (p e r k ilo m e te r)
by using sim ple o r ru n n in g -su m -c la ss in terv als. are co u n ted an d u ltim a te ly th e m e a n o f tw o c a lc u la
A ltitudinal groups are p lo tted alo n g the o rd in ate tio n s g iv es a v e ra g e n u m b e r o f c o n to u r c ro s s in g s p e r
w hile frequencies o f nu m b ers, areas, len g th s etc. as m ile (p er k ilo m e te r) le n g th . U sin g th e fo llo w in g
totals or percentag e are p lo tted alo n g the abscissa. fo rm u la, as s u g g e ste d by W e n tw o rth , tan v a lu e s a re
F requency histogram s as w ell as cu rv es are draw n d eriv e d an d a c tu a l s lo p e a n g le s re s u ltin g fro m ta n
sim ultaneously for co m p ariso n and p eak s o f g rap h s v alu es are o b ta in e d fro m lo g ta b le .
are noted, w hich give som e clu e fo r d e term in in g the •*• ' - •- *** $0?
frequency m axim a, and ero sio n su rfaces. F ig. 19.11 slo p e an g le = tan <|> = fo r F P S sy ste m
g rid s q u a re o f th e d ra in a g e b a s in a re ta b u la te d and
s fo r M K S (m e tric sy ste m ) c la s s ifie d in to c o n v e n ie n t s lo p e c a te g o rie s (e.g . <i)
6 3 6 .6 le v e l slo p e c a te g o ry = 0°— 2°, S L ; (ii) g e n tle slo p e
w here N = n u m b e r o f c o n to u r c ro s s in g s p e r c a te g o ry = 2°— 5°, S G ; (iii) m o d e ra te s lo p e categ o ry
m ile o r p e r k ilo m e te r le n g th = 50__ 1 5°, S MS; (v ) s te e p s lo p e c a te g o ry = 15°— 30°,
I = c o n to u r in terv al S , an d (v i) v ery s te e p s lo p e c a te g o ry = a b o v e 30°,
3361 = c o n s ta n t (fo r F P S s y ste m e.g . B rit S S ) an d is o p le th s (fig . 1 9 .1 2 A ) a re p re p a re d fo r the
ish sc a le , i.e. w h en th e c o n to u r stu d y o f s p a tia l v a r ia tio n s o f a v e ra g e s lo p e w ithin
in te rv a l is in feet) th e b a s in . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t W e n tw o rth 's
6 3 6 .6 = c o n s ta n t fo r m e tric sy ste m (i.e.
sc h e m e su ffers fro m th e d ra w b a c k th a t c liff slope
w h en c o n to u r in te rv a l is in m e ter).
an g les c a n n o t b e c o m p u te d o n th e b a s is o f h is fo rm u la
T h e v a lu e s o f s lo p e a n g le s d e riv e d fo r e a c h
Fig. 1 9 .1 2 : Spatial pa ttern o f (A ) a vera g e slope, (B ) relative r e lie f a n d (C ) d issectio n in d ex o f Sankh basin,
S o u r c e : S avindra Singh, 1978a.
m o r ph o m etr y o f d r a in a g e b a s in s
5. Relative Reliefs w here R a = real area b etw een tw o successive

R elative relief, also term ed as A m p litu d e o f co n to u rs
a v a ila b le relief* o r ‘lo ca l relief*, is d efin ed as the P a = p rojected area b etw een the sam e
difference in h eig h t b etw een the h ig h est and the
co ntours
low est points (heigh t) in a u n it area, it m ay be grid
square, rectangle o r a m in u te - grid square. R elative D e S m et (1951) su g g ested m o d ificatio n in th e
relief is a very im p o rtan t m o rp h o m etric v ariable above schem e by in clu d in g vo lu m e o f re lie f an d
which is used fo r the o v erall a ssessm en t o f m o r average slope as fo llo w s—
phological ch ara cteristics o f terrain and d eg ree o f
dissection. W .S. G lo ck (1 9 3 2 ) u sed the term ‘am p li R a - P a x av erag e slo p e
tude o f r e lie f and d efin e d it as ‘the vertical distan ce ^ V o lu m e
from a horizontal fairly flat u p lan d d o w n to the
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t th e se tw o m e th o d s
initial grade o f the stre a m s ’. M .A . M elto n (1957)
suggested to calcu late re la tiv e re lie f by d iv id in g the are tim e co n su m in g and te d io u s p ro c e d u re s o f th e
difference o f heig h t b etw ee n the h ig h est and lo w est derivation o f d issectio n index. D o v N ir (1 9 5 7 ), th e re
points in the basin (H ) w ith b asin p erim ete r (P, thus fore, p resen ted a q u ic k m e th o d o f th e c a lc u la tio n o f
relative re lie f = H /P ), w h ereas J.C . M ax w ell (1960) dissectio n index w h ich ‘tak es in to a c c o u n t th e d y
defined relativ e re lie f as the q u o tien t o f m axim um nam ic poten tial state o f the a re a — th e ra tio b e tw e e n
relief and b asin p e rim e te r (relativ e re lie f = m ax i relativ e altitu d e (re lie f e n erg y ) an d th e p e rp e n d ic u
m um re lie f d iv id e d by b asin p erim eter) b ut th ese tw o lar distan ce from the ero sio n b a s e ’. H e s u g g e s te d th e
schem es g iv e only a sin g le v alu e o f relativ e relief fo r
follo w in g fo rm u la fo r th e d e riv a tio n o f d is s e c tio n
the en tire b asin an d h en ce iso p leth m ap can n o t be
index—
prepared w ith th e re su lt sp atial variatio n o f relative
relief w ith in th e b asin c a n n o t be visu alized . T h ere Rd
fore, g rid m e th o d b eco m es m o re su itab le and co n DI = —^
venient for th e p u rp o se w h erein the basin is covered Ar
w ith the m e sh o f g rid sq u ares (one grid b eing one W h ere R r is re la tiv e re lie f a n d A R is a b s o lu te
k ilo m eter X o n e k ilo m e te r) and relativ e re lie f in relief.
each g rid sq u a re is ca lc u la te d on the b asis o f the
T h e g rid m e th o d is u se d fo r th e c o m p u ta tio n
highest an d lo w e s t elev a tio n s and the d ata o f relativ e
re lie f so d e riv e d are ta b u late d and c lassified into six o f d issectio n in d ex . T h e v a lu e s o f d is s e c tio n , so
categ o ries viz. (i) e x tre m ely low rela tiv e re lie f = 0m d eriv ed vary b etw ee n 0 an d 1 a n d th e v a lu e o f r a tio
- 15m, RgL ; (ii) m o d e ra te ly low rela tiv e re lie f = 15 can n ev er be m o re th a n 1 e x c e p t in th e c a s e of
m - 30 m , R ml ; (iii) low re la tiv e re lie f = 3 0 m - 60 v ertical cliff, and sim ila rly O v a lu e is p o s s ib le only
m, R l ; (iv ) m o d e ra te re la tiv e re lie f = 6 0 m - 120 m , in th e o re tic al fra m e w o rk . D is s e c tio n in d e x is a ls o
R ra; m o d e ra tely h ig h re la tiv e re lie f = 120 m - 2 4 0 m , u sed as m o rp h o m e tric d e te rm in a n t o f th e s ta g e of
R ^ ; (vi) h ig h re la tiv e re lie f = ab o v e 2 4 0 m , R H) and cy cle o f e ro sio n w h e re in o ld , m a tu r e a n d young
isopleth m a p (fig. 19.12 .B ) is p rep ared fo r th e stu d y
stag es are re la te d to d is s e c tio n in d ic e s o f le s s th a n
o f spatial v aria tio n .
0.1 (less th an 10 p e r c e n t), 0 .1 — 0 .3 ( l O p e r c e n t —
6. Dissection Index 3 0 p e r cen t) an d m o re th a n 0 .3 (a b o v e 3 0 p e r c e n t)
D issectio n ind ex , e x p re ssin g a ra tio o f the re sp e c tiv e ly . T h e v a lu e s o f d is s e c tio n in d e x derived
m axim um relativ e re lie f to th e m a x im u m ab so lu te fo r eac h g rid o f o n e s q u a re k ilo m e te r d im e n s io n are
relief, is an im p o rtan t m o rp h o m etric in d ic a to r o f the
c la ssifie d in to 5 c a te g o rie s (e .g . (i) e x tre m e ly low
nature and m a g n itu d e o f d is s e c tio n o f te rra in .
d isse c tio n in d e x = 0 — 0 .1 , D EL ; (ii) low d is s e c tio n
Slaucitajs (1936) used real area and p ro je c te d a re a
in d ex = 0 .1 — 0 .2 , D L ; (iii) m o d e ra te d is s e c tio n
betw een su ccessive c o n to u rs to c a lcu la te d isse c tio n
index betw een d iffere n t h eig h t g ro u p s as fo llo w s— in d ex = 0 .1 — 0 .3 , D M ; (iv ) h ig h d is s e c tio n index =
0 .3 — 0 .4 , D h ; (v ) v e ry h ig h d is s e c tio n index = more
•p.T R a - P a th a n 0 .4 , D VH) a n d is o p le th m a p (fig . 19.12 C ) is
D I = — -------x 100
Pa p re p a re d fo r th e s tu d y o f s p a tia l v a ria tio n .
lS
382 GEOMORPHOLOGY
■
7. Law o f C han n el S lo p e Table 19.4 : Mean channel slope (degree) of Deoahat !
The mean channel slope (gradient) is defined gullies (Allhabad district)
‘as the ratio of vertical drop to horizontal distance,
Year s, S2 s3 s4
measured from the upper end to the lower end of a s5
single stream segment of a given order. The vertical 1991 17.11 6.56 3.35 1.85 __
leg of the triangle (fig. 19.13) (every triangle denotes 1992 17.85 6.90 2.70 1.47 1.75
an order) is the average vertical drop ( H^) of that
1994 18.41 7,91 2.80 1.43 2.40
order ;• the horizontal leg is the average horizontal
distance of that_order and is identical with mean Source : Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996, Si...
stream length, L^’ (A.N. Strahler, (1969). Mean
channel slope of each order is then derived and S5 denote mean channel slope of 1st, 2nd,
tabulated. 3rd, 4th and 5th order gully basins.
GULLY CHANNEL GRADIENT

(SLOPE)
S=17* 11- 1991

» o x S^6j_56 §<?»35° S = 1 * 8 5C
- 10
I
2 20
2 30 I t I I 1 I i « l I i i i » I i i i i 1 I_____ I_____ I_____ I_____ I______1— J — I— I-------- 1— I— I— I— I— — 1— l— »
50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Mean Channel Length ( M e t e r s )
- 0 S-2»7° S=1 • i*7( S =1-75' 1992
10 -c
o 20 I . t , i . i i i I i—I—I 1—1---1—I—I—i 1---•—i—1 L I » . i » 1__I__ I—I---1—I—I—I
u 30
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
M ea n Channel Length (M eters)
Ic Z j1 5 =2.1 S=1 .U3° 19 94

c 10
o
w 20
I 1 \ I I » 1 « I I I____ I------ 1------1------ 1------1------ 1------ 1------1-------L— 1-------------------- 11L
2 30 » I j__ I__ I----1----1----L
50 100 150 200 250 300
Mean Channel Uength (M eters)
Fig. 19.13: Gully channel slope : D eoghat gullies - Allahabad district. Sj, S2, S3, S4 and S5 denote channel slope
angles o f 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th order gully basins. Source: Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996.
‘The law of channel slopes as propounded by from high coefficient of correlation of -0.99 ,
R.E. Horton (1945) and applied by M. Morisawa (Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996).
(1959) and Leopold and Miller (1956) states that
mean channel slope decreases with increasing suc Year Slope ratio % explained variance r
cessive orders in geometric series with constant (degree of fit)
slope ratio. The exponential function fitted to mean 1991 2.10 98.60 -0.99
channel slope and stream (gully) order (fig. 19.14) of
1992 1.86 87.60 -0.93
the Deoghat gullies (Allahabad district) for the year
1991, reveals a perfect relationship as is evident 1994 1.79 79.26 -0.89
■ $
8. Profile Analysis
P ro files, d raw n fro m th e c o n to u r m a p , are o f
g reat assistan ce to the g e o m o rp h o lo g ists w h o are
p rim arily c o n c e rn e d w ith th e a n a ly sis o f re lie f an d
su rfaces o f terrain b e c a u se p ro files p ro v id e a v isu a l
p erce p tio n o f th e actu al n a tu re o f te rra in b u t th e
p ro files d raw n fro m th e c o n to u r m a p m u s t b e v e ri
fied th ro u g h field ch ec k s. G e n e ra lly , p ro file s a re
b a sic a lly o f tw o ty p e s viz. (1 ) riv e r p ro file s a n d (2 )
terrain p ro files. R iv e r p ro file s are fu rth e r d iv id e d
in to (i) lo n g itu d in a l an d (ii) tra n s v e rs e p ro file s w h ile
te rra in p ro files are c la ss ifie d in to (i) se ria l p ro file s ,
(ii) su p e rim p o se d p ro file s, (iii) p ro je c te d p ro file s ,
an d (iv) c o m p o site p ro files.
L o n g p r o file o r v a lle y t h a lw e g (fig . 1 9 .1 5 )

g iv es a v iv id p ic tu re o f b re a k s in lo n g itu d in a l p ro file
o r lo n g itu d in a l c o u rs e o f th e r iv e r a n d n u m e ro u s
p ro n o u n c e d b re a k s m a y in d ic a te n ic k p o in ts o r
h ea d s o f r e ju v e n a tio n , a n d th e s e b r e a k s h e lp in
e x a m in in g th e p o ly c y c lic n a tu re o f la n d fo rm d e v e l
o p m e n t.
S u p e rim p o se d p ro file s (fig . 1 9 .1 6 ) h e lp in

Fig. 19.14: Law o f channel slope : gully basin order \s .
gully channel slope — Deoghat gullies (A lla d e te rm in g th e d iffe re n t le v e ls o f p la n a tio n s u rfa c e s .
habad district), S o u rce: Savindra Singh and It is e v id e n t fro m fig. 1 9 .1 6 A th a t th e re a re f o u r
A. Dubey, 1996. p la n a tio n s u rfa c e s in th e B e la n b a s in e .g . K a im u r
Longitudinal profile o f the Belan river. Source : Renu Srivastava, 1976, fig . 5.13 B.
Fig. 19.16: (A) Superimposed, (B) projected, and (C) composite profiles o f the Belan basin. Source : Renu Srivastava,
1976, fig . 5.14.
surface, Panna surface, Rewa surface and Trans- they also present a vivid picture of the magnitude of
Yamuna-Ganga surface. Projected profiles (fig. relief and general nature of dissection of the region.
19.16B) provide a panoramic view of the whole Composite profile (fig. 19.16C) represents the highest
landscape of the region as if seen from above and parts of the summit levels as if seen from a distant place.
CHAPTER 20 RIVER VALLEYS, GRADED RIVER AND PROFILE
OF EQUILIBRIUM 385-395
F o r m s o f v a lle y d e v e lo p m e n t ; v alley d e e p e n in g ; v a lle y w id e n in g ;
v a lle y l e n g t h e n i n g ; c la s s ific a tio n o f v a l le y s ; g ra d e d c u rv e o f a r iv e r a n d
p r o f ile o f e q u ilib r iu m : lo n g itu d in a l p ro file a n d g ra d e d c u rv e , c o n c e p t o f
g r a d e , c o n tr o llin g fa c to rs o f g ra d e d riv e r, g ra d in g o f riv e r c h a n n e l a n d
p r o f ile o f e q u ilib r iu m ; d is tu rb e d an d re g ra d e d c u rv e : e ffe c ts o f r e ju v e
n a tio n , e f f e c ts o f d e p o s itio n .
RIVER VALLEYS, GRADED RIVER
AND PROFILE OF EQUILIBRIUM
Valleys are considered as ‘n egative la n d fo rm s’ 20.1 FORMS OF VALLEY DEVELOPMENT

of the earth's surface and are classified on the basis It may be m entioned that the p resen t form s o f
of processes which are involved in their formation the valleys o f the rivers (e.g. G anga, Y am una,
e.g. (i) river valleys or fluvially originated valleys or Narmada, G odaw ari, K rishna, C auvery etc.) have
normal valleys or simply valleys (formed by running not developed suddenly but have evolved slow ly and
water - rivers), (ii) glacial valleys (formed by m oun gradually through several stages o f valley d ev elo p
tains glaciers), (iii) tectonic valleys such as fault and ment. The w ater received through rain fall on the
rift valleys (form ed by earth m ovem ents) etc. It may earth's surface becom es ru n o ff w hich m ay be o f tw o
be mentioned that w henever only valley word is types viz. sheet flow and lam inar (linear) flow . T he
used, this always means river valley, which is gen concentrated linear flow form s rills w hich form
erally divided into two type viz. (i) lon gitu d in al narrow furrows w hich are transform ed into gullies
and stream lets and rivers. T hus, it is app arent that
valley and (ii) tran sverse valley. The entire span
initially the valleys are very narrow b u t are changed,
from the mouth to the source of a particular river is
at a later date, into w ell developed w ide and deep
called longitudinal valley whereas transverse valley
valleys due to continued erosion. It is also evident
refers to cross section of the longitudinal valley at
that sufficient runoff and ground slope are prerequi
any point. The cross-section o f the river valley is
site conditions for the d ev elo p m en t o f riv er valleys.
called tran sverse p ro file while the longitudinal
It is im portant to note that som e tim es rivers and
section of the valley is called lon gitu d in al p rofile
valleys are used as synonym e.g. young, m ature and
wherein the study o f channel slope (gradient) be
old rivers are equated w ith young, m ature and old
comes more important. On the other hand, cross- valleys respectively but it is not alw ays necessary
section or transverse profile involves the study of that the valley o f a young river w ill also be young
width and depth of the valley at a given point o f the because in a region o f polycyclic relief (w here sev
longitudinal profile. Rivers are continuously en eral cycles o f erosion have taken place) young val
gaged in the developm ent of their valleys through leys are found w ithin old valleys o f the rivers. Such
three major activities viz. (i) valley d eep en in g , (ii) situation o f to p o g r a p h ic d isco rd a n ce (valley w
valley w idening, and (iii) valley len gth en in g. valley topography) in any region arises due to reju
geomorphology
v en atio n . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f riv e r v alley is related (2) VALLEY WIDENING |j

to th ree p ro c e sse s (m e c h a n ism s) o f ero sio n viz. (i) T h o u g h v alley w id en in g also occurs in the
v alley flo o r is d e e p e n e d th ro u g h v ertica l e r o sio n or y o u th fu l stag e o f n o rm al cy cle o f erosion but it -
d o w n c u ttin g (also k n o w n as v alley in c isio n ) - the b eco m es m ost activ e d u rin g m atu re stage. Valley
en tire m e ch an ism is calle d v a lley d e e p e n in g , (ii) w id en in g o ccu rs in tw o w ay s viz. (i) w idening o f the
v alley is w id e n e d (in cre ase in v alley w id th ) th ro u g h u p p er part o f the v alley d u e to ero sio n o f valley walls
lateral e ro sio n — th e m e ch an ism is called v a lley w id th ro u g h lateral ero sio n and (ii) w id en in g o f valley
en in g , an d ; (iii) th e lo n g itu d in a l d ista n ce is in floors. T h ese tw o m e ch an im s o f v alley w idening
c re a se d th ro u g h h e a d w a rd an d m o u th w a rd (g e n e r o p erate to g eth er. T h e v alley w id en in g takes place
ally s e a w a rd ) e ro s io n — the m e ch an ism is called th ro u g h the fo llo w in g p ro c e sse s— (i) U n d ercu ttin g
v a lley le n g th e n in g . (cliffin g ) o f the lo w er p arts o f the valley sides
through a b ra sio n (co rr a sio n ) an d h y d rau lic action
(1) VALLEY DEEPENING
cau ses co llap se and slu m p in g o f u p p e r p o rtio n s o f
V a lle y d e e p e n in g in v o lv es ero sio n o f valley
the valley w alls. T he rep etitio n o f this m e ch an ism
flo o r th ro u g h th e m e c h a n ism o f v ertical ero sio n or
cau ses gradual retre at o f valley w alls and c o n s e
d o w n c u ttin g by th e p ro c e ss o f p o t-h o le d rillin g.
q uent w id en in g o f the v alleys. T h o u g h this m e c h a
T h e n a tu re a n d m a g n itu d e o f v ertical ero sio n o f
nism o f valley w id en in g is activ e in all sta g e s o f
v alley flo o r d ep e n d s on the natu re, size and calibre valley d e v elo p m en t b u t it is m o st activ e d u rin g
(a n g u la rity ) o f ero sio n a l to o ls (e.g. b o u ld ers, c o b m atu re and old stag es, (ii) S h e e t-w a sh o f th e v alley
b le s, p e b b le s etc.) o f v ario u s kinds, lith o lo g ical w alls thro u g h co r r o siv e (so lu tio n ) m e c h a n ism o f
c h ara cteristics, chan n el gradient, flow velocity, trans w ater cau ses slo w b u t g rad u al e ro sio n o f v alley
p o rtin g c a p a c ity o f th e riv er, kin etic en erg y etc. The w alls, (iii) D e v e lo p m e n t o f rills a n d g u llie s a lo n g the
e ro s io n a l to o ls o f fairly larg e size and high calibre, banks o f the riv ers (m o stly a llu v ia l riv e rs ) re s u lts in
w h e n c a u g h t into w a te r ed d ies, drill the valley flo o r the ero sio n o f rip arian tracts an d activ e w id e n in g o f
th ro u g h th e m e ch an ism o f p o t-h o le d rillin g resu ltin g riv er valleys, (iv) M e a n d e r in g is th e m o s t e ffe c tiv e
in to th e fo rm a tio n o f n u m ero u s p o t h o les (cy lin d ri m ech an ism o f v alley w id en in g in th e late m a tu re and
cal h o le s o r d ep ressio n s) o f v ario u s sizes in the
old stages o f flu v ial cy cle o f e ro sio n etc.
v alley floor. O n an av era g e the valley d eep en in g
T ran sv erse v alley p ro file (c ro s s -s e c tio n o f
includes the m echanism s o f hydraulic action, corrasion
the v alley ) m ay be o f tw o fo rm s viz. s y m m e tr ic a l,
o f valley flo o r, p o t-h o ld d rillin g , so lu tio n (co rro
w hen b oth the v alley sid es are a lm o s t o f u n ifo rm
sio n ) etc. V alley d e e p e n in g b eco m es m o st active
slope, and a sy m m e tr ic a l, w h en o n e v a lle y sid e is o f
w hen ch an n el g rad ie n t is steep , d isch arg e and flow
steep slope and th e o th e r one is o f g e n tle slo p e . T h e
v elo city is very high, tra n sp o rtin g cap acity o f the
asy m m etrical sh ap e o f the cro ss p ro file o f th e v alley
riv e r is m a x im u m , ro ck s are rela tiv e ly less resistan t
g en erally resu lts fro m the fo llo w in g fa c to rs — (i)
and there is g rad u al rise in the lan d m ass.
S tru ctu ral c o n tro ls— d eep v a lle y s w ith ste e p v alley
R iv ers re so rt to m a x im u m d o w n c u ttin g o f sid es d ev elo p in the areas h a v in g re s is ta n t ro c k s
th e ir v alley flo o rs in the y o u th fu l stag e o f n o rm al w h ile b ro ad v alley s e v o lv e in th e lo c a litie s o f so ft
c y cle o f e ro sio n . V alley s b eco m e very n arro w and and less re s is ta n t ro c k s (v alley sid e s are o f g en tle
d e e p w ith a lm o st v ertical sid e w alls d u e to c o n tin u slo p e). I f re sis ta n t an d so ft ro c k s are fo u n d in alte r
o u s a c tiv e d o w n c u ttin g o f v alley flo o rs at e x c e e d nate m a n n e r (h o riz o n ta lly an d n o t v e rtic a lly ) then
in g ly fast rate. T h e v alley sid e slo p es b e c o m e c o n n arro w an d d e e p v a lle y s an d o p e n a n d w id e v alley s
v ex in p lan . T h u s, the re su lta n t ju v e n ile v alley s are are fo rm e d to g e th e r (fig . 2 0 .1 ). (ii) I f th e re is alte r
V -sh a p e d an d are c a lle d g o r g e s and c a n y o n s. T h e n ate a rra n g e m e n t o f re s is ta n t an d so ft ro c k b ed s
v a lley flo o rs are stu d d e d w ith n u m e ro u s p o t h o les v e rtic a lly a c ro s s th e v a lle y , re s is ta n t ro c k s are less
w h ich are th e re s u lt o f p o t h o le d rillin g . It m ay be e ro d e d th a n so ft ro c k s a n d h e n c e s te p p e d cro ss
p oin ted o u t th a t th o u g h v alley d e e p e n in g d o m in a te s p ro file o f th e v a lle y , c h a ra c te riz e d by stru ctu ra l
in th e ju v e n ile sta g e b u t v alley w id e n in g a lso tak es b e n c h e s (fig . 2 0 .2 ), is d e v e lo p e d . T h ese are also
p lace th ro u g h w e a th e rin g an d slu m p in g . c a lle d v alley b e n c h e s. It m ay be p o in te d o u t that
387
p r o f il e o f e q u il ib r iu m
r iv e r v a l l e y s , g r a d e d r i v e r a n d
(ii) R iv e r c a p tu r e - the len g th of the ca p to r stream
such situation (stepped valley) is local, (iii) F a u lt
increases due to cap tu rin g o f u p stream sectio n s o f
ing o f crustal rocks causes asym m etry in the tran s
captured stream s, (iii) M e a n d e r in g - m e ch an ism o f
verse se c tio n o f riv e r v alley s, (iv ) U n ic lin a l
the stream s b eco m es m o st activ e d u rin g m o n a d n o ck
(hom oclinal) sh iftin g o f valley w alls in the region o f
stage (old stage) o f riv er cy cle. T h e len g th o f the
uniclinal structure (see ch ap ter 3) causes asym m etry
rivers increases e n o rm o u sly b eca u se o f d e v e lo p
in the cross profile o f the valley, (v) M ean d erin g
m ent o f n um erous b ig m e an d ers in th e lo n g itu d in a l
process o f the rivers produces asym m etrical valleys
w herein one side o f the valley is o f very steep slope, course o f the rivers, (iv) R e g ressio n al p h ase o f sea
know n as c liff slop e, w hile the opposite side is o f and consequent em erg en ce o f p rev io u sly su b m e rg e d
very gentle slope, know n as slip -o ff slope. (under sea w ater) land is ero d ed d o w n by the stream s,
w hich drain into the sea, and th u s th e stre a m s e x te n d
their courses and m o u th s up to n ew c o a st-lin e , (v )
G radual seaw ard g ro w th o f d e lta an d sim u lta n e o u s
extension o f riv er-m o u th to w ard s the se a th ro u g h
m o u th w a rd e ro s io n cau ses v alley le n g th e n in g .
20.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VALLEYS

R iver v alley s have b een c la ssifie d v a rio u s ly
on different bases by g e o m o rp h o lo g ists fro m tim e to
tim e, as elab o rated b elo w —
(1) O n th e B asis o f S ta g e s o f G e o m o r p h ic
C ycle - It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t the e v o lu tio n a n d
d ev elo p m en t o f riv er v alley s is a slo w an d g ra d u a l
process. T he valley d e v e lo p m e n t p a sse s th ro u g h
three su ccessiv e stag es o f c y c le o f e ro s io n viz.
Fig. 20.1: Lithological control on valley development, (A) youth, m ature and old stag es w h e re in the fo rm a n d
deep and narrow valley in resistant rocks, (B) shape o f tran sv erse and lo n g itu d in a l s e c tio n s o f th e
broad and open valley in soft rocks. valleys undergo the p ro cesses o f v alley tra n s fo rm a
tion. On this b asis riv er v a lle y s are d iv id e d in to 3
types viz. (i) y o u n g , (ii) m a tu re, an d (iii) o ld v a lle y s .
Y o u n g v alley s are n arro w an d v ery d e e p a n d are
bordered by very steep w a ll-lik e v alle y w a lls. T h e s e
are o f ‘V ’ shape and v alley sid e s a re o f c o n v e x slo p e .
The valleys o f g o rg es an d c a n y o n s are ty p ic a l e x a m
ples. T h ese are th e re su lt o f a c c e le ra te d ra te o f
vertical ero sio n (v alley d e e p e n in g o r v a lle y in c i
sion). M a tu r e v a lle y s, c h a ra c te riz e d by re c tilin e a r
Fig. 20.2 : Structural benches (valley benches) — asym slope o f valley sid es, are th e re s u lt o f la te ra l e ro s io n
metrical valley. an d a re p ro d u c e d d u r in g m a tu r e s ta g e o f th e
(3) VALLEY LENGTHENING g eo m o rp h ic cy cle (see fig. 15.9). Old valleys, c h a r
T he increase in the len g th o f the rivers, valley acterized by flat sh a p e an d c o n c a v e b u t v ery g e n tle
lengthening, is accom p lish ed in the follo w in g m a n valley sid e slo p e, are the re s u lt o f m o n a d n o c k sta g e
ner (i) H e a d w a rd e ro s io n — slum ping o f the o f cy cle o f e ro sio n (see fig. 15.9).
headw alls o f the source p oint o f the rivers cau ses
(2) G e n e tic C la s s if ic a tio n - J.W . P o w e ll firs t
gradual upslope retreat o f the valley heads resu ltin g
d escrib e d (1 8 7 5 ) c o n s e q u e n t s tre a m s w h ic h f o l
in slow but gradual upslope increase in the valley
low ed reg io n a l slo p es. L a te r on W .M . D a v is c la s s i
length. It m ay be pointed o u t th at not all th e stream s
are alw ays actively engaged in head w ard ero sio n . fied riv e r v a lle y s in to c o n s e q u e n t, s u b s e q u e n t,
o b se q u e n t, re se q u e n t, in s e q u e n t v a lle y s e tc . C o n s e
388
q u en t v a lley s re p re se n t co n seq u en t stream s w hich Tabular Presentation o f Valley Types
flo w acc o rd in g to reg io n al slope and are m a ster 1. O n the b asis o f (i) y o u n g valleys
stream s. T h ese v alley s are also called str ik e v a lley s stages o f g e o m o rp (ii) m atu re valleys
b ecau se th ey d ev elo p acc o rd in g to reg io n al slope. h ic cycle (iii) o ld valleys
S uch valleys d ev elo p on u p lifted la n d m ass m ain ly 2. G en etic classificatio n (i) c o n s e q u e n t v a l
fo ld ed m o u n tain s, v o lcan ic co n es, co astal p lain s etc. leys
T h e v alley s d e v elo p ed alo n g the d ip slo p e are called (ii) subsequent valleys
su b seq u en t or d ip v a lley s. V alley s o f o b seq u en t (iii) o b seq u en t valleys
stream s w h ich flow in o p p o site d irectio n to co n se (iv) reseq u en t valleys
q u en t stream s are called o b seq u en t valleys. T h ese (v) in seq u en t valleys
valleys also d ev elo p d u e to riv e r capture. R eseq u en t 3. O n the b asis o f (i) u n iclin al valleys
v a lley s d ev elo p at m u ch la ter date and are w ell structural control (ii) an ticlin al valleys
ad ju sted to reg io n al slope. In seq u en t v a lley s d e sy n clin al valleys
(iii)
velo p across geolog ical stru ctu re and re lie f b arriers (iv) rift valleys
(e.g. rid g es, m o u n tain ran g es etc.) fau lt-lin e v alley s
(v)
(3) O n th e B asis o f S tru ctu ra l C o n tro l - (vi) jo in t v alley s
R iv e r valleys are larg ely co n tro lled by g eo lo g ical 4. O n the b asis o f (i) a n teced en t valleys
structures e.g. folded, faulted, uniclinal, dom al stru c structural trend (ii) s u p e rim p o se d v al
tures etc. O n the basis o f g eo lo g ical stru ctu res river leys
valleys are classified into (i) h o m o clin a l v a lleys, 5. On the b asis o f (i) d ro w n e d v alley s
developed on u niclin al stru ctu re, are ch aracterized base-level ch an g es (ii) r e ju v e n a te d v a l
by asy m m etrical valley s sid es (one side is very steep leys
w hile the oth er side is gen tle) ; (ii) a n ticlin a l v a l
20.3 GRADED CURVE OF A RIVER AND PR O
ley s, d ev elo p ed along the anticlin al axis o f folds ;
FILE OF EQUILIBRIUM
(iii) sy n clin a l v a lley s, d ev elo p ed along the synclinal
axis ; (iv) rift v a lley s, d ev elo p ed in the dep ressio n 1. L ongitudinal Profile and G raded C urve
caused by tw o faults; (v) fa u lt lin e v a lley s, d ev el T he lo n g itu d in a l c o u rse o f a riv e r fro m its
so u rce to m o u th is c alled lo n g itu d in a l o r s im p ly lo n g
oped alo n g fau ltlin es ; (vi) jo in t v a lley s (v alley s o f
p ro file or valley th alw eg . In fact, lo n g p ro file o f a
sm all stream s w hich d ev elo p alo n g jo in ts o f rocks)
riv er rep resen ts ch an n e l g ra d ie n t o f th e riv e r fro m its
etc. V alley s o f the D am o d ar, the Son, the N arm ad a,
so u rce to the m o u th . E ac h riv e r trie s to d e v e lo p su ch
the T api riv ers etc. are ex am p les o f rift valleys.
a lo n g itu d in a l c o u rse (p ro file ) th a t it m a y b e a b le to
(4) O n th e B a sis o f S tru ctu ra l T ren d s - tran sp o rt the b e d -lo a d d o w n stre a m . T h e lo n g itu d i
V alley s o f su ch stream s w h ich flo w acro ss the g eo nal ch an n e l c o u rs e is g e n e ra lly sm o o th c u rv e w h ic h
lo g ical stru c tu re are called in se q u e n t v a lley s w h ich rises u p stream . A riv e r is su p p o se d to u ltim a te ly
are o f tw o m ain ty p e s viz. a n te c e d e n t v a lley s and rem o v e to p o g ra p h ic irre g u la ritie s by p e n u ltim a te
su p e r im p o se d v a lley s (see c h a p te r 18). stag e (m o n a d n o c k sta g e ) an d to d e v e lo p sm o o th
c u rv e fro m so u rc e to m o u th . T h e m a x im u m lim it o f
(5) O n th e B a sis o f B a se - L ev el C h a n g es -
v e rtic a l e ro s io n (v a lle y d e e p e n in g ) is d e te rm in e d by
O n an av era g e, the d e v e lo p m e n t o f v a lle y s is c o n
g ra n d b a se le v e l w h ic h re p re s e n ts se a -le v e l. T h u s,
tro lle d by ch an g e s in b a se -le v e l o f e ro sio n . T h u s,
riv e rs a lw a y s try to e ro d e th e ir v a lle y s d o w n to b ase
v alley s are d iv id e d in to (i) d r o w n e d v a lle y s (d u e to le v e l o f e ro sio n n e a r s e a c o a s t a n d th e v a lle y floor
rise in se a level an d tra n sg re ssio n o f sea) an d (ii) b e c o m e s c o n c a v e in su c h a w ay th a t it ris e s u p stream
r e ju v e n a te d v a lle y s (d u e to fall in s e a lev el and o r h ea d w a rd . T h u s, th e riv e rs a lw a y s try to d e v e lo p
c o n s e q u e n t a c c e le ra te d rate o f v alley d e e p e n in g ). sm o o th c o n c a v e c u rv e o f th e ir c h a n n e ls . T h e c o n
RIVER V A L L E Y S, G R A D E D R IV E R A N D P R O F IL E O F E Q U IL IB R IU M I^ ™
cavity of long profile of a river results from the fact dinal course. When a river develops such a course
that there is minimum erosion in the upper and lower that channel gradient is such that resultant flow
courses of the river while there is maximum erosion velocity is able to transport entire load, the resultant
in the middle segment. Lack of required amount of longitudinal curve of valley thalweg is called graded
erosion tools (load) and water in the source segment curve and the river after attaining graded curve is
and gentle gradient and very low flow velocity in the called graded river and the long profile of the river
lower segment of a river are responsible for mini becomes profile o f equilibrium as there is balance
mum erosion whereas sufficient load, channel gradi
between transporting capacity of the river and total
ent and flow velocity in the middle course of a river
cause maximum erosion of valley floor. This is why load to be transported i.e. balance between available
a river develops a smooth concave curve of longitu energy and work to be done (fig. 20.3).
2. Concept of Grade river and its curve as a grad ed curve* It is generally

The usage of the term ‘grade’ in fluvial sys believed that G.K. Gilbert was first to use the word
tem does not simply means gradient or slope but ‘grade’ in 1876 followed by W.J. McGee in 1891,
means continuous curve of descent of a stream floor W.M. Davis in 1894, H. Gannett in 1896 and W.D.
downstream which has such a gradient (slope) Johnson in 1901, but ‘Davis seems mainly, and
throughout longitudinal course of the stream that it perhaps wholly, responsible for that deductive elabo
can transport all the loads downstream. The river
ration of the concept which has promoted so volumi
having attained such condition is called graded
nous and so recurrent a discussion’ (G.H. Dury, 1966).
390
A cco rd in g to D av is ‘it is e v id en tly d esirab le stream is a stream in e q u ilib riu m , its

to em p lo y the te rm ‘g ra d e ’ fo r th e b alan ced c o n d i ch a ra c te ristic is th a t any c h a n g e in an y o f th e
tio n o f a m a tu re o r o ld riv e r ... th e b alan ce betw een tro llin g facto rs w ill c a u se a d isp la c e m e n t o f the
ero sio n a n d d ep o sitio n ... is b ro u g h t ab o u t by the e q u ilib riu m in a d ire c tio n th a t w ill te n d to absorb
ch an g es in the cap a city o f a riv e r to do w ork, and in effects o f the c h a n g e ’. A c c o rd in g to him transport,
the q u an tity o f w o rk th a t a riv e r has to do. T he ing p o w er o f th e stream d e p e n d s on v elo city which
ch an g e s co n tin u e u n til the tw o q u a n titie s ... reach d ep en d s on slo p e. It is in fe rre d fro m M ackin'* writ*
eq u ality , and then th e riv e r m ay be said to be g ra d e d ’ ing, that his ‘g ra d e d s tre a m n e ith e r c u ts (erodes)w>r
(D avis, 1902). fills (d e p o s its )’.
G .H . D ury (1 9 6 6 ) h as su m m a rized the c o n 3. Controlling Factors of the Graded River

cep t o f grad e as c o n c e iv e d by W .M . D av is as fo l S ev eral fa c to rs lik e c h a n n e l g rad ie n t, volum e
low s— o f w ater, d is c h a rg e , flo w v e lo c ity , q u an tity and
(a) ‘G rade is the balan ced condition o f a m a natu re o f se d im e n ts (lo a d ), b a se level o f erosion,
ture or old riv er : the b alance is that b e lith o lo g y etc. are c o n s id e re d s ig n ific a n t variables
tw een capacity to do w ork, and quantity o f w h ich are re s p o n s ib le fo r th e g ra d in g o f a river and
w ork to be done. It is ex p ressed by an atta in m e n t o f g ra d e d c u rv e an d p ro file o f equilib
eq uivalen ce o f ero sio n and d e p o sitio n ’. rium .
(b) ‘T he slope o f the g raded riv er is the slope L .B . L eo p o ld an d T . M a d d o c k (1953) have
(profile) o f e q u ilib riu m : this slope perm its cla ssifie d v a ria b le s w h ich c o n tro l h y d rau lic geom
the m o st effectiv e tran sp o rt o f lo a d ’. etry o f a stream in to 3 b ro ad c a te g o rie s viz. (i)
(c) ‘O nce the g raded co n d itio n is attained, in d e p en d en t v a ria b les, (ii) s e m i-d e p e n d e n t variables,
slope can be altered only by ch an g es in the and (iii) d e p e n d e n t variab les.. I n d e p e n d e n t v a r i
volum e/load relatio n sh ip : such change, a b le s in c lu d e s tre a m d is c h a rg e , se d im en t load and
operating slow ly, is ex p ectab le in the n o r u ltim a te b ase lev el o f ero sio n . It is arg u ed that
m al c y c le .’ ‘stream h as little c o n tro l o v er th e se facto rs, ra th e r it
(d) ‘L oad increases in q u an tity and co arsen ess m u s t a d j u s t to t h e m ’ ( A .L . B lo o m , 1 9 7 9 ).
d u rin g youth, in q u an tity b ut p ro b ab ly not S e m id e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s c o m p rise ch an n e l w idth,
in co arsen ess d u rin g m atu rity , and after ch an n e l d e p th , b ed ro u g h n e s s , g rain size o f the
full m aturity d ecreases both in qu an tity se d im e n t lo ad , v e lo c ity a n d c h a n n e l b e h a v io u r i.e.
and in c o a rse n e ss’. te n d en cy o f a riv e r fo r m e a n d e rin g o r b raid in g its
(e) ‘G rade is first estab lish ed in d o w n stream co u rse. ‘T h e s e a re s e m id e p e n d e n t in as m u ch as they
reach es, w here valley d eep e n in g red u ces are p artly d e te rm in e d by th re e in d e p e n d e n t variables
d o w n stream g rad ien t, until ev en tu ally the (as e la b o ra te d a b o v e ), b u t th e y are also cap ab le of
ex ce ss cap acity o f the riv er to d o w ork is m u tu al se lf-re g u la tio n in a r iv e r ’ (A .L . B lo o m , 1979).
w h o lly o ffs e t.’ ‘T h e sh a p e o f th e c ro s s s e c tio n (w id th /d e p th ratio)
G .H .D u ry , 1966 d e te rm in e s th e d is trib u tio n o f v e lo c ity an d o f shear;
A c c o rd in g to J .E . K e s se li (1 9 4 1 ) ‘a g rad ed fo r a g iv e n w id th a n d d is c h a rg e , to ta l lo ad depends
s tre a m be ta k e n as o n e w ith o u t w a te rfa lls o r rap id s. on th e ra tio o f v e lo c ity to d e p th ; a n d velo city /d ep th
T h a t is to say , he d e fin e s g ra d e in te rm s o f tra n s p o rt ra tio is p ro v id e d in p a rt by a d ju s tm e n t o f bed ro u g h
in g p o w e r, lo ad , v e lo c ity , o r te n d e n c y to cu t o r f ill’ n ess, w h ic h is its e lf a fu n c tio n o f g ra in -siz e and o f
(G .H . D u ry , 1966). s u s p e n d e d - s e d im e n t c o n c e n tr a tio n ’ (G .H . D ury,
1966). C h a n g e s in b e d ro u g h n e s s , w h ich itse lf is
According to J .H . M a c k in (1 9 4 8 ) ‘a graded d e te rm in e d by g ra in -s iz e , in tro d u c e c h a n g e s in ve
stream is one in which, over a period o f years, slope lo city /d ep th ratio. A cco rd in g to L eo p o ld a n d M addock
is delicately adjusted to provide, with available d iffe re n c e s in th e c o n c a v ity o f lo n g itu d in a l profile
discharge and with prevailing channel characteris o f a s tre a m a re d ire c tly re la te d to ‘d iffe re n c e s in the
tics, just the velocity required for the transportation re la tio n s h ip o f v e lo c ity a n d d e p th to d isc h a rg e ’.
o f load supplied froni the drainage basin. The graded M e a n d e rin g o f th e s tre a m s d e p e n d s o n n a tu re and
• t y g g VA U J i Y H , ( I K A i m t J H i v m A N D PR O F ILE O F E t y J t U B H I U M
velocity o f m oving water o f the channel, size and

Tbi * condition is called stage o f a g g r a d a tio n (w hen
deposition ex ceed s ero sio n ) w h erein slo p e increases
ihflpc o fc h m ne 1, cr od ihi 1ity of riparian tra c ts bedload
and #u#pcnded load, discharge etc, On the other and this condition co n tin u es (t.e slo p e co n tin u es to
hand, m eandering influence* (increases) channel increase) till the slope b eco m es su ch th a t resu ltan t
length, w hich in turn decrease* channel slope (g ra velocity provides req u ired tran sp o rtin g cap a city so
dient), w hich determ ine# velocity flow channel that all the sed im en t lo ad is tra n sp o rte d d o w n stie a m .
gradient-* low velocity ; ntcep channel gradient Thus, if balance (ad ju stm en t) betw een tran sp o rtin g
-#high velocity) and velocity in turn determ ines capacity o f the riv er (av ailab le en erg y ) a n d to tal load
transporting capacity o f the stream (high velocity -> to be transported d o w n stream (w o rk to be d o n e) is
high transporting capacity ; low velocity —i low attained, the riv er is said to be g rad ed .
transporting capacity), Thus, m eandering property A lternatively, if sed im en t lo ad an d ch an n e l
of a river is both dependent and independent vari gradient rem ain co n stan t, any in c re ase in th e v o lu m e
able. D ependent variable includes a single variable o f w ater will in crease d isch arg e an d v elo city w h ic h
viz. dow nstream slope o f the w ater surface. will increase tran sp o rtin g cap a city a n d h e n c e th e
rate o f erosion w ill be acc elera ted le a d in g to th e
4. Grading of River Channel and Profile of Equi
librium s ta g e o f d e g r a d a tio n and c o n se q u e n t in e q u ilib n u m
It is evident from the above discussion that condition. C onversely, if v o lu m e o f w a te r d e c re a se s,
grading o f a river den o tes perfect balance betw een the discharge and velocity w ill also d e c re a se w h ic h
transporting capacity o f the river and total load to be would result in decreased tra n sp o rtin g c a p a c ity o f
transported by it. In oth er w ords, at each and every the river and resu ltan t d ep o sitio n o f sed im en ts le a d
point o f the longitudinal co u rse o f the river trans ing to the d ev elo p m en t o f the s ta g e o f a g g r a d a tio n
porting capacity is such that total sedim ent load can and inequilibrium co n d itio n .
be transported d ow nstream or velocity o f the river is If sedim ent load and v o lu m e o f w a te r re m a in
such that erosional and depositional w orks are bal constant, increase in c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t w ill le a d to
anced. The river having attained such condition increase in flow velocity and ero sio n and h e n ce th e re
throughout its course is called graded river. It may would be the sta g e o f d e g r a d a tio n . O n th e o th e r
be m entioned that the graded condition is not sud hand, decrease in ch an n el g ra d ie n t w o u ld re s u lt in
denly attained rath er it is attained slow ly and g radu decrease in velocity and d e p o sitio n o f s e d im e n t lo a d
ally. It may be fu rth er pointed out that it is not only le a d in g to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s t a g e o f
the slope (channel g rad ien t) facto r w hich is m ost a g g ra d a tio n .
important for grading o f a river but a critical ad ju st Thus, it m ay be co n c lu d e d th a t th e c o u rs e o f
ment am ong volum e o f water, discharge, velocity, a river ig said to be g r a d e d c o u r s e o r g r a d e d c u r v e
slope and sedim ent load is also prerequisite condition. when there is b alan ce b etw ee n v e lo c ity (a n d h e n c e
Let us take the case o f variation in sedim ent transporting cap acity ) and s e d im e n t lo a d to b e tra n s
load and related ad ju stm en t o f riv er channel. If the ported do w n stream . T h e lo n g itu d in a l p ro file o f s u c h
supply o f sed im en t load d ecreases in any p art o f the a g r a d e d r iv e r is c a lle d g r a d e d p r o f ile a n d p r o f ile
river, m ore energy b eco m es availab le fo r valley o f e q u ilib r iu m in d icatin g a c o n d itio n o f b a la n c e
incision because the riv er is u n d er-loaded. Thus, betw een ero sio n and d e p o sitio n th ro u g h o u t lo n g itu
resultant valley incision cau ses d ecrease in channel dinal co u rse o f riv e r i.e. fro m its so u rc e to m o u th .
gradient. T his con d itio n co n tin u o u s till the eroded
It is n ecessary to p o in t o u t so m e m is c o n c e p
materials are transported d o w n stream . S uch co n d i
tion, when erosion ex ceed s d ep o sitio n , is called tions ab o u t g rad ed cu rv e, g rad ed riv e r an d p ro file o f
equ ilib riu m .
stage o f d egrad ation w herein channel g rad ien t be
comes less than general slope denoting inequilibrium (1) ‘G rad e is a c o n d itio n , n o t an a ltitu d e o r a
condition. C ontrary to this, if sed im en t load in certain slo p e a n g le ......... A g ra d d e d riv e r is in a
creases and exceeds the tran sp o rtin g cap acity o f the steady state only w ith re g a rd to sh o rt-te rm c h a n g e s.
nver, there occurs dep o sitio n o f ex tra sedim ents,
O v er a tim e scale o f m illio n s o f y ears, ty p ic a l o f tim e
which the river is unable to tran sp o rt d ow nstream .
"h ' intervals in w h ich la n d sc a p e s e v o lv e , th e p o te n tia l
392
g eo m o r p h o lo g y
energy of an undisturbed river system gradually minimum erosion in the lower reach (segment or
approaches zero, and the rate of change of the system course) of a river. Contrary to these two conditions
also decreases. The river remains at grade, but the there is maximum erosion in the middle reach of the
characteristics of the graded condition change with river because of availability of required sediment
time’ (A. Bloom, 1979). load, flow velocity and channel gradient. This is why
(2) Graded river does not mean steep or low the erosion level (valley floor) of the river from its
gradient. A river may be graded at higher gradient source to mouth is not straight but is smooth curve
while the other river may be graded at lower gradi (fig. 20.3)
ent. (5) The gradual decrease of slope of graded
(3) A graded river, in fact, is seldom loaded to curve of a river downstream may be theoretically
the capacity. Thus, a graded river, in reality, is not sound but in practice it seldom occurs as some parts
such river which neither cuts (erodes) nor fills (de of the river may be graded while other parts may be
posits). A graded river does not mean that there is ungraded.
balance between erosion and deposition in each and (6) Grading of the river begins near the mouths
every part of the longitudinal course of a river of the rivers and proceeds upstream. The overall
because there is every likelihood that erosion may be grading of the river is controlled by grand base level
dominant in one segment of the river while deposi of erosion which is determined by sea-level. Be
tion may be most active in the other part of the same sides, there are some local and temporary base levels
river. which represent lakes, confluences of tributary
(4) It has been repeatedly discussed above streams, resistant rock beds etc. The maximum ver
that in order to attain graded stage of a river there tical erosion (valley incision) near the mouths of the
must be adjustment (balance) between transporting rivers is determined by grand base level i.e. sea-
capacity and sediment load to be transported. But level. General grading of the river from its mouth to
source is attained in stages having a time span of
question arises, adjustment between what ? Whether
millions of years. When sea-level becomes permanent
in power (energy) or quantity ? Generally, it is
believed that there should be adjustment between base level for the entire span of a river and all the local
transporting power of a river and sediment load to be and temporary base levels are eliminated from a river
carried by the river downstream. It is inferred from course, then the river attains its general grading.
this corollary that if there is decrease in sediment (7) Generally, graded curve of a river is con
load, that part of river energy which was previously sidered regular from source to mouth but a few
expended in transporting the load, is now spared and geomorphologists do not subscribe to this view
is expended in erosional work resulting in increased point. For example, J.H. Mackin is of the view that
rate of erosion. It may be conceived on this basis that there is variation in slope gradient of a graded river.
if there is total absence of sediment load in a particu The longitudinal course of a river does not consist of
lar river, it would have maximum corrasive power single regular graded curve but consists of several
(capacity) but this inference is erroneous because it segments but each segment has such slope that the
is not only the flow velocity and sediment load of a resultant velocity is able to transport all sediment
river which alone control erosion and deposition. load downstream. Thus, according to Mackin a graded
Thus, the energy spared from transportation of sedi profile is, in fact, transportation slope. Such profile
ment load may not be a factor of erosion because is neither influenced by corrasive power nor by the
erosion becomes negligible in the absence of load. resistance of bedrock. A graded curve can never be
‘Not only the total mass of the load but the size or a mathematical curve.
calibre of load are responsible for corrasive capacity (8) A graded stream does not mean, as under
(power) of the stream’. Inspite of steep channel stood by some geomorphologists, that it has attained
gradient and hence high velocity and less quantity of its lowest gradient or minimum slope over which it
sediment load there is minimum erosion in the upper flows. It is also believed by many that after the
segment (course) of a river. Similarly, high load but attainment of profile of equilibrium, vertical erosion
gentle channel gradient and hence low velocity causes or valley incision by the stream stops and the profi j
m ,- -
RIVER V A LLEY S, O R A D E D RIV ER A N D PRO FILE O F EQ U ILIB RIU M 393
0f equilibrium d enotes lim it o f vertical erosion but ated rate o f do w n cu ttin g (valley incision) caused by
such connotations are erroneous. T he slope o f graded steepening o f channel gradient eith er due to negative
r i v e r changes w ith tim e because there is variation in change (fall) in sea level or up liftm en t o f land m ass
the quantity and calib re o f sed im en t load, volum e o f in a river course. R eju v en atio n m ay be effected
water, d isch arg e etc. but it is also true that the eith er at a the m outh o f the riv er or in the m iddle
changes are so grad u al and slow th at a river, once course or in the head w aters o f the river.
graded, rem ains g rad ed ex ce p t som e tem porary d is
turbances.
(1) R eju ven ation at th e m o u th o f a river -
20.4 DISTURBED AND REGRADED CURVE R ejuvenation at the m outh o f a riv er occurs w hen
As alread y stated ab o v e a g raded curve and there is fall (negative ch an g e) in sea level afte r the
profile o f e q u ilib riu m is the resu lt o f adju stm en t river has dev elo p ed g rad ed cu rv e and p ro file o f
between v o lu m e o f w ater, tran sp o rtin g capacity (v e equilibrium (fig. 2 0 .4 -AB cu rv e). C o n seq u en tly , th e
locity) and s e d im e n t load. In fact, the g raded profile graded profile o f the riv er is d istu rb e d becau se
of a river is in a d e lic a te b alan ce. A slig h t change in channel gradient is steep en ed at the m o u th o f th e
any o f the in d e p e n d e n t, se m id ep en d en t and d ep en d river due to low ering o f sea lev el w h ich resu lts in the
ent variables (as e la b o ra te d earlier) w hich control acceleration o f flow velocity. T h u s, the ero siv e
and determ ine th e g ra d in g o f a riv er m ay d istu rb the pow er o f the river in creases and h en ce th e riv e r starts
equilibrium c o n d itio n o f th e riv e r and the riv er again fresh vigorous valley d eep en in g at its m o u th acc o rd
tries to re g rad e its c o u rse a cc o rd in g to new co n d i ing to new base level o f ero sio n d eterm in e d by new
tions. D ecrease o r in c re ase in sed im en t load in flu sea level (B'). N ow the riv er tries to d ev elo p its new
ences d e p o s itio n a n d e ro sio n . A riv e r d ep o sits curve according to new sea level (B ') w h ich is lo w e r
sedim ents w hen th e re is in crease in sed im en t load in height than the old sea level (B ). T h e reju v e n ated
and d ecrease in th e v o lu m e o f w ater. C o n v ersely , a river starts regrading its co u rse from its m o u th an d
river starts e ro d in g its v alley w hen there is decrease the m echanism o f reg rad in g p ro cee d s u p stream .
in sedim ent load o r in c re a se in the v olum e o f w ater. W herever the new cu rv e in tersects the o ld cu rv e,
Thus, a riv e r a lw a y s tries to d ev elo p profile o f break in long p rofile is fo rm ed . S u ch b reak s a re :
equilibrium by m a k in g a d ju stm e n t (b alan ce) b e called n ick p oin ts (fig. 2 0.4) o r h ead o f re ju v e n a
tween ero sio n an d d e p o sitio n . T h is balan ce is so tion. These nicks reced e u p stream as th e m e ch an ism
o f regrading o f the riv er co u rse p ro cee d s u p stream s.
delicate th at a s lig h t c h a n g e in any part o f a riv er or
U ltim ately, all such nick p o in ts (w a te r falls) a re -
river system c a u se s d is tu rb a n c e and the grad ed curve
elim inated and the en tire span o f lo n g itu d in a l p ro file
(balance o r e q u ilib riu m ) is d istu rb e d w ith the result
o f the river is reg rad ed and p ro file o f e q u ilib riu m is
the river has to re a d ju st w ith new co n d itio n s. If a
reestablished.
river su cceed s in a tta in in g reb alan ce the cu rv e o f
such a riv er is c a lle d re g r a d e d cu rv e and its p rofile
A
is called re g r a d e d p r o file o f eq u ilib riu m .
T he d is tu rb a n c e in th e g rad ed p ro file o f a
river m ay be c a u se d d u e to a v ariety o f facto rs but
increase or d e c re a se in c h an n e l g ra d ie n t is the m ost
significant c a u s a tiv e facto r. C h a n g e s in channel
gradient are g e n e ra lly e ffe c te d by r e ju v en a tio n and
d ep o sitio n o f se d im e n ts.
Effects of Rejuvenation
D etailed a c c o u n ts o n reju v e n a tio n (its cau ses
and to p ographic e x p re s s io n s ) h av e b een p resen ted
in chapter 16 o f th is b o o k . R eju v en atio n sim p ly
Fig. 20.4 : Re grading o f disturbed graded curve d u e to
m eans su d d en an d p h e n o m e n a l in crease in the e ro rejuvenation at the m outh o f ~iver caused
sive p o w er o f the stre a m s an d co n se q u e n t acceler- by fa ll in sea level.
: ...
394 GEOMORPHOLOGY -
.r-f//f it# !
tr ib u ta ry
First point of
Rejuvenation / Point of rejuvenation
Nk
A— ^ is
Master b |*> A Ma*tfr B
Stream Stream
old Profile
old sea
Profile level
Sea
Base Level New Sea Bf
Level
Fig. 20.5 : Re graded profile at low gradient after rejuve

nation at the mouth o f the river due to fa ll in Fig. 20.6 d istu r b a n c e in the graded profile because o f
sea level. rejuvenation in the middle course (at point C)
and re grading o f the river (A' B' and C D').
It m ay b e m e n tio n ed th a t reg rad ed p ro file is at
lo w e r g ra d ie n t th an th e old g rad ed p ro file (figs. 20 .4 3. R e ju v e n a tio n in th e h ea d w a ters o f th e
a n d 20.5). riv er - S ig n ific a n t d e c re a se in th e supply o f sedi
m en t lo ad in th e u p p e rm o st sectio n , say headw aters,
2. R eju v en a tio n in th e m id d le co u rse o f a
o f th e stream resu lts in in c re a se d ero sio n as the
r iv e r - T h e re ju v e n a tio n in th e m id d le co u rse o f a
stream b eco m es u n d erlo ad ed an d h en ce the headw ater
g ra d e d riv e r do w n th e co n flu e n c e o f a trib u tary sectio n is re ju v e n a te d (fig. 2 0 .7 ). S in ce th e supply of
o ccu rs w hen th e su p p ly o f se d im e n t lo ad by th e
co n ce rn ed trib u ta ry (D , fig. 2 0 .6 ) to th e rece iv in g
m a ste r stre a m d e c re a se s sig n ific a n tly and thu s th e
m a s te r s tr e a m d o w n th e c o n f lu e n c e b e c o m e s
u n d e rlo a d e d a n d a v a ila b le e x tra en erg y , w h ich w as
p re v io u sly sp e n t in tra n s p o rtin g th e se d im e n t lo ad , is
sp a re d an d is n o w e x p e n d e d in ero sio n a l w o rk , w ith
th e re s u lt e ro s iv e p o w e r o f th e stre a m is in c re ased ,
w h ic h c a u s e s re ju v e n a tio n an d th u s th e p re v io u sly
g ra d e d p ro file g ets d istu rb e d . T h e m a ste r riv e r now
d e g ra d e s a n d d e e p e n s its v alley d o w n stre a m fro m
the c o n flu e n c e , w ith th e re s u lt th e g ra d ie n t o f u p
s tre a m se c tio n is s te e p e n e d , w h ic h c a u se s h e a d w a rd
e ro s io n . H e a d w a rd e ro s io n c o n tin u e s u n til th e g ra d i
e n t o f u p s tre a m s e c tio n o f th e riv e r is a d ju ste d to th e
p r e v io u s g ra d ie n t a n d th e e n tire sp an o f th e lo n g
Fig. 20 . 7 : D isturbance in the graded profile o f the river
p r o file is re g ra d e d . It is a p p a re n t fro m fig u re 2 0 .6 due to rejuvenation in its headwater section
that the riv e r is re g ra d e d a t lo w e r g ra d ie n t and and attainm ent o f regraded profile (A'C’B).
height. T h e c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t o f A’ B' (n e w graded sediments has decreased in the headwaters of the
curve) is lo w e r th a .i th e c h a n n e l g r a d ie n t of AB (old river, this condition (decrease in s e d i m e n t load)
graded curve). prevails throughout the entire span of longit
395
RIVER v a l l e y s , g r a d e d river a n d pr o file o f e q u il ib r iu m
course o f th e river. C o n seq u en tly , the en tire span o f th u s th e le n g th o f lo n g itu d in a l c o u rs e o f th e riv e r

the river valley is d eep en ed so th at sed im en t load also in creases. L e n g th e n in g o f riv e r c o u rs e le sse n s
produced by in creased ero sio n eq u als th e tran sp o rt ch an n el g rad ie n t, w h ic h re su lts in m a rk e d d e c re a se
ing capacity o f the river. W h en ev er the riv er b e in v elo city and tra n sp o rtin g c a p a c ity o f th e riv e r,
com es able to attain this co n d itio n , th e d istu rb ed w ith th e re su lt th e riv e r h a s to d e p o s it se d im e n ts in
graded cu rv e is reg rad ed and th e riv er reattain s its all p arts o f its c o u rse in o rd e r to re g ra d e its c o u rs e a t
profile o f eq u ilib riu m . It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at h ig h e r elev atio n . A s th e d e lta g ro w s in siz e , d e p o s i
under such situ atio n the riv er is reg rad ed at th e sam e tion by the riv e r a lso in c re a se s in all p a rts o f its
gradient o f old p ro file (fig. 20.7 A C B ) b u t at lo w er co u rse. A D cu rv e (fig . 2 0 .8 ) d e n o te s p re v io u s ly
height (A 'C 'B 1). g rad ed (old) cu rv e. T h e le n g th o f th e riv e r A — D h a s
ex ten d ed u pto E (A D E ) d u e to d e lta fo rm a tio n . D u e
Effects of Deposition to av ailab ility o f re q u ire d s e d im e n ta tio n th e r iv e r
D ep o sitio n o f ex tra sed im en ts resu lts in in has reg rad ed its cu rv e (A 'C 'E ) th o u g h a t h ig h e r
crease o f th e level o f valley flo o r and h en ce th ere is elev atio n b u t w ith th e sam e c h a n n e l g ra d ie n t.
d ecrease in ch an n el g rad ien t, w ith the resu lt the
If v o lu m e o f w ater, s e d im e n t lo a d , a n d s lo p e
graded cu rv e o f the riv er g ets d istu rb ed . S e d im e n ta
rem ain co n stan t, the g ra d e d c o n d itio n o f a riv e r
tion at the m o u th o f th e riv e r w hich d rain s into the
b eco m es m o re or less p e rm a n e n t b u t if a n y ju v e n ile
sea, results in the fo rm atio n o f d e lta p ro v id ed that
trib u tary stream m eets the m a ste r s tre a m a n d b rin g s
other co n d itio n s are fa v o u rab le (i.e. sea w av es are
su fficie n t se d im en t lo ad , th e m a s te r s tre a m b e c o m e s
not very activ e). G rad u ally d e lta g ro w s seaw ard and
u n ab le to tra n sp o rt a d d itio n a l s e d im e n t lo a d d o w n
stream , w ith the re s u lt a d d itio n a l s e d im e n ts a re
d ep o sited d o w n th e c o n flu e n c e re s u ltin g in th e in
crease in ch an n e l g ra d ie n t an d c o n s e q u e n t d is tu r
ban ce in the g rad ed c u rv e o f th e riv e r. S e d im e n ta tio n
in the d o w n stream se c tio n fro m th e c o n flu e n c e w ith
the ju v e n ile trib u ta ry s tre a m re s u lts in d e c r e a s e in
ch an n el g ra d ie n t in u p stre a m s e c tio n . C o n s e q u e n tly ,
sed im en tatio n in th e u p stre a m s e c tio n fro m th e c o n
flu en ce c o n tin u e s u n til th e e n tire s p a n o f th e lo n g i
tu d in al c o u rse a tta in s su c h s lo p e w h ic h a llo w s
tra n sp o rta tio n o f all s e d im e n t lo a d . T h u s , th e r iv e r is
reg rad ed b ut at h ig h e r e le v a tio n .
It is, th u s, a p p a re n t th a t g r a d e d c u r v e o f th e
riv e r is d is tu rb e d by a h o s t o f c a u s a tiv e f a c to r s b u t
the riv e r tries to re m o v e s u c h o b s ta c le s w h ic h d is
Fig. 20.8 : Disturbance in the graded profile due to delta tu rb its g ra d e d p ro file a n d u ltim a te ly r e g r a d e s ’ts
form ation and attainment o f regraded profde
p ro file . T h e re g ra d e d c u r v e m a y b e a t h ig h e r e le v a
(A ’C D E ) at higher elevation.
tion o r lo w er ele v a tio n , d e p e n d in g o n lo c a l c o n d itio n s .
CHAPTER 21 CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 396-412
C h a n n e l g e o m e try o r fo rm ; h y d ra u lic g e o m e try (a t - a s ta tio n r e la tio n
s h ip s , d o w n s tre a m v a ria tio n s in c h a n n e l fo rm s , b ed a n d b a n k m a te r ia ls
a n d h y d ra u lic g e o m e try , s e d im e n t lo ad an d h y d ra u lic g e o m e t r y ) ; c h a n
n e l b e d to p o g ra p h y ; c h a n n e l ty p e s (b e d ro c k c h a n n e ls a n d a llu v ia l
c h a n n e ls ) ; c h a n n e l p a tte rn s (s tra ig h t c h a n n e l, m e a n d e r in g c h a n n e l,
b ra id e d c h a n n e l, a n a s to m o s in g c h a n n e l a n d a n a b r a n c h in g c h a n n e l) .
21
CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
C h a n n e l m o rp h o lo g y o r riv er channel m o rp h o l ch arg e, v elo city e tc .), (iii) h y d r a u lic g e o m e tr y , (iv )

o g y in c lu d e s th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f (i) ch a n n e l g eo m ch an n el ty p es, (v ) ch a n n e l b e d to p o g ra p h y o r c h a n
e tr y o r c h a n n e l c ro s s -se c tio n a l c h a ra c te ristic s (e.g. nel b ed c o n fig u ra tio n , (v i) c h a n n e l p a tte rn s e tc .
c h a n n e l le n g th , c h a n n e l w id th , c h an n e l d ep th , w et 21.1 CHANNEL GEOMETRY OR FORM
te d p e rim e te r, c h a n n e l slo p e, c h a n n e l b en d s (m e a n C h a n n e l g e o m e try r e p re s e n tin g th e s iz e an d
d e rs ) e tc ., (ii) ch a n n e l flu id d y n a m ic s (e.g. d is sh ap e o f c ro s s -se c tio n a l a n d lo n g itu d in a l c h a n n e l
Fig. 2 1 .1 : Channel form —valley walls, channel length, channel thalweg, meander belt axis, crossover, curvature
radius (rm) and channel width (W), after M. Morisawa, 1985).
CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 397
form includes chann el w idth, channel depth, w etted w ith increasing d ischarge and volum e o f w ater (fig.
perim eter, channel slope, channel bends, shape o f 21.2 C) b ut if the channel shape is rectangular, no
channel thalw egs and th eir interrelationships. A appreciable change in channel w idth occurs inspite
river ch a n n el represen ts w ater course o f a river o f gradual increase in d ischarge and volum e o f
confined w ithin the lim its o f valley w alls on both the w ater (fig. 21.2B ). T he m axim um channel w idth is
sides (fig. 21.1 A ). In fact, ‘the riv er channel presents associated w ith bankfull stage o f discharge (fig.
a th ree-dim ensional fo rm -d efin ed by its slope, cross 21.2A ). The depth o f channel den o tes vertical d is
section and pattern (G. P etts and 1. Foster, 1985). tance from the w ater level in the ch annel to the
T he riv er ch an n els m ay be b ed rock ch an n els or channel bed. M axim um channel d ep th is m easured
allu vial c h a n n els dep en d in g on the geom aterials on from the level o f w ater o f ban k fu ll stage o f th e riv er
w hich they have been developed. The channel thalw eg to the low est p o int o f the ch an n el b ed (fig. 21. 2A)
represents the line th at co n n ects all the points o f w hile m ean channel depth ( d ) d en o tes av erag e o f
m axim um depth o f w ater from the source to the channel depths taken at d ifferen t stag es o f the c h a n
m outh o f the riv er along the channel in dow nstream nel (i.e. gauge levels). The coarser m a teria ls lying on
direction. C h a n n el len g th denotes the distance o f the river bed are called bed load (fig. 2 1 .2A ). W etted
channel from source to the m outh o f the riv er and perim eter (p) denotes cro ss-sectio n al d ista n ce o f th e
connects all the m id-points across the channel (channel w etted portion o f the valley (fig. 2 1 .2A ).
w idth, fig. 21.1 A ). S in u o sity refers to deviation o f The shape o f the ch an n el o f a riv e r fro m
actual channel path from expected theoretical (straight) source to m outh is co n sid ered as lo n g itu d in a l p ro file
path w hile ‘ra d iu s o f cu rv a tu re nom enclature, rm, or sim ply long p rofile w hich is gen erally a co n ca v e-
is the rad iu s o f a circle draw n through the apex o f the upw ard p rofile in the case o f p eren n ial riv ers. T he
bend and the tw o cro sso v er m idpoints. C hannel gradient or slope o f channel in d o w n stream d ire c tio n
w idth (W ) is he m ean o f m easu rem en ts taken at the is called channel g rad ien t. ‘D ifferen t lo n g -p ro file s
c ro s s o v e rs ’ (M . M o risaw a, 1985) w herein crossover are related to long-term g eo lo g ical d e v e lo p m e n t
m eans stra ig h t line jo in in g tw o points across the influenced by tectonic h isto ry , b ase-lev el c h an g e ,
channel (fig. 2 1 .IB ). and clim atic change. T he d eg ree o f c o n ca v ity in
‘R iv e rs in hu m id reg io n s are called effluent creases w ith re lie f but ex cessiv ely c o n ca v e p ro file s
becau se they re c e iv e co n trib u tio n s o f groundw ater. are associated w ith rivers w hich h av e e x te n d e d over
R ivers in arid reg io n s gen erally lose w ater to the Q uaternary estuarine sedim ents as sea-level retre ated
g round in ad d itio n to lo sin g it by ev aporation, and or by flow d iversion. U n d er-co n cav ity re la te s to
often they d ry up en tirely w ith o u t reaching the sea. lithological co n tro ls on ru n o ff and se d im e n t su p p ly .
T hese are c a lle d in flu en t stre a m s’ (A .L. B loom , C oncavity tends to be m o re a cc e n tu a te d if th e d ow n
1979). T h u s, b ased on this criterio n riv er channels stream increase o f d isch arg e is rap id , an d to ap
are d iv id e d into efflu e n t and in flu en t ch an n els. proach linearity w here d isc h a rg e in c re a se s slo w ly ,
C h an n el w id th (W ) at any given p o in t along such as w ithin p erm eab le c a tc h m e n ts ’ (G . P etts and
the co u rse o f a riv e r rep resen ts straig h t cro ss sec I. F oster, 1985).
tional d ista n c e o f ch an n e l rep resen tin g stage o f the T he shape o f th e lo n g itu d in a l seg m en ts o f a
riv er (i.e. le v el o f w ater). It is, thus, ap p aren t that riv er ch an n el is co n sid e re d in te rm s o f s in u o s ity
channel w id th v aries w ith ch an g es in v o lu m e o f w h ich refers to d e p a rtu re o f actu al c h a n n e l c o u rse
w ater and d isch arg e. T he ban k fu ll stage o f the riv e r from the e x p e c te d th e o re tic a l stra ig h t line. T h u s, th e
denotes m axim um ch an n el w idth. T h u s, ch an n el lo n g itudinal sh ap e o f th e ch an n el ran g es from straig h t
w idth co n sid erab ly ch an g es in the riv ers h av in g (rarely p o ssib le) th ro u g h sin u o u s to m e a n d e rin g
seaso n al reg im e o f rain fall (e.g. riv ers in th e reg io n s sh ap es. A m e a n d e rin g sh ap e is d e sc rib e d b y its
o f m o n so o n and M ed iterran ean ty p e o f clim ate). It d iffe re n t c h a ra c te ristic fe a tu re s v iz. m e a n d e r w a v e
m ay be m e n tio n ed th at the cro ss-sec tio n a l co n fig u le n g th , m e a n d e r h eig h t, m e a n d e r am p litu d e , c o n v e x
ration o f th e v alley also d eterm in es ch an n el w idth. It an d co n c a v e b an k s, ra d iu s o f c u rv a tu re etc. (fig. 2 1 .2
is cu sto m ary to th in k th a t if th e cro ss-sec tio n a l sh ap e D ). In te rre la tio n sh ip s are b e in g d e sc rib e d in th e
o f the ch an n e l is irreg u lar, ch an n el w id th in creases fo llo w in g sectio n .
C h a n n e l W /dth(bankfull)
CW )
Maximum
Depth
•Bed-width
Bed-1 oad
- J — *•
Wetted perimeter ( b )
Wl DT H ----
Gage 3
Gage 2
Wa ter;:::'.:'
Gaget
- m m
••**'•••*•••--i
Constant In cre a sin g Increasing Channel
C h a nn e l Widt h D isch a rg e Widt h
Meander
w a v e le n g th
-------------
Meander
Wave length ( L )
Fig. 21.2 : Definition o f different channel shapes-(A) channel width, channel depth,
wetted perimeter, (B) (C) relation-
ship between discharge and channel width (modified from M. Morisawa, 1985), (D) m eander properties.
2 1 .2 HYDRAULIC GEOMETRY
called hydraulic geometry of a river channel. The
The analysis of the relationships among stream cross-sectional area of the channel is measured by
discharge, velocity, channel shape, sediment load, multiplying channel width by channel depth while
channel width, channel depth, channel slope etc. is stream discharge is measured by multiplying cross
CH A N N EL M O R PH O L O G Y 399
sectional area at the g au g in g statio n by average b, f, m = ex p o n en ts

velocity o f w ater current. a x c x k = 1.0
D ischarge Q = w x d x v b + f+ m= 1 .0
w here w = ch an n el w idth V ariatio n s in ch an n el m o rp h o lo g y (w id th ,
d = av erag e channel depth depth and v elo city ) as a p o w e r fu n ctio n o f d isch arg e
are stu d ied in tw o w ays viz. (i) a t - a sta tio n
v = av erag e velocity
rela tio n sh ip , and (ii) d o w n str e a m v a ria tio n s.
C hannel m orp h o lo g y is the resu lt o f m utual
interactions o f fo u r broad categ o ries o f v ariab les viz. 1 . At—a Station Relationships
(A) flu id d y n a m ics (w hich include velocity, d is It w as the y e a r 1953 w h en L .B . L e o p o ld an d
charge, ro u g h n ess and sh ear stress); (B) ch an n el T. M ad d o ck p ro p o sed h y d rau lic g e o m e try to re v e a l
ch aracter or ch an n el co n fig u ra tio n (e.g. channel the relatio n sh ip s b etw een d isc h a rg e an d th e v a ri
w idth, channel depth, channel slope, channel shape, ables o f ch an n el fo rm w h ich d ire c tly d e p e n d e d on
channel pattern etc.) ; (C) sed im en t load (am ount disch arg e viz. ch an n el w id th , c h a n n e l d e p th an d
and calibre); and (D ) bed and ban k m aterials channel velocity at a p a rtic u la r p o in t (g a u g in g s ta
(com position and ch ara cter i.e. coarse, fine, m edium tion) on channel reach on th e lo g ic th a t th e re w o u ld
etc.). ‘T he overall g eom etry o f a river channel is be co rresp o n d in g in crease in th e se th re e v a ria lb e s
controlled by the ind ep en d en t variables o f discharge (e.g. w idth, depth and v elo city ) if th e re w as in c re a s e
and load, i.e the clim ate and geology o f a w atersh ed ’ in d ischarge at the co n cern ed g a u g in g sta tio n d u e to
(M . M orisaw a, 1985). It m ay be m entioned that the inflow o f ad d itional v o lu m e o f w a te r a ris in g o u t o f
variables, as referred to above, w hich determ ine h igh-intensity rain fall. In o th e r w o rd s, if d is c h a rg e
channel m orpholog y by their m utual interactions, increases past a g au g in g statio n , w id th , d e p th a n d
are also subjected to change by m utual adjustm ent. velocity w ould also in crease in th e sam e d ire c tio n .
M. M orisw a has observed that, ‘A djustm ent m ech a W hen they (L eo p o ld and M a d d o c k ) p lo tte d th e d a ta
nism s include erosio n or d eposition in the channel to o f these three v arialb es a g a in st d is c h a rg e o f w a te r o n
change its form , slope or pattern and creation and logarithm ic graph p ap er, they fo u n d p c rfe c t s tra ig h t
m ovem ent o f bed form s. S cour (erosion) o f the bed linear relatio n sh ip s o f p o w e r fu n c tio n m o d e l a n d
will result in a low er g radient, increased depth o f hence they p resen ted th ese re la tio n s h ip s as p o w e r
channel and d ecreased w ater velocity. S cour (ero function o f d isch arg e as stated a b o v e.
sion) on the banks w ill increase the channel w idth L eopold and M ad d o ck (1 9 5 3 ) fo u n d th e fo l
and d ecre ase velocity and depth w ith given d is low ing av erag e e x p o n e n t v alu es o f b, f a n d m fo r 2 0
c h arg e’ (M . M o risaw a, 1985). On the o th er hand, if rep resen tativ e g au g in g sta tio n s in c e n tra l a n d s o u th
the channel becom es sluggish and deposits sedim ents, w estern U SA .
the channel bed rises and hence channel depth d e
A v era g e ex p o n en ts
creases but ch an n el g rad ie n t in creases w hich results
in increased velo city d o w n stream . b = 0 .2 6 i.e. w = aQ ° 26
f = 0 .4 0 i.e. d = c Q 040
L. B. L eo p o ld and T. M ad d o ck (1 9 5 3 ) d e
m = 0 .3 4 i.e. v = k Q ° 34
scribed hydraulic g eo m etry i.e. v ariatio n s in ch annel
forms as p o w er fu n ctio n o f d isc h a rg e as fo llo w s— T h ese v a lu e s s ig n ify th a t a s th e d is c h a rg e o f
w ater p ast a g a u g in g s ta tio n in c re a s e s , a s a f te r a
w = aQ b
heav y rain , th e w id th o f c h a n n e l (in fe e t) in c re a s e s
d = cQ f a p p ro x im a te ly as th e fo u rth ro o t o f d is c h a r g e (in
v = kQ m fe e t3/se c o n d ) (w = a Q ° 26), th e m e a n d e p th in c re a s e s
ap p ro x im a te ly as th e s q u a re ro o t o f d is c h a rg e (d =
where w = ch an n e l w id th
cQ ), an d th e v e lo c ity in c re a s e s a p p ro x im a te ly a s
d = ch an n el d ep th th e cu b e ro o t o f d is c h a rg e (v = k Q ° *4). Channel
v = ch an n e l v elo city (m ea n ) w id th , d ep th , a n d c u rre n t v e lo c ity all in c re a s e a t
a, c, k = co n stan ts 1979)8 Stati° nS d u rin g ris in g w a tc r ’ <A * L Bloom,

400
geo m o rpholo gy
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t local co n d itio n s cu rren t v elo city all in c re a s e ’ (A .L. B loom , 1979).
d is to rt su c h lin e a r re la tio n sh ip s a s ‘v ariatio n in at— ‘T h e e x p o n en ts, h o w e v e r, are found to differ from
a statio n m o rp h o lo g y ( o f c h a n n e l) is d e p e n d e n t on th o se o f a sin g le c ro ss-se c tio n , the calculated values
sh a p e o f th e c h a n n e l, stream p attern (ch an n el p a t c o m m o n ly a p p ro x im a tin g to b = 0 .5, f a $ ^ and m
te rn ), ro u g h n e ss an d b ed an d b an k m a te ria ls ’ (M . = 0.1. T h e se fig u re s in d ic a te th a t a channel accom
M o risa w a , 1985). F o r e x a m p le , if th e ch an n el is o f m o d ates the d o w n stream in crease in discharge mainly
re c ta n g u la r sh a p e b o rd e re d by v ertical v alley sides by an in c re ase in w id th , w ith a ra th e r sm aller change
(fig . 2 1 .2 B ), in c re a se in d isc h a rg e in creases ch an n el in d e p th ’ (R .J. R ic e, 1977).
d e p th b u t th e re is no in c re a se in ch an n el w idth. O n S u rp risin g ly L e o p o ld an d M ad d o ck (1953)
th e o th e r h a n d , if th e c h an n e l cro ss sectio n is o f also rep o rte d d o w n stre a m in c re a se in velocity w hile
a sy m m e tric a l sh a p e i.e. o n e sid e is steep w h ile the to m o st o f th e c o m m o n p e o p le th e re is dow nstream
o th e r sid e is v ery g en tle (fig. 2 1 .2C ), in crease in d ecre ase in v e lo c ity b e c a u se o f d e c re a se in channel
d is c h a rg e re su lts in ra p id in c re ase in ch an n el w idth slope. A .L . B lo o m c o m m e n te d on th is surprising
w h ile c h a n n e l d e p th in c re ases slow ly. I f th e ch an n el re su lt o f L e o p o ld an d M a d d o c k th a t, ‘E veryone
is c h a ra c te riz e d by th e p resen ce o f riffles and bars, k n o w s th a t e fflu e n t riv e rs (in h u m id regions) get
in c re a s e in v elo c ity w ith in creasin g d isch arg e is bo th w id er an d d e e p e r as th e y g ro w larger dow n
slo w e d d o w n b e c a u se riffles and bars o ffer ro u g h stream , b u t u n til L e o p o ld an d M a d d o c k published
n e ss a n d re s is ta n c e to ch an n el flow . T he n atu re o f th e ir w o rk (1 9 5 3 ), no o n e h ad g u e sse d th at average
s e d im e n t lo a d on ch an n el b ed (co arse o r fin e) also c u rre n t v elo city a lso in c re a s e s d o w n stream . The
c o n tro ls v elo city . ‘S tu d ies in the U n ited S tates have co n clu sio n v io la te s o u r p o e tic im p re ssio n s about
sh o w n e x p o n e n t b to be lo w er w here the bed m a te w ild , rap id ly flo w in g m o u n ta in s tre a m s and deep,
ria ls are c o h esiv e than w h ere they are n o n -co h esiv e. w ide, p la c id riv e rs lik e th e M is s is sip p i. W e d o not
O n a reg io n a l scale this o ften m ean s th a t b has a im m ed iately re a liz e th a t to m u c h o f th e c u rre n t in a
lo w e r value in hu m id than in arid and sem i-arid m o u n tain to rre n t flo w s in c irc u la r e d d ie s, w ith al
a re a s ’ (R .J. R ice, 1977). m o st as m u c h b a c k w a rd as fo rw a rd m o tio n ’ (A .L .
C h a n n e l p a tte rs (w h e th e r m e a n d e rin g o r B lo o m , 1979).
braided) also co n tro l h y d rau lic g eo m etry . ‘T h u s, It is e v id e n t fro m th e v a lu e s o f e x p o n e n ts (for
m ean d erin g and b raid ed reac h es can be d istin g u ish ed
d o w n stre a m re a c h e s ) (b = 0 .5 , f = 0 .4 , a n d m = 0.1)
from stra ig h t stretch es by the h y d rau lic g eo m etry
th a t c h a n n e l w id th in c re a s e s m o s t ra p id ly d o w n
ex p o n en ts. M ea n d e rin g and b raid e d reac h es h av e a
stream fo llo w e d b y c h a n n e l d e p th a n d v e lo c ity w ith
h ig h e r b an d lo w er m than stra ig h t o n es (A .D .
d o w n stream in c re ase in d isc h a rg e . ‘D e s p ite L e o p o ld ’s
K n ig h to n , 1 9 7 5 )... B raid ed reac h es g en era lly h av e
a sse rtio n (1 9 5 3 ) th a t v e lo c ity in c re a s e d in a d o w n
a b /f ratio g re a te r than 1 and a low m ’ (M . M o risa w a ,
stream d ire c tio n , C a rls to n (1 9 6 9 ) s h o w e d th e re was
1985). K .S. R ich ard s (1 9 7 3 ) also o b serv ed th a t ‘p o o l-
a w id e ra n g e o f m v a lu e s in r iv e rs . In th irty n in e
riffle se q u e n c e s can be d istin g u ish e d b y v a lu e s o f f
stre a m s stu d ie d , h a lf s h o w e d a d o w n s tre a m de
an d m . O v e r riffle s b o th f and m are h ig h , o v e r p o o ls c re a se in v e lo c ity o r a c o n s ta n t d o w n s tre a m veloc
f is lo w e r an d m is v ery h ig h . L o ca l ro u g h n e ss is a lso ity ’ (M . M o ris a w a , 1 9 8 5 ). It m a y b e p o in te d o u t that
e ffe c tiv e h e re in c h a n g in g m v alu es, sin ce ro u g h n e ss s ig n ific a n t v a ria tio n s in lo c a l e n v iro n m e n ta l co n d i
d e c re a se s w ith d e p th ’ (M . M o risa w a , 1985). tio n s in th e h e a d w a te r r e a c h e s a n d d o w n s tre a m , say
2. Downstream Variations in Channel Forms lo w e r re a c h e s , o f th e r iv e r c h a n n e ls c a u s e variatio n s
in h y d ra u lic g e o m e try e x p o n e n ts .
L e o p o ld an d M a d d o c k (1 9 5 3 ) o b ta in e d a l
m o s t sim ila r re la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n d is c h a rg e and 3. Bed and Bank Materials and Hydraulic Geom
c h a n n e l w id th , d e p th an d v e lo c ity in th e d o w n stre a m etry
re a c h e s o f a c h a n n e l (at su c c e s s iv e g a u g in g s ta tio n s) B e s id e s d is c h a rg e , m a te ria ls o f th e riv e r banks
as ‘a t— a sta tio n v a ria tio n s ’ b u t o f c o u rse w ith c h a n g ,an d th o s e o n c h a n n e l b e d s a ls o in flu e n c e ch an n c l
in g e x p o n e n t v a lu e s. A c c o rd in g to L e o p o ld an d m o rp h o lo g y a n d h y d ra u lic g e o m e try . R e s is ta n t and
M a d d o c k , ‘A s m e an d is c h a rg e o f a riv e r in c re a s e s c o h e s iv e b a n k m a te ria ls r e s tr ic t c o r r a s io n a n d lateral
d o w n stre a m , c h a n n e l w id th , c h a n n e l d e p th an d m e an e ro s io n o f b a n k s b y s tre a m c h a n n e l a n d h e n c e lim it
CH A N NEL M O R P H O L O G Y
increase in channel w idth. S im ilarly, arm ouring o f sedim ent load increases laso, b u t n o t as rapidly a*
channel beds p ro v id ed by co h esiv e coarse bed m a te w ater discharge. In fact, this m ean s th a t th e concen
rials restricts bed ero sio n and hen ce red u ces d eep en tration o f suspended sed im en t d ecreases slightly
ing o f channel bed. O n the o th er hand, velocity dow nstream for a given d isch arg e freq u en cy ’ (M .
increases if the m a teria ls o f the banks and beds are M orisaw a, 1985).
resistant to ero sio n . In such situ atio n h y d rau lic g e
T he high b ed load, ch aractrized by large-
om etry e x p o n en t m w ill be la rg e r w h ile f and b will
sized m aterials o f high calib re, is tran sp o rted in a
be m uch sm aller. I f th e b an k m aterials are noil-
w ide and shallow ch an n els b ecau se ‘a w ide, shallow
cohesive an d are e asily eo rd ib le, ex p en e n t b w ill be
channel in creases tu rb u len ce and th e p ossibility o f
of higher v alu e (i.e. w id th w ill in crease rapidly). If
h y d ra u lic lift as w ell as in c re a s e d b ed s h e a r’
the bank m a te ria ls are n o n -co h esiv e b u t the bed
(M orisaw a, 1985). It is, th u s, e v id e n t th a t th e c h a n
m aterials are c o h e siv e , e x p o n e n t b w ill be g reater
nels, w hich tran sp o rt larg e q u an tity o f b e d -m a terial
than ex p o n e n t f b e c a u se d e p th does n o t increase load, are ch aracterized by g reater w id th -d ep th ra tio .
appreciably. ‘Thus., v alu es o f b, f and m are partially On the other hand, the ch an n e ls, w h ich tra n sp o rt
controlled b y re s is ta n c e o f b ed and b an k m aterials. sm all quantity o f b ed -m aterial lo ad , h a v e sm all
E rodibility o f the ch a n n e l p e rim e te r (w etted p erim w idth-depth ratio. It m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t b e sid e s
eter) is d e te rm in e d by th e size o f the p articles and influencing channel d im en sio n an d c h a n n e l sh ap e,
their size fre q u e n c y d istrib u tio n , by p ack in g o f sed im en t load also in flu en ces c h an n e l g ra d ie n t o r
grains, by d e g re e o f c o n so lid a tio n and cem en tatio n , channel bed slope. ‘T h e la rg e r th e s e d im e n t lo a d an d
by m o istu re c o n te n t, by p re se n c e o f v eg etatio n , and larg er the size o f sed im en t p a rtic le s th a t m u s t b e
by the e le c tro c h e m ic a l b o n d in g in the case o f very tran sp o rted th ro u g h a stream , th e s te e p e r is th e
fine m a te ria ls ’ (M . M o risa w a , 1985). g rad ien t o f the ch an n el req u ire d to tra n s p o rt th is
m a te ria l’ (R .J. C h o rley , et. al., 1985).
4. S ed im en t L oad an d H ydraulic G eom etry
S e d im e n t lo a d o f a riv e r ch an n e l falls in tw o 21.3 CHANNEL BED TOPOGRAPHY
broad c a te g o rie s viz. (i) su sp e n d e d se d im e n t lo a d T he b ed to p o g rap h y o f riv e r c h a n n e l re fe rs to
and (ii) b e d -m a te r ia l lo a d . It m ay be p o in ted out co n fig u ratio n o f the riv e r b ed s in te rm s o f p o s itiv e
that s e d im e n t lo a d is th e seco n d m o st im p o rtan t and n eg ativ e featu res e.g. p re s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f
v ariable w h ic h in flu e n c e s ch a n n e l form an d h y d rau riffles and po o ls, san d b a rs a n d sa n d is la n d s, s h o a ls ,
lic g eo m etry . S u s p e n d e d s e d im e n t lo ad is k ep t in sand d u n es etc. S u ch d e p o s itio n a l a n d e ro s io n a l
su sp en sio n as w a s h lo a d in th e w a te r o f riv e r ch an n el (p o o ls) featu res d e v e lo p e d on c h a n n e l b e d s a re the
and its tra n s p o rt d o w n s tre a m d e p e n d s on tu rb u len ce resu lt o f in teractio n s o f c h a n n e l flo w a n d tra n s p o rt
and c h an n e l v e lo c ity , w h e re a s th e m o v e m e n t o f bed o f sed im en t lo a d b o th as s u sp e n d e d s e d im e n t lo a d
load d e p e n d s on s h e a r o n th e b o tto m o f th e ch an n el. and b e d -m a te ria l lo ad. G e n e ra lly , a lo n g p ro file o f a
A c c o rd in g to L e o p o ld an d M a d d o c k (1 9 5 3 ) riv e r is c h a ra c te riz e d by irre g u la r c o u rs e h a v in g a
su sp en d ed s e d im e n t ‘lo a d in c re a se s m o re rap id ly series o f altern atin g steep an d g en tle se g m e n ts w h erein
than w a te r d is c h a r g e ’ a t-a sta tio n i.e. a t a giv en steep se g m e n t d e n o te s riffle s w h ile g e n tle s e g m e n t
gauging sta tio n . S in c e th e tra n s p o rta tio n o f su s is ca lle d p o o l. ‘A pool is c h a ra c te riz e d by a w a te r
pended s e d im e n t lo a d d o w n s tre a m is d e p e n d e n t on su rface p ro file le ss th a n th e m e a n s tre a m (c h a n n e l)
tu rb u len ce a n d v e lo c ity o f flo w in g w ater, it is m o re g ra d ie n t and by fin e r b e d m a te ria l, w h e re a s a riffle
efficien tly tra n s p o rte d in a d e e p e r an d n a rro w c h a n h as a w a te r s u rfa c e slo p e s te e p e r th a n th e m e a n
nel w ith a g iv e n slo p e b e c a u s e tu rb u le n c e a n d v e lo c stream g ra d ie n t a n d is c o m p o s e d o f c o a rs e r b e d
ity b eco m e g re a te r in su c h c h a n n e l. ‘T h a t is, a t a m a te ria l’ ( M .M o r is w a , 1985). It m a y b e p o in te d o u t
given v e lo c ity , d is c h a rg e a n d w id th , a d e e p e r c h a n th a t if th e v o lu m e a n d d is c h a rg e o f w a te r in c re a s e
nel is re q u ire d to in c re a s e s u sp e n d e d s e d im e n t c a re s u ltin g in h ig h g a u g e le v e l, th e s lo p e o f w a te r
pacity. O r, as v e lo c ity d e c re a se s a t - a sta tio n th e su rfa c e o v e r riffle s a n d p o o ls is n e u tra liz e d . A c c o rd
ch annel m u s t b e c o m e c o m p a ra tiv e ly n a rro w and in g to P e tts a n d F o s te r (1985) ‘a r iffle is a to p o
deep to m a in ta in th e s u sp e n d e d lo a d a lre a d y in g ra p h ic h ig h a r e a p r o d u c e d by th e lo b a te a c c u m u la
transport. In a d o w n s tre a m d ire c tio n th e su sp e n d e d tio n o f re la tiv e ly c o a rs e s e d im e n t, a n d a pool is a
402 GEOMORPHOLOGY
to p o g rap h ic low , usu ally ch ara cterized by fin er m a in straig h t ch an n el at b o th riffle s and pools. ‘T ight
te ria l’. S p atially , riffle s are w id er and shallow w hile m ean d er ben d s p ro m o te h ig h cro ss sectio n asym m e
p o o ls are narro w b u t relativ ely deep. try w ith d eep p o o ls c o n ta in in g fin e r sed im ent. A lso,
the v ariatio n b etw ee n p o o ls a n d riffle s o f flo w resist
C h an n el d im en sio n s (fo rm s) are g enerally
an ce is less w ith in a c u rv e d re a c h d u e largely to high
g o v ern ed by ch an n e l p attern s (straig h t and cu rv ed )
resistan c e to flo w o f stra ig h t riffle s ’ (P etts and
♦and d isch arg e. A s p e r fin d in g s o f K.S. R ichards
(1 9 7 6 ) the ch an n el b ed h av in g riffles is w id er in F o ster, 1985)
c u rv ed ch an n el co u /se than in straig h t course w hereas P o o l-riffle s e q u e n c e s in tro d u ce variations in
the ch an n e l b ed is w id e r in straig h t co u rse than in ch an n el fo rm s v iz. c h a n n e l w id th , ch an n el depth and ‘
c u rv ed co u rse h aving p ools. S im ilarly, channel depth v elo city . G e n e ra lly , p o o ls d e v e lo p at co n cav e bank
is g re a te r a t riffle s in straig h t ch an n el than in cu rv ed and riffle s at c ro s s o v e r o f th e ch an n e l (fig. 21.3) in
ch an n el, w h ereas it is rela tiv e ly sh allo w er at p o o ls in seq u en tial m a n n e r i.e. p o o ls an d riffle s o ccu r in
stra ig h t c h a n n e ls th an in cu rv ed ch an n el. M ean
alte rn a te s e q u e n c e (e.g . p o o l— riffle— po o l— riffle
v elo city is rela tiv e ly h ig h e r in cu rv ed ch an n els than
Fig. 21.3 : Sequence o f pools and riffles in river channel, after M. M orisawa, 1985.
and so on). The channel cross section at pools is ‘In fact, spacing of pools and riffles has been shown
asymmetrical (one side being steep while the other to be regular in both meandering (curved) and straight
side being gentle) while the cross section at riffles reaches, with the distance from pool to pool (or riffle
becomes symmetrical (fig. 21.3). Generally, the to riffle) approximating 5-7 times the mean width
channel depth is greater at pools than at riffles but as (channel width)’ (Morisawa, 1985). ‘Meanders are
the discharge increases, gauge level also increases often associated with a frequency of one riffle-pool
and hence the difference of channel depths at pools sequence per bend. However, more complex mean
and riffles decreases (fig. 21.4)., der forms have been found to contain additional
It has been observed that spacing of pools and riffles and and pools’ (Petts and Foster, 1985).
riffles almost remains the same even the materials of D o w n str e a m v a ria tio n s in d isch a rg e and v e
riffle may move downstream due to flow velocity. lo c ity are a s so c ia te d w ith th e fo rm a tio n o f r iffle s and
CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
Fig. 21.4 : Channel depth at pools and riffles at low and high stages o f gauge levels, after M. Morisawa, 1985.
pools in ch an n el bed. ‘It has been generally agreed deposited asym m etrically on either sid e
that the ch an n el-form in g flo w is the frequent ( 1.5 yr o f the bank to form asym m etrical shoals
recurrence in terval) bankfull discharge. L ow flo w is (fig. 2 1 .5, stage 1).
considered too in com p eten t to in flu en ce channel Stage 2 The form ation o f sm a ll-sized p o o ls and
parameters and extrem ely high flo o d s are too infre riffles b egin s but their sp acin g is very
quent’ (M orisaw a, 198 5 ). It m ay be pointed out that clo se as it is 3 to 5 tim es the w idth o f the
flow geom etry is in flu en ced by bed topography at channel. A sym m etrical sh oals are still
non-channel form in g flo w (i.e. lo w flo w ) whereas present betw een the straight banks o f the
channel form in g d isch arge (bankfull discharge-high stream (fig. 2 1 .5 ).
flo w ) in flu en ces bed topography. ‘A t lo w discharges Stage 3 Pools and riffles are fu lly d ev elo p e d and
riffles form relatively steep, w id e and shallow reaches are spaced at 5 to 7 tim es the ch an n el
with relatively steep w ater surface slop es, high v e width. The river banks do not rem ain
lo cities and coarse debris. U nder these conditions straight, rather d ev elo p a slig h t sin o u s
p ools are relatively flat, narrow and deep w ith rela course. P ools are larger than riffles as the
tively lo w w ater surface slo p es, lo w v elo cities and average lengthôf p o o ls is l.S^tim es the
fine d eb ris.’ (R.J. C horley, et. al, 1985). A channel- length o f riffles. P oint bars are d ev elo p e d .
form ing d isch arge (bankfull d ischarge) is associated Stage 4 The river adopts a sin ou s co u rse w h erein
with h igh and lo w flo w v e lo c itie s, w herein high p ools and riffles are fu lly d e v e lo p e d and
velocity currents erode the p o o ls w h ile lo w velocity m ore regularly sp aced as th e m ean and
currents d ep osit sed im en ts on riffles. The resultant m odal sp acin gs b etw een p o o ls to p o o ls or
increased cro ss-sectio n o f p o o ls due to erosion by riffles to rifles are 5 to 7 tim es th e ch an n el
rapidly flo w in g w ater ultim ately reduces flo w v e width. P o o ls are further en larged as their
locity w h ile accretion o f sed im en ts on riffles results lengths b eco m e m ore than 1.5 tim es the
in decrease in cro ss-sectio n and increase in flo w lengths o f riffles. Point bars are also p resen t
velocity. T he p ool form ation cau ses sin u osity in the Stage 5 B esid es in cip ien t p o o ls and riffles, n ew
channels w hile riffle formation straightens the channel. sets o f p o o ls and riffles are form ed at the
crossovers. T h e average sp a cin g s o f all
E. A. K eller (1 9 7 2 ) proposed a five-stage m odel
the p o o ls and riffles, w hether o ld or n ew ,
for the developm en t o f p oo l/riffle seq u en ce on the
are 5 to 7 tim es the ch an n el w id th but the
basis o f evid en ces o f regularity in the sp acin g o f
m odal valu e c o m e s d o w n to 3 to 7 tim es
p ools and riffles as fo llo w s (fig. 2 1 .5 )—
the ch an n el w idth.
Stage 1 N orm ally, the channel is straight having It m ay be p oin ted out that K eller clearly
no p ools and riffles. The channel is bor m entioned that it w a s not n ecessa ry that a ll the
dered by straight banks w herein water alluvial rivers p ass through all th e fiv e sta g es o f
flo w s freely in w inding course. Sands are d ev elo p m en t o f p o o ls and riffles.
404
GEOMORPHOtOOY
Stag* 1— *» Stage 2 — ► Stag# 3 Stage i*

Skoal Mew pool
ross overs
» ilH -
Pool
Crossover--^
— Shoot
— Point Bar
R iffle
Bar
Fig. 2 1 .5 : Five-stage model o f pool and riffle development as presented by E.A. Keller (1972), in Morisawa (1985).
21.4 CHANNEL TYP ES (U S A ) presents a very fin e exam p le o f bedrock

On the basis o f lith o lo g ica l characteristics o f channels, w hich has cut a 1380m deep and 12 km
the region through w hich the river has d ev elo p ed its w id e valley representing the b est exam p le o f a can
course, the river ch an n els are d iv id ed into tw o broad yon know n as Grand Canyon b etw een Kaibab and
categories v iz. (i) bedrock channels, and (ii) allu C ocon in o plateaus in A rizon a state (U S A ).
vial channels. ( 1) Bedrock channels are a lso called T he channel m orp h ology o f bedrock chan
erosional channels and sim p ly rock channels as nels is largely determ ined by structural and lithological
they h ave been d ev elo p e d on w ell con solid ated controls. T he erosion al w ork o f the bedrock chan
rock s, popularly ca lled as bedrocks. ‘T h ey occur n els is perform ed by the m ech an ism o f corrosion
w herever p otential rates o f rem oval ex c e e d sed i (d issolu tion o f so lu b le m aterials), corrasion and
m en t su pp ly (i.e. ero siv e p ow er or ero sio n rates are hydraulic action. Corrosion or solution in volves
very h igh , stream s are underloaded as sed im en t the dissolution o f soluble m aterials through the mecha
su p p ly through erosion o f banks and b ed s fa lls short nism o f d isintegration and d eco m p o sitio n of carbon
o f transporting cap acity o f the stream s) ; in high ate rocks. M o st o f the salts are rem oved from the
m ou n tain areas w ith steep slo p es, g laciated hard- bedrocks through carbonation and are suspended in
rock reg io n s, and in areas u ndergoing a ctiv e tecton ic river water. Corrasion or abrasion in v o lv e s the
u p lift’ (P etts and F oster, 1 985). T here is a w id e range rem oval o f lo o se n e d m aterials of the rocks of valley
o f variation in the s iz e o f bed rock rivers as they m ay w a lls and v a lley flo o rs with the h elp of to o ls of
be as lo n g as several hundred k ilom eters in length erosion (i.e. b ou ld ers, co b b les, p eb b les, gravels etc.).
and as sm all as a fe w hundred m eters. T here are T he nature and m agn itu d e of abrasion depends on
m any su ch lo n g rivers o f the w orld w h ich are partly nature, siz e , am ou n t and calib re of erosion tools.
b ed rock ch a n n els and partly allu v ia l ch an n els. For B o u ld ers, c o b b le s and p eb b les of various sizes and
ex a m p le, the upper reach es o f the Indus, the S atlej, angularity are by far the most important tools of
the G an ga, the Y am un a, the G andak, the K ali, the ero sio n w h ich are generally called drilling tools.
Tista, the Brahm putara etc. lo ca ted in the H im alayas Lateral abrasion causes v a lle y widening while the
are b ed rock stream s w h ereas their m id d le and lo w er vertical erosion through pot-hole driUnig leads to
rea ch es are a llu v ia l ch a n n els. The C olarad o river valley deepening and net increase in valley depth.
CHANNEL m o r p h o l o g y 405
Hydraulic action in volves the breakdown o f rocks develops highly meandering coursc where tw o sides
o f valley sides due to the impact o f water currents o f o f the meanders com e very close to form narrow
the channel. meander neck and ultimately the meander neck is cut
M ost o f the rock channels have least sinuos o ff and the channel is straightened (fig. 21.6C ).
ity, rather they have alm ost straight course because B esides neck cutoff, the channel changes its position
of least erosion o f rock banks but the valleys are very in several other w ays viz. through chute cutoff (fig.
deep and narrow, at places form ing gorges and 21.6D), meander shift (E) or by rapid channel
canyons due to accelerated rate o f downcutting o f diversion, known as avulsion (F). A ccording toE.J.
valley floors. The long profile o f the bedrock chan Hickin and G.C. Nanson (1 9 7 5 ) the factos w hich are
nels is characterized by stepped reaches indicating responsible for changes in alluvial channels and rate
frequent breaks in slop e, called as nick points. M ost o f meander migration include water discharge, w a
of the nick points o f the bedrock channels are struc ter surface slope, character o f the boundary (bank)
turally controlled and not by rejuvenation. These material, height of the concave bank, vegetation, the
nicks or breaks are alw ays associated with rapids ratio o f radius o f channel curvature to channel w idth,
and waterfalls w hich are succeeded by pools and sedim ent supply etc. (R.J Chorley et. al, 1985).
potholes in the channel floor. T hese rapids and falls
recede upstream as the stages o f cy cle o f erosion
advance and are com p letely elim inated by penulti
mate (m onadnock stage) stage o f landscape d ev el
opment.
(2) Alluvial channels d evelop in the regions
of sedim entation or alluviation i.e. where thick de
posits o f sed im en ts o f m ostly fluvial origin have
taken place i.e. the G anga-Y am una plain o f north
India. They also d ev elo p in the broad coastal plains
having fluvial (subaerial) as w ell as marine depos
its. It may be pointed out that alluvial channels are
characterized by degradation (erosion o f beds and
banks), aggradation and again degradation. This
means the d ep osited m aterials are reworked by the Fig. 2 1 .6 : Types o f temporal channel changes : (A)
channels during com in g w et season. A lluvial chan transverse bar s h ift; (B) alternate bar shift;
nels are also characterized by sinuous to m eandering (C) neck cutoff; (D) chute cutoff; (E) m eander
and braided channel patterns, depositional and ero sh ift; (F) avulsion (rapid channel diversion),
sional bed topographic features such as p ools and after H.W. Shen and S.A. Schumm, 1981, in
riffles, sh oals, sand bars, point bars, sand islands, R.J. Chorley et. al., 1985.
sand dunes etc.
The shortening o f ch an n el len g th through the
It m ay be pointed out that sin ce alluvial chan
m echanism s o f m eander c u to ff and ch u te c u to ff
nels are form ed over such d ep osited m aterials w hich
leads to increase in channel gradient w h ich resu lts
are highly erodible and h en ce these change in form
in increased scour o f sed im en ts upstream and d e p o
and pattern with tim e. H. W . Shen and S. A. Schum m
(1981) has described six types o f tem poral changes sition o f sed im en ts in d ow n stream reach. F rom the
in natural alluvial channels (fig . 21.6). It is evident stand point o f d egree o f tem poral ch a n n el ch a n g es,
from figure 21.6 that there is shift o f transverse bars alluvial ch an n els are d iv id ed into tw o ty p es v iz . ( 1 )
in straight channel (A ) w h ile there is alternate bar stable channels and (2 ) unstable channels. N o r
shift downstream within the channel in B. It is also m ally, straight ch a n n els are co n sid ered r e la tiv ely
apparent from fig. 21.6B that though the channel is
stable but braided channels are c a lle d u n sta b le
straight but channel thalw eg also shifts position
b ecau se ot frequent ch a n g es in the p o sitio n s o f bars
within the channel. W ith the march o f tim e the river
and islan d s and e v e n their d isa p p ea ran ce at tim es.
406 GEOMORPHOLOGY
A lternatively, alluvial channels arc also classified Schum m , 1968, 1972, A .D , M ia ll, 1978, B,R. Rust,
on the basis o f those variables w hich influence and 1978, D.L Brotherton, 1979, R X Ferguson and A*
control channel m orphology e.g. water discharge W erritty, 1983 etc.) to cla ssify alluvial channel pat
and sedim ent load, both type and amount and nature terns on several criteria viz. sin u osity, channel sta
o f their transport. It is generally observed that in the bility, number o f channels (sin g le or multi-thread),
event o f large water discharge, alluvial channel also slope-discharge relationships, sedim ent load type
becom es large, whereas the shape and pattern o f etc.
channel are influenced by the proportion o f total (1) Leopold and Wolman (1 9 5 7 ) divid
sedim ent load m ainly bedload. Thus, five types o f river channels basically into 3 typ es on the basis of
alluvial channels are recognized viz. (i) suspended sinuosity index viz. (i) straight channel, when sinu
- load channel w ith straight course and uniform osity index ( S 1) is less than 1.05, (ii) sinuous chan
depth; (ii) mixed - load straight channel with nel, when sin uosity index is b etw een 1.05 and 1.5,
sinuous thalw eg and sm all coarse sedim ents; (iii) and (iii) meandering channel, w hen sinuosity in
suspended-load channel with high sinuosity, uni dex is more than 1.5.
form channel width, stable banks ; (iv) meander-
braided transition channel, characterized by large Lc
SI =
sedim ent load having greater proportion o f sand, Lv
gravel and cobbles, w ide and shallow channel, vari where Lc = channel th alw eg length
able channel width, chute cutoffs and shifts in thalweg Lv = valley length
and meander ; (v) bed-load channel, representing A lternatively, sin u osity index has been de
bar-braided stream, is characterized by unstable fined by J.C. B rice (1964) as fo llo w s—
condition, large sedim ent load o f fairly larger size ^ length o f channel
and coarse in texture, erodible bank materials, m i
grating gravel bars and islands etc. length o f m eander belt axis
(2) S.A. Schumm (1 9 6 3 , 1972) classif
21.5 CHANNEL PATTERN alluvial channels on the basis o f sed im en t load types
Channel pattern is usually associated with (viz. suspended load, m ixed load and b ed load ) into
alluvial channels. T h e channel pattern or map view 3 major types e.g. (i) suspended sed im en t load chan
o f a river is usually considered as straight, meander
nels, (ii) m ixed-load channels, and (iii) bedload
ing or braided’ (M. M orisawa, 1985). Several at
channels and presented their m ain characteristic
tempts have been made by the geom orphologists
(e.g. L.B. L eopold and M .G. W olm an, 1957, S.A . features (table 2 1 . 1 ) as fo llo w s —
Table 21.1 : Classification of Alluvial Channel Patterns (Schumm, 1963b)

Stable D epositing Eroding Suspended B ed load M
(depositional (erosional load 0 100%
behaviour) behaviour) 100%
1. Suspended W /D ratio < 7 Major deposition D om inant 85 15 30
load channels Sinuosity > 2.1 on banks —n a r r bed erosion
Gradient gentle ow in g w id en in g
m inor
2 . M ixed -load W /D ratio 7-25 Initial major Initial bed 65 35 8
channels- Sin u osity 2 .1 -1 .5 deposition erosion by
Gradient m oderate on bank fo llo w ed channel
by d ep osition on w id en in g
bed
3. B ed load W /D ratio > 25 B ed d ep osition W id en in g 30 70 0
channels S in u osity > 1.5 + islan d form ation dom inant, little
G radient m oderate bed ero sio n
: w- » y TV. ' •>. • 7 v< rvt * . ; :r: *«\ v: 71 ■TO£W«' ,v**
CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 407
(3) A. D. Miall (1978) presented almost iden

ries of channel patterns (table 21 .2) have been iden
tical classification o f alluvial river channels as pre tified on the basis o f morphological characteristics,
sented by S.A. Schumm (table 21.1) but with some sinuosity index, sediment load types, and erosive
additional criteria o f morphological characteristics. and depositional behaviour e.g. (i) straight chan
M. M orisaw a (1 9 8 5 ) after am algam ating the
classificatory schem es o f Schumm (1963 b) and
nel, (ii) sinuous channel, (iii) meandering chan
A.D. Miall (1978) presented a unified classification nel, (iv) braided channel, and (v) anastomosing
o f alluvial channels in 1985 wherein 5 major catego- channel.
Table 21.2 : Classification of River Channel Patterns

Type Morphology " Sinuosity Load-type Erosive Depositional Width/Depth
behaviour behaviour Ratio
1. Straight Single channel with <1.05 Suspension Minor channel Skew shoals <40
channel pools and riffles, -mixed or widening and
meandering thalweg bedload incision
2. Sinuous Single channel, pools >1.05 Mixed Increased channel Skew shoals <40
channel and riffles widening and
meandering thalweg <1.5 incision
3. M eand Single channels (may >1.5 Suspension Channel incision. Point bar <40
ering be inner point bar or mixed meander widening formation
channel channels) load
4. Braided T w o or more channels >1.3 Bedload Channel widening Channel >40
channel with bars and small aggradation,
islands mid-channel
bar formation
5. A nasto T w o or more channels >2.0 Suspension Slow meander Slow bank <10
m osing with large, stable load widening accretion
channel islands
Source : M. M orisaw a, 1985, S.A. Schumm, 1963 b, A .D . Miall, 1978.
It m ay be m entioned that the schem e o f allu ‘In order to avoid the problem o f stage-de-
vial channel classification o f Leopold and W olman pendence, Rust defines the perimeter o f a braid as
was based on tw o criteria viz. channel sinuosity the mid-line of the channels surrounding each bar or
and channel multiplicity but they could not suggest island but the braid order should be stated in any
quantitative parameterfor the quantification o f channel survey’ (fig. 21.7) (Petts and Foster, 1985).
multiplicity as they did provide for channel sinuos
Table 21.3 : Classification of Alluvial Channel Patterns
ity and thus their sch em e could not provide basis for (B.R. Rust, 1978).
making distinction betw een channel meandering
and channel braiding. B.R. Rust (19 7 8 ) attempted to Channel Single-channel M ulti-channels
provide quantitative parameter in the form of chan classification (braided para- (braided para
nel braiding index to quantify channel m ultiplicity meter < 1 ) m eter > 1 )
(number o f braids in a river valley) so that the 1. L ow -sinuosity Straight Braided
inherent shortcom ing o f L eopold-W olm an’s schem e
« 1 .5 )
may be overcom e.
2. H igh-sinuosity M eandering A nastom osin g
Braiding Parameter = B P = number o f braids in one
meander w avelength (> 1 .5 )
408
exp an ses o f bare gravel but lacking the degree of

channel d iv isio n characteristic o f true braided riv
ers’ (Petts and Foster, 1985).
It m ay be con clud ed that alluvial channels
m ay be d ivid ed into fiv e principal types viz. straight
channel pattern, sinuous channel pattern, meander
st ing channel pattern, braided channel pattern, and
A - Channel COrders)!, 2, 3
B - Bar ( 0rders)lst,2nd,3rd
— channel s Sinuous
Bars
Fig. 2 1 .7 : Channel braiding : A. Channel orders viz.

order 1, order 2, and order 3 : B.Bar orders
viz. 1st, 2nd, 3rd. After A. Rachoki, 1981.
It is apparent that R ust identified an addi
tional channel pattern as anastomosing pattern Meandering
w here as L eop old and W olm an (1 9 5 7 ) considered
an astom osin g pattern as a syn onym for braided
D
pattern but S .A . Schum m (1963. b) accepted braided
and an astom osin g patterns as separate alluvial chan
nel patterns and d istin gu ish ed them on the basis o f
channel parameter. ‘A braided pattern is one where
the m any d ivid ed ch an n elw ays are alw ays shifting Braided
(fig . 2 1 .8 D ). A n anastom osin g pattern is one w here
there are m any ch an n els but they are stable and
retain their id en tities, w ith ch an gin g discharge and
tim e . B o th ty p e s are c h a r a c te r iz e d by m an y
E
ch a n n elw a y s separated by bars or isla n d s’ (M .
M orisaw a, 1985) but in the ca se o f anastom osing
channel pattern bars or islands are stabilized by
grow th o f vegetation m ainly w eed s and grasses (fig. A nasto m o zing
21 .8 E ).
‘R.I. Ferguson and A . Werritty (1 9 8 3 ) iden
tified a transitional cla ss o f wandering gravel riv Fig. 2 1 .8 : Types o f alluvial channel patterns - (M
ers havin g lo w to m edium sin u osity and com bining straight, (B) sinuous, (C) meandering, (D)
features o f both m eandering and braiding with w id e, b raided, a n d (E ) A n a sto m o sin g , a fter
sh allow ch an n els, flanked and lo ca lly d ivided by M .Morisawa, 1985, and A.D. M ia11,1978. |
CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
anastom osing c h a n n e l p a tte rn (fig. 2 1 . 8) b u t it m ay u su a lly c h a ra c te riz e d b y f in e r m a te r ia l.’ s p a tia lly ,

be e m p h asized th a t ‘d iffe re n t c h a n n e l p a tte rn s are riffle s a re w id e r a n d s h a llo w w h ile p o o ls a re n a rr o w
part o f c o n tin u u m , d e te rm in e d by e n e rg y c o n d itio n s b u t re la tiv e ly d e e p .
in relation to lo ca l c o n s tr a in ts ’ (P e tts a n d F o ste r, P o o l-riffle s e q u e n c e s in tr o d u c e v a ria tio n s in
1985). ‘E x p e rim e n ta l stu d ie s h a v e d e m o n s tra te d c h a n n e l fo rm s v iz. c h a n n e l w id th , c h a n n e l d e p th ,
that the c o m p le te ra n g e o f riv e r p a tte rn s fro m stra ig h t a n d v e lo c ity . G e n e ra lly , p o o ls d e v e lo p a t c o n c a v e
through m e a n d e rin g to b ra id e d is d e p e n d e n t on b a n k a n d riffle s a t c ro s s o v e r o f th e c h a n n e l (fig .
stream p o w e r w h ic h in tu rn , re fle c ts s e d im e n t lo ad 2 1 .3) in s e q u e n tia l m a n n e r i.e. p o o ls a n d r if fle s
and d isc h a rg e ’ (R .J. C h o rle y , et. al, 1985). o c c u r in a lte rn a te m a n n e r (e .g . p o o l —» r if fle —->pool—
riffle a n d so o n ). T h e c h a n n e l c r o s s - s e c tio n is a-
1. Straight Channel
s y m m e tric a l at p o o ls w h ile it is s y m m e tr ic a l a t
‘T ru ly s tra ig h t c h a n n e ls s c a rc e ly e x is t o u t
riffle s (fig. 2 1 .3 ). G e n e r a lly , th e c h a n n e l d e p th is
side the la b o ra to ry , e x c e p t w h e re a h e a d w a te r stre a m
g re a te r at p o o ls th a n at r if fle s b u t a s th e d is c h a r g e
is firm ly h e ld on th e lin e o f f a u lt’ (G .H . D u ry , 1 969).
in c re a s e s , g a u g e le v e l ( s ta g e ) a ls o in c r e a s e s a n d
In n atu ral sy ste m s tra ig h t c h a n n e l m a y b e p o s s ib le
h e n c e th e d iff e re n c e o f c h a n n e l d e p th s a t p o o ls a n d
upto th e s tre tc h e s o f 100 m e te rs o r so. T h e s tra ig h t
riffle s d e c re a s e s (fig . 2 1 .4 ).
rea c h e s a re g e n e ra lly c h a ra c te riz e d by riffle s at
c ro sso v e rs (tra n s v e rs e se c tio n s). E v e n in s tra ig h t It h a s b e e n o b s e rv e d th a t s p a c in g o f p o o ls a n d
re a c h e s w a te r a d o p ts sin u o u s p a th (fig. 2 1 .8 A ). It riffle s a lm o s t re m a in s th e s a m e e v e n th e m a t e r i a ls o f
m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t in n a tu ra l sy ste m th e c h a n n e l riffle m a y m o v e d o w n s tre a m d u e to f lo w v e lo c ity .
a lw a y s trie s to d e v ia te fro m th e o re tic a l e x p e c te d ‘In fac t, s p a c in g o f p o o ls a n d r if f le s h a s b e e n s h o w n
stra ig h t p a th . T h is d e v ia tio n fro m s tra ig h t p a th has to b e re g u la r in b o th m e a n d e rin g ( c u r v e d ) a n d s tr a ig h t
been d e s c rib e d by g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts as c h a n n e l s in u re a c h e s , w ith th e d is ta n c e fro m p o o l to p o o l ( o r r if f l e
to riffle ) a p p ro x im a tin g 5 — 7 tim e s th e m e a n w i d t h ’
osity w h ic h h a s b e e n d e fin e d as th e ra tio o f c h a n n e l
(o f th e c h a n n e l, M o ris a w a , 1 9 8 5 ). ‘M e a n d e r s a r e
len g th (L c ) to v a lle y le n g th (L v ) i.e. SI = L c /L v .
o fte n a s s o c ia te d w ith a f r e q u e n c y o f o n e rif fx e - p o o l
C h a n n e ls a re d e fin e d a s s tra ig h t w h en sin u o s ity
sequence per bend. H o w e v er, m o re c o m p le x m e a n
index is le s s th e n 1.05 a n d s in u o u s w h e n it is b e
d e r fo rm s h a v e b e e n f o u n d to c o n ta in a d d it io n a l
tw een 1.05 a n d 1.5.
riffle s a n d p o o ls ’ ( P e tts a n d F o s te r , 1 9 8 5 ).
2. Meandering Channel T h e m e a n d e r g e o m e t r y in c lu d e s th e c o n s i d
A s tre a m c h a n n e l h a v in g s in u o s ity in d e x m o re e ra tio n o f m e a n d e r w a v e le n g th ( L ), m e a n d e r a m p l i
than 1.5 is d e fin e d as m e a n d e rin g a n d is th e m o st tu d e , m e a n d e r w id th , r a d iu s o f c u r v a t u r e , m e a n d e r
co m m o n c h a n n e l p a tte rn to be fo u n d a n y w h e re a lo n g b a n k e tc . a n d th e ir i n te r r e la t io n s h i p s ( f ig . 2 1 .2 D ) .
the lo n g itu d in a l c o u rs e o f a r iv e r m a in ly a llu v ia l
A m e a n d e rin g c h a n n e l h a s a s y m m e tr ic a l c r o s s -
rivers. T h e m e a n d e rin g c h a n n e l is c h a ra c te riz e d by
s e c tio n as b o th th e s lo p e s o f m e a n d e r b e n d a r e
pools (d e e p s ) at th e b e n d s a n d rifle s (s h a llo w s ) at th e
u n e q u a l. O n e s id e ( o u te r s id e ) is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
c ro sso v e rs o f th e r iv e r c o u rs e (fig s. 2 1 .5 a n d 2 1 .9 ),
c o n c a v e s lo p e w h e r e c h a n n e l s tr i k e s th e v a lle y s id e s
w herein ‘a p o o l is c h a ra c te r iz e d by a w a te r s u rfa c e
d ire c tly , w ith th e r e s u lt c o n c a v e s id e is s u b j e c t e d to
p rofile less th a n th e m e a n (stre a m ) g r a d ie n t a n d by
s e v e re e ro s io n r e s u ltin g in to th e f o r m a ti o n o f v e r t i
fin er bed m a te ria l, w h e re a s a riffle h a s a w a te r
cal c lif fs a n d g r e a te r d e p th , w h ile th e o t h e r s id e o f
surface slo p e s te e p e r th a n th e m e a n s tre a m g ra d ie n t
and is c o m p o se d o f c o a rs e r b e d m a te ria l ’ (M o ris a w a , th e m e a n d e r b e n d is c h a r a c te r iz e d b y c o n v e x s lo p e
1985). It m ay b e p o in te d o u r th a t if th e v o lu m e a n d w h ic h r e c e iv e s d e p o s it io n m o s t l y o f s a n d s a n d g r a v
d isc h a rg e o f w a te r in c re a s e re s u ltin g in h ig h g a u g e e ls a n d th is ( in n e r s id e ) s id e is c a l l e d slip-off slope
lev el, th e slo p e o f w a te r s u rfa c e o v e r r if fle s a n d (fig . 22 . 10).
p o o ls b e c o m e s a lm o s t th e s a m e . A c c o r d in g to P e tts
a n d F o s te r (1 9 8 5 ) ‘a riffle is to p o g rla p h ic h ig h a re a
E.A. Keller (1 9 7 2 ) proposed a five-stage m o d e l
o f the d ev elo p m en t o f m ea n d erin g c h a n n el and p o o l-
p ro d u c e d b y th e lo b a te a c c u m u la tio n o f re la tiv e ly
riffle seq u en ce on the b a sis o f e v id e n c e s o f reg u la r
c o a rse s e d im e n t, a n d a p o o l is a to p o g ra p h ic lo w ,
ity in the sp a cin g o f p o o ls and r iffle s (fig . 21.5). S e e
se c tio n 21.3 o f th is c h a p te r. K. S. R ic h a rd s (1982) 2 1 -9 B ) w ith s in u o s ity a p p ro a c h in g 1 . 1 . It m a y be
has fo rm u la te d a th e o ry o f m e a n d e r d e v e lo p m e n t m e n tio n e d th a t p o o ls f a v o u r th e f o rm a tio n o f bends
based o n h y d ra u lic p rin c ip le s , (fig . 21,9) w h e re in he w h ile s tra ig h t r e a c h e s d e v e lo p o v e r r if fle s . Pool to
has d e s c rib e d th re e p o s s ib le s ta g e s in th e d e v e lo p p o o l o r riffle to rif fle s p a c in g in c r e a s e s to 5— 7 tim e s
m e n t o f m e a n d e rin g re a c h . First stage (fig . 2 1.9A) th e m e a n c h a n n e l w id th . T h ir d s ta g e is h e ra ld e d by
is c h a ra c te riz e d by s e q u e n c e o f fa s te r a n d s lo w e r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f id e a l m e a n d e r b e lts w h e re in one
e d d y flo w at b u n k fu ll d is c h a rg e in s tra ig h t re a c h e s m e a n d e r w a v e le n g th ( L) is e q u a l to 10— 12 m ea n
h a v in g c h a n n e l s in u o s ity in d e x o f 1.0. Second stage m e a n d e r w id th s (fig . 2 1 . 9 C ). ‘O n c e a m e a n d e rin g
is c h a ra c te riz e d b y th e fo rm a tio n o f p o o ls a n d riffle s p a tte rn h a s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d , it is lik e ly to p e rs is t,
w h ic h a re g e n e ra lly s p a c e d a t 5—7 m e a n c h a n n e l u n le ss s o m e re a lly p o w e rfu l d is tu r b in g f a c to r c o m e s
w id th s (fig . 21.9B). T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o o ls a n d in to o p e ra tio n . B u t a lth o u g h a g r e a t d e a l is k n o w n
riffle s p ro d u c e s u n d u la tin g c h a n n e l b ed w h ic h c a u se s a b o u t th e b e h a v io u r o f m e a n d e r in g s tr e a m s a n d
v a ria tio n s in flo w v e lo c ity d o w n s tre a m . L a te ra l o s a b o u t th e ir s ta tis tic a l p r o p e r tie s , it is s till n o t p o s s i
c illa tio n o f c h a n n e ls in c re a s e e s s in u o s ity in d ex an d b le to d e fin e th e u ltim a te c a u s e o f m e a n d e r i n g ’
d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o d e ra te b e n d s in th e c h a n n e l (fig. (G.H. Dury, 1969).
- - s- —
B S i n u b s i t y = 1-1
^ Jr & i* .y, | —— P 11, L .P001
5-7 w
C Sinuosityai.5
Bend
10-1 <*W
Meander W a v e Length C*L )

R-Riffle B *Mtandtr be n d
P * Pool C - Crossover
Fig. 2 1 .9 : Stages o f development o f meandering r e a c h e s-(A ) straight reach, (B) sinuous reach, an d (C ) meandering j
reach, after K.S. Richards, 1982.
CHANNEL m o rph o lo g y 411
Meander wave length has been found to be ‘The braided stream channel contains bars
dependent on average channel width, radius o f m e and islands, and the degree o f braiding can be e x
ander curvature (fig. 21.2D ) and dominant discharge pressed by the percentage o f reach length that is
(bankfull discharge). It has been observed that m e divided by one or more islands or bars’ (Chorley, et.
ander wave length is moderately correlated with al, 1985). J.C. Brice (1964) has devised a brading
discharge but very strongly correlated with channel index to determine the degree o f braiding—
width (L = 10 to 14 w ; w = mean channel width).
Braiding Index = BI
S.A. Schumm (1 96 8 ) has established that meander
wave length (L) is a function o f both bankfull dis 2 (sum of the length of islands or bars)
charge (Qb) and the w eighted per cent silt-clay in the length of the reach
bank materials (M ) (Petts and Foster, 1985). ‘However, this is a rather indefinite type o f index
L = 618 Qb° 43 M -0 74 since the length o f bars or islands depends upon the
The studies have shown that there is greater stage at which they a re m easured’ (M orisaw a, 1985).
meander w ave length o f sand and gravel transport The bars, which separate the ch annelw ays,
ing rivers than silt-clay transporting rivers. Regular are divided into two main types viz. (i) longitudinal
ity of bends is the result o f the dom inance o f hydro- bars, and (ii) transverse bars w herein longitudinal
dynamic factors w hereas irregularity is caused by bars are diamond-shaped and are com p osed by grav
random topographical, sedim entological or artifi els while ‘transverse bars are tabular in shape, flat-
cial disturbances (R.I. Ferguson, 1976). It may be topped and covered with bedform s. In fact, m any
concluded that ‘m eandering channels are the normal such bars seem to be dune field s w hich w ere covered
and stable patterns related to river flow , rather than at high flow s and appear as bars w hen the discharge
an accident due to special conditions (e.g. an obsta receded’ (M orisawa, 1985) and these are co m p o sed
cle deflecting the flo w ; or a course with a particular o f sands.
gradient). It is nevertheless true that meandering Very heavy bedload is carried by braided
sections are particularly com m on in areas where fine rivers. J.M. Colem an (1 9 6 9 ) noted very high se d i
silt or clay com p ose the dom inant load, or where ment load carried by the Brahmaputra (i.e. 7 m illio n
there is a m oderate gradient o f stream channel. Flow tons per day at the tim e o f peak d ischarge, 6 0 7 .7
of water in a m eandering channel takes on a spiral m illion tons as mean annual, 6 9 6 .5 m illio n ton s as
course, like a screw thread, and this tends to maintain maximum annual and 5 3 0 .9 m illio n tons as m in i
the meander form, but it is not known whether the mum annual load). H e also ob served large sand
flow pattern cau ses m eandering, or vice versa’ w aves as 7 to 16 m high w ith a w a v elen g th o f 183—
(Bradshaw, et. al, 1978). 9 1 4m. The average rate o f dow nstream m o v em en t o f
bedform s including sand w a v es on the Brahm aputra
3. Braided Channel
A braided channel pattern is characterized by bed was noted by him as 2 0 4 m over 2 4 hours w h ile
multiple ch annels w herein these channelw ays are m axim um rate o f m igration w as recorded as 6 4 0 m in
divided by bars and islands and are alw ays shifting 24 hours.
within highly erodible river banks. The characteris Several cau ses have been a ssign ed to the
tic features o f braided channel pattern include unsta developm ent o f braided pattern v iz. (i) in co m p e
ble bars and islands ; tem poral ch an ges in their (bars tence o f the river to transport b ed load (A .D . K ington ,
and islands) p osition s and size and shape from one 1 9 7 2 ); (ii) high sin g le ch an n el resistan ce to flo w to
day to the other, from on e m onth to the other and m ove the bedload (M .A . C hurch, 1972); (iii) form a
from one season to the other ; frequent changes in tion o f bars and is la n d s ; (iv ) h igh ly erod ib le ban ks ;
banks and th alw egs w ith ch an ges in discharge; high (v) fluctuations in disch arge ch a n g e ; (v i) sed im en t
width/depth ratio (i.e. cro ss-sectio n o f the channel transport, bank erosion and ch an n el scou r i.e . h ig h
being w ide but s h a llo w ); le ss total channel w idths o f energy en vironm ent ; (v ii) steep ch an n el gradient;
divided channels than the w idth o f sin g le channel ( v iii) abundant and coarse b ed load etc. A cc o r d in g to
above the point o f d iv isio n ; high ly erodible bank etc. L eop old and W olm an (1 9 5 7 ) braiding is not in d ica
412 GEOMORPHOLOGY
tive o f ex ce ssiv e bedload sin ce they found aggradation width and lesser depth o f the m ulti-thread channel’
can take p lace at constant slop e w ithout brading. (P elts and Foster, 1985)
T his m eans that braiding is not a matter o f lack o f G enerally, braided channel patterns are asso
capacity but lack o f co m p eten ce. This is in agree ciated with alluvial fans, delta, glacial outwashplains,
m ent with Schum m ’ s statem ent that ‘high suspended and the regions w hich are characterized by marked
loads are transported in m eandering (sinuous) chan seasonal variation in stream discharge because of
n els w hereas bedload transport requires a straight or seasonal regim e o f precipitation.
braided sy ste m ’ (M . M orisaw a, 1985). A ccording to
L eop old and W olm an the braiding o f a river channel 4. Anastomosing Channel Pattern
b egin s w ith the d ep osition o f a m id-channel bar or A nastom osing channel pattern is a special
island w hich bifurcates the channel and thus diverts type o f braided pattern (fig. 2 1 .8 D and E). Both are
the flo w o f water tow ards the banks having erodible characterized by m ultiplicity o f ch an n els i.e. m ulti
m aterials. C onseq u en tly, the banks are eroded lead thread pattern. T hese tw o patterns are distinguished
ing to w id en in g o f channel width. Bank erosion on the basis o f stability o f bars and islands and
in creases sed im en t load w hich causes further dep o channel w ays (Schum m , 1963) as in braided pattern
sition and form ation o f additional bars and islands sand bars and islands change their p osition s and
w h ich in turn further d ivid e the channels and process divided channelw ays also register frequent shifting.
On the other hand, ‘an anastom osing pattern is one
where there are many channels but they are stable
and retain their identities with chan gin g discharge
and tim e’ (M orisaw a, 1985).
5. Anabranching Pattern
A nabranching channel pattern is on e ‘w here
the anabranches (o ffsh o o ts) rejoin the original trunk
or unite with a next-neighbouring trunk, som e tim es
after a distance o f tens o f m ile s ’ (G .H . D ury, 1969)
(fig. 21.10). Anabranch m eans o ff sh oots o f a stream
which rejoin the trunk or tributary stream s. A ccord
ing to Schum m (1 9 7 7 ) ‘an astom osin g ch an n els are
distinct from the anabranched ch a n n els, as they
have major distributaries that branch and rejoin the
m a in c h a n n e l. T h e in d iv id u a l b r a n c h e s o f
anabranching and an astom osin g ch an n els can be
m eandering, straight, or braided’ (C horley et. al,
1985).
It appears that anastom osing and anabranching
Fig. 21.10 : Annabranching channel pattern. channel patterns, as ob served by C h orley et. al, are
continues. ‘The w id e, sh allow , cro ss-sectio n s d e special types o f braided pattern in on e w ay or the
velop m ultiple secondary-'circulation cells and bars other. It m ay be co n clu d ed that ch an n el patterns are
form at points o f channel-bed flow con vergen ce. b asically o f three m ajor typ es v iz. straight channel
E x cess energy is rapidly dissipated by a large in pattern, m eandering ch an n el pattern and braided
crease in friction associated with the com bined greater channel pattern.
CHAPTER 22 F L U V IA L GEOMORPHOLOGY * 413-434
E r o s io n a l w o rk o f rivers ; types o f fluvial erosion ; base-level o f erosion ;
e r o s io n a l la n d fo rm s (river valleys-gorges and canyons, waterfalls, pot
h o le s , stru ctu ral b en ch es, river terraces, river meanders, ox-b ow lakes,
a n d p e n e p l a i n s ) ; transportational work o f streams ; depositional worics
o f s tr e a m s ; d ep o sitio n a l landform s (alluvial fans and cones, natural
l e v e e s , d e lta ).
- vv- . .-v - . , _________
. ' -’ ' .
jj |»$ ’J.
22
FLUVIAL G EO M O RPH O LO G Y
T h e w ork of running water in the form o f gorges, can yon s, broad and flat, m ature and se n ile
su rface runoff or overland flow and stream s is m ost va lley s, m ulti-storeyed v a lley s e tc .), p o t h o le s, rap
im portant ol all the e x o g e n e tic or planation proc ids and w aterfalls, structural b en ch es, terraces, m e
e s s e s (e .g . grou n d w ater, sea w a v es, glaciers, w ind, anders etc. The landform s shaped by the d ep o sitio n
p erig la cia l p r o c e ss etc.) b eca u se the running water is o f d ifferen t ty p es o f ero d ed m a teria ls b e c o m e
the m o st w id esp read e x o g e n e tic p rocess on this depositional landform s such as allu vial fan s and
p lan et earth. T h e lan d form s eith er carved out (due to con es, natural le v ees, flo o d p lain s, terraces, d eltas
er o sio n ) or b u ilt up (d u e to d ep o sitio n ) by running etc.
w ater are c a lle d fluvial landforms (both erosional
and d e p o s itio n a l) and the running w aters w hich 22.1 EROSIONAL WORK OF RIVERS
shape th em are c a lle d fluvial processes w hich in The word ‘e r o s io n ’ has been d rived from a
clu d e o v erla n d flo w (su rfa ce runoff) and stream Latin word, ‘e r o d e r e ’ w h ich m ean s to gn aw . E ro
flow. sion is, in fact, a d ynam ic p ro cess w h ich in v o lv e s the
rem oval o f geom aterials from the rocks and other
T h e rain w ater reach in g the earth's surface
deposited m aterials. T hough w eath erin g greatly as
b e c o m e s surface runoff w hen it spreads laterally
sists in the erosion o f rocks but it is not a prerequisite
on the grou n d su rfa ce. T h e su rface ru n o ff b eco m es
condition as remarked by W .D . Thornbury, “It is
a stream w h en w ater f lo w s from certain height d ow n
true, o f course, that w eathering is a preparatory stage
the slo p e un der the im p a ct o f gravity. Stream s are
and m ay m ake erosion easier, but it is not prerequi
gen erally d iv id e d in fou r broad ca teg o ries viz. per
ennial or p erm an en t stream s, non-perm anent or s e a site to nor necessarily fo llo w e d by ero sio n ” . In fact,
“erosion is that p rocess in w h ich various erosive
sonal stream s, in term itten t stream s and ephem eral
stream s. T h e g e o lo g ic a l w ork s o f flu vial p ro cesses agents (running water-river, w ind, glacier, periglacial,
sea w aves and groundw aters) obtain and rem ove
or rivers are c a lle d three-phase work com p rising
rock debris from the earth's crust and transport them
erosion, transportation and deposition. The flu
for long d ista n ce’ (Savindra S in gh , 1973).
vial lan d form s are d iv id ed into tw o m ajor groups
e.g. 1. erosional landforms and 2 . depositional The erosional work o f the rivers depends on
landforms. T h e lan d form s resu lting from progres channel gradient, volu m e o f water, v elo city and thus
siv e rem oval o f the b ed rock m ass are ca lled ero k inetic en ergy, water discharge, river-load (tools o f
sional lan d form s e .g . various typ es o f va lley (v iz. erosion ) etc. The quantity, sifce and calibre (angular-
414
GEOMORPl
ity ) o f ero sio n a l to o ls (river lo a d ) la r g ely co n tro l the 22.2 TYPES OF FLUVIAL EROSION
nature and m a g n itu d e o f flu v ia l ero sio n . T h e e ro T h e ero sio n a l w ork o f the rivers is performed
sio n a l to o ls o f fairly b ig s iz e and h ig h ca lib re (w ith in tw o w a y s v iz . (i) through ch em ic a l erosion and (ii)
h ig h d eg ree o f a n gu la rity ) h elp in a ctiv e d o w n cu t through m ech a n ica l ero sio n . Chemical erosion in
tin g o f v a lle y s . T h e s iz e o f river load is o f param ount v o lv e s co rro sio n or so lu tio n and carbonation w hile
s ig n ific a n c e b e c a u se if the lo a d c o n sists o f very fin e mechanical erosion co m p rises corrasion or abra
sed im en ts, th ey m o v e w ith the w ater in su sp en sio n sio n , h ydraulic action and attrition. F lu vial erosion
(su sp en d ed s e d im e n t lo a d ) and h en ce b e c o m e p as is a lso d iv id ed into (i) vertical erosion or dow ncutting
s iv e in flu v ia l e r o sio n but if th ey are o f fairly b ig size, (w h ich leads to v a lle y d eep en in g ) and lateral erosion
th ey roll d o w n a lo n g the v a lle y flo o r and h elp in (w h ich ca u ses v a lley w id en in g ).
v a lle y d e e p e n in g . T h e am ou n t o f load sh ou ld be o f
(1) Solution or corrosion in v o lv e s the d isso
o p tim al le v e l i.e. th e rivers sh o u ld neither be o v er
lution o f so lu b le m aterials through the p ro cesses o f
lo a d ed nor u n d erlo a d ed b eca u se if the river is o v er
disintegration and d eco m p o sitio n o f carbonate rocks.
lo a d ed in relation to its transporting cap acity, it
T he so lu b le m aterials are rem o v ed from the parent
w o u ld start d e p o sitio n o f ad d ition al load and if the
rocks and are m ix ed w ith the running w ater o f the
river is u n d erload ed , the ero sio n a l w ork b eco m es stream s. M ost o f the salts are rem oved from the
n e g lig ib le . T h e fo llo w in g relationships m ay be identi bedrocks through the process o f carbonation (see
fie d b e tw e e n the rate o f flu v ia l erosion and river ch em ical w eathering in chapter 14 o f this b o o k ) and
lo a d — are su sp en d ed in river water. A cco rd in g to the e sti
(1 ) E rosion b e c o m e s m in im u m in the ab sen ce m ate o f M urray every cu b ic m ile w ater o f the river
o f required am ou n t o f river load (underloaded river). contains about 7 ,6 2 ,5 8 7 tons o f su sp en d ed m inerals
(2 ) E rosion a lso b e c o m e s m in im u m w hen the o f w hich about 5 0 per cen t is ca lciu m carbonate. On
river has m a x im u m lo a d (o v erlo a d ed river). an average, the w orld rivers d isch arge about 6 ,5 0 0
m illion cubic m iles o f w ater into the o cea n s every
(3 ) E rosion b eco m es m axim um w hen the river
year. On the basis o f M urray's estim ate it m ay be
carries lo a d accord in g to its transporting capacity.
inferred that about 5 b illion tons o f m in erals are
T h e law of erosion states that the rate and rem oved from the b edrocks by the w orld rivers each
am ou n t o f ero sio n in crea ses b efore the attainm ent o f year and these m inerals are carried to the seas and
eq u ilib riu m b etw een the transporting capacity o f the ocean s in solu tion .
river and its load w h ile it d ecrea ses after the attain
(2) Abrasion or corrasion in v o lv e s the
m en t o f th eir eq u ilib riu m con d ition .
rem oval o f lo o sen ed m aterials o f the rock s o f valley
It m a y be p oin ted out that b esid es the river w a lls and v a lley floors w ith the h elp o f erosion al
lo a d , v e lo c ity and ch a n n el gradient are a lso sig n ifi to o ls (boulders, p eb b les, co b b les, g ravels etc .). The
ca n t p aram eters w h ich e ffe c tiv e ly control flu vial erosion al to o ls or river load s m o v e d ow n the channel
e ro sio n . E ro sio n b e c o m e s m axim u m w hen the river gradient alon g w ith w ater and thus strike against the
h a v in g steep ch a n n el grad ient and optim al am ount rocks w hich co m e in co n ta ct w ith them . T he repeti
o f load o f g o o d s iz e and h igh cablibre flo w s w ith tion o f this m ech an ism w ea k en s the rocks w h ich are
h ig h v e lo c ity . T h e v e lo c ity o f w ater flo w d ep en d s on u ltim ately lo o sen ed and broken d ow n . T h u s, abra
(i) ch an n el grad ien t and (ii) v o lu m e o f water. N o r sion is the m ech a n ism o f breakdow n o f rocks occa
m a lly , the ero sio n a l p o w e r o f the stream is propor sion ed by erosion al tp ols carried by the rivers. The
tio n al to the square o f the v e lo c ity w h ich (erosional nature and m agn itu d e o f abrasion d ep en d s on the
power oc (velocity of the stream)2 ) m ean s if the nature, size and calibre (an gu larity) o f erosional
to o ls. B ou ld ers, co b b les and p eb b les o f various sizes
v e lo c ity is d ou b led , the erosion al p ow er ot the streams
and angularity are by far the m o st im portant tools p f
in cr ea se s fou r tim es, if the v e lo c ity is in creased 4
erosion w hich are gen erally ca lled drilling
tim e s, the ero sio n a l p o w e r in crea ses 16 tim es and so
T h e erosion al m ech an ism o f abrasion operates
on . B e s id e s , lith o lo g ic a l and structural characteris
tw o w a y s e.g . (i) vertical ero sio n leading to
tic s o f g eo m a teria ls a lso a ffe c t the nature and m a g
erosion and d eep en in g o f v a lley floors and (ii) lateral
n itu d e o f flu v ia l ero sio n .
-v s-': O'-'.
FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
erosion le a d in g to the ero sio n o f v a lley w a lls. Lat river enters the sea. T his im aginary sm ooth cu rve Of
eral ab rasion c a u se s v a lle y w id en in g w h ile vertical the grand base le v e l d en otes the lim it o f m axim um
abrasion le a d s to v a lle y d eep en in g w herein the ero dow nw ard erosion by a particular river. T h e sea
sio n al to o ls d rill th e v a lle y flo o r through the m ech a le v e l is a tangent on this sm ooth curve o f the grand «
nism o f pot-hole drilling resu ltin g into the form a base le v e l o f erosion . T he grand base le v e l depends
tion o f n u m ero u s p ot h o le s (cy lin d rica l d ep ressio n s) on the p osition o f sea le v el. In other w ords, it
o f variou s s iz e s in the v a lle y flo o rs. V ertical abra ch an ges w ith ch a n g es in the sea le v e l. W hen a river
sion (d o w n c u ttin g ) b e c o m e s m ore e ffe c tiv e during degrades its v a lley upto sea le v e l near its m outh, the
the ju v e n ile sta g e (y o u th fu l) o f river and v a lley river is said to have attained its base le v e l. T he rise
d e v e lo p m e n t w h e n ch a n n el grad ient and v elo city and fall in sea le v el also ca u ses rise and low erin g o f
are very h ig h .
base lev el. Thus, ch an ges in base le v e l o f erosion in
(3 ) Attrition is the m ech a n ica l tear and w ear resp on se to sea le v el ch a n g es produce different
o f the e r o s io n a l to o ls in th e m se lv e s. T he boulders, suites o f landform s.
c o b b le s , p e b b le s etc. w h ile m o v in g w ith w ater c o l (2 ) T e m p o r a r y B a se L e v e l - There m ay be
lid e a g a in st e a c h o th er and thus are fragm ented into several tem porary base le v e ls in a particular river
sm a lle r and fin e r p ie c e s in the transit. T hus, the rock due to a variety o f factors e.g. due to the p resen ce o f
p a rticles are s o b rok en d o w n that u ltim ately they are lakes, different beds o f hard and so ft rocks etc. in the
c o m m in u te d in to c o a r se to fin e sand particles w hich longitudinal cou rse o f the rivers. T he tem porary
are tra n sp o rted d o w n the ch an n el in su sp en sion . base le v els are elim in ated w hen the w h o le cou rse o f
(4) Hydraulic action in v o lv e s the break the river attains its grand base le v e l or perm anent
d o w n o f th e ro ck s o f v a lle y sid es due to the im pact base lev el determ ined by the sea le v el.
o f w a ter cu rren ts o f ch a n n el. In fact, hydraulic action (3) L o c a l b a se le v e l is, in fact, the le v e l o f the
is th e m e c h a n ic a l lo o s e n in g and rem oval o f m ateri co n flu en ce o f a tributary stream w ith its rec eiv in g
a ls o f r o c k s b y w a ter a lo n e. It m ay be p oin ted out that m aster stream. T he tributary stream s first erode their
c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g , ab rasion and hydraulic action v alleys according to the le v e l o f their c o n flu en ces
are s o in tim a te ly in terrelated that it is u n w ise to think and thus grade their longtitudinal p rofiles. U lti
o f p u re h y d r a u lic a ctio n w ith o u t ch em ic a l erosion m ately, the sea le v el b eco m es the grand b ase le v e l o f
and a b ra sio n . erosion for the entire drainage basin.
22.3 B A S E L E V E L O F EROSION Changes or movements of base level

T h ere is a lim it for m a x im u m vertical erosion T he ch an ges or m o v em en ts in the b ase le v e l
by a riv er b e y o n d w h ic h it ca n n o t degrad e its v a lley . o f erosion are gu id ed by the ch a n g es in sea le v el. Sea
T h is lim it o f m a x im u m d o w n w a rd ero sio n by a river le v el ch an ges are gen erally o f tw o typ es viz. (i)
is c a lle d base levei o f erosion or sim p ly a base
eustatic changes (w h ich h ave g lo b al im pacts) and
(ii) local changes. S ea le v e l ch a n g es are d ivid ed in
level. B a s e le v e l, in fa ct, is the u ltim ate lim it o f
tw o categories on the b asis o f tim al factor e .g . (i)
vertical e r o s io n b y a river. J.W . P o w e ll postu lated
long-term ch an ges and (ii) short-term ch an ges. Sea
the c o n c e p t o f b a se le v e l in 18 7 5 . A cco rd in g to him
lev el ch an ges and co n seq u en t ch an ges and m o v e
the s e a le v e l b e c o m e s th e grand base level b eyon d
w h ich n o d ry la n d can b e further d egrad ed . B e sid e s m ents in the base le v e l o f ero sio n are alw ays co n sid
ered in term s o f relative p o sitio n o f the coastal land
grand b a se le v e l, th ere are lo c a l and tem porary base
and sea le v el. T h u s, ch a n g es in sea le v e l and base
le v e ls in a p articu lar river.
lev el are grouped into tw o ca teg o ries viz. (i) positive
(1) Grand base level is a ls o c a lle d general
change and (ii) negative change. P o sitiv e ch an ge in
or ultimate o r perm anent base level w h ich is d e t e r
the sea le v e l and h en ce in the base l$vel o f erosion
m in ed b y th e s e a le v e l. B a s e le v e l is a sm o o th cu rve occu rs w hen either there is su b sid en ce o f the coastal
w h ich r ise s an d b e c o m e s c o n c a v e upstream . In other land in relation to the sea le v el or there is upheaval
w o rd s, gran d b a se le v e l is su ch an im agin ary s™0(Jj o f the sea floor. On the other hand, the negative
cu rve b e lo w th e lan d th e s lo p e o f w h ic gra ua y
ch an ge in sea le v e l and b ase level o f erosion occurs
d ecre a se s d o w n str e a m to w a rd s the s e a w h ere the
w hen either there is e m e r g en ce o f the co a sta l land in 22.4 EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
relation to the sea le v e l or there is su b sid en ce o f the T he sig n ifica n t landform s resulting from flu*
sea floor. T h e a b o v e m en tio n ed c a u ses o f sea le v e l vial erosion by stream s in clud e river valleys, water
„ and base le v e l ch a n g es are related to tecto n ic factors. falls and rapids, pot holes, structural benches,
B esid es, g la c ia tio n and d eg la c ia tio n during ic e a g es river terraces, meanders, peneplains etc.
at g lo b a l le v e l a lso c a u se lo w erin g (n eg a tiv e ch an ge)
and rise (p o sitiv e ch a n g e) o f sea le v e ls and base River Valleys
le v e ls r e s p e c tiv e ly . It is apparent from the ab ove T he v a lley s carved out by the rivers are sig
d iscu ssio n that n eg a tiv e ch a n g e in sea le v e l and base nificant erosion al landform s. T he shape and dim en
le v e l (lo w e r in g o f b a se le v e l) ca u ses em erg en ce o f sion o f flu v ia lly originated v a lley s ch an ge with the
co a sta l lan d w h ile p o sitiv e ch an ge (rise) leads to advancem ent o f the stages o f flu vial c y c le o f ero
su b m er g en ce o f co a sta l land. sion. The v a lley form ed in the you th fu l stage o f
fluvial cy cle o f erosion and in the initial stage o f
T h e p o s itiv e ch a n g e or upward m o v em en t o f
valley d evelop m en t is V -sh ap ed h aving steep valley
b a se le v e l d u e to rise in sea le v e l ca u ses the fo llo w
side slop e o f co n v ex elem ent. T he v alley is very
in g g eo m o rp h ic even ts in a particular river profile,
deep and narrow, both the valley sid es m eet together
(i) interruption in the flu v ia l c y c le o f erosion leading
at the valley floor and thus water alw ays tou ch es the
to sh orten in g o f c y c lic tim e b ecau se the stage o f
valley sides. Such type o f V -sh ap ed v a lley s are the
c y c le o f ero sio n is ad van ced forw ard, (ii) form ation
result o f accelerated rate o f d ow ncutting (vertical
o f r ia c o a s t s and e s t u a r ie s b ecau se o f the subm er
erosion or v a lley d eep en in g). T he v a lley s are gradu
g e n c e o f v a lle y s o f the rivers at their m ouths, (iii)
ally w idened due to lateral erosion w ith the advance
fillin g o f river m ouths leading to the form ation o f
m ent o f the stage o f c y c le o f erosion and they
b u r ie d v a lle y s or c h a n n e ls , (iv ) form ation o f flood
becom e quite broad with flat v a lley floor and uni
p la in s b e c a u se o f in crea sed sed im en ta tio n and
form or rectilinear v a lley sid e slo p es during mature
allu viation due to lo w erin g o f channel gradient and
stage o f valley d ev elo p m en t and flu v ia l c y c le o f
d ecrease in the transporting capacity o f the rivers erosion. T hey are further transform ed into very
b eca u se o f rise or upward m o v em en t o f base le v els, broad and sh allow v a lley s h avin g co n ca v e valley
(v ) fillin g o f lo w la n d s by aggradation, (vi) form ation side slop e o f very gen tle gradient during old stage.
and d e v e lo p m e n t o f sea islands near the coasts due V -shaped v a lley s are d ivid ed into tw o typ es v iz. (1)
to tran sgression o f sea w ater on the coastal lands etc. g o r g e s and ( 2 ) c a n y o n s .
T h e n e g a tiv e ch an ge in base le v el caused by (1 ) G o r g e s - G orges and ca n y o n s repr
lo w e r in g o f se a le v e l b rin gs in the fo llo w in g very deep and narrow v a lley s h avin g very steep
g e o m o r p h ic c h a n g e s in the affected areas, (i) inter valley side slo p es say w a ll-lik e steep valley sides. It
ruption in the flu v ia l c y c le o f erosion leading to is d ifficu lt to draw a lin e o f d istin ctio n betw een these
le n g th e n in g o f c y c lic tim e b eca u se the stage o f cy cle tw o types o f v a lley s. N o rm a lly , a very deep and
o f ero sio n is p u sh ed back (i.e. from old to mature or narrow valley is ca lled a gorge and the extended
from m ature to y o u n g sta g e), (ii) rejuvenation form o f a gorge is ca lled a can yon (fig . 2 2 .1 ). Gorges
le a d in g to a ccelera ted rate o f dow nw ard (vertical) are form ed due to a ctive d o w n cu ttin g o f the valleys
ero sio n and a c tiv e v a lley d eep en in g , (iii) evolu tion through the m ech an ism o f p oth ole drilling during
o f topographic d iscord an ce having young topographic ju v en ile (you th) stage o f the flu vial c y c le o f erosion.
featu res in the lo w e r seg m en ts o f the v a lley s and old G orges are a lso form ed due to recession o f water
featu res in the upper part o f the v a lley s, (iii) form a falls. M ost o f the H im alayan rivers have carved out
tion o f m u ltisto rey ed v a lle y s and paired terraces on deep and narrow gorges. T he sign ifican t gorges
either sid e o f the valley, (iv ) d evelopm en t o f polycyclic form ed due to rec e ssio n o f w a terfa lls include
H undrughagh gorge on the Subarnarekha river (near
r e lie fs, (v ) d e v e lo p m e n t o f k in ck points, knick point
R anchi), gorge o f the Raru river b elow Johna or
w a terfa lls, and in cise d m eanders, (v i) breaks in
Gautamdhara fa lls (east o f R anchi), D a s s a m g h a g h
s lo p e in the lon gitu d in a l p ro files o f the rivers etc.
river in the state o f A rizon a (U S A ) having a length

o f 4 8 2 .8 kilom eters and depth o f 2 0 8 8 .3 m is o n e o f
the m ost im portant can yon s o f the w orld. T he Indus
river has cut across the H im alayan ranges and flo w s
through 1 7 ,0 0 0 -foot deep gorge and canyon.
Waterfalls
W aterfalls or sim p ly falls are caused because
o f sudden d escen ts or abrupt breaks in the lon gitu d i
nal course o f the rivers due to a h ost o f factors e.g.
variation in the relative resistance o f rocks, relative
difference in topographic reliefs, fall in the sea lev el
and related rejuvenation, earth m o vem en ts etc. A
waterfall may be d efined as a vertical drop o f water
o f enorm ous volu m e from a great h eigh t in the lon g
profiles o f the rivers. R apids are o f m uch sm aller
dim ension than w aterfalls. G enerally, they are found
upstream from the main falls but they are also found
independently. There is a chain o f w aterfalls along
the junction o f the Piedm ont and A tlantic coastal
plain from N ew England R egion in the north-east to
central A labam a in the sou th -w est (U S A ) w herein
all the A tlantic bound stream s w h ile d escen d in g
through the Piedm ont m ake num erous w aterfalls.
This chain o f w aterfalls is called fa ll lin e in the U S A .
There is also a w ell marked fa ll lin e in India. T his
In d ia n F a ll L in e extends betw een the Purw a or
T ons Falls on the T ons river (in the north-w estern
part o f the R ew a district o f M adhya Pradesh) in the
w est and Sasaram (Bihar) in the east alon g the
junction o f the foreland o f Peninsular India and the
G anga plains. Hundreds o f w aterfalls ranging in
height betw een 15m and 180m are found along this
fall line as all the major stream s em ergin g from the
Fig. 22.1 : C ontour p la n o f gorge and spurs and cross Kaimur ranges and draining due northward make
section o f a gorge. stupendous w ater falls w h ile d escen d in g through the
g o r g e b e l o w D a s s a m g h a g h fa lls on the K an ch i river rim o f the foreland o f the Indian Peninsula. S ig n ifi
(e a st o f R a n c h i) , P h e r u a g h a g h g o r g e o n the S ou th cant w aterfalls o f this fall line are Purwa or Tons
K o e l r iv e r ( s o u th o f R a n c h i), C h a c h a i g o r g e o n the falls (7 0 m ) on the T ons river (in R ew a district,
B ih ar r iv e r ( R e w a , M .P .) , K e v ti g o r g e on th e M ah an a M .P .), a tributary o f the G anga river, C hachai falls
river ( R e w a , M .P .) , g o r g e o f th e O d d a river, (R e w a , (1 2 7 m ) on the Bihar river (R ew a district), a tribu
M .P .) e tc . tary o f the T on s river, K evti falls (98 m ) on the
(2 ) C a n y o n s are e x te n d e d form o f g o r g eM s.ahana river (R ew a district), a tributary o f the Tons
C a n y o n s r e p r e s e n t v e r y d e e p , n arrow but lo n g v a l river, Odda falls (1 4 5 m ) on the Odda river (R ew a,
le y s . T h e s t e e p e n e s s o f th e v a lle y s i d e s d e p e n d s on d istrict), a tributary o f the T on s river), D evdari falls
th e n atu re o f th e r o c k s . R e la tiv e ly r e sista n t ro ck s (5 8 m ) on the Karamnasha river (R ohtas plateau,
su p p o rt s t e e p v a l le y s id e s w h e r e a s r e sista n t ro ck s
B ihar), Telharkund falls (8 0 m ) on the Suara W est
alternated b y s o f t r o c k s g iv e birth to u n d u la tin g river (R ohtas plateau), Suara fa lls (1 2 0 m ) on the
v a lle y s id e s . T h e G ra n d C a n y o n o f th e C o lo r a d o
Durgawati river (Rohtas plateau), Okharean Kund
falls (90 in) on the Gopath river (Rohtas plateau), Ausane river (a tributary of the Son river, Rentas
Dhuan Kund falls (30 m, Rohtas plateau, near Sasaram) Plateau), Rakim Kund falls (168 m on the Gayghat
river, a tributary of the Ausane river (Rohtas pla
on the Dhoba river, Kuaridah falls (180 m) on the teau) etc.
Table 17.1 : Important Waterfalls of the World
(A ) Highest Waterfalls
Name of the Falls Height in metres Location
A n g e l F a lls
9 8 6 .0 0 V en ezu ela
Y o se m ite F a lls
7 7 7 .2 4 C alifornia (U S A )
S o u th erlan d F a lls 5 7 9 .3 4 N ew Zealand
R o raim a F a lls 4 5 7 .2 0 British Guiana
K a la m b o F a lls 4 2 6 .7 2 South A frica
T A k k a k u F a lls 4 0 0 .2 6 British C olum bia (Canada)
M u ltn o m a h F a lls 2 5 0 .8 5 Oregon (U S A )
B r id a lv e il F a lls 18 8.97 Y osem ite, C alifornia (U S A )
(B ) F a lls w ith h ig h v o lu m e o f w a te r
N ia g ra F a lls U S A and Canada
V icto ria F a lls — South A frica
Igu azu F a lls — British Guiana
K aieteu r F a lls — British G uiana
L o w e r Y e llo w s to n e F alls — W yom in g (U S A )
G rand F a lls — Labrador (Canada)
Types of Waterfalls - T h e w aterfalls vary so (iii) Barrier falls

g rea tly in term s o f their h eigh t, shape and size, (iv ) Plateau falls
d im e n s io n an d v o lu m e o f w ater that it b eco m es
d iffic u lt to c la s s if y them in certain categories. G en 2. Minor Waterfalls
e r a lly , w a te r fa lls are d iv id ed in to tw o broad ca teg o (A ) Falls originated due to en d ogen etic
r ie s on th e b a sis o f m o d e o f their origin viz. (1 ) forces
normal waterfalls and (2 ) minor waterfalls. N or
(i) Fault falls
m al w a te r fa lls in c lu d e th o se fa lls w h ich are form ed
d u e to variation in th e resista n ce o f rocks. T h ese (ii) F alls due to upliftm ent
w a te r fa lls are in d ic a tiv e o f y o u th fu l sta g e o f stream
(B ) F alls originated due to ch an ges in the
d e v e lo p m e n t and un grad ed lo n g p ro files o f the
le v e l o f v a lley flo o rs
stream s. M in o r w a terfa lls in c lu d e the fa lls w h ich are
o rig in a ted d u e to interruption in the c y c le o f ero sio n (1 ) D ue to low erin g o f valley floor
i
caused b y reju v en a tio n . S u ch w ater fa lls are ca lled (i) H an gin g v a lley falls
k n ick p o in t fa lls. T h e fo llo w in g is the detailed sch em e
o f the cla ssific a tio n o f flu v ia lly originated w aterfalls. (ii) G lacial hanging valley falls
(iii) F alls due to river capture f
1. Normal W aterfalls
(iv ) C oastal hanging valley falls
(i) S te p fa lls
(v ) knickpoint falls
( ii) C a p ro ck fa lls
f l u v ia l g e o m o r p h o l o g y
(2 ) D u e to obstruction s in the river and so ft rocks dip d ow n stream and the caprock is
co u rses resistant to erosion . Such fa lls are ca lled caprock
(i) F a lls due to lan d slid es rapids (fig . 2 2 .3 ).
(ii) F a lls due to la v a dam s (iii) When the rock beds are horizontal -
V ery m a ssiv e and stupendous w aterfalls are form ed
(iii) F a lls due to g ia cia l m oraines
w hen the rock b eds are arranged in horizontal m an
(1) W aterfalls due to structural and ner and the caprock is quite resistant such as quartzitic
lithological variations - T h e w aterfalls originated sandstones, d o lo m itic lim esto n es, gran ite-gn eisses
due to variation s in the structural and lith o lo g ica l and the underlying rocks are so ft and vulnerable to
characteristics o f terrestrial rocks are ca lled normal quick fluvial erosion such as sh ale, v o lc a n ic ash and
waterfalls. V a rio u s h ierarch ical orders o f water un consolidated g eom aterials, b eca u se so ft rocks are
falls (e .g . catracts, rapids and ca sca d es) depend on eroded m ore than the o v erly in g resistant caprocks
the relative r e sista n ce and d isp o sitio n o f the beds o f and thus resistant rocks form w a ll-lik e scarps w h ich
d ifferen t rock s. T h e c liffs form ed due to the presence allow river w ater to fall dow n vertically. Niagra
o f hard and s o ft ro ck s in the co u rse o f the rivers form
large w a terfa lls w h ich are ca lled catracts. Alternate
bands o f hard and so ft rocks g iv e birth to a series o f
sm all s te p -lik e fa lls w h ich are ca lled cascades. The
d isp o sitio n o f rock b ed s g iv e s birth to w aterfalls o f
v a ry in g d im e n sio n s in the fo llo w in g manner.
(i) When the rock beds dip upstream -
W h en the alternate bands o f hard and so ft rocks dip
upstream in the lon gitu d in al cou rse o f the river and
i f the cap rock is resistan t the underlying soft rocks Soft Rock
are erod ed m ore rapidly d ue to cliffin g and thus the
resistan t rock b ed s form p recip itou s w a ll-lik e scarps
w h ich a llo w the river w ater to fall dow nstream Fig. 22.3 : Formation o f rapids when the rock beds dip
v ertica lly and u ltim a tely a stupendous w aterfall is downstream.
form ed . S u ch w aterfall reced es at faster rate due to Falls com e under this category o f w aterfalls. The
c liffin g and tu m b lin g d o w n o f h anging head w alls o f caprock o f this w aterfall is d o lo m itic lim eston e
the fa lls (fig . 2 2 .2 ). S u ch fa lls, called as caprock w hich is su cceed ed b elo w by the su c c e ssiv e beds o f
fa lls, d isap p ear w h en the river attains its graded shales, lim eston es, sandstones, san dston es interca
lated w ith shales, sandstones, and sh ales (fig . 2 2 .4 ).
p rofile o f eq u ilib riu m .
The height o f the fall is now 52m and the water
discharge is 17 ,0 0 0 cu m ecs (cu b ic m etres per se c
ond). The fall is supposed to have been form ed about
10,000 years ago. It is receding at the rate o f 3 to 4
feet per year. It is estim ated that the N iagra fall has
registered a total recession o f about 7 m iles (11.2
km ) till now . Kaieteur falls (B ritish G uiana) also fall
under this category o f caprock falls. The caprock is
o f resistant conglom erates. T he Potaro river has cut
deep through con glom erates and thus has form ed
2 2 5 .5 m high waterfall.
Fig. 22.2 : Origin o f waterfalls when the rocks dip up The w aterfalls o f the R ew a (M adhya Pradesh)
stream. and Rohtas (Bihar) plateaus (as m entioned above)
also com e under this category as the caprocks are
(ii) When the rock beds dip downstream -
sandstones and quartzitic sandstones underlaine by
R apids are form ed w h en the alternate bands o f har
420
w aterfalls h ave been form ed b eca u se o f
and lith o lo g ic a l co n tro ls and d ifferen tial
R e sista n t S o ft R o c k
R ock
Fig. 22.4 : Formation o f waterfalls when the rock beds Fig. 22.5 : Origin o f waterfalls when the rock beds are
vertical.
are horizontal and the caprock is resistant to
erosion. Example o f Niagrafalls, fro m top to (v ) Plateau waterfalls - T h e rivers co m
the bottom (1) dolomitic limestones, (2) shales, from over the plateau surface form w a terfa lls w hen
(3) limestones, (4) sandstones, (5) sandstones they d escen d through the p recip ito u s escarp m en ts o f
and shales, (6) sandstones, and (7) shales.
the plateau and enter the reg io n o f sig n ifica n tly
w ea k er sh a les o f V indhyan form ations. Chachai low er height. T h e C o n g o river has form ed 2 7 5 m
fa lls (1 2 7 m , on the B ihar river), K evti falls (98 m, high L iv in g sto n e F alls w h ile d e sc e n d in g through the
on the M ah an a river), O dda falls (1 4 5 m, on the Odda A frican Plateau. S im ila rly , the O range river has
river), K uaridah falls (1 8 0 m , on the A usan e river), form ed 140 m h igh A u g h ra b ies F a lls at the m argin o f
R akim k un d fa lls (1 6 8 m , on the Gay ghat river) etc. the plateau. N early all o f the sig n ific a n t northward
are ty p ica l e x a m p le s o f caprock w aterfalls. draining stream s and their tributaries h a v e formed
(iv) w aterfalls at the northern m argin o f the R ew a pla
When the rock b e d s a re vertical - W hen
teau (M .P .) e.g . C hachai F a lls (1 2 7 m ) on the Bihar
alternate resistan t and so ft rocks are arranged in
river, K evti F a lls (9 8 m ) on the M h an a river, Odda
vertical m anner, so ft rocks are eroded aw ay rapidly
Falls (1 4 5 m ) on the O dda river etc. T h e Karo river
but the resistan t rock b eds are le ss eroded and h ence
has form ed 17 m h igh P h eru agh agh F alls at the
form p recip ito u s scarps in the cou rse o f the river
w h ich g iv e birth to w aterfalls o f steep slo p e. The southern m argin o f the R anchi p lateau. S u ch falls are
in tru sive d y k e s a lso form w aterfalls b eca u se o f their ca lled as scarp falls. H undru fa lls (7 5 m ) on the
le s s (fig . 2 2 .5 ) ero sio n than the surrounding rocks. Subarnarekha riv er (n ear R a n c h i), D asam falls
S u ch w a terfa lls are ca lled vertical barrier falls. (3 9 .6 2 m ) on the K anchi river (east o f R anchi), Sadni
Great Fall o f the Y ello w sto n e river o f the Y ello w sto n e falls (6 0 m ) on the Sankh river (R anchi plateau) etc.
N a tion al Park (U S A ) is a typ ical ex a m p le o f vertical are the ex a m p les o f scarp falls or knick-Iine falls.
barrier fall. S ev era l su ch w aterfalls have been form ed Y en na fa lls (1 8 0 m ) on M ahabaleshw ar pla
in the ‘Patlands’ of R an ch i and Palm au (B ihar) but tea u , G o k a k f a lls ( 5 4 m ) in B e lg a u n district
their heights ran ge b etw een 3m and 3 0 m on ly . T h ese (Karnataka), G ersoppa falls (2 6 0 m ) on the Sharavati
(in North K anara), Sivasam udram (9 0 m ) on the

C auvery river etc. are a ls o ex a m p les o f scarp falls.
(vi) S t e p f a l l s - T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a lte rn a te
bands o f h o r iz o n ta l b e d s o f h a rd a n d s o f t r o c k s in th e
c o u rs e of th e r iv e r s p r o d u c e s a s e r ie s o f lo w w a te r
fa lls d u e to d if f e r e n tia l e r o s io n . T h e s e fa lls a re in
fa c t r a p id s .
(2) Waterfalls due to faults and fractures -

W a te r f a lls a r e f o r m e d a lo n g th e f a u lt s c a r p s w h ic h
a re c r e a te d d u e to f a u ltin g a c r o s s th e r iv e r v a lle y s .
V ic to r ia f a lls o n th e Z a m b e z i r iv e r (1 1 0 m h ig h ) is a
ty p ic a l e x a m p l e o f f a u lt f a lls .
(3 ) W a t e r f a lls d u e to u p liftm e n t - W a te r
fa lls o f v a r y i n g d i m e n s i o n s a re f o r m e d d u e to
u p l if tm e n t o f lo c a l n a tu r e in th e c o u r s e s o f th e riv e rs.
T h ese w a t e r f a l l s a r e o b lite r a te d w h e n th e riv e rs
regradc t h e i r lo n g it u d in a l p r o file s . A s e rie s o f w a te r
f a lls o n th e r i v e r a lo n g th e ju n c t io n o f P a la m a u
u p l a n d a n d th e n o r th e r n fla t p la in ( P a la m a u d is tric t,
B ihar) are s a id to h a v e b e e n fo rm e d d u e to o rig in o f
e s c a r p m e n t c a u s e d b y u p lif tm e n to f s o u th e r n P a la m a u
d u r in g T e r ti a r y p e r io d . P a ta m fa lls ( 4 5 .7 2 m ) a n d
D a ta m fa lls ( 3 0 .4 5 m ) o n th e P a ta m riv e r (in B h a n d a ria
A n c h a l, P a l a m a u , B ih a r ) a re ty p ic a l e x a m p le s o f
su ch c a t e g o r i e s . G e r s o p p a fa lls ( 2 6 0 m ) o r J o g fa lls
is a ls o b e lie v e d to h a v e b e e n f o rm e d d u e to u p liftm e n t.
T h e w a t e r f a l l s o n th e e a s te r n m a r g in o f th e R a n c h i
p la te a u ( e .g . H u n d r u f a lls o n th e S u b a r n a r e k h a riv e r,
D a s a m f a l l s o n th e K a n c h i riv e r, J o n h a o r G a u ta m d h a r a
f a lls o n th e G u n g a r iv e r e tc .) a re a ls o q u o te d as th e
e x a m p l e s o f w a t e r f a l l s r e s u l ti n g fro m u p lif tm e n t.
Fig. 22.6 : Origin o f waterfalls due t o ( l ) hanging valley,
(4) Hanging v a lle y fa lls - S o m e tim es, w ater
(2) Lava dam and (3) glacial hanging valley.
falls o f v a ry in g d im e n s io n s are form ed w hen the
tributary strea m s jo in their m aster stream s from In fact, the G unga river hangs ab ove its m aster
great h eig h t fo rm in g h a n g in g v a lle y s (fig . 2 2 .6 ). In stream , Raru river, (to the east o f R anchi city ) and
other w o rd s, h a n g in g v a lle y fa lls are fram ed w hen form s the said falls.
the le v e l o f th e ju n c tio n o f the tributary stream s is (5) G la cia l h a n g in g v a lley falls- T he fluvia
m uch h ig h er than the le v e l o f the m ain v a lle y o f the originated river v a lley s are largely m od ified by
m aster stream . T h e R ajroppa fa lls (1 0 m ) at the glaciers during ice ages. T he glaciers flo w in g through
junction o f the B h era nadi and the rec eiv in g D am odar the m ain v a lley s d eepen them m ore due to erosion
river (lo ca te d to the north o f R anchi c ity ) is a typical than the tributary va lley s. T hus, the tributary valleys
exam ple o f hanging valley waterfalls as the Bhera hang over the m ain v a lley s and discordant le v e ls are
form ed. T h ese v a lley s are again occu p ied by the
nadi after c o m in g from o v e r the R anchi plateau
rivers after the ice age is over and glaciers are
hangs a b o v e the D a m o d a r river at its co n flu en ce
ablated. C on seq u en tly, the tributary stream s hang
with the latter. T h e G autam dhara or Johna falls
over the m ain rivers at their ju n ctio n s and w aterfalls
(2 5 .9 m ) is an oth er e x a m p le o f this ca teg o ry o f fa lls.
are farm ed (fig , 2 2 .6 ). S u ch g la cia l hanging valley
w aterfalls are found in N orw ay, S w ed en , Finland,
C anada etc.
(6) Waterfalls due to river capture - S om e
tim es, w aterfalls are form ed w hen the streams^flow
ing o v er h igh er but flat lands are captured by the
stream s o f relatively lo w er height. T hus, the cap
tured stream s drain into the captor stream s by m ak
in g w aterfalls. S u ch fa lls are abundantly found in the
H im alayas.
(7) Coastal hanging valley falls - The rivers
w h ile d escen d in g through sea c liffs or cliffed coast
torm vertical w aterfalls b efore d eb ou ch in g into the
sea (fig . 2 2 .7 ). S u ch w aterfalls are also ca lled coastal
hanging valley fa lls as the river hangs through the
vertical c liffe d coast.
(8 ) K n ic k p o in t fa lls - The breaks in channel
g rad ien t c a u sed by reju ven ation (eith er due to
u p liftm en t or fall in sea le v e l) are ca lled k n ick
p o in ts or h e a d s o f r e ju v e n a tio n . T h ese breaks in
ch annel gradient or knickpoints d enote sudden drops
o f eleva tion in the lon gitu d in al p rofile o f the rivers
and a llo w the w ater to fall d ow n vertically g iv in g
birth to w aterfalls o f varying dim ensions. Hundrufalls
(7 6 .6 7 m ) on the Subarnarekha river (near Ranchi
city ), Johna or G autam dhara fa lls at the co n flu en ce
o f the Raru and and the G unga rivers (to the east o f
R an ch i), D asam fa lls (3 9 .6 2 m and 15.24m ) on the
K an ch i river (east o f R anchi), Burhaghagh falls (148
m ) on the Burha river, a tributary o f the N orth K oel
(P alam au upland, Bihar), D hunw adhar falls on the
N arm ad a river (near Jabalpur, M .P .), m ajor falls o f
R e w a p lateau (e .g . C hachai fa lls - 127 m on the Bihar
n ad i, K e v ti fa lls - 98 m on the M ahana nadi, T ons or
Purw a fa lls - 7 5 m on the T on s river, Oda falls - 1 4 5
m on th e O d d a nadi e tc .) etc. are the ex a m p les o f
k n ik p oin t w a terfa lls.
Fig. 2 2 .7 : Origin o f waterfalls due to (1) cliffed coast,
(9) Waterfalls due to obstructions in the (2) fa u lts and (3) upliftment.
river flow - S o m e tim es, tem porary w ater falls are
the nearby h illslo p es into the river and o b s t r u c t s the
fo rm ed d u e to tem porary d am m in g o f the river flo w
free flo w o f the river by m ak in g barrier across the
through natural p r o c e sse s in a num ber o f w ays. v alley.
(i) Lava-dammed waterfalls are form ed when (iii) Moraine-dammed waterfalls are form
th e flo w o f river w ater is obstructed due to form ation due to dam m ing o f river flo w by m orainic debris-
o f la v a barrier a cro ss the v a lley . Su ch falls are T he rivers m ake fa lls w h ile cro ssin g through the
a lm o st perm an en t. m orainic ridges form ed across the valleys.
(ii) Landslide-dammed waterfalls are o rig i Recession of Waterfalls - It m ay be pointed out tbal
w aterfalls and rapids are not perm anent landforinS'
nated w h en h u g e v o lu m e o f d eb ris s lid e s d o w n from
F L U V IA L GEOMORPHOLOGY
They disappear w h en the rivers attain their graded b en ch es or terraces form ed due to d ifferential ero
curves and p ro files o f eq uilibrium during mature sion o f alternate bands o f hard and so ft rock b eds are
stage o f v a lley d ev elo p m en t and norm al c y c le o f ca lled structural b en ch es or terraces b ecau se o f
erosion. In fact, the rivers try to grade th em selv es lith o lo g ica l control in the rate o f erosion and co n se
through vertical ero sio n (v a lle y d eep en in g ) in rela quent d ev elo p m en t o f b en ch es (fig . 2 2 .8 ).
tion to b ase le v e l o f ero sio n (se a le v e l). T he oblitera
tion o f w aterfalls takes p la ce through tw o p ro cesses River Terraces
viz. (1) h orizon tal r ec essio n through b ackw asting The narrow flat su rfaces on either sid e o f the
and (2) lo w erin g o f h eig h t through d ow n w astin g. valley floor are called river terraces w hich represent
Niagra F alls are reced in g at the rate o f 1.2 to 1.4 m the level o f form er va lley floors and the rem nants o f
per year. It has b een estim a ted that N iagra F alls have form er (older) flo o d plains. S o m e tim es, the river
receded u p to ab ou t 11 km till n ow . N o attem pts have v alleys are frequented by several terraces on either
been m ad e to record the recessio n o f w aterfalls in s id e w h e r e in th ey are a rra n g ed in s t e p - lik e
India. fo r m s. R iv e r te r r a c e s are g e n e r a lly fo r m e d
due to d issection o f fluvial sed im en ts o f flo o d plain s
Pot Holes
deposited along a valley floor. T here are m uch
T h e k e ttle-lik e sm all d ep ression s in the rocky
b ed s o f the river v a lle y s are ca lled pot h oles w hich
are u su ally cylin d rica l in shape. Pot h oles are gener
ally form ed in coarse-gain ed rocks such as sandstones
and gran ites. Pot h o lin g or p othole drilling is the
m ech an ism through w h ich the grinding tools (frag
m ents o f rock s e .g . b oulders and angular rock frag
m ents) w h en cau gh t in the water ed d ies or sw irling
water start d a n cin g in circular m anner and grind and
drill the rock b ed s o f the v a lley s like drilling m a
chine and thus form sm all h o les w hich are gradually
enlarged by the rep etition o f the said m echanism .
The pot h o le s g o on in creasin g in both diam eter (and
perim eter) and depth. T he diam eter o f pot holes
ranges from a fe w cen tim en tres to several metres.
The depth o f pot h o le s is far m ore than their diamters.
Pot h o les o f m u ch b ig g er size are called plunge
p o o ls. In fact, p lu n g e p o o ls are generally form ed at
the base o f w aterfalls due to pounding o f rocks by
gushing w ter o f the fa lls (w aterfalls). M any o f the
river v a lley s are studded w ith num eroous pot h oles
in Chotanagpur h igh lan d s w here the rivers have
been rejuvenated due to u p liftm ent effected during 77Z7Z7A s b i CHANNEL
Tertiary period. T he b asaltic bed o f the Gaur nadi 7ZZZZ/ZZZZZ2ZZA*B2 SB2 W7777777777777/
near Bhadbhada (east o f Jabalpur, M .P .) presents a
m agnificent v ie w o f num erous pot h o les o f various V///77777777777777T77A
dim ension. P oth ole d rillin g is the e ffectiv e m echa
Resistant rock beds l~~ lSoft rock beds
nism o f va lley d eep en in g.
S B Structural Benches
Structural Benches Fig. 22.8: A and B. Terraces, C. Structural Benches,

T he step -lik e flat surfaces on either side o f the SB - Structural Benches. A and B, After R.J.
present lo w est v a lley flo o rs are called terraces. The Small, 1970.
424
v a r i a k r e i s fesraces a s regards th eir m o rp h o lo g y , narrow v a lley s w ith in form er

s m c t o r e m sd m o d e o f orig in . R iv er t e r r a c e are terraces (fig . 2 2 .9 ) are form ed on both the sides. The
d a & a fied i s v a r ic e s w a y s . F or ex a m p le, t e r r i e s are rivers again broaden their n ew v a lley s through lat
<fivkkd in to ( I ) paired terraces and (2 ) impaired eral erosion and form n ew flo o d plains (fig. 2 2 9)
t e r r a c e s o o the b a sis o f nature o f ero sio n . Paired and are graded in relation to n ew base lev el o f
tn ia D e s sre f a m e d due to rapid rate o f vertical erosion . T he rivers are again rejuvenated due to fan
e r o sio n resu ltin g in to the o ccu rren ce o f terraces on in sea -lev e l and n ew narrow v a lley s are form ed due
d ie sid e s o t the river v a lie v a lm o st at the sam e to v igorou s v a lley d eep en in g con seq u en t upon sec
ond rejuvenation. T his p rocess leads to the forma
tion o f secon d pair o f terraces (fig . 2 2 .9 ) and so on.
River Meanders
R iver m eanders refer to the bends o f longitu
dinal courses o f the rivers. T he bends o f sin ou s rivers
have been named m eanders on the b asis o f the
M eander R iver o f A sia M inor (T urkey) b ecau se it
flo w s through num erous bends. Each bend o f a
m eander belt has tw o types o f slo p es o f v alley sid es.
( 1) O ne side is characterized by co n ca v e slo p e w here
the channel strikes the v a lley sid es d irectly, w ith the
result con cave sid e is subjected to severe erosion
resulting into the form ation o f vertical c liffs. This
Fig. 22.9 : Exam ples o f paired river terraces. side o f the m eander belt is also ca lled as c liff-slo p e
sid e. The other sid e o f the m eander belt is character
le v e l (fig . 22.% A and 2 2 .9 ). It m ay be pointed out
ized by co n v ex slop e w hich receiv es deposition
that paired terraces m ean occurrence o f terraces on
m ostly o f sands and gravels but so m e tim es alluvium
both the sid e s o f the v a lle y at the sam e height.
is also deposited. T his co n v ex sid e is characterized
U np aired terraces are form ed due to concam itant
vertical ero sio n (v a lle y d eep en in g ; and lateral m o v e
m en t o f the ch an n el <Tig. 2 2 .SB ). R iver terraces are
a l s o d iv id e d in to ( 1) r o c k t e r r a c e s and (2 )
a g g r a d a t io n a l te r r a c e s . R ock terraces are charac
terized b y b ed rock platform covered by fluvial d e
p o sits w h ereas aggrad ation al terraces co n sist o f very
thick d e p o sits o f flu v ia l sed im en ts. R iver terraces
are g e n e r a lly form ed d u e to ero sio n o f form er flood
p lain s c o n se q u e n t upon reju ven ation cau sed by e i
ther u p liftm en t o f the lan d m ass or fall in sea lev el.
T h e m ech a n ism o f the form ation o f river
terraces m ay b e ex p la in e d in the fo llo w in g m anner.
T h e rivers form e x te n s iv e flo o d p lain s during late
m ature stage and attain their graded c u rv es o f p rofile
o f eq u ilib riu m . T h e flo o d p lain s c o n sist o f thick
d ep o sits o f a llu v ia and g ra v els. T h e rivers are reju
ven ated d u e to su dden n eg a tiv e ch a n g e (fa ll) in sea -
le v e l. C o n seq u en tly , the e r o siv e ca p a city o f the
rivers is in creased su b stan tially. T h u s, rejuvenated
river* d e e p e n their v a lle y s d u e to accelerated rate o f
vertical ero sio n , N o w the rivers form their n ew Fig. 22.10: Components of a meander loop■
FLU V IA L geo m o rpholo gy
by gentle slo p e and is called the side o f slip-off slope (1) meanders developed through lateral erosion (nor
(fig. 2 2.10). T he shape o f m eander is usually sem i mal meanders) and (2) m eanders developed by
circular but som e tim es it is also circular. The length vertical erosion or valley deepening (incised mean
o f a meander belt can be found out on the basis c f the ders). (3) Misfit or unfit meander is also identified
channel w idth b ecau se m eander belt is usually about as the third type o f m eanders. M orphologically,
15 to 18 tim es the w idth o f bankfull channel. river m eanders are divided into 3 types viz. (1) wavy
It m ay be pointed out that m eandering is a tpe of meanders, (2 ) horse-shoe type of meanders
natural process w h ich is governed by a number o f and (3) ox-bow or bracelet type of meanders. The
environm ental factors v iz. lith ological characteris wavy meanders are very sim ple in plan (fig. 2 2 .1 1 (2 ))
tics. topographic characteristics, general slop e, v eg wherein the m eander necks are w ide apart. Such
etation, annual precipitation, stream discharge and meanders have been d eveloped by the m ajor stream s
o f course the stage o f river d evelopm en t and cy cle o f in the Him alayas. The horseshoe types o f m eanders
erosion (i.e. tim al factor). A ll stream s m eander in all are those in which the beds are highly curved (fig.
types o f terrains (e.g . m ountainous and hilly terrains, 2 2.1 1 (3 ) and the arms o f m eanders are brought
dissected upland, alluvial plains, plateaus, coastal
plains etc.) but their m agnitude varies according to
ground slo p e and nature o f geom aterials. M eander
ing is m ost p ron ou nced in the regions characterized
by even surface and gen tle slop e, alluvial deposits
and su fficien t stream discharge. T heoretically, the
streams sh ou ld adopt straight path (referred to as
expected path) but no stream s adopt straight paths
rather they register sig n ifica n t departures from e x
pected straight paths. T he degree o f deviation o f
observed path (actual cou rse o f a stream ) from
expected path (th eoretical straight course), known
as sin u o sity in d e x , tells the m agnitude o f m eander
ing. If the valu e ran ges b etw een 1 and 1.3, the stream
is said to be sin u o u s and the stream b ecom es m ean
dering if the v a lu e e x c e e d s 1.3.
T he grad ient o f h ig h ly m eandering streams
ranges b etw een 2 0 cm to 10 m per kilom etre. A ll o f
the alluvial stream s o f the Northern Plains o f India
have d ev elo p e d m ean d erin g cou rses. The Gom ati
river (Uttar Pradesh) is a typ ical exam p le o f highly
Fig. 22.11: Stages o f the form ation and development o f
meandering stream o f a llu v ia l plains b ecau se o f the
meanders. 1-2 wavy meander, 3. horse-shoe
fact that its ch an n el gradient is very lo w (9 cm per meander and 4. ox-bow or bracelet type o f
kilometre b etw een L u ck n o w and Sultanpur). The meander.
Ganga river has d ev elo p e d h igh ly m eandering course
between A llah ab ad and V aranasi due to very low closer to each other w ith the result the m eander
channel gradient (6 cm per k ilo m etre).B esid es, the necks b ecom e very narrow. The o x -b o w or bracelet
Ramganga, the Sai (a tributary o f the G om ati river), (a type o f ornam ent o f w om en ) types o f m eanders
the Rapti, the Ghaghra, the Punpun, the Burhi Gandak, are those w hich have alm ost circular bends w ith high
the K osi etc. h ave a lso d ev elo p ed h igh ly m eandering curvature. M ost o f the alluvial rivers o f the Northern
Plains o f India have d evelop ed h orse-shoe and o x
courses.
bow types o f m eanders.
M eanders are the result o f erosion and d ep o
sition both. M eanders are d ivid ed into tw o major (1) Simple Meanders - T he m eanders d e v e l
types on the b asis o f the nature o f fluvial erosion e.g. oped during first c y cle o f erosion by a stream are
426
called sim p le m eanders. T h ese are form ed by lateral lateral erosion during first sta g e o f c y c le o f er
erosion . S im p le m eanders or say m o n o c y c lic m ea n are ca lled in cised m ean d ers (fig . 2 2 .1 2 ).
ders are d ivid ed into three ty p es on the b asis o f their
m orp h ological ch aracteristics e.g . (i) wavy mean
der, (ii) horse-shoe type o f m eander and (iii) ox
bow or bracelet type o f m eander. T here are certain
necessary co n d itio n s for the d ev elo p m en t o f sim p le
m eanders. O verload ed stream s can n ot form m ea n
ders b ecau se their total p o w er is spent in the trans
portation o f h u g e am ou n t o f sed im en ts. S u ch rivers
are a lw a y s en g a g ed in d ep o sitio n a l a ctivity. The
stream s in yo u th fu l sta g e are a lso not cap ab le o f
form in g m ean d ers b eca u se they are a ctiv ely e n
g a g ed in in c isin g their v a lle y s through d o w n cu tin g
and related v a lle y d eep en in g . T hus, m ature stream s
are m ore ca p a b le o f form in g m eanders b eca u se they
resort to lateral erosio n and con seq u en t v a lley w id
en in g m ore than v a lley d eep en in g. T he m o st ideal
co n d itio n s required for d ev elo p m en t o f m eanders
are a llu v ia l p lain s, g en tle slo p e, su fficien t am ount o f
p recip itation and general a b sen ce o f veg eta tio n . A
m in or obstruction in the free flo w o f the stream s in
flo o d plains diverts their cou rses from straight course
and thus the p rocess o f m eander form ation b egin s
w ith the in itiation o f very m inor bends in the lo n g i
tudinal cou rses o f the a llu vial stream s (form ation o f
w avy m eanders, fig . 2 2 .1 1 (1 and 2 )). T he channel
currents strike again st the c o n c a v e sid e o f the open
m eander b ends and cut the lo o se geom aterials (a llu
v iu m ) and thus there is co n tin u ou s sharpening o f
m ean d er bends resu lting into high degree o f curva
ture o f m ean d er lo o p s (form ation o f h o rse-sh o e type
o f m ean d er, fig . 2 2 .1 1 (3 ). T h e p ro cesses o f erosion
o f c o n c a v e sid e s and d ep o sitio n o f sed im en ts on
c o n v e x s id e s o f m ean d er lo o p s (fig . 2 2 .1 0 ) con tin u e
and th e cu rvatu res o f m ean d er lo o p s are m ade m ore
and m o re circu la r (form ation o f o x -b o w or bracelet
ty p e o f m ea n d ers, fig . 2 2 .1 1 (4 ) and the river course
b e c o m e s h ig h ly m ea n d erin g w ith several o x -b o w
la k es.
(2 ) I n c is e d M e a n d e r s - In cised m eanders are
th e rep re se n ta tiv e featu res o f reju ven ation and are
d e v e lo p e d th rou gh v ertica l e r o sio n lea d in g to v a lley
in c is io n or d e e p e n in g . T h e narrow and d eep m ea n
d ers fo rm ed d u e to a cce lera te d rate o f v a lle y in cisio n
c a u s e d b y r e ju v en a tio n (eith er d u e to u p liftm en t o f
la n d area o r fa ll in s e a - le v e l) in sid e s im p le m ean d ers
(h a v in g w id e an d s h a llo w v a lle y s ) d e v e lo p e d by
f l u v ia l g e o m o r p h o l o g y 427
It m ay be pointed out that sim ple m eanders or horse-shoe lakes. W hen the curvature of the
develop over lo o se geom aterials (such as alluvium ) m eander loop s is so accentuated due to lateral ero
as w ell as over resistant bedrocks but incised m ean sion, the m eander loops b ecom e alm ost circular and
ders are alw ays dug out in bedrocks. F ive terms are the tw o ends o f m eander loop s co m e closer, conse
in use to indicate in cised m eanders w hich are d ev el quently, the stream s' straighten their courses and
oped due to vertical erosion (dow ncuting or valley m eander loop s are abandoned to form ox -b o w lakes
incision) o f bedrocks v iz. (i) incised meanders, (ii) (fig. 22.1 3 ). It m ay be pointed out that the form ation
entrenched meanders, (iii) intrenched meanders, o f oxbow lakes o w es to erosion (straighteneing of
(iv) inclosed meanders, and (v) ingrown mean river course through the intersection o f tw o ends of
ders. meander loop s at the m eander neck due to lateral
In closed and in cised meartders represent those erosion) and deposition both (fillin g and p lu ggin g of
meanders o f deep and narrow valleys w hich are cu toff ends o f m eander loop s through d ep osition
in closed by rocky w a lls. In fact, incised meanders (fig . 2 2 .1 3 ). T h ere is freq u en t se d im e n ta tio n
mean the form ation o f m eanders in older meanders (alluviation) o f o xb ow lakes during flo o d s and thus
through d ow n cu tin g o f valley floors. Further, in they are converted into sw am ps in due cou rse o f
cised m eanders can be d ivided on the basis o f nature time. The m eandering course o f the G anga river in
and slop e o f valley sid es into (i) entrenched or Uttar Pradesh and its gradual southward sh iftin g has
intrenched m eanders having uniform slop es o f both left out a series o f palaeochannels and o x b o w lakes
the v a lley sid es o f m eander loop s and (ii) ingrown to the north o f the present course o f the G anga. Such
m eanders Which have unequal slop es o f valley sides palaeochannels and oxb ow lakes are now seen in the
w herein o n e sid e o f the valley representing concave forms o f tanks, ponds and lakes. Several exam p les o f
side is d eep ly undercut and the other side (convex palaeochannels and p alaeo-oxb ow lakes are still
side, s lip -o ff slo p e) is characterized by gentle valley observable in Pratapgarh district o f Uttar Pradesh.
side slop e and d ep osition o f sedim ents m ainly sands.
Thus, it is apparent that entrenched m eanders repre
sent th ose in cise d m eanders in which the valley
floors have been d eep ly entrenched through vertical
erosion co n seq u en t upon rejuvenation whereas in-
grown m eanders are those incised meanders in which
one side o f the v a lley has been deeply undercut
resulting into the form ation o f hanging cliff.
Misfit meanders represent those meanders
which are form ed w ithin the ex ten siv e former m ean
ders due to substantial decrease in the volum e o f
water. The rivers d ev elo p ex ten siv e m eander loops
and belts in allu vial plains and are braided into
several ch an n els w hich w ander in the exten sive
broad and flat v a lley s. W hen, by any reason, the
volum e o f w ater in the concerned rivers decreases
substantially, the ch an n els b eco m e narrow. T hese
narrow chan n els b eco m e unable to fit th em selves in
the broader form er v a lley s and hence they develop
their ow n m eandering cou rses o f narrow valleys
within the older w ider m eanders. Such narrow m e
anders w ithin the w ider m eanders are called m isfit Fig. 22.13 : Formation o f oxbow lakes due to sharpening
meanders b ecau se they cannot fit w ith the latter. o f meander loop.
t- ' ;
Ox-bow Lakes Peneplains
The lak es form ed due to im pounding o f water Peneplains represent lo w featureless plain
in the abandoned m eander lo o p s are called ox-b ow having undulating surface and rem nants o f co n v ex o -
428 GEOMORPHOLOQY
co n ca v e residual h ills. T h ese are, in fact, the end R ivers transport their load in different ways
products o f normal c y c le o f erosion. T h ese are e.g. ( 1) by traction, (2) by saltation, (3) by suspen
freq u en ted w ith lo w resid u a l h ills k n o w n as sion and (4) by solution. Saltation involves the
m onadnocks (n a m e d by W .M . D a v is a fter transportation o f rock p ieces and boulders o f bigger
M onadnock hills o f N ew England region, U S A ) size w hich m ove as bedload c lo se to channel floor by
w hich are left out due to less erosion o f relatively rolling or sliding. The bedload alw ays touches the
resistant rocks. The end product o f normal or fluvial valley floor. The bedload being transported by
cy cle o f erosion has been variously named by differ traction m ethod co n sists o f gravels, pebbles, cobbles
ent geom orp h ologists e.g . peneplain (W .M . D avis), and boulders. The m echanism o f saltation involves
endrumpf (W . P enck), panplain (C.H . C rickm ay), the transport o f load with water currents wherein
pediplain (L.C. king), etchplain (Pugh and Thom as), coarse load m oves dow nw ard by leaping (hopping)
panfan (A .C . L aw son ) etc. and jum ping through the valley floors. This mecha
nism is extrem ely slow . The m aterials o f medium
22.5 TRANSPORTATIONAL WORK OF STREAMS size are suspended in water due to its buoyancy.
R ivers obtain the eroded m aterials and trans Such load is called su sp e n d e d lo a d w hich is easily
port them from one place to another place. Rivers carried aw ay by the stream s for longer distances.
have their lim its to transport m aterials, they cannot The soluble m aterials are d esso lv ed in water and
transport load s if they ex ceed the transporting power becom e invisible. Thus, such m aterials are trans
o f the stream s. The size and am ount o f load and the ported in solution form and the in volved m echanism
velocity o f streams determine their transporting power. is known-as transportation by solution.
T h e velocity o f stream s depends on channel gradi
ent, form and nature o f valley floors and valley 22.6 DEPOSITIONAL WORK OF STREAMS
w alls, sin u osity o f river course and volum e and The deposition o f load carried by the streams
discharge o f water. Steep channel gradient, less is effected by a variety o f factors e.g. (1) decrease in
sinuous course, sm ooth valley floor and required channel gradient, (2) spreading o f stream water over
larger area, (3) obstructions in channel flow , (4)
am ount o f volu m e o f water increase the velocity o f
decrease in the volum e and discharge o f water, (5)
stream s w hich in turn increases the transporting
decrease in the velocity o f streams, (6) increase in
p o w er o f the stream s.
the load etc. It may be pointed out that aforesaid
G .K . G ilbert has propounded a law o f stream factors o f river deposition m ay be grouped into tw o
transportation based on the relationship between categories e.g. (1) decrease in stream velocity and
stream v e lo c ity and its transporting power. The law (2) increase in river load. The decrease in stream
is k n ow n as Gilbert's sixth power law according to velocity reduces the transporting pow er o f the streams
w h ich the transportation pow er o f the streams is which are forced to leave additional load to settle
proportional to the sixth pow er o f their velocity. In down. The stream v elocity is decreased because o f
other w ord s, if the stream v elo city is doubled, the decrease in channel gradient (effected by subsidence
transportational p o w er o f the stream increases 64 o f land or tilting o f land due to diastrophic forces,
times. T h is law can be exp ressed in the fo llo w in g expansion in the delta o f the m aster stream , increase
in sinuosity o f the river course and tendency of
form .
streams to attain graded stage due to m ore and more
Transportation P ow er a (stream v elo city )6
erosion), spreading o f water over larger area (due to
T he sed im en t load carried by the rivers is decrease in channel gradient and overtopping o f
d iv id ed into (i) suspended load or wash load, and river banks at the tim e o f flo o d s), obstructions in the
(ii) bedload. T h e bed load co n sists o f particles o f channel flo w (due to dam m ing o f streams through
various s iz e s & sh ap es and is transported in total or accum ulation o f debris caused by landslides, forma
partial con tact w ith the channel bed by the m echa tion o f sand dunes in the river beds o f alluvial
streams, accum ulation o f lo g s and other w o o d pieces
n ism o f traction or saltation w h ile suspended load
carried by the stream s across the valley and trans
i n v o l v e s f i n e r p articles w h ich are kept in su sp en sion
verse to the direction o f channel flow , and sudden
in the flu id (w ater).
PLUVIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
deposits o f h u g e v o lu m e o f m aterials), and d ecrea se

d ecrease in their v e lo c ity co n seq u en t upon d ecrease
in the v o lu m e and d isch a rg e o f w ater (ca u sed by
in channel gradient. C on seq u en tly , load c o n sistin g
decrease in an n u al p recip ita tio n and co n seq u en t
o f finer to coarser and b ig -siz e d m aterials co m in g
surface r u n o ff d u e to clim a tic ch a n g e, substantial
from upstream is d ep osited at the p oin t o f break in
loss o f w ater th rou gh e v a p o ra tio n in h ot dry reg io n s,
slo p e or fo o th ill zo n e and thus alluvial fan s are
dow nw ard s e e p a g e o f river w ater, d iv ersio n o f su b
form ed. T here is sorting o f m aterials in the alluvial
stantial v o lu m e o f w ater to oth er stream s d u e to river
fans. T he siz e o f sed im en ts d ecrea ses outward from
capture, d iv e r sio n o f w ater th rough ca n a ls for irriga
the apex (w h ich is tow ards the h ills) o f the fans
tion, b raid in g o f stream c h a n n els etc.).
tow ards their outer m argins (distal sid e).
In crea se in river lo a d is e ffe c te d through (i)
M o r p h o lo g y o f a llu v ia l fa n s - T he sh apes o f
accelerated rate o f er o sio n in the so u rce catchm ent
alluvial fans are usually sem i-circu la r or arcuate, the
areas c o n s e q u e n t u p on d efo resta tio n and thus in appex o f w hich is located at the m outh o f narrow
crease in the s e d im e n t lo a d in the d ow n stream s e c op en in g through w hich the stream c o m e s out o f the
tions o f th e riv ers, (ii) su p p ly o f g la c io -flu v ia l m ate h ills and enter the surface o f lo w h eigh t and gen tle
rials, (iii) s u p p ly o f ad d itio n a l sed im en t load by slop e. The shape o f alluvial fans is d escrib ed in tw o
tributary strea m s, (iv ) gradual in crease in the sed i p e r sp e c tiv e s, p la n im etr ic and v o lu m e tr ic . T h e
m ent lo a d o f th e stream s d u e to rill and g u lly erosion planim etric consideration in v o lv e s tw o d im en sion al
etc. shape w hereas volum etric p ersp ectiv e in v o lv e s three
dim ensional shape o f the fans. T he a llu vial fan, in
22.7 D EPO SITIO N A L LANDFORMS
planim etric persp ective, is sim ilar to the sh ape o f a
R iv e r s d e p o s it sed im en ts in different parts o f
sector o f a circle. In volum etric p ersp ective an allu
their co u r se s and thus form various types o f landform s
vial fan has a shape o f a part o f a co n e. T h e lon gitu
w h ic h are c a lle d co n stru ctio n a l landform s such as
dinal profile o f an alluvial fan is co n ca v e at its ap ex
a llu v ia l fan s and a llu v ia l c o n e s, sand banks, natural
w hile the transverse profile (w h ich is parallel to the
le v e e s , f lo o d p la in s, sand bars and d eltas. m ountain front) is co n v ex . T hough the siz e o f allu
vial fans varies sign ifican tly but g en erally the d iam
Alluvial Fan s And Cones
A llu v ia l fan s (fig . 2 2 .1 4 ) and co n es (fig. 2 2 .1 5 ) eter o f fans ranges from a few k ilom etres to several
hundred kilom etres. A .B . M ukerji has studied the
due to a c c u m u la tio n o f m aterials are a lw a y s form ed
Chandigarh Dun A llu vial Fans d ev elo p ed at the
at the b a se o f fo o th ills w h ere there is abrupt drop
footh illls o f S iw a lik R ange. A cco rd in g to him the
(d ecre a se) in the ch a n n el gradient. T he transporting
B alad, Kiratpur and Banasar alluvial fans h ave the
cap acity o f th e strea m s d ecre a se s en o rm o u sly at the
area o f 2 0 .7 5 km 2, 26.5 km 2 and 2 2 km 2 resp ectively.
fo o th ill z o n e s w h ile th ey le a v e the m ountains and
Several exam p les o f palaeo-allu vial fans are seen in
enter th e p lain to p o g ra p h y b eca u se o f substantial the Dun V alley o f Uttar Pradesh. S im ilarly, numer
ous alluvial fans are found alon g the H im alayan
piedm ont in the northern part o f the Brahmaputra
valley.
T he slo p es o f fans are m uch gentler than those
o f alluvial con es. Larger alluvial fans have average
slop e o f less than one degree but sm aller fans are
characteritized by gen tle to m oderate slop es (5 d e
gree). A llu vial co n es have average slo p es o f about
15 degree. A llu vial co n es are made o f coarser m ate
rials than the alluvial fans. The belts o f alluvial fans
and co n es d evelop ed at the foothill belt o f the S iw alik
H im alayas (sub-H im alayan belt) are com p osed o f
gravels, p ebbles, cob b les, sh in gles and coarse sands.
T h ese d ep osition al features at the footh ills o f the
H im layas are c a l l e d ‘Bhabar*.
Fig. 22.14 : A lluvial fa n .
zone. T hey grow in size and are ultim ately coalescid
to form ex ten siv e fan w hich is called compound
alluvial fan. The m ost ex ten siv e com pound alluvial
fans form undulating and slo p in g alluvial plain in
front o f peidm ont zone. Such plain is called pied
mont alluvial plain.
Natural Levees
The narrow belt o f ridges o f lo w height (fig.
2 2 .1 6 ) built by the d ep osition o f sed im en ts by the
spill water o f the stream on its either bank is called
natural lev ee or natural em bankm ent. It m ay be
pointed out that not all the stream s build natural
anzzzzEZEgzsBZzazzzazzzzzazzaazaaagzzâzmzzzziszagM levees. . L evees are form ed due to d ep osition o f
sedim ents during flood periods w hen the water
overtops the river banks and spreads over adjoining
Fig. 22.75 : Alluvial cone. flood plains. Long ridges o f low height are form ed
Structure and origin of alluvial fans - parallel to the river valleys. A verage h eigh t o f natu
A llu v ia l fans and co n es are m ore or less sim ilar ral lev ees is within 10 m eres. T he natural le v e e s o f
e x c e p t d ifferen ce in their gradients. A llu vial fans the M ississip p i river ranges betw een 6 m and 7.6m .
h a ve gentler slo p es than the con es. A llu vial con es Natural lev ees lim it the lateral spread o f river water
are form ed w hen the slop e o f hill or m ountain front except during severe and w idespread flood s. Natural
through w h ich the stream d escen d s is steep (fig. lev ees are m ore or less stabilized landform s w hich
2 2 .1 5 ) so that debris c o llect at the foot o f the hills. attract human settlem ents. S om e tim es, natural levees
T he form ation o f alluvial co n es requires m ore debris are also used for agricultural purposes b ecau se water
but little water. On the other hand, alluvial fans are table o f groundwater is very high. G enerally, natural
lev ees help in ch eck in g the flo o d s but w hen breached
form ed w hen the slop e o f hill or m ountain front is
they cause severe catastrophic flo o d s in flictin g heavy
g en tle and w ater is m ore than debris so that debris
lo ss o f human health and w ealth . S in ce th e channel
spread aw ay to assu m e arcuate shape. The origin and
d ev elo p m en t o f alluvial fans is sim ple. T he velocity
o f stream s w h ile d escen d in g through the hill or
m ountain front is rem arkably reduced due to sudden
d e c lin e in slo p e gradient. T his phenom enon causes
su bstantial d ecrea se in the transporting capacity o f
the stream s. C on seq u en tly , stream s b ecom e over
load ed in relation to their reduced transporting pow er
and thus th ey unload en orm ou s quantity o f debris at
the fo o th ill z o n e (at the point o f break in slo p e) and
thus fan s are form ed . There is gradual grow th and
d ev elo p m en t o f allu v ia l fans in tw o w ays. Firstly,
the fans grow in s iz e d u e to con tin u ou s increase in
their areal ex ten t b eca u se o f regular supply o f debris
from upstream sectio n . S eco n d ly , the alluvial fans
gro w in h eigh t b ecau se o f gradual d ep osition o f
debris upon d ebris. T he gradual increase in height
c a u ses in crease in slo p e gradient. An alluvial fan Fig. 22.16 : Natural levees.
m ay be transform ed into an allu vial co n e if the slo p e is m ore or le ss co n fin ed w ithin the natural levees
gradient is sig n ific a n tly in creased. S o m e tim es, a and h en ce there is con tin u ou s sedim entation which
series o f a llu v ia l fan s are form ed alon g the p eid m on t ca u ses gradual rise o f the river b eds (valley floof)*
FLUVIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
C onsequently, so m e tim es the bed o f the stream stable condition o f sea coast and o cean ic bottom
becom es higher than the adjoining flood plain. Breach (becau se sea co a st subjected to frequent emergence
o f natural le v e e s in such situation ca u ses sudden or su bm ergence caused by tecton ic m ovem en ts d oes
catastrophic flo o d s b ecau se the river water gu sh es in not a llow regular sedim entation and thus disfavours
the flo o d p lain s and settlem en ts w ith high v elocity delta form ation).
beyond im agin ation . S u ch ca ses o f breaches o f natu
ral le v ees and con seq u en t sev ere flo o d s are very Delta Formation
often reported from the Y e llo w river (form erly the The form ation o f delta starts w ith the d ep o si
H w ang H o) o f C hina. T h is w as the reason that the tion o f sedim ents if the aforesaid favourable condi
H w ang H o w as ca lled ‘Sorrow o f C hin a’. ' tions are available. The sedim entation takes place
Delta regularly at the m outh o f the river, on the sid es of
stream channel, in the bed o f the river and in front of
T h e d ep o sitio n a l feature o f alm ost triangular
shape at the m outh o f a river deb ou ch in g either in a river m outh w here the river d eb ou ch es in the sea.
lake or a se a is ca lled d e lta . T he word delta, derived Thus, an exten sive fan is form ed w h ich slo p es to
from G reek letter, w as first used by G reek historian wards the sea. Several such fans are form ed at the
H e r o d o to u s ( 4 8 5 - 4 2 5 B C ) for the trian gu lar mouth o f the river. T h ese fans gradually grow to
d ep o sitio n a l feature at the m outh o f the N ile river. wards the sea. U ltim ately, these fans are co a lesc ed
W hether sm all or large, alm ost every river forms and a delta is form ed. T h ese d ep osits obstruct the
delta. T he s iz e o f delta o f major and sm all rivers all free flow o f main river and h ence is d ivid ed into
o ver the w orld varies from a few square kilom etres several branches. This process o f segm en tation of
to th ou san d s o f square k ilom eres (e.g. the Ganga main stream is known as bifurcation. Thus, the
d elta in India and B an glad esh ). The size o f delta main channel is bifurcated into num erous sm all and
d ep en d s on the rock characteristics, vegetal cover, narrow subchannels w hich are called distributaries
rate o f ero sio n , am ount o f annual rainfall etc. The and the stream with num erous distributaries is called
depth o f sed im en ts has been reported to be hundreds braided stream. ;•
o f m etres. For exam p le, the average depth o f sediments
in the M ississip p i d elta is about 610m . The shape o f Structure of Delta
delta a lso varies from one river to the other. C om The deposition o f sedim ents or say m aterials
m on sh ap es o f d elta are arcuate shape, bird-foot takes place in such a way that larger m aterials (e.g.
shape, elo n g a ted shape etc. gravels, pebbles, cob b les etc.) are d ep osited tow ards
the coastal land and the size o f sedim ents gradually
Conditions for Delta Formation decreases with increasing distance from the coastal
T he id eal favou rab le con d ition s for the for
land towards the sea. An average delta con sists of
m ation and g row th o f delta include (1) suitable place three beds o f sedim ents e.g . (1) topset beds, (2)
in the form o f sh a llo w sea and lake shores, (2) long foreset beds and (3) bottomset beds. The topset
courses o f the rivers (i.e. lo n g rivers so that they beds represent the upperm ost bed o f sedim ents of a
bring en o u g h am ou n t o f sed im en ts), (3 ) m edium delta. T hese are quite ex ten siv e, w id e and gentle in
size o f sed im en ts (b eca u se if the sed im en ts are very slope. T hese represent delta plains. T he topset beds
fine, they w o u ld b e ea rn ed in the sea in suspension are relatively higher than sea lev el. The series of
for longer d ista n ces and i f they are very coarse, they steeply dipping beds inclined tow ards the sea are
w ould soon settle d o w n at the sea bottom , and hence called foreset beds w hich are alw ays under sea
no delta w o u ld be form ed ), (4 ) relatively calm or water. The lo w est beds are called bottom set beds
sheltered sea at the m ouths o f the rivers (so that because they rest on sea bottom s. D eltas undergo
ocean currents, strong w a v es or h igh tidal w aves do subsidence because o f (1 ) gradual sedimentation
not interfere w ith the natural p rocess o f gradual and consequent increase in the weight of delta
sedim entation and d elta form ation), (5 ) large amount m aterials, (2) com paction o f sediments caused by
load o f sed im en ts, (3 ) enormous thickness o f
o f sedim ent su pp ly, (6 ) a c c ele ra te d rate o f erosion in
sedim ents, (4) isostatic adjustment etc.
the catchm ent area o f th e c o n c e r n e d river, (7 ) alm ost
Growth of Delta
N o doubt, there is grow th in all ty p es o f d elta
tow ards the se a but the rate o f grow th varies c o n sid
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
erably from o n e situation to the other. T he nature and
rate o f d elta grow th d ep en d s on a variety o f factors
e.g . (1 ) v e lo c ity o f the stream flo w , (2 ) nature o f sea
w a ves, (3 ) su pp ly o f sed im en ts, (4 ) o cea n ic currents,
(5 ) slo p e and h eig h t o f d elta s etc. M o st o f the
sed im en ts are u n load ed at the m ou th s o f the rivers if
their v e lo c ity is ex tre m e ly lo w and thus the grow th
o f d eltas tow ard s the se a b e c o m e s slu g g ish . On the
other hand, stream s w ith greater v e lo c ity transport
their load for greater d ista n ce in the sea and thus
a llo w faster rate o f d elta gro w th , but d eltas form ed in
su ch situ ation are narrow and lo n g . Strong sea w aves
and o c e a n ic currents retard the grow th o f deltas
b eca u se th ey erod e and rem o v e the sed im en ts aw ay.
T h e slid in g o f m ateria ls from h igh er d eltas towards
th e s e a a lso en co u ra g es the seaw ard grow th o f d el
tas.
Fig. 22.17 : Arcuate delta ; Nile delta.
Classification of Delta
D e lta s are gen era lly c la ssifie d on the basis o f 1. Arcuate Delta
c o m m o n ch aracteristics o f shape, structure, size, Such deltas are lik e an arc o f a circle or a bow
grow th etc. T h e shape o f d eltas is determ ined by the and are o f lobate form in appearance w h erein m iddle
p h y sica l co n d itio n s su ch as d isch arge o f water, v e portion has m axim um exten t tow ards the se a w hereas
lo city o f stream flow , supply and am ount o f sedim ents, they narrow d ow n tow ards their m argin s. S u ch d el
rate o f su b sid en ce , tidal w a v es, sea w a v es, o cea n ic tas are form ed w hen the river w ater is as d en se as the
sea water. T he arcuate or sem i-circu la r shape is also
currents, rate o f grow th etc. S o m e scien tists have
given to such d eltas by sea w a v e s and ocean ic
rela ted th e sh a p es o f d elta s to h yd rod ynam ics. I f the
riv er is o v e r lo a d e d w ith sed im en ts and the river
w a ter is h e a v ie r than the sea w ater, an elo n g a ted
su b m a rin e d e lta is form ed . A lob ate or fan -shaped
d elta is fo rm ed i f the river w ater is as d en se as the
sea w a ter. A lte r n a tiv e ly , a b ird -fo o ted delta is form ed
w h e n th e riv er w ater is lig h ter than sea water.
G e n e r a lly , d e lta s are d iv id e d on the fo llo w in g tw o
b a se s -
(1) On the basis o f shape
(i) arcu ate d elta
(ii) b ir d -fo o t d elta
(iii) e stu a rin e d elta BAY O F BENGAL

( iv ) tru n cated d elta
(2) On the basis o f growth

(i) g r o w in g d e lta
Fig. 2 2 .1 8 : G anga delta (example of arcuate delta).
( ii) b lo c k e d d elta
PLUVIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
currents. T h e N ile d elta is the b est ex a m p le o f note that the distributaries o f the m ain ch a n n el also
arcuate d elta s (fig . 2 2 .1 7 ), w h ich are a lso ca lled as form linear seg m en ts o f d elta. T h e se linear bars o f
N ile typ e o f d elta . A rcu a te d elta s are form ed o f sed im en ts on eith er sid e o f the distributaries o f the
coarser m a teria ls in clu d in g g ra v els, san ds and silt. m ain ch an n el resem b le the fin g ers o f hum an hand.
The m ain river is b ifu rcated into num erou s ch a n n els Su ch delta is, thus, a lso ca lled finger delta. T h e
k now n as d istrib u taries. S u ch d elta s are very often M ississip p i d elta ex h ib its the b est ex a m p le o f bird-
form ed in th e r e g io n s o f sem i-a rid clim a te. S ig n ifi fo o t d elta (fig . 2 2 .2 0 ).
cant e x a m p le s o f accu ra te d elta in clu d e G an ga delta,
R hine d elta, N ig e r d elta , Y e llo w (H w a n g H o ) delta!
Irrawaddy d elta , L o lg a d elta , Indus d elta, D anub
delta, M e e k o n g d elta , P o d elta , R h o n e d elta, L een a
d elta etc. A rcu a te d elta is an e x a m p le o f g row in g
d elta as it g r o w s tow ard s the sea every year but the
annual rate o f g ro w th varies from o n e d elta to an
other. T h is p r o c e ss o f seaw ard grow th o f deltas is
c a lle d p rograd ation .
Fig. 22.20 : Bird fo o t delta o f the M ississippi River.
3. Estuarine Delta
T he deltas form ed due to fillin g o f estu aries o f
rivers are ca lled estuarine deltas. T h o se m ouths o f
the rivers are ca lled estuaries w h ich are subm erged
under m arine w ater and sea w a v es and ocean ic
currents rem ove the sed im en ts brought by the rivers.
Fig. 22.19 : R hine delta (exam ple o f arcuate delta). There is con tin u ou s stru ggle b etw een the rivers and
sea w a v es w herein the form er d ep osit sed im en ts
2. Bird-Foot Delta w h ile the latter rem ove them . W h en ever rivers su c
B ir d -fo o t d elta s r esem b lin g the shape o f fo o t
ceed in d ep ositin g sed im en ts at their subm erged
o f a bird are form ed d u e to d ep o sitio n o f finer
m ouths, lon g and narrow d eltas are form ed. Such
m aterials w h ich are kept in su sp en sio n in the river
deltas are ca lled estuarine deltas. T he deltas o f the
water w h ich is ligh ter than the sea w ater. T h e rivers
Narm ada and the Tapi (form erly Tapti) rivers o f
with h ig h v e lo c ity carry su sp en d ed finer load to
India are the ex a m p les o f estuarine deltas. T he other
greater d ista n ces in sid e the o cea n ic w ater. T he fine
sig n ifica n t ex a m p les o f estuarine d eltas in clud e
m aterials after c o m in g in co n ta ct w ith sa lin e o cea n ic
M ack en zie delta, V istuala delta, E lb delta, Ob delta,
water settle d o w n on eith er sid e o f the m ain channel
S ein e delta, H udson delta etc.
and thus a lin ear d elta is form ed . It is interesting to
434 OBOMORPHOLOOY
4. Truncated Delta frequented by num erous north-south distributaries

S ea w a v es and ocean currents m od ify and and tidal (m arine) inlets. T he lands betw een marine
e v e n destroy d eltas d ep osited by the rivers through inlets are m arshy lands w hich are partly transgressed
dieir erosional w ork. Thus, eroded and dissected by m arine water during high tidal water. There are
deltas are called truncated deltas. several ev id en ces w hich indicate gradual subsid
en ce and sinking o f the delta. It is sh o w ly prograding
5. Blocked Delta towards the sea. T here are num erous sm all and tiny
B locked deltas are those w hose seaward growth islands bordering the outer m argin o f the Ganga
is blocked by sea w a v es and ocean currents through delta (e.g. Sagar island, Bangaduni island etc.).
their erosion al activities. The progradation o f deltas M oore island is the ex a m p le o f n ew ly emerged
m ay also be ham pered due to sudden d ecrease in the island due to progradation.
supply o f sedim ents consequent upon clim atic change
‘The M ahanadi delta is tripple delta where
or m an agem ent o f catchm ent areas o f concerned
deltaic sedim ents o f the M ahanadi, the Brahmani,
rivers.
and the Baitarni are dropped” (E. Ahmad, 1972).
6. Abandoned Delta The arc o f the arcuate shaped Mahanadi delta, on
W hen the rivers shift their m ouths in the seas Orissa coast, stretches for a length o f about 300 km.
and ocean s, new deltas are form ed, w hile the previ The enorm ous delta has been form ed due to supply
o u s deltas are left unnourished. Such deltas are o f huge quantity o f sed im en ts consequent upon
called abandoned deltas. The Y ellow (formerly Hwang accelerated rate o f flu vial erosion o f the rugged
H o ) river o f C hina has changed its m ouths several terrain o ( the catchm ent area o f the Mahanadi basin.
tim es and thus has form ed several deltas. For exam There are also a few d eltaic lakes such as Sar lake (24
p le, the present delta o f the Y ello w river is to the km 2) and Sam ang lake (4 .5 km 2) o f fresh water.
north o f Shantung Peninsula w hile the previous
The G odaw ari d elta exten d s upto 35 km in the
d elta w as d ep osited to south o f the peninsula.
Bay o f B engal o f f the co a st o f Andhra Pradesh but
Major Deltas of Indian Rivers the m axim um length o f the lon ger side through the
M ajor deltas o f Indian rivers include Ganga m iddle portion o f the delta is 9 0 km w h ile the other
delta, M ahanadi delta, Godawari delta, Krishna delta, tw o sides are 35 km lon g. T he d eltaic shore stretches
and C auvery delta. The G anga delta is the m ost for a distance o f 150 km. T h is is also an exam ple of
ex ten siv e delta o f the w orld, the arc o f w hich extends acruate shaped delta. T he strong m ansoon-gener-
for 4 0 0 km from the H oogli to the M eghna rivers. ated ocean currents, lo n g -sh o re drifts and sea waves
T he outer margin is highly indented and the delta is obstruct in the free growth o f the delta towards the sea.
t .
CHAPTER 23 KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY
G r o u n d w a t e r : m e a n in g a n d c o n c e p t ; g e o m o r p h ic w o r k o f g r o u n d w a te r ;
e r o s io n a l w o r k ; d e p o s itio n a l w ork ; lim e s to n e (k a rst) to p o g r a p h y ;
d is tr ib u tio n o f karst areas ; ero sio n a l la n d fo rm s (la p ie s , s o lu tio n h o le s ,
p o lj e , s in k in g c r e e k , b lin d v a lle y , karst v a lle y , c a v e s o r c a v e r n s ) ; k arst
c y c l e o f e r o s io n .
23
KARST GEO M O RPH O LO GY
23.1 GROUNDW ATER : MEANING AND COM and co llect in large quantity in aquifers o f varying
PONENTS sizes and locations. A quifers refer to the storage
T he w ater present in the pore spaces o f regolith p ools o f groundwater ly in g b elo w the ground sur
(th e la y er o f lo o s e and u n co n so lid a ted m aterials face. The groundwater is a lso ca lled subsurface
ly in g o v e r the b ed rock s is ca lled reg o lith ) and b ed water or underground water but the latter is not in
rocks (b ed ro ck s are th o se rock s w h ich h ave not been use. Sands form m ost ideal aquifers but permeable
w eath ered and ero d ed ) b e lo w the ground surface is sandstones also form ex ten siv e aquifers. T he perco
called groundwater. T he m ain source o f groundwater lating water fills the pore sp aces o f regolith s and
is rainw ater and m eltw a ter w h ich infiltrates d o w n perm eable rocks. T his p rocess is k now n as satura
ward th rou gh the p ore sp a c e s o f su rficial m aterials tion o f regoliths and rocks. W hen alm ost all o f pore
Fig. 2 3 .1 : C om ponents o f groundwater.

436 g eo m o rph o lo g y
spaces are filled with water, the zone is called aquiclude because it obstructs or impeds water
saturated or phreatic zone. The upper level o f the m ovem ent betw een tw o aquifers (fig. 23.2). When
saturated zone is called groundwater table or sim an aquifer is zagged betw een tw o im perm eable bed*
ply water table (fig. 23.1). The zone lying above the or aquicludes there is produced a confined water
water table is unsaturated and is called unsaturated reservoir w hich g iv e s birth to artesian wells. When
zone or vadose zone or aeration zone because the an aquiclude lies betw een tw o aquifers, the water
pore spaces o f the regoliths and perm eable rocks are table o f upper aquifer is called perched water table
partly filled with water and partly with air (fig. 23.2). (fig. 23.2). There is seasonal and annual fluctuation
in the depth o f water table o f groundwater through
The position and m ovem ent o f groundwater
becom e com plicated when there is arrangement o f percolation o f rainwater and therefore water table
alternating aquifers and im perm eable beds. The rises but during long period o f drought there is
im perm eable bed separating two aquifers is called considerable fall in water table.
Fig. 23.2 : Components o f groundwater.
23.2 THE GEOMORPHIC WORK OF GROUND o f groundwater is perform ed through the m echa
WATER nism o f corrosion or solu tion , corrasion or abrasion,
T he g e o lo g ic a l or g eo m o rp h ic work o f attrition and hydraulic action but the last three types
groundwater includes chem ical erosion o f soluble ot erosion are not effectiv e becau se o f exceed in gly
rocks at the surface by surface water and below the slow m ovem ent o f groundw ater and thus corrosion
surface by percolating and m oving groundwater, or chem ical erosion is the on ly e ffe c tiv e m ethod o f
lim ited transport o f eroded materials in suspended denudation ot carbonate rocks (su ch as lim estones,
form and deposition o f solutes. It may be pointed out dolom ites, chalk etc.) by surface and subsurface
that the g eo lo g ica l work o f groundwater is ex ceed water (groundwater).
ingly slo w because o f its very slow rate o f m o v e R ainwater m ixed w ith atm ospheric carbon
ment. O nly that part o f chem ical erosion o f carbon d ioxid e (CO J and organic C 0 2 b eco m es active sol
ate rocks at the ground surface is included in the vent agent and disintegrates and d isso lv e s carbonate
g eo lo g ica l work o f groundwater which is related to rocks at the surface and b elo w the surface to form
the infiltration o f rainwater. num erous types o f solu tion al landform s. According
to R.M . Garrels there are sev en variables which
Erosional Work control lim eston e solution v iz. (1 ) partial pressure of
B esid es erosional work, groundwater also C 0 2, (2) H2C O , (carbonic acid), (3) H C 0 3“ (bicarbo
facilitates slum ping, debris slid es and fall and land nate ion), (4) C O ,2- (carbonate anion), (5) H+
s lid e s on s te e p ly in c lin e d h ills lo p e s b cca u se drogen ion), (6 ) OH~ (hydroxyl ion) and (7)
groundwater acts as lubricator. The erosional work (calcium cation).
KARST g e o m o r p h o l o g y m
The fo llo w in g ch em ica l p rocesses reveal the solven t receives m ore and m ore solutes and becomes
chain o f exoth erm ic reversible and non-reversible saturated with sedim ents. Since the movement o f
reactions right from the form ation o f lim estone groundwater is exceedingly slow it cannot transport
(C aC 03) to its d isso cia tio n (solu tion ). enough m aterials. T hus, chemical erosion and depo
C alcium h yd roxid e (C a(O H )2 is form ed due sition go together. Larger sediments immediately
to reaction o f w ater (H 20 ) w ith calcium oxid es settle down w hereas suspended fine materials kept
(CaO) in the fo llo w in g m anner. in solution form are d ep osited due to following
CaO + H 2O <-» C a (O H )2 .........( l ) factors - ( 1 ) due to obstruction in the flow path of
C alcium carbonate ( C a C 0 3) is form ed due to groundwater and con seq u en t decrease in the flow
reaction o f C a (O H )2 w ith carbon d io x id e (CO ) in velocity o f the solven t, ( 2 ) due to evaporation of
the follow in g m anner. 2 water because o f increase in temperature and conse
quent decrease in the volu m e o f groundwater and
C a(O H )2 + C 0 2 <-> C a C 0 3 + H 20 ........ ( 2)
increase in solute-w ater ratio, (3 ) due to decrease in
(in solu b le) solution capacity o f groundwater etc. D ep osition of
Carbon d io x id e ( C 0 2) w hen d isso lv ed in water sedim ents takes place at various p laces in various
forms carbonic acid (H 2C 0 3).
forms e.g. (i) at the floor o f caves, (ii) alon g the
C 0 2 + H 20 H 2C 0 3 .........( 3) ceiling o f caves, (iii) in the rock jo in ts etc.
Carbonic acid is e a sily d essociated into posi
tive hydrogen ion (H +) and n eg a tiv e bicarbonate ion 23.3 LIMESTONE TOPOGRAPHY
or hydrogen carbonate ion ( H C 0 3~ ) w hich produces or
source o f acidity in the so lu tio n as given b elow - KARST TOPOGRAPHY
H 2C 0 3 <-> H ++ + H C O 3 .........(4) Meaning
Calcium carbonate d isso cia tes in pure water Landforms produced by chem ical w eathering
or chem ical erosion o f carbonate rocks m ainly cal
into a metal cation (C a2+) and carbonate anion ( C 0 3")
cium carbonate (C a C 0 3, lim eston es) and m agne
during the process o f d issolu tion in the follow in g sium carbonate (dolom ites) by surface and subsur
manner - face water (groundwater) are called karst topogra
C aC 03 dissociation + C Q 2 - ............( 5 ) phy which refers to characteristic landform s pro
C alcium carbonate reacts w ith C 0 2and H 20 or duced by chem ical erosion o f crystalline join ted
say carbonic acid (H 2C 0 3) to form calciu m bicarbo
nate (Ca ( H C 0 3)2) w h ich is so lu b le in water.
C a C 0 3 + C 0 2 + H 20 <-> Ca (HCO ?)2 ... ( 6)
It m ay be p oin ted out that the am ount o f
dissolution o f carbonate rocks depends on tempera-
ture, partial pressure o f atm ospheric carbon dioxide,
organic carbon d io x ic d e , the ch em ical com position
of carbonate rock s (ca lciu m carbonate - lim estones,
magnesium carbonate - d o lo m ite, and chalk), joints
cjf the rocks, nature and rate o f flo w o f groundwater,
contact tim e o f so lv e n t (w ater) and carbonate rocks,
route o f water flo w etc. T here is inverse relationship
between tem perature and solu b ility o f carbon d io x
ide and p o sitiv e relationship b etw een the dissolution
of carbonate rocks and tem perature. Kurxt Area V.X%
^•positional Work
A s the ch em ica l erosion (d issolu tion ) o f car
bonate rock$ con tin u es, the groundwater or say Fig. 23.3 : Karst Region of earstwhile Yugoslavia.
438 GEOMORPHOLOGY
limestones o f the Karst region o f the earstw hile Essential Conditions for the Development of Karst
Yugoslavia situated alon g the eastern m argin o f Topography
Adriatic Sea. T he Karst region o f the earstw hile T he fo llo w in g con d ition s favour the d evel
opm ent o f true karstic topography -
western Y u g o sla v ia exten d s for 4 8 0 km in length
and 80 km in w idth. T he region having fold ed (1 ) T he lim esto n es m ust be m a ssive, thickly
lim eston es rises to the height o f 2 ,5 0 0 m am sl. The bedded, hard and ten aceou s, w ell cem en ted and w ell
surface is studded w ith num erous solution h oles, join ted (high d ensity o f jo in ts).
ravines, g u llies, c lefts, lap ies and narrow v a lley s has (2 ) L im esto n es should not be porous wherein
b ecom e so corrugated and rough that it b ecom es perm eability is largely controlled by jo in ts and not
practically im p o ssib le to w alk w ith bare feet. N u by the m ass o f rocks b ecau se if lim esto n es are
m erous ca v es and stalagm ites and stalactites have porous, the water may pass through the rock mass
been form ed b elo w the surface. Thus, the lim estone and thus w hole rock m ass w ill b eco m e w eak and w ill
topography all over the w orld having characteristic collapse. On the other hand, if lim esto n es are non-
features sim ilar to the karst region o f the earstw hile porous and thickly bedded, water w ill infiltrate through
Y u g o sla v ia is universally called karst topography. join ts resulting into effectiv e corrosion o f lim e
stones along the join ts and solution h o les w ou ld be
Distribution of Karst Areas formed.
Karst topography generally develops in those (3) The position o f lim eston es should be above
areas w here thick beds o f m assive lim estones lie just the groundwater table so that surface drainage m ay
b elow the layer o f surficial m aterials. B esid es, karst disappear through sinks, blind v a lley s and sin k in g
topography also develops on dolom ite, dolom itic creeks to have subterranean (su b su rface) drainage
lim estones and chalks. B esid es typical karst region so that cave, passages and g a lleries and associated
o f the earstw hile Y ugoslavia, karst topography has features may be form ed.
w ell developed in C auses Region o f southern France ; (4) The lim eston es should be w id ely distrib
Spanish Andalusia; Northern Puertorico; W estern uted in both areal and vertical d im en sio n s.
Cuba ; Jam aica ; Southern Indiana, west-central
(5) The carbonate rocks sh ould be very close
K entucky, V irginia, T en n essee and central Florida to the ground surface so that rainw ater m ay easily
o f the U S A . T hese areas are classified as major karst and quickly infiltrate into the beds o f lim esto n es and
areas. B esid es, there are a few m inor karst areas e.g. may corrode the rocks to form so lu tio n a l landform s.
Carlsbad area o f the U S A , chalk area o f England
(6) The lim eston es should be h ig h ly folded,
(Peak D istrict), chalk area o f France, parts o f Jura
or fractured or faulted.
m ountains, so m e parts o f A lp s and A pennines etc.
(7) There should be en ou gh rainfall so that
L im eston e topography in India has not been prop
required am ount o f water is a vailab le to d iss o lv e
erly id en tified and studied b ecau se o f n on -existence
carbonate rocks.
o f ex ten siv e thick lim esto n e form ations near the
surface. M ost o f lim esto n es o f V indhyan form ations Erosional Landforms
are buried under thick covers o f sandstones and Lapies
shales. For exam p le, R ohtas stage lim eston es having
T he h igh ly corrugated and rough surface o f
fam ous Guptadham C ave in R ohtas plateau (south
lim esto n e lith o lo g y characterized by lo w ridges and
w estern Bihar) are buried under 9 0 -m thick co v er o f p innacles, narrow clefts and num erous solu tion holes
m a ssiv e san dston es. A few areas o f lim esto n e to p o g is ca lled lap ies (a French term ). In fact, lap ies (fig.
raphy h ave been id en tified in the H im alayas (m ainly 2 3 .4 ) represent a fretted and fluted topography marked
Jam m u and Kashm ir; Sahasradhara, R overs C ave by sm all rills and g u llies, m inor rid ges or pinnacles
and T apkeshw ar tem p le near D ehra D un in U .P . ; and d eep clefts. L ap ies are variou sly nam ed in dif
E astern H im alayas; Pachm arhi (M adhya Pradesh), ferent parts o f the w orld e.g . clints or grykes in
B astar d istrict (M ad h ya Pradesh); coastal area near N orth E n glan d , karren in G erm an y, bogaz in
V isakhapatnam etc. earstw hile Y u goslaviaetc. L apies are generally formed
KARST oeom orphology
due to corrosion o f lim estones along their joints R iver o f Indiana (U S A ) is 30 acres in area. Som e
when lim estones are w ell exposed at the ground tim es, the floor o f d olin es is plugged due to d ep osi
surface. The w eathering residues left at the surface tion o f clay, with the result water cannot percolate
are called terra rosa w hich m eans red residual soils downward and thus d oline is filled with water. Such
or red earth. dolines full o f water are called ‘karst lakes’ . R ock-
w alled steep depressions caused by the collap se o f
ground surface are called ‘cockpits’.
‘K a rst w in d o w ’ is form ed due to collap se o f
upper surface o f sink h oles or d olin es. T h ese w in
dow s enable the investigators to observe subsurface
drainage and other features form ed b elow the ground
surface.
E xtensive depressions are called ‘uvalas’
which are upto one kilom etre across. T hey are form ed
in a number o f w ays e.g. (1) due to co a le sc e n c e o f
several dolines due to continuous solution and en
largement o f dolines, (2) due to co lla p se o f upper
Fig. 23.4: Lapies roof o f large cavities form ed underground, (3 ) due to
coalescence o f various sink h o les etc. E lon gated
Solution Holes and Associated Features
uvalas are form ed either due to (i) the elon gated
C h em ically a ctive rainwater (charged with
pattern o f joints or (ii) due to c o a lsesce n c e o f num er
atm ospheric carbon d io x id e) d isso lv es lim estones
ous sink holes aligned in a line. Sm aller uvalas are
and other carbonate rocks along their join ts and thus
called ‘ja m a s ’. U valas are so ex ten siv e that surface
num erous typ es o f solu tion h oles (e.g. sink holes,
drainage is lost in them and takes subterranean
dolines etc.) are d ev elo p ed at the ground surface
course. C.A. M alott has term ed such uvalas as ‘karst
when lim esto n es are directly exp osed to the atm os
w in d o w s’. U valas are called as ‘compound sinks’
pheric p ro cesses. S m aller h oles are called sink holes
because o f co a lescen ce o f several sink h oles (fig .
which are gen erally o f tw o types viz. (i) fu n n el
23.5). The sides o f uvalas are very steep. T h ey are
shaped s in k h o le s and (ii) c y lin d r ic a l s in k h oles.
generally dry depressions. T he floors are generally
The depth o f sink h o les ranges from a few cen tim e
characterized by the deposition o f clay but they are
tres to 10 m etres but gen erally average depth re
usually o f even surface.
mains b etw een 3 to 10 m . A rea varies from a few
square m etres to a fe w acres. Gradual enlargem ent o f Poljes
sink h oles d ue to co n tin u ou s d issolu tion o f lim e M ost exten sive, larger than d o lin e s, depres
stones results in the c o a le sc e n c e o f c lo se ly spaced sions are called ‘p o lje s ’ . T hey are characterized by
sink h oles in to o n e large h o le w hich is called ‘s w a l vertical side w alls, flat alluvial floors, independent
low hole’ (fig . 2 3 .5 ). S o m e sw a llo w h oles are further surface drainage system s on their floors, irregular
enlarged due to co n tin u o u s solu tion into larger d e borders and central lake. P oljes are, in fact, closed
pressions w h ich are ca lled ‘dolines’ (fig. 2 3 .5 ) in the basins o f ellip tical shape (fig . 2 3 .5 ) having an area
karst region and ‘dolinas’ in Serbia. T he solution up to 258km 2. T hey are frequently found in Karst
holes enlarged due to c o lla p se o f so m e portion o f R egion o f earstw hile Y u g o sla v ia and in Jamaica.
upper surface b eca u se o f form ation o f ca v ities b e The L ivn o Polje o f the Balkan R egion o f Europe is
low the ground su rface are ca lled ‘collapse sinks’. 64 km long and 5 to 11 km w id e. There is difference
The diam eter o f d o lin e ranges from a few m etres to o f op inions about the form ation o f polje. T hey are
1000 m etres w h ile the depth varies from a lew b elieved to be form ed due to d ow n fold in g and
metres to 3 0 0 m etres. dow nfaulting o f lim estone areas due to earth m o v e
A feature alm o st sim ilar to d o lin e in appear m ents. The resultant grabens are then m od ified by
ance bat w ith sh a llo w depth and larger areal extent solution work o f water. A ccord in g to B .W . Sparks
is called ‘s o lu tio n p a n .’ T he solu tion pan o f the L ost (1 9 7 2 ) ‘the p oljes are probably not solu tion form s at
geo m orphol
all,but tecton ic d epressions m od ified by solution o f h o le. In o th e r w o rd s , th a t v a lle y is c a lle d b lin d valley
lim eston e preserved in them .' th e flo w o f w h ic h te rm in a te s a t a s w a llo w h o le and
* th e v a lle y lo o k s d ry v a lle y . A c c o rd in g to O .D . Von
E n g e ln b lin d v a lle y s a re d e v e lo p e d o n u v a la floors
(fig . 2 3 .6 ).
(3) Karst valley - S u rfa c e s tre a m s develop
th e ir U -s h a p e d val ley s o n lim e s to n e fo rm a tio n . Such
w id e U -s h a p e d v a lle y s d e v e lo p e d o n lim e s to n e s are
c a lle d ‘solution valleys’ o r ‘karst valleys’. Such
v alley s are alw a y s te m p o ra ry b e c a u se g e n e ra lly w ater
d isa p p e a rs th ro u g h s w a llo w o r s in k h o le s a n d th e
v a lle y s b e c o m e d ry .
C a v es or C averns
C a v e s o r c a v e rn s a re v o id s o f la rg e d im e n s io n
b e lo w th e g ro u n d su rfa c e . In fact, c a v e s a re th e m o s t
s ig n ific a n t la n d fo rm s p ro d u c e d by e ro s io n a l w o rk
(m a in ly c o rro s io n o r s o lu tio n a n d a b ra s io n ) o f
g ro u n d w a te r in lim e s to n e lith o lo g y . C a v e s v a ry in
sizes and sh a p e ra n g in g fro m s m a lle r s iz e to la r g e r
c av es. L a rg e c a v e s a re fo rm e d in th e re g io n s o f p u re ,
m assiv e an d th ic k ly b e d d e d lim e s to n e s . C a r ls b a d
and M a m m o th c a v e s o f th e U S A a re th e e x a m p le s o f
very e x te n s iv e c a v e s. C a rls b a d c a v e o f N e w M e x ic o
state o f th e U S A , h a v in g a d im e n s io n o f 1 2 1 9 m
le n g th , 190.5 m w id th a n d 3 0 0 m d e p th , c o n s is ts o f
Fig. 23.5 : Sink holes, swallow holes, dolines, unvalas
s e v era l c h a m b e rs . T h e c e ilin g is a b o u t 8 3 .3 m h ig h
and poljes.
fro m th e flo o r. T h e la rg e s t c h a m b e r is k n o w n as big
V a lle y s of K arst Region ro o m .
T h e u p p e r s u rfa c e h a v in g se v e ra l s in k h o les L im e s to n e c a v e s a re fo u n d in I n d ia n e a rD e h r a
in th e re g io n o f lim e s to n e s h a v in g h o riz o n ta l b e d s o r D u n in U tta r P ra d e s h (R o v e r C a v e , S a h a s ra d h a ra ),
s lig h tly in c lin e d b e d s is c a lle d ‘k a r s t p l a i n ’ on in s o u th -w e s te rn B ih a r (G u p ta d h a m C a v e , 1.5 k m
w h ic h s u r f a c e d r a in a g e s y s te m s d e v e lo p v a rio u s l o n g ) , in B a s t a r d i s t r i c t o f M a d h y a P r a d e s h
ty p e s o f v a lle y s a n d ty p ic a l la n d fo rm s . A lm o s t all o f ( K u tu m b s a r C a v e ), in P a c h m a r h i h ill (M a d h y a
th e v a lle y s a r e r e la te d to s in k h o le s o r s w a llo w h o le s P ra d esh ), in C h itra k u t are a o f S a tn a d is tric t o f M a d h y a
in o n e w a y o r th e o th e r. T h e fo llo w in g ty p e s o f P ra d e sh (G u p ta G o d a v a ri C a v e ), n e a r V is a k h a p a tn a m
v a lle y s a r e m o re im p o r ta n t (fig . 2 3 .6 ). c o a st, B o ra c a v e s (9 0 km fro m V is a k k h a p a tn a m ,
(1) Sinking creek - T h e s u rfa c e o f th e k a rs t a re a -2 k m 2), B e la m C a v e s 106 km a w a y fro m K u m o o l
p la in lo o k s lik e a s ie v e b e c a u s e o f d e v e lo p m e n t o f in A n d h ra P ra d e sh . B o ra c a v e s h a v e b e e n fo rm e d in
th e E a ste rn G h a ts (h illy c a v e s) w h ile B e la m c av es
c lo s e ly s p a c e d n u m e r o u s s in k h o le s . T h e s e sin k
h av e d e v e lo p e d b e lo w th e g ro u n d s u rfa c e in th e p lain
h o le s a c t a s f u n n e ls b e c a u s e s u rfa c e w a te r d is a p
w h e re the c a v es a re c o n n e c te d by 3 b ig d o lin e s , o n e o f
p e a r s to g o u n d e r g r o u n d th ro u g h th e s e h o le s . W h e n w h ich acts as a d o o r o f the c a v e s, a n d M e g h a la y a etc.
s u r f a c e w a te r d is a p p e a r s th ro u g h n u m e ro u s sin k
T h e G u p ta d h a m c a v e o f th e R o h ta s p la te a u
h o le s lo c a te d in a lin e , th e r e s u lta n t f e a tu re is c a lle d (lo c a te d in th e s o u th -w e s te rn c o rn e r o f B ih a r) is an
‘sinking creek’ a n d th e p o in t th ro u g h w h ic h w a te r e x a m p le o f g a lle rie d c a v e an d h a s b e e n fo rm e d d u e
g o e s d o w n w a r d , is c a lle d ‘sink’ (fig . 2 3 .6 ). T h e to d isso lu tio n o f R o h ta s sta g e lim e sto n e s o fV in d h y a n
w a te r o f s h o r t r iv e r s d is a p p e a r s th ro u g h a s in g le fo rm a tio n s ly ing b elo w 9 0 m thick c a p p in g o tq u a rtz itic
‘sink’ w h ite th a t o f la rg e s tr e a m s d is a p p e a rs th ro u g h s a n d s to n e s . T h e c a v e rn is c h a ra c te riz e d by h o riz o n
tal p a s s a g e s a n d a m p h ith e a tre -lik e e x te n s iv e a re a s at
many ‘sinks.’
th e ju n c tio n s o f tu n n e ls (c a v e c ro s s in g s ) (fig . 23.7).
(2) Blind valley - B lin d v a lle y re fe rs to th e
T h e f o rm a tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f lim e sto n e
v a lle y o f t h a t s u r f a c e s tr e a m w h ic h d is a p p e a rs in
c a v e rn s is m o st d e b a ta b le o f all th e k a r s tic lan d fo rm s.
lim estone f o r m a ti o n th r o u g h a s w a llo w h o le oi s in k
KARST g e o m o r p h o l o g y
V -j*
Permanent
Stream
K ar st Valley
B lin d V a lle y
■ ov
U v a ia
S in k in g Creek
Fig. 23.6 : D evelopm ent o f sink holes, swallow holes, unvalas, sinking creek, blind valley a n d ka m â lie? .
V arious co n tra stin g th eories have been put forward caves are formed due to solution o f lim eston es in the
by d ifferen t g e o m o rp h o lo g ists to account for the phreatic zone below water table. In the second cy cle
origin and d e v e lo p m e n t o f lim esto n e ca v es viz. (1) or stage the area is uplifted and thus the cave com es
corrasin theory o f Lapparent, M artonne, Martel, under vadose zone because o f low ering o f water
W eller and C .A . M alott, (2 ) two-cycle theory o f table and the cavern becom es dry resulting into the
W .M . D a v is and supported by J.H. Bretz, (3 ) water formation o f depositional landform s (spele'othems).
table theory o f A .C . S w in n erton , (4 ) static water J.H. Bretz supported D a v is’ theory o f cave forma
zone theory o f J.H . Gardner, (5 ) invasion theory o f tion and presented evid en ces in support o f the theory
C.A. M alott etc. It m ay be p oin ted out that difference from tim e to tim e (1938, 1942, 1949, and 1953).
o f op in ion s about the form ation o f caverns and According to him caves are formed above water table
galleries is related to so lu tio n p rocess, water table o f becau se o f low erin g o f groundw ater table and
groundwater and corrasion p rocess. upliftm ent. B.C . M oneym aker (1 9 4 1 ) opined that
A cco rd in g to ‘corrasion theory’ ca v es are though the form ation o f cave started below water
formed due to corrasion (ab rasion ) o f lim esto n es by table but it is d evelop ed above water table. ‘Water
groundwater in the ‘vadose zone’ a b o v e the water table theory* o f A .C . Sw innerton states that caves
table o f groundw ater. W .M . D a v is contradicted the are not form ed by phreatic water under hydrostatic
corrasion theory in 1 9 3 0 and postulated his ‘two- pressure but are formed by lateral flow o f water in
cycle theory’ for the d ev elo p m en t o f lim eston e the vadose zon e or by freely m ovin g water at the
caverns. A cco rd in g to him ca v e s are form ed by level o f water table. A ccording to ‘static water zone
‘phreatic water’ i.e. w ater under hydrostatic pres theory’ o f J.H. Gardner ca v es are form ed due to
sure b elo w w ater table. In the first c y c le or stage solution o f lim eston e above the water table. He
GUPTESHWAR HILL
JUNCTION OF SANDSTONES
AND LIMESTONES
ABANDONED OL
DRY PASSA
ABANDONED OLDER
DRY PASSAGE
PRESENT
PASSAGE
1MM AMSL
Fig. 23.7: A -Probable sequence of cave passages and B - dissolution of limestones andformation of Guptadham cave
(Rohtas plateau, Bihar), Source : Savindra Singh and M.S. Singh, 1995.
stated two stages in the development of caves. First dissolves limestones along rock joints and forms
stage - Groundwater remains static because of less caves in stages. The invasion theory’ of C.A.
deep river valleys. Second stage-River valleys are Malott states that most of the present caverns and
deepened and hence static water zone of the 1st stage galleries in limestone regions have been formed by
is lost to the river. Vadose and meteoric water the subterranean streams. According to Malott sur-
KARST g e o m o r p h o l o g y
face stream s disap pear at sin k h o les and take under p osits, softer than travertine, at the m outh o f the
ground co u rses w here they d isso lv e and abrade ca v es are called ‘tufa’ or ‘calc-tufa’. T he calcare
lim estones to form their p a ssa g es. T h ese p assages ou s d ep osits from dripping o f w ater in dry ca v es are
are gradually en larged due to corrosion and abrasion called ‘dripstones’. T he colum ns o f dripstones hang
o f lim eston es and thus caverns and g a lleries are ing from the ca v e ce ilin g are ca lled ‘stalactites’
formed.
w h ile the calcareou s colu m n s o f dripstones grow in g
Ponores upward from the cave floor are know n as ‘stalag
mites’. C a v e pillars are form ed w hen stalactites and
T he vertical p ip e -lik e ch asm s or p assages that
stalagm ites m eet together (fig . 2 3 .9 ). N um erous
connect the c a v e s and the sw a llo w h o les are called
needle-shaped dripstones hanging from the cave
‘ponores’ in S erb ia and ‘avens’ in France. Ponores
c e ilin g are ca lled ‘drapes’ or ‘curtains’. T he
are form ed d u e to d ow n w a rd ex ten sio n o f sink h oles
dripstones grow in g sidew ard from stalactites and
through c o n tin u o u s so lu tio n o f carbonate rocks.
stalagm ites are called ‘helictites’ and ‘heligmites’
Ponores m ay a lso b e in clin ed (fig . 2 3 .8 ).
respectively. T he helictites o f globular structure are
called ‘g lo b u lite s ’. Floor d ep osits cau sed by seep
age water and water flo w in g out o f stalagm ites are
called ‘flo w s to n e s ’.
Fig. 23.8 : Cave and ponore.
Natural Bridge
N atural b rid ges in lim esto n e areas are form ed
in tw o w a y s v iz . (1 ) d ue to c o lla p se o f the roofs o f Fig. 23.9 : Formation o f stalactites, stalagmites and cave
ca v es and (2 ) d u e to disappearance o f surface streams pillars (various form s o f speleothems).
as subterranean stream s, form ation o f v a lley s b elow Stalactites are form ed due to d ep osition o f
the ground su rfa ce and reappearance o f disappeared calcareous solu tes w hich are carried by w ater drip
(subterranean) stream on the ground surface. Like ping through the cave c e illin g s in dry environm ent.
ca v es variou s th eo ries h a v e been put forth to account T he water is evaporated and so lu tes are dep osited in
for the origin o f natural b rid ges and natural tunnels in cicle-lik e or n eed le-lik e form s. T h ese structures
in lim esto n e reg io n s e .g . (1 ) so lu tio n theory o f F.W . have broad bases stuck to the ca v e c eilin g and
G ilm er, (2 ) th eory o f C .D . W a lcott, (3 ) subterranean tapering ends hanging dow nw ard from the cave
stream piracy theory o f H .P . W ood w ard, (4 ) subter ceilin g . There is gradual increase in the length and
ranean stream cu t o f f theory o f C. A . M alott and R .R . thickness o f stalactites. T he shapes o f stalactites are
con trolled by the shape o f c a v e c eilin g . T he stalac
Shrock etc.
tites b eco m e uniform and their tapering low er ends
Depositional Landforms are directly pointed tow ards the ca v e floor w hen the
A ll typ es o f d ep o sits in the caverns are c o lle c ca v e ceilin g is fault or is uniform ly arched (fig.
tiv ely ca lled ‘speleothems’ o f w hich ca lcite is the 2 3 .1 0 C and F resp ectiv ely ). T he stalactites h anging
com m on constituent. B an d ed calcareou s d ep osits dow nw ard are alm ost perpendicular to the cave
are ca lled ‘travertines’ w hereas the calcareou s d e ceilin g . W hen the ca v e ce ilin g is steep ly in clin ed ,
inclined and elongated stalactites are formed (fig. inclined towards one side, slightly, inclined
23.10, D). When the cave ceiling is flat but is gently elongated stalactites are formed (fig. 23.10, E).
Fig. 2 3 .1 0 : Nature o f cave ceiling and form ation o f stalactites. A and B after H. Roques, 1969.
The solution that drops on the cave floor is by Jovan Cvijic in 1918. W.M. Davis (1930) re
also precipitated and crystallized and forms a col garded karst cycle of erosion as a special phase of the
umn-like structure of stalagmites at various centres. normal fluvial cycle of erosion characterized by the
When a group of stalagmites is formed together from development of surface drainage, disappearance of
closely spaced centres the resultant stalagmites are surface drainage underground and reappearance
called ‘compound stalagmites’.
subterranean drainage as surface drainage. The karst
23.4 KARST CYCLE OF EROSION cycle of erosion is simpler than other g<
The concept of cycle of erosion was also cycles because of uniformity of structure
f.W. Beede in 1911 and limestones) and dominance of mono-process
tion process). T he d ifficu lties are related to the
nature o f m ovem en t o f groundwater and base lev el
o f erosion w hich are not p recisely know n. M ost of
the geom orp h ologists b eliev e that the water table of
groundwater should be taken as the base le v el of
erosion. A ccord in g to so m e geom orp h ologists the
rainwater infiltrates through the join ts o f the rocks in
vertical m anner until it reaches the surface o f the
water table and thereafter it m o v es horizontally
b elow the surface o f water table.
T w o types o f con d ition s have been recom
m ended for the initiation o f karst c y c le o f erosion
e.g. (1) exposure o f thick lim eston e co v er at the
ground surface and (2) lim eston e co v er overlain by
non-soluble rocks (e.g. sandstones, shales etc.). Karst
cy cle o f erosion b ecom es m ore operative over tw o
types o f structures viz. (1) fold ed lim eston es and (2 )
faulted beds o f lim eston es. It m ay be pointed out that
karst cy cle o f erosion becom es m ore effe c tiv e w here
thick beds o f lim estones, w hether fold ed or faulted,
are exposed on the ground surface becau se rainwater
im m ediately com es in contact w ith the rocks and
starts dissociating them. B eed e postulated 3-stage
karst cycle (e.g. youth, mature and old stages) w hereas
C vijic presented 4-stage karst c y c le (e.g. youth,
maturity, late maturity and old stage). The character
istic features o f different stages o f karst c y c le o f
erosion are sum m arized b elo w -
(1) YOUTH
The karst c y cle starts w ith the initiation of
surface drainage in the regions o f thickly bedded
lim estones o f folded or faulted structure or even of
horizontal structure (fig. 23.11 (1)). T he lim eston es
are directly exp osed at the ground surface. If the
lim eston es are overlain by thin d ep osits o f insoluble
or non-calcareous form ations, the surface runoff
first rem oves these form ations. T he rainwater mixed
with atm ospheric carbon d io x id e now reacts with
lim eston es along the interfaces o f their join ts and
thus form ‘sink holes’ and ‘swallow holes’ through
the m echanism o f solution process. T h ese sinkholes
gradually increase in number and are enlarged due to
continuous solution o f lim eston e. T he ground sur
face is characterized by rough terrain due to devel
opm ent o f ‘lapies’ because o f d issolu tion o f lime
stones along their join ts. W ith the enlargem ent of
sink h o les and sw a llo w h o les into ‘doUnes’ surface
drainage starts disappearing underground through
446
geom orphology
d ifferen t ‘sinks’ or ‘blind valleys.’ T h e underground p a ssa g es. T h e c o v er in g ro o fs o f ca v es and caverns

d ra in age in itia tes th e fo rm a tio n o f c a v e s and cavern s un dergo the p ro cess o f th in n in g b ecau se o f alround
through u n dergrou n d so lu tio n and abrasion. T h e en largem en t o f c a v e s. T h e th in n in g o f ca v e roofs
ch aracteristic g e o m o r p h ic fea tu res o f th is sta g e are ca u ses their c o lla p se g iv in g birth to ‘uvalas’ ‘poljes*
sin k h o le s , s w a llo w h o le s , d o lin e s , la p ie s, blind and ‘karst windows’ (fig . 2 3 .1 1 (3 )). T he residual
v a lle y s , sin k in g c r e e k s, c a v e s and ca v ern s o f sm aller uplands w ith h ig h ly pitted su rface b etw een uvalas
d im en sio n . T h e term in a tio n o f yo u th sta g e is m arked b eco m e ridges. T h e late m aturity is characterized by
b y total d isa p p e a ra n ce o f su rfa ce drainage. the destruction o f m o st o f so lu tio n a l landform s.
(2) MATURITY (3) OLD STA G E

T he ca v e roofs are to ta lly c o lla p se d and ridges
T h e in itia tio n o f ea rly m aturity is heralded by
w ith pitted surface b etw een u valas are con sid erab ly
total d isa p p ea ra n ce o f su rfa ce drainage underground.
narrowed dow n (fig . 23.11 (4 )) and red u ced in height.
T h u s, th e g ro u n d su rfa ce is ch aracterized by dry
T he residuals o f carbonate rocks p roject slig h tly
w a te r le ss c o n d itio n . T h e su rfa ce drainage d isa p a b ove the ground. T h ese are ca lled ‘hums’. M o st o f
p ea rs u n d erg ro u n d th rou gh d o lin e s and blind v a l the ground surface is le v e lle d and thus resem b les the
le y s . T h u s, n u m ero u s sinking creeks are form ed. ‘peneplain’ o f norm al flu v ia l c y c le o f erosion (river
T h e p r o c e s s e s o f u n d ergrou n d so lu tio n and abrasion c y c le o f ero sio n ). T he subterranean drainage again
are a u g m en ted b e c a u s e o f in crea sed v o lu m e o f w ater appears on the ground su rface. N ea rly all o f th e karst
due to m a x im u m d e v e lo p m e n t o f subterranean v a lley s, so lu tio n h o le s and sin k in g creek s are e lim i
d ra in age. In creased so lu tio n o f carbonate rocks re nated. T he seco n d karst c y c le o f ero sio n m ay start
su lts in gradual en la r g em en t o f c a v e s , g a lleries and w ith fresh u p liftm en t o f karst plain.
CHAPTER 24 : COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 447-462
• i nAf w
A g en ts o f coastal erosion ; sea co a st and sea sh o re ; p r o c e s s e s and
m ech a n ism o f m arine erosion ; ero sio n a l lan d form s ( c liffs , w a v e -c u t
platform , natural ch im n ey s, stack, b lo w h o l e ) ; tran sportation al w o rk ;
d ep o sitio n a l landform s (b each es, bars, barriers and a sso c ia te d f e a t u r e s ) ;
cla ssifica tio n o f coasts, and sh orelin es ; d e v e lo p m e n t o f s h o r e lin e s an d
m arine c y c le o f erosion alon g a sh o relin e o f su b m e r g e n c e an d e m e r
g en ce.
24
COASTAL GEOM ORPHOLOGY
24.1 A GEN TS O F CO A STA L EROSION w aves (one sea w ave is equal to on e w avelen gth )
T h e w ork o f sea w ater is perform ed by several passing through a certain point per unit tim e (u su ally
m arine a g en ts lik e sea w a v e s, o cea n ic currents, tidal one second) is called w a v e fr e q u e n c y w hich varies
w a v es and tsu n am is but the sea w aves are m ost according to the w avelengths o f sea w aves. There is
p ow erfu l and e ffe c tiv e er o siv e agent o f coastal inverse relationship betw een the w avelen gth and
areas. S e a w a v e s are d efin ed as undulations o f sea w ave frequency, i.e. shorter the w avelen gth , h igher
w ater ch aracterized by w ell d ev elo p ed crests and the w ave frequency and longer the w avelen gth ,
troughs (fig . 2 4 . 1). T h e m ech an ism o f the origin o f low er the w ave frequency (fig. 2 4 .1 ).
sea w a v e s is n ot p r e c ise ly know n but it is com m on ly W ave velocity is directly related to w a v e
b eliev ed that w a v e s are generated due to friction on length, i.e. the w ave velo city in creases w ith increas
w ater su rfa ce ca u sed by b lo w in g w inds. T he undu ing w avelength or decreases w ith decreasing w a v e
la tion s o f se a w ater at the p la ce o f their origin are length if the w ave frequency is constant.
ca lled swells w h ich are lo w , broad, regular and It may be pointed out that on ly the form o f
rounded r id g e s and trou gh s o f water. In other words, w ave m oves forward in seas and ocean s through the
“th e regular pattern o f sm o o th , rounded w a v es that water and the water d oes not m o v e forward. W ater
ch aracterizes the su rface o f the ocean during fair particles w ithin a w ave in the seas and ocean s d o not
w eath er is c a lle d swell” (A . B lo o m , 19 7 8 ). m o v e forward w ith coastw ard or landward advanc
T h e h eig h t o f w in d generated sea w a v es d e ing w ave itself but m o v e in circular orbit (fig . 2 4 .2 A ).
p en d s on (i) w in d sp eed , (ii) the duration o f wind In an open sea the orbital m otion o f water particle
from o n e d irection and (iii) the ex ten t o f fe tc h w hich associated with the p assage o f a w ave decreases
represents the length o f w ater surface over w hich the rapidly from the w ater surface d ow nw ards (tow ards
w ind b lo w s. T h e upper and lo w er parts o f the w aves the sea floor). T h e orbit o f particles d ecreases w ith
are called w a v e crests and w a v e troughs resp ec increasing depth from the w ater surface (fig . 2 4 .2 A )
tiv ely . T he straight horizontal d ista n ce b etw een tw o with the result orbits b eco m e m ore and m ore ellip ti
su c c e ssiv e crests or troughs is ca lled w a v e le n g th cal tow ards sea bottom and there is o n ly horizontal
w hich is ex p ressed in term s o f length unit o f m etres m ovem en t o f water particles (back and forth m o v e
in the c a se o f sea w a v es. T h e tim e taken by a sea m ent o f w ater p articles) (fig . 2 4 .2 B ).
w a v e to c o v er the d ista n ce o f o n e w a v elen g th or T he sea w a v es after b ein g generated radiate
w a v e c y c le is ca lle d w a v e p eriod * T h e num ber o f sea outw ard from gen erating area o f the sea. T he lo n g est
448 GE°MORPHOIjOGy
.S IM
Fig. 2 4 .1 : Patterns and components o f sea waves.
w avelengths m ove m ost rapidly. Steep w aves with ‘uprush’, rushes shoreward w ith great v e lo c ity and
shorter w avelengths but greater heights decay more force. The distance from the shore where the waves
rapidly w hile m ovin g aw ay from generating area break is called ‘plunge line’ w here the depth of sea
w hile w aves with longer w avelengths and low er water and the w ave h eigh t are ap p roxim ately equal.
heights radiate for thousands o f kilom etres across The turbulent forward m o v in g ‘swash’ or ‘breaker’
the oceans with little energy loss. A s the w aves is also called surf.
advance towards the coast the depth o f water d e
Breakers are o f 3 typ es v iz . ( 1) spilling break
creases, the w ave height increases and the w a v e
ers, (2 ) plunging breakers and (3 ) surging break
length decreases. A s the w aves m ove in sh allow
ers. Spilling breakers are th o se in w h ich w ater does
water they lo se energy because they suffer from
not fall but regularly sp ills d o w n the front of the sea
friction and distortion caused by the bottom surface.
The w aves begin to ‘feel bottom9(touch the bottom ) w a v es and form s prom inent fo a m in g coast. Plung
w hen the depth o f water b eco m es eq u ivalent to ing breakers are th o se in w h ich w ater falls verti
about the h a lf o f the w avelen gth . A s the w aves ca lly and rushes shorew ard in the form of turbulent
approach the shore the w avelen gth con tin u es to fo a m in g w ater m ass. Surging breakers are those in
decrease w h ile the w ave h eigh t in creases to such an w hich water m o v es rapidly shorew ard. Spilling break
ex ten t that the crest o f the w a v e top p les over and the ers are a sso c ia ted w ith steep w a v e s and are caused
w a v e is transform ed into ‘breaker’ w hich then w h en the v e lo c itie s in th e w a v e crest and wave body
c o lla p s e s . T he turbulent water, k n ow n as ‘swash’ or are a lm o st e q u a l. P lu n g in g breakers are caused when
■ yM m
COASTAL GBOMORPHOLOGY
. . t - c ';t I. f j . , ,
W gveitnqth U)
Fig 24.2 : A- Generation of wave forms by orbital motion of water particles. Each water particle continues orbitting
about the same position while the wave form advances forward. B - The size of orbits of water particles
decreases and orbits become more andmore elliptical downwards or as they approach a shallow bottom where
' the movement of water particles becomes horizontal i.e. water particles move back andforth only.
the v elo city o f w ater in the w a v e crest ex ce ed s the breakers and undertow currents or b ack w ash are
v elo city o f w a v e body ( o f interm ediate w a v es). sign ifican t geom orp h ic agents. T h e sea w a v es be
Surging breakers are a sso cia ted w ith gen tle w aves co m e geom orp h ic agent on ly w h en they ‘feel bot
(in term s o f steep n ess o f w a v e crest). tom’ at the p lu n ge lin e.
T he breakers or swash or surfs after reach S ea w a v es are cla ssifie d in to tw o typ es on th e
ing the slop in g beach return tow ards the sea as basis o f depth o f o cea n ic w ater v iz . (1 ) w a v e s in
backwash or undertow currents and rip currents. d eep w ater are ca lled oscillatory waves and (2 )
It m ay be p oin ted out that su rf current or sw ash or w a v es o f sh allow w ater are ca lled transiatory waves.
450 geomorphology
In oscillatory w aves water particles m ove in circular extends from low tide water to high tide water and
orbit and they return very nearly to their original (3 ) offshore represents the zon e o f shallow bottom
position after the passage o f w aves w hile in translatory o f the continental slop e.
w ave water particles m ove forward approxim ately
at the sam e velocity as the w ave form.
From geom orp h ological point o f view sea Shoreline
w aves are divided into tw o major types viz. (1)

constructive waves and (2 ) destructive waves.
L ow -frequency w aves approaching the shore and
beach are constructive in character because they
lo se volum e and energy rapidly w hile m oving up the
beach because water percolates in the shingles and
other beach m aterials and thus the backwash is
w eakened. It is, thus, ob vious that low -frequency
w aves help in the building o f beaches. On the other
Fig. 24.3 : Divisions of sea coast and sea shore.
hand, high-frequency w aves with short w avelengths 24.3 PRO CESSES AND MECHANISM OF MA
and high w ave crests occurring on a more steeply RINE EROSION
sloping shore are destructive in character because Sea w aves resort to erosion o f the coastal land
instead o f spilling they plunge and generate a pow and backshore zone through the processes and m echa
erful backwash which com bs down the beach nism o f hydraulic action, corrasion or abrasion,
(rem oves the beach materials and transport them attrition, corrosion or solution and w ater pressure.
towards the sea). When the sea w aves break at plunge line, the poten
W ave refraction results in the formation o f tial energy o f the w aves is converted into kinetic
littoral or longshore currents which m ove parallel energy and the resultant breakers or swash or surf
to the sea coast. These are generated in two ways e.g. currents strike the coast land with en orm ous pow er
(i) when sea water under the influence o f gusty and erode the geom aterials in different m anner as
winds strikes the coast, there is mass transport o f sea stated above. It may be pointed out that the coastal
water parallel to the coast or (ii) when powerful rocks are im m ensely affected by w eathering proc
seaw aves under the influence o f high-velocity winds esses resulting into disintegration and d eco m p o si
strike the coast obliquely, m ost o f water m oves tion and thus w eakening o f rocks. Such w eak en ed
parallel to the coast. rocks are easily plucked and eroded aw ay by hy
draulic pressure and turbulence o f breaking w aves
24.2SEA COAST AND SEA SHORE
(swash).
Generally, sea coast and sea shore are taken as
synonym but geom orphologically these two terms The nature and m agnitude o f coastal erosion
have quite different meaning. Sea shore represents are affected and determ ined by the fo llo w in g factors
the zone o f land between high tide water (HTW ) and - (1) W avelength, w ave v elo city , w a ve frequency
low tide water (LTW ) (fig. 24.3) w hile the sh o relin e and w ave period. L ong enduring w a v es w ith longer
represents the actual landward limit o f sea water at w avelength and high v elo city b eco m e e ffectiv e ero
a given m om ent o f time. The shoreline is the line o f sive agent. (2) Structure and co m p o sition o f bed
demarcation between land and water. It fluctuates rocks o f coast land. W ell jo in ted and fractured rocks
from m om ent to m om ent influenced by w aves and are more easily plucked, quarried and abraded by
tides (A . B loom , 1979). The coast represents the sea w aves. R ock types (lith o lo g ica l characteristics)
land zone im m ediately behind the cliff. The coast determ ine the nature o f erosion . (3 ) M ore or less
line represents the cliff-lin e or the margin o f land stable coastline is subjected to m ore erosion than
rising above the sea water. 7’he shore zon e or sim ply unstable coastlin e. (4 ) V ertical coast land (cliffs)
shore is divided into 3 zones, viz. (1) backshore having deep water is less eroded because the sea
represents the beach zone starting from the lim it o f w aves are reflected back w ithout causing much
frequent storm w aves to the c lif f base, (2) foreshore harm to the c liff. On the other hand, the c liffs, which
CO A STA L G E O M O R P H O L O G Y
451
rise m oderately from w ide basal platform and if the
and corrosion, coastal rocks are also weakened and
sea water is o f shallow depth, are prone to more
disintegrated due to alternate processes o f wetting
hydraulic action and plucking because the breakers
(hydration) and drying (dehydration) because these
or swash strike the c lif f with great ferocity and
promote a wide range o f chemical processes which
enormous pow er and thus hammer the rocks. (5)
help in the disintegration and decom position o f
A vailability o f erosion tools (sands, gravels, pebbles
coastal rocks. Alternate freeze and thaw actions in
and cobbles and som etim e boulders) and (6) Dura
the foreshore zones in the cold clim ates cause disin
tion o f marine erosion.
tegration o f joint-bounded rocks.
Hydraulic action refers to the impact o f It may be mentioned that lithological charac
m oving water on the coastal rocks. Large storm teristics o f coastal zones and their layout largely
w aves attack the coastal rocks with erormous ham- control the mechanism o f marine erosion. It is ar
m er-blow s am ounting to 5 0 k g f per square centim e gued that basalts and obsidian weather far more in
tre (gravity force (f) is 9.81 and hence sea w aves, marine water than in freshwater. This factor explains
normally, hurl a force o f 50 k g f per square centim e the unusual width o f continental sh elf w est o f the
tre o f the coastal rocks). R epeated blow s o f striking Deccan basalt region o f Peninsular India. The w est
sea w aves enlarge the incipient joints, fracture pat coast o f Maharashtra is characterized by rias, coves,
terns and thus help in breaking the rocks into smaller caves, stacks, inlets etc. because the w aves strike the
joint-bounded block s. T he w aves are capable o f joints and fissures o f basalts transversely and thus
d islod gin g larger fragm ents o f rocks w eighing sev have caused differential erosion w hile the south
eral tonnes in w eigh t. T his process o f displacem ent coast o f Kathiawar having the sam e lithology (ba
o f rock fragm ents is a lso called as quarrying and salt) is almost devoid o f such features because the
plucking. In fact, w a v e quarrying and w ave pluck waves do not attack the coast transversely as they
ing caused by the hydraulic pressure and turbulence m ove parallel to the coast.
o f breaking w a v es is very effectiv e m echanism o f
24.4 ER O S IO N A L LA N D FO R M S
erosion o f w eathered and joint-bounded fresh bed
rocks. T he striking breaking w aves also exert enor Significant coastal features formed due to
marine erosion by sea w aves and other currents and
m ous pressure on the air trapped in the crevices and
solutional processes include cliffs, co v es, caves,
h o llo w s w ithin the coastal rocks. Thus, alternate
indented coastline, stacks, chim neys, arch, inlets,
p rocess o f com p ressio n (w hen the w aves strike the
w ave-cut platforms etc.
rocks as sw ash ) and decom pression (w hen the
w aves return as backw ash) cau ses pressure changes Cliffs
and w eak en s the rocks to break into the blocks o f Steep rocky coast rising alm ost vertically
several ton n es. above sea water is called sea c liff w hich is very
Abrasion or corrasion is another effective precipitous with overhanging crest (fig. 24 .4 ). The
m ech an ism o f coastal eorsion by marine w aves with steepness o f true vertical cliffs depends on varia
the help o f to o ls o f erosion (coarse sands, pebbles, tions o f lithology and geo lo g ica l structure and rela
cob b les and so m e tim es boulders). H igh energy tive rate o f subaerial w eathering and erosion o f c liff
storm w a v es charged w ith large cob b les drill out face and crest and marine erosion o f c liff base. If
circular p ot-h oles and abrade the standing bedrocks. marine erosion at the base o f c liff is m uch faster than
Attrition in v o lv es m echanical tear and wear and the subaerial w eathering o f c liff face and crest,
consequential breakdown o f fragm ents due to their overhanging c liff w ith steep vertical face is formed.
mutual c o llisio n effected by backw ash and rip cur On the other hand, if the subaeri^l processes d om i
rents w hich rem ove the fragm ents from the cl if! base nate over m arine processes the verticality o f c liff
and transport them tow ards the sea. disappears and the c liff lo ses its true c liff character.
Corrosion or solu tion refers to the chem ical True cliffs are generally form ed w here bed
alteration o f rocks m ain ly carbonate rocks (lim e rocks are affected by low rates o f subaerial w eather
stones-, dolom ites and ch alk s) due to their contact ing and m ass m ovem en t viz. lim esto n es, chalk, horu
with sea water. B esid es hydraulic action, abrasion zontally bedded sandstones, m a ssiv ely join ted igne-
452 GEOMORPHOLOGY *
ences o f bedrock lith ology and structure and (ii)
balance betw een marine and subaerial erosional
processes. A. G uilcher (1 9 5 8 ) has identified 4 types
o f cliffs on the basis o f their m orphology determined
by the aforesaid tw o factors (fig . 2 4 .5 ) viz. (1 ) *
resistant cliffs form ed on chalk (fig. 24 .5 A ) and
horizontally bedded sandstones (fig. 2 4 .5 B ), (2)
weak cliffs d eveloped on cla y s and sh ales (fig.
24.5C ), (3) composite cliffs o f chalk overlyin g clay
(fig. 24.5D) and o f interbedded sandstones and shales
(fig. 24.5E) and (4) complex cliffs.
The form ation o f sea c lif f b eg in s w ith the
Fig. 24.4 : An example o f sea cliff. erosion o f coastal rocks through the m ech an ism o f
ous rocks and metamorphic rocks. In fact, the mor hydraulic actions and abrasion by breaker w a v es
phology o f sea cliffs is determined by (i) the influ (swash or surf currents). T his results in the form a-
Rcsi'stont Cliff B Resistant cliff
---->--- r
SsSfli ifuVP
• • * • •
• • « • 1 • • oj/
Chalk Sandstones
weak Cliff D composite cliff
Chalk
Shale Clay
Composite cliff complex Coast
Shale
com posite c liff and

CO A STA L G E O M O R P H O L O G Y
453
tion o f notch and the coast b ecom es vertical There e.g. (1) shore platforms with inclined plane (about
is gradual exten sion o f notch landward due to con 1 m above highest tide level), (2) stepped platforms
tinuous w ave attack w ith the result the crest o f the (are formed by tropical water-level weathering, bio
cliff overhangs the notch. If the notch at the base o f
logical action and sm all tidal ranges), and (3) storm
the cliff is exten d ed landward to such an extent that wave platforms. A fourth type o f shore platform is
the support to the c lif f crest is w eakened, overhang
distinguished as solution platform w hich is d evel
ing head o f the c lif f breaks and falls down resulting oped on carbonate rocks in the shore zone by chem i
into gradual recessio n o f the c liffs landward The cal processes mainly solution.
rate o f c liff recessio n varies both in space and tim e
depending on the fo llo w in g conditions - (i) rock
lithology and structure, (ii) susceptibility to chem i
cal erosion, m ass m ov em en t and subaerial erosion,
(iii) cliff heigh t, (iv ) orientation o f the coast, (v)
wave energy, (v i) o ffsh o re topography, (vii) rate o f
removal o f debris from the c liff base by the back
wash or the undertow currents etc.
Wave-Cut Platform
R ock -cu t flat su rfaces in front o f cliffs are
called w ave-cu t p latform s or sim ply shore plat
forms (fig . 2 4 .6 ) w h ich are sligh tly concave up Fig. 24.6 : Wave-cut and wave-built platforms.
ward. The origin and d ev elo p m en t o f w ave-cut plat Sea caves are form ed along the coast due to
forms is related to c lif f recessio n . T hese are also gradual erosion o f weak and strongly join ted rocks
called wave-cut benches. Shore platforms are formed by uprushing breaker w aves (surf currents). T he
where c liff recessio n is a ctiv e due to pow erful bom joints are widened into large ca v ities and h o llo w s
bardment o f c lif f base by uprushing breaker w aves which are further enlarged due to gradual w ave
and e ffe c tiv e rem oval o f eroded m aterials by back erosion into w ell-developed coastal caves. S ea caves
wash (undertow currents). T he form s o f w ave-cut are more frequently formed in carbonate rocks (m ainly
platforms d ep en d on g e o lo g ic a l factors. E xtensive lim estones and chalks) because they are eroded
platforms are d e v e lo p e d w here the rocks are least more by solutional processes. It m ay b e pointed out
resistant to w a v e ero sio n . In other w ords, thinly that sea caves are not permanent features as they are
bedded and d e n se ly jo in ted , and horizontally d is very often destroyed by uprushing high-energy storm
posed rocks w ith strike parallel to the coastline are w aves. W hen the caves are enlarged to such an
more v ig o r o u sly erod ed by uprushing breaker w aves extent that their roofs becom e remarkably thin, they
and thus are a sso c ia te d w ith e x ten siv e shore plat ultim ately collapse and fall and the debris are re
forms. On the oth er hand, narrow and steeper plat m oved by powerful backw ash and thus lon g narrow
forms w ith h igh m ean elev a tio n are d ev elo p ed over inlets are called ‘geo’ in Scottland. S om e tim es, the
resistant rock s. A s regards the p ro cesses and m ech a air in the cave is com pressed by uprushing pow erful
nism o f the d e v e lo p m e n t o f w a v e-cu t platform s, storm w aves and finding no other route to escape it
quarrying and p lu ck in g by large and high-energy breaks open the roof o f the cave and appears with
storm w a v es and w a ter-lev e l w eath erin g are e ffe c great force m aking unique w histlin g. Such h oles are
tive m arine p r o c e sse s o f sh ore platform d ev elo p called ‘ natural chimneys’ or ‘blow holes’ or *gloup’.
ment. “The nam e b low h ole refers to the fact that during
W ave-cu t p latform s are gen erally divid ed into storm s spray is forcibly b low n into the air each tim e
a breaker surges through the cave beneath” (A .
3 zones viz. (1 ) mesolittoral zone b etw een h igh and
H olm es and D .L . H olm es 1978). W hen caves are
low tide w ater, (2 ) supralittoral zone ab ove high
form ed on op p osite sid es o f the seaw ard projecting
tide but w ith in the ran ge o f spray and (3 ) sublittoral
headland, a natural arch is form ed due to co a le
zone b elo w lo w tid e w ater. On the basis o f m orp h ol
scen ce o f tw o ca v es (fig . 2 4 .7 ). It m ay be m entioned
ogy w a v e-cu t p latfo rm s are c la ss ifie d into 3 typ es
454 GEOMORPHOLOGY
that natural arches are not permanent coastal fea

tures because the roof, after b ecom in g very thin,
Fig. 24.9 ; Formation of coves and island.

exam ples o f cliffs, w ave-cut platform s, ca v es, archs,
tidal inlets, chim neys etc. along the eastern co a st in
the environs o f Visakhapatnam . Such features are
Fig. 24.7 : Art example of sea arch. frequently observed on the western Indian coast
m a in ly b etw een B o m b a y and M a n g a lo r e . B.
collap ses and thus the seaward part o f the arch stands Arunachalam has studied 3 headlands nearRatnagiri.
detached from the coast. Such isolated remnant o f These headlands are marked by overhanging cliffs
headland projecting w ell above sea-level is called ranging in height from 45m to 90m .
‘stack’ (fig. 24.8). This is also called as ‘chimney
rock’. Stacks are also called needles, columns, 24.5 TRANSPORTATIONAL WORK
pillars, skerries etc. The Old Man o f Hoy (137 m The eroded m aterials are transported by sea
high) in the Orkney Island o f British Isles is w idely w aves in different manner but the transportational
quoted exam ple o f sea stack. The elliptical hollow s work o f sea w aves varies sign ificantly from other
form ed in the coastal area alternated by hard and agents o f erosion and transportation. For example,
w eak rocks are called coves or mini-bays (fig. 24.9). the backwash or undertow currents (m ovin g from
the coast and beach towards the sea) pick up the
eroded materials and transport them seaw ard but the
uprushing breaker waves or surf currents pick up
these materials and bring them again to the coast and
beaches. Thus, the transportation o f m aterials takes
place from coastland towards the sea and from the
sea towards the coast. W hen ob liq u e w a ves strike the
coast, lon gsh ore currents are gen erated . These
longshore currents transport the m aterials parallel to
the shoreline. The m aterials in v o lv ed in the trans
portation by sea w aves include sands, silts, gravels,
pebbles, cob b les and som etim es boulders. When
there is equilibrium betw een in co m in g supplies of
sedim ents by uprushing breaker waves and removal
o f sedim ents by backw ash or undertow currents on
Fig. 24.8: Formation of stack.
the w ave-cut platform s, a p r o file o f e q u ilib r iu m is
N early all o f the aforesaid coastal erosional achieved. If the w ave-cu t rock platform is character
features are found along the western and eastern ized by steep slop e tow ards the oceanic slope, the
coasts o f Peninsular India. The author noticed the destructive w a v es become very active and thus re
COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 455
sultant powerful backwash removes the materials received. A profile so adjusted that this fluctuating'
from the landward side so that the slope o f the state o f balance is approximately achieved is called
platform is lessened. On the other hand, if the slope a profile of equilibrium” (A. Holmes and D.L.
of the wave-cut platform is less steep, constructive Holmes, 1978, p. 516).
waves become more effective as they favour sedi
24.6 DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
mentation and beach deposition on the landward
Significant depositional landforms developed
side so that the slope o f the platform becom es steeper.
by sea waves include sea beaches, bars and barriers,
“The surface is therefore continually m odified, and
offshore and longshore bars, spits, hooks, loops,
in such a way that at each point it tends to acquire just connecting bars, looped bars, tombolo, barrier is
the right slope to ensure that incoming supplies o f land, tidal inlets, winged headlands, progradation,
sediment can be carried away just as fast as they are wave-built platforms etc.
Upper beocn L o w e r beach
Cliff foce
Depre s s io n w ith
tolus cones
a n d morsh Anastomosing
drainage Runnel w i t h
channels w a te r pool
Runnel
Fig. 24.10 : Different elements o f an ideal beach (after A. Goudie. 1984).
Beaches rivers and nallas at their m ouths, m ass w asting and

Temporary or short-lived deposits o f marine m assm ovem ent (landslides and slum ping) o f cliffs,
sediments consisting o f sands, shingles, cobbles etc. scouring o f the offshore zone by storm w aves, ero
on the sea shore are called beaches. A ccording to A. sion o f pre-existing beaches etc.
Bloom (1979) ‘The sedim ent in m otion along a An ideal beach consists o f tw o m ain elem ents
shore is the beach’. B eaches are deposited by breaker e.g. upper beach and lower beach and several
w aves betw een high and low tide waters. B eaches minor elem ents e.g. storm beach, beach ridges or
are, in fact, w edge-shaped sedim ent deposits on sea berms, beach cusps, small channels, ripples, ridges
shore. In width beaches vary from a few metres to and ruynnels etc., fig. 24 10. The upper beach
several kilometres. B eaches are generally formed representing the landward section o f the beach is
when sea is calm and w inds are o f low velocity. com posed o f coarser and larger m aterials such as
Beach materials consist o f fine to coarse sands, pebbles, cobbles and boulders an£ the slope ranges
shingles (pebbles), cobbles and boulders. The major betw een 10° to 20°. On the other hand, the lower
sources o f the supply o f beach materials are erosion beach representing the seaward section o f the beach
o f headlands and cliffs, sedim ents brought by the is com posed o f sands and has lo w gradient o f 2° or
456
GEOMORPHOLOGY
even less. The storm beach is a sem i-perm anent Pulicat lake-all along the east c o a s t ; 22 km and 55
ridge w hich stands w ell above the level o f highest km long two spits en closin g the Vembanad lake and
spring tides. The su ccessive low ridges built by converging at the port o f Cochin on the east coast of
constructive w aves parallel to the coastline and India.
b elow the level o f high spring tides are called beach
ridges or berms. Beach cusps are sm all regular
em baym ents and a series o f headlands com posed o f
shingles. Sm all anastom osing drainage channels are
developed in the sands below the cusps. Sand ripples
are developed on the low er beach section by w ave
action or by tidal currents. R idges and runnels are
broad and gentle rises and depressions which are
developed at the seaward side o f the sand beach and
are aligned parallel to the shoreline.
B eaches are generally classified on the basis
o f beach materials into (1) sand beach (sand grains
ranging in size betw een 0.5 to 2m m ), (2) shingle
beach (com posed o f pebbles ranging in size from 2
to 100 mm) and (3) boulder beach (more than 100
Fig. 24.11 : Offshore bars and spits.
mm in diameter). The regular increase in the width
o f sea beaches towards the sea is called progradation High-energy storm w aves very often m odify
w hile depletion o f beaches due to erosion and thus the shape o f spits by bending them towards the coast.
their narrowing or beach cutting is called retrogra- The curved spits assum e the shape o f hook and thus
dation. such spits are called hooked spits or sim ply hooks
(fig. 24.12). Hooks are stabilized when there is
Bars and Barriers and Associated Features equilibrium between constructive and destructive
The ridges, embankments or mounds o f sands waves.
formed by sedim entation through sea w aves parallel
to the shoreline are called bars. The larger forms o f
bars are called barriers. The formation o f bars and
barriers starts with the developm ent o f shoals due to
deposition o f sands. These shoals grow in height by
addition o f sedim ents until they appear above sea-
level. Bars and barriers may be formed near the coast
or away from the coast, parallel to the coastline or
transverse to the coast. There are different forms o f
sand bars and barriers. If the bars are formed in such
a way that they are parallel to the coast but are not
attached to the land, they are called offshore or
longshore bars (fig. 2 4 .11). If the sand bars are HOOK
formed in such a w ay that their one end is attached
to the land w hile the other end projects or opens out
towards the sea, they are called spits (fig. 24.11). A
few spits have been reported from the eastern and
western coasts o f India. For exam ples, 50 km long Fig. 24.12 : Simple and compound hooks.
spit in the mouth o f Chilka lake (Orissa coast), 16 km
long spit near Kalingapatnam, a w ell developed spit W hen the opposing currents becom e more
growing at the rate o f 12 km per century to the east dominant than the littoral currents, the spits are bent
o f Kakinada Bay, 60 km long spit to the east o f to such an extent that they are attached to the main
CO A STA L G EO M O R PH O L O G Y 457
land (coast) and thus form com plete loop which observed along the western coast o f India between
encloses sea water in the form o f lagoons. Such form Ratnagiri and Malvan. When bars o f pebbles and
of a spit is called loop (fig. 24.13). When such loop cobbles are formed on either side o f a headland, such
is formed around an island, it is called looped bar headland is called a winged headland. There may
(fig. 24.13). be 3 locations o f bars in the bays viz. (1) bay head
bars, formed at the head (landward) o f the bay, (2)
mid-bay bars, formed in the m iddle portion o f a
bay, and (3) bay - mouth bars, formed at the
opening o f a bay. Lagoons are formed when the
coves or bays are com pletely enclosed by bars.
Chilka lake and Pulicat lake on the east coast o f India
are exam ples o f lagoons.
24.7 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N OF CO ASTS AND

S H O R E L IN E S
There is a wide range o f variations in opinions
in relation to types and classification o f coastlines
and shorelines. Not only this, there is also difference
o f opinions regarding the m eaning and definitions o f
coastlines and shorelines as som e scientists treat
them separately w hile som e take them as synonym .
The meaning o f sea coast and sea-shore has already
Fig. 24.13 : Loop and looped bar. been explained in the preceding section 24.2. Here
Connecting bars are formed when bars are both the terms are taken as synonym . The sch em es
so extended that they either join two headlands or o f classification o f sea coast and sea shore differ
tw o islands (fig. 24 .1 3 ). C onnecting bars are vari significantly because o f different bases adopted by
ously named on the basis o f their shapes and forms. different geom orphologists. The difference o f op in
For exam p le, a bar connecting two headlands is ions arises from the fact that (i) coasts and shores
called con n ectin g bar w hile a bar becom es tombolo have been classified separately, (ii) the present day
w hen it con n ects the m ainland with an island or coastlines are com plex rather than sim ple, (iii) sea
con n ects a headland w ith the island (fig. 24.14). level is not permanent as there are phases o f rise and
Thus, a tom b olo acts as a bridge between the coast fall in sea level resulting into subm ergence and
and an island. A few exam p les o f tom bolo are em ergence o f coastlines. The sch em es o f c la ssifica
tion o f sea coasts and sea shores o f D .W . Johnson
and F.P. Shepard, being m ore popular, are being
discussed here.
1. Johnson's Classification of Shorelines

D.W . Johnson (1 9 1 9 ) presented a gen etic
classification o f shorelines w herein he d ivided shore
lines into four m ain types, on the b asis o f (i) nature
o f coastland before ch an ges in sea le v e l i.e. w hether
the coastland w as upland or low lan d b efore ch an ges
in sea level, and (ii) em ergen ce or su bm ergen ce o f
shorelines due to sea le v el ch an ge, as fo llo w s —
1. Sh orelines o f em ergen ce,
2. Sh orelines o f su bm ergen ce,
3. N eutral sh orelin es, and
Fig. 24.14: Tambolo. 4. C om pound sh orelines.
45$ GEOMORPHOLOGY
either climatic factor (ice age and widespread gla

ciation) or tectonic factor (i.e. subsidence in sea
floor or rise in coastland).
Shorelines of submergence is formed be
cause o f su b m ergen ce of coastal land due to rise in
sea lev el either due to clim a tic change (interglacial
period leading to d eg la cia tio n ) or tectonic move
ment (i.e. su b sid en ce of sea floor or coastal area).
Johnson divid ed sh orelin es o f su b m erg en ce in to two
• '• • 't Mi i ii i i i ii i i iiiai iiiii iiii iiii iiiii iiii iiii
" I r iu subtypes viz. (a) Ria shorelines (fig . 2 4 .1 5 - 1 ) are
form ed by partial subm ergen ce o f su b aerially eroded
area, like estuaries o f the rivers. R ia sh ore is funnel
shaped, the narrow part o f w hich fa c e s the land area.
It narrows dow n further landward term inating at the
mouth o f the river w h ile it w id en s out tow ards the
sea. (b) Fiord shorelines are form ed du e to subm er
gen ce o f glacial troughs. G laciers form d eep v a lle y s
near the coast during glacial period. A fter clim a tic
change leading to deglaciation sea le v e l rises be
cause o f return o f m elt-w ater and h en ce glacial
valleys are drow ned under sea w ater to form fiord
coast and shore (fig. 2 4 .1 5 -2 ).
N eu tra l sh o r e lin e s are form ed neither by
em ergence nor by subm ergence b eca u se they d o not
reveal any such ev id en ce w h ich can p rove em er
gence or subm ergence. In fact, neural sh o relin es are
formed due to deposition o f sed im en ts. Joh n son
identified six types o f sh orelines under this category
depending on the nature o f d ep o sited m aterials v iz.
(i) delta shoreline (fig. 2 4 .1 5 - 4 ), (ii) a llu v ia l plain
shoreline (fig. 2 4 .1 5 -3 ) , (iii) ou tw a sh p lain sh ore
line, (iv) volcanic sh oreline (fig . 24.16-^6), (v ) coral
reef shoreline, and (v i) fault sh o relin e (fig . 2 4 .1 6 -7 ) .
C o m p o u n d s h o r e lin e s are ch aracterized by
the ev id en ces o f both su b m ergen ce and em ergen ce.
N orw agian coast is ex a m p le o f this ca tegory.
Johnson's schem e o f the cla ssifica tio n o f shore
lines w as w id ely appreciated and p op u larized by his
d iscip les and fo llo w ers. For e x a m p le, J.B . Lucke
Fig. 24.15: Types o f shorelines -(l)r ia coast (submerged),
(1 9 3 8 ) described the fo llo w in g p o sitiv e p oin ts in his
(2) fio rd coast (submerged), (3) coastal plain
sch em e viz. (i) It is sim p le and ea sily understandable
coast (submerged), a n d (4) deltaic coast (neu
tral shoreline). ; (ii) It is based on sound rea so n in g ; (iii) It is a
g en etic cla ssifica tio n ; (iv ) It is e a sily applicable ;
Shoreline of emergence is formed due to and (v ) It is m ore sy stem a tic and coh erent. B esid es
changes in sea level (fall in sea level or negative bouquets, this sch em e a lso receiv ed brickbats, as the
change) either due to fall in sea level in relation to s c h e m e w a s s e v e r e ly c r i t ic i s e d b y s e v e r a l
coastland or upheaval of coastland in relation to sea g eo m o rp h o lo g ists. F.P. Shepard (1 9 3 7 and 1938)
level. Change in sea level (negative) may be due to
criticised the d iv isio n o f sh o relin es in to em erged
COASTAL G E O M O R P H O L O G Y 459
pound shorelines. D elta coast and shore cannot be
neural in genesis because it also reveals evidences o f
subm ergence and em ergence (for exam ple, M issis
sippi delta). A ccording to Shepard Johnson did not
consider eustatic changes in sea lev el due to glacia
tion and deglaciation w hile classifyin g shorelines.
2. Shepard's Classification of Coasts

F. P. Shepard presented the classification o f
■■■ J \* mi — coasts in 1937 which was severely criticized by J.B.
" "■ » .-•'V Lucke w ho indicated four shortcom ings in this schem e
viz. (i) Shepards' classification includes only coasts
and shorelines have been ignored ; (ii) m ain basis o f
classification is coastal charts w hich are not com p e
tent for the classification o f coast and shorelines ;
(iii) this schem e does not reveal evolutionary changes
in coasts and shores ; and (iv) in all, Shepard's
classification is incom plete. Shepard, con seq u en tly,
presented his revised schem e in 1948, w herein he
included both coastlines and shorelines. H is revised
classification is based on the stage o f d evelopm en t
o f coasts and shores and the factors and p rocesses
involved in their developm ent. Firstly, coasts and
shores have been divided into tw o broad categories
on the basis o f processes and agents o f their form a
tion and developm ent viz. (A ) primary coast and
shorelines, form ed by non-m arine a g en cies and (B )
secondary or minor coast and shorelines, form ed
by marine processes. T h ese have been further d i
vided into subtypes on the basis o f erosion , d ep o si
tio n , e m e r g e n c e , s u b m e r g e n c e , u p w a r p in g ,
dow nw arping, volcanic activity etc.
(A ) Primary or youthful coasts and shorelines
1. Subm erged coasts and sh orelin es due to rise
in sea lev el either due to d ow n w arp in g or
subaerial erosion and con seq u en t drow n
ing due to d eglaciation .
(i) drow ned river co a sts (ria co a sts)
(ii) drowned glacialed coasts (fiords)
Fig. 24.16: T yp eso f shorelines— (5 )alluvial plain shore 2. C oasts due to d ep o sitio n on land
line, (6) volcanic shoreline, (7) fa u lt shore
line, (8) com posite shoreline (shoreline o f (a) due to fluvial deposition
subm ergence fo llo w ed by em ergence), (9) (i) delta coast
com posite shoreline (shoreline o f emergence
(ii) drowned alluvial plain coast
fo llo w ed by submergence).
(b) due to g la cia l d ep o sits
and submerged types because every coast and shore
has experienced phases o f submergence and emer (i) partially submerged morainic coast
gence and hence all the shorelines should be com (ii) partially submerged drumlin coast
460 GEOMORPHOLOGY
(c) aeolian d ep osit-coasts T heoretically, marine cy cle o f erosion passes through

three su ccessiv e stages o f youth, mature and old but
(d) vegetation extended coasts
very few coasts bearing the ev id e n c es and character
3. C oasts shaped by volcanic activity
istics o f old stage are found. T he com pletion o f
(i) coasts on recent lava flow s m arine c y cle o f erosion depends on crustal stability
(ii) coasts due to collap se o f volcanic con es for longer period o f g e o lo g ica l tim e but this condi
or due to volcanic eruption tion is rarely possible in nature because the diastrophic
4. C oasts shaped by diastrophism m ovem ents caused by en d o g en etic forces com ing
(i) fault-scarp coasts from within the earth result in sea le v el chan ges and
upliftm ent or su bsidence o f coastal land.
(ii) coasts on folded rocks
(B) Secondary or mature coasts and shorelines Marine Cycle of Erosion Along a Shoreline of
1. Shorelines shaped by marine erosion Submergence
(i) shorelines straightened by marine ero
Initial Stage
sion
The initial stage o f m arine c y c le o f erosion o f
(ii) irregular shorelines by marine erosion
shoreline o f subm ergence b egin s w ith the subm er
2. Shorelines shaped by marine deposition gence o f coastal land under sea water. Su bm ergen ce
(i) straightened shorelines o f coastal land takes place in tw o w a y s v iz. (i) either
(ii) prograded shorelines due to rise in sea level (p ositive ch ange in se a -le v e l)
(iii) sh o relin es w ith offsh ore bars and or (ii) subsidence o f coast land so that m o st o f the
longshore spits coast land is subm erged under sea w ater due to its
(iv) coral reef coasts transgression on main land. R ise in sea -le v e l m ay be
either due to rise in the ocean ic flo o r due to tecton ic
24.8 DEVELOPMENT OF SHORELINES AND MA factors or due to return o f m elt-w ater lo c k e d in the
RINE CYCLE OF EROSION
The advocates o f the Davisian m odel o f cy
clic developm ent o f landscapes believe that evolu
tion o f coasts and shorelines takes place in cyclic
manner. Like fluvial processes (rivers) and landforms
associated with them there is sequential d evelop
ment o f landsforms along coasts and shorelines
through su ccessive stages o f youth, maturity and
old. Since the coasts and shorelines differ consider
ably and broadly fall in two major categories viz.
shorelines o f subm ergence and em ergence and hence
cyclic developm ent o f landforms along these two
shorelines also takes place differently. Though sea
w aves and currents play m ost important roles in
shaping the coastal scenery but weathering o f coastal
rocks and related landslides and slum ping are also
significant factors o f coastal geom orphology. Due
to greater influence o f marine processes in the ev o
Fig. 24.17: Different types o f bars.
lution o f coastal landscapes, the cy cle o f erosion
along the coasts and shorelines is called marine form o f ice sheets on the con tin en ts during ice age.
cycle of erosion. Like normal cy cle o f erosion The initial form o f sh oreline o f su b m ergen ce may b£
marine cycle o f erosion is also interrupted m ainly by a ria coast or a fiord coast. T h e lo w er segm ents of
tectonic m ovem ents (e.g. upwarping, downw arping, the rivers at their m ouths are d ism em bered due to
upliftment, subsidence, folding, faulting etc.). The subm ergence o f coast land. T he initial submerged
developm ent o f coastal landform s depends on the coastline is highly irregular characterized by numer
configuration o f coasts, lith ology and structure o f ous em baym ents, c o v e s, bays, headlands, inlets,
coastal rocks, nature and energy o f sea w aves etc. islands etc. (fig . 2 4 .1 7 ).
COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 461
dislodge larger rock blocks. Consequently, the coast

line is highly indented and becom es crenulated and
irregular. N um erous caves and headlands are formed
due to differential erosion o f coastal rocks. The
breaker w aves notch the rocks at w ater level and
thus initiates the form ation of sea cliffs. In the
beginning the cliffs are o f low height and are im per
fectly developed. G adually, the cliffs are sharpened
due to regular erosion at the cliff base. W ave-cut
platform s (shore platform s) are form ed in front of
cliffs due to reg u lar landw ard recession o f cliffs.
Though the early youth is dom inated by erosional
w ork but som e depositional features are also devel
oped such as beaches in the backshore zone. W ave-
cut platform s are ch aracterized by several coastal
features such as arch, stacks, caves, natural chim
neys etc. Late youth is characterized by m axim um
developm ent o f w ave-cut platform s as they becom e
m ost extensive due to pro g ressiv e recession o f cliffs.
M ost o f the erosional features .start d isappearing and
num erous depositional features are form ed e.g. bars,
offshore bars, connecting bars, spits, hooks, loops,
looped bars, tombolo, beaches etc. S everal types o f
beaches such as shore beaches, head land beaches,
bay-head beaches, berm s, cusp beaches etc. are
developed. M ost o f the bays are enclosed by bars and
thus lagoons are form ed. C liffs are fully developed
and thus the coast becom es alm ost vertical.
Maturity
M ost o f the features dev elo p ed during y o u th
ful stage are obliterated. P rofile o f eq u ilib riu m is
attained due to balance in the rate o f ero sio n and
deposition. M ost o f the dep o sitio n al featu res are
destroyed by late m aturity and th u s the co ast line
becom es alm ost straight and reg u lar. T h e h e ig h t an d
gradient o f coastland d ecrease sig n ificantly.
Old Stage
C oast and shore are sig n ifican tly lo w ered in
height because o f co n tin u ed w eath erin g an d erosion.
Fig. 24.18 : Stages o f marine cycle o f erosion along the A djoining land areas are ero d ed d o w n to sea-level.
shoreline o f submergence. Thus, the coast and shore b eco m e straig h t and slope
very gently tow ards the sea. It m ay b e p o in ted o u t
Youth
that this m ay b e p o ssib le only w hen there is cru stal
M arine w aves m ainly swash or breaker waves
stability for lo n g period. It is o b v io u s th a t th e c o n d i
or surf currents erode the exposed coastal land
through the m ech an ism s o f hydraulic action and tions o f old stage are only th eo retically p o ssib le
corrosion (abrasion). T he uprushing high energy because coasts are affected by em erg en ce an d su b
storm w aves bom b ard the densely jo in ted rocks and m ergence due to d iastro p h ic fo rces.
2 ( M M m r n n j& c ft
C yolt of Broslon on thorolln# of I
Initial Stag*
Initial jjta o k Shoreline o f em ergence u evolved in two
way* viz, (I) due to upliftment o f coastland In r#|*
llonioNen-leve! because o f tectonic event* or (h)dt*e
lo fall in sen level because of subsidence of oceanic
floor. Initially, shorelines of emergen ce arestraight
and regular, Coastal plain#* extend for great distance
in sea water but their gradient \%quite gentle, Since
ihc depth o f water is shallow , m ost o f the sea waves
break in offshore /on e, The breakers erode the coast
to form ‘notch’ and small cliffs. Such small cliffs are
called ‘n ip s ’, Submarine bars arc form ed due to
deposition of sediments on submerged coastal plains,
These submarine bars gradually grow in height and
are aligned parallel to the shoreline.
Youth
The youthful stage o f m a rin e cy cle o f erosion
on shoreline o f e m e r g e n c e b e g in s w ith th e appear
ance o f s u b m a rin e bars a b o v e the s e a-lev e l. N um er
ous independent small bars are un ite d a n d thus form
m i d d i .l: Sw iim p
youth
offshore bars. T h e s e o ffs h o re bars p r o te c t the coast
from w ave erosion. S e a w ater lo ck e d betw een the
coast and o ffsh o re bars b e c o m e s lagoon (fig. 24.19).
Sea w aves break o ffsh o re bars at som e places and
thus m ake their w ay to the lag o o n s. Such openings in
the offshore bars arc called tidal inlets. L agoons are
filled with se d im e n ts b ro u g h t by the rivers (which
debouch in the lag o o n s) and w in d . Som etim es, la
goons b e c o m e s w a m p s an d m a r s h e s because of
Swiim p
vegetation.
Late youth is c h a ra c te r iz e d by m igration of
offshore bars to w a rd s the coast. S eaw ard side of
these bars is s te e p e n e d d u e to th e ir ero sion by storm
waves. E ro d e d m a te ria ls a re d ep o sited by sea waves
Sen-Level on the la n d w a rd side o f th e s e bars. T his process
causes gradual sh iftin g o f offsh o re bars coastw ard
with the resu lt la g o o n s b e c o m e narrow er.
MATURITY Maturity
O ffshore bars, lag o o n s, sw am p s and marshes,
tidal inlets etc. are d istro y ed by the beginning of
m ature stage. S ea w aves ero d e the subm erged coastal
platform upto w ave base. M o st o f the coastal irregu
larities are o b literated and the co astline becomes
sim ple and straight. T h e slo p e o f the coast becomes
steep and the d ep th o f w ater increases.
Old Stage ^ ir
The development o f old stage o f the m a r i n e cycle
24.19 : Stages o f marine cycle o f erosion on the erosion on shoreline o f em ergence can be deduced
shoreline o f emergence. theoretically only as its practicability is not possible.
CH A PTER 25 ARID AND SEMIARID GEOMORPHOLOGY 463-477
A eolian environm ents ; erosional works of wind ; erosional landforms ;
transportational works of w in d ; depositional work o f w in d ; depositional
landform s (b ed fo rm s); fluvial desert landforms (badland, playas, pedi
m ents, bajadas) ; arid cycle of erosion ; savanna cycle of erosion.
25
ARID AND SEMIARID GEOMORPHOLOGY
25.1 AEOLIAN ENVIRONMENTS sands, h ighly v ariab le an n u al rain fa ll (years w ith o u t

W ind is, no d o u b t, an im p o rta n t g eo m o rp h ic rainfall), occasio n al to rren tial rain fall th ro u g h strong
agent but it is n o t as m u ch effectiv e p ro cess o f rainstorm s resulting into stream floods and sheetfloods
erosion as riv ers a n d sea w av es. “W in d is a c o m p ara etc. S em i-arid en v iro n m e n t is c h ara cterized by m ean
tively m in o r a g e n t o f g eo m o rp h ic ch an g e b ecau se o f annual rainfall o f 2 5 0 m m to 50 0 m m . T h e la rg e st
the low d ensity o f air as c o m p a re d to ro ck and w ater” stretch es o f true d eserts are fo u n d in five great
(A. B loom , 1979). A eo lian p ro cesses in v o lv in g e ro p ro v in ces e.g. (1) S ah ara-C e n tral A sia P ro v in ce
sion o f dry, lo o se an d u n p ro te c te d g eo m aterials, (S ah ara d esert, A rab ian d esert, In d ian desert, K ara
transportation and d ep o sitio n o f the sed im en ts m ainly K u m a n d K iz il K u m d e s e r ts , T a k la M a k a n
sands, are m o st ac tiv e in arid an d sem i-arid reg io n s d esert and G obi d esert) ; (2 ) S o u th ern A frican
of tropical and te m p e ra te e n v iro n m en ts. A eo lian P ro v in ce (N am ib d esert, K arro o d esert, K alahari
processes are g e n e ra lly a sso c ia te d w ith d e se rt areas d esert e t c .) ; (3) S o u th A m eric an D ry Z o n e (A taca m a
but one sh o u ld k eep in m in d th a t d eserts (d efin e d as d esert o f P eru and C h ile alo n g th e w e st c o a st an d
barren, d eso late an d p la n tle ss a rea s) are o f tw o types P atag o n ian d esert o f so u th A rg e n tin a a lo n g th e e a st
viz. hot and w arm d e se rts an d co ld d eserts. A eo lian c o a s t) ; (4) N o rth A m erican D esert P ro v in ce (M o jav e
processes are n o t a c tiv e in c o ld d eserts b eca u se the d e s e rt o f C a lifo rn ia an d A riz o n a a n d S o n o ra n
surfaces are a lw a y s c o v e re d w ith p e rm a n e n t ice d esert o f M ex ico ) and (5) A u stralian D esert P ro v
sheets. T hus, w in d s are a c tiv e in th o se arid an d sem i- ince.
arid e n v iro n m en ts w h e re th e g ro u n d su rface is c o v T h e d eserts h av in g m o b ile san d s are called
ered w ith lo o se a n d fria b le g e o m a te ria ls. A b o u t one ‘e r g s ’ (A rab ic w ord erg m e an s reg io n o f sh iftin g
third o f the la n d su rfa c e a re a o f th e earth is c h a ra c sands). T he m o d el size o f erg is ab o u t 188,000 k m 2
terized by arid an d se m i-a rid e n v iro n m e n ts w h erein w h ereas the la rg e st erg o f th e w o rld is R ub K hali in
extremely arid , a rid an d se m i-a rid areas a c c o u n t fo r A rab ia (5 6 0 ,0 0 0 k m 2). T h e san d s o f d eserts are
4 per cent, 15 p e r c e n t an d 14.6 p r c e n t resp ectiv ely . d eriv ed from ep h em eral riv e r v alley s, o th e r flu v ial
D esert en v iro n m en ts are ch ara cterized by very d ep o sits, co astal d ep o sits, p re-ex istin g san d d u n es
low m ean an n u al rain fa ll (less than 2 5 0 m m , a v e r an d from m e ch an ic al w eath e rin g o f san d sto n es.
age being 100 m m ), p ra c tic a l ab sen ce f v eg etatio n , W in d s are th e m o st w id esp read g eo m o rp h ic
Vcry high d aily an d an n u al ran g es o f te m p eratu re, ag en t in the d eserts o f arid an d se m i-a rid re g io n s o f
dust storm s, h ig h v elo city w in d s, d o m in an ce o f tro p ical an d s u b tro p ic a l e n v iro n m e n ts . B e s id e s,
464 GEOMORPHOLOGY
ephem eral and in term itten t stream s resu ltin g from sion (co rrasio n ). D eflatio n also attack s rock surfaces
occasional rainstorm s also becom e' im p o rtan t agent m ain ly o f san d sto n es, d etach es sm all fragm ents and
o f erosion and transportation. M o st o f the drainage helps in fo rm ing sm all d ep ressio n s in rock surfaces
in the extensive deserts is o f inland d rainage pattern. but the process o f d ep ressio n fo rm atio n through
deflation in b ed ro ck su rfaces is ex ceed in g ly slow.
Thus, besides aeolian process, fluvial processes,
Since deflation rem o v es m o stly fine p articles (mainly
though o f lim ited extent, are also o p erative in the
sands) larg er p articles su ch as g rav els are left over
arid and sem i-arid regions.
the surface. T hus, acc u m u la tio n o f g ravels over
25.2 EROSIONAL WORKS OF WIND thousands o f years fo rm s desert pavements which
W ind erosion in the arid and sem i-arid re protect the rocks b elow fro m fu rth e r w in d erosion.
gions is assisted by m echanical w eathering. E xpan W ind arm ed w ith en tra in e d san d grains as
sion o f rocks due to high daytim e and sum m er tools o f erosion attack s the ro ck s an d ero d es them
tem perature and con traction consequent upon low er through the m ech an ism s o f ab rasio n , flu tin g , gro o v
night and w inter tem perature result in the disin teg ra ing, pitting and p olishing. T h e c o m b in e d e ffects o f
tion o f cry stallin e rocks w hich facilitates aeolian these m echanism s are co llectiv ely called abrasion
erosion. W ind erosion is largely controlled and de or s a n d b la s tin g . A s stated ea rlie r w in d a b ra sio n is
term ined by (i) w ind velocity, (ii) nature and am ount m inim um at ground level b ecau se w in d v elo c ity is
o f sands, dusts and pebbles (tools o f erosion), (iii) retarded by friction. S im ilarly , w in d c ea se s to b e
com position o f rocks, (iv) nature o f vegetation and com e an erosive ag en t b ey o n d the h e ig h t o f 182 cm
(vi) hum idity, rainfall am ount and tem perature. from the ground level b eca u se n o rm al w in d can n o t
lift and carry particles o f av erag e size. T h u s, m a x i
It m ay be m entioned that w ind erosion gener m um abrasion o ccurs at the h eig h t b etw ee n 20-25
ally takes place above the ground and thus wind cm from the gro u n d surface. A b rasio n u n d o u b te d ly
velocity plays a m ajor role in determ ining the degree undercuts the up stan d in g o b jects fro m all sid es b e
o f aeolian erosion. It is now generally agreed that cause w ind very often ch an g es its d irec tio n . It m ay
w ind is o f relatively m inor significance in the evolu be, thus, stated th at w ind ab rasio n d e c re a se s d ra s ti
tion and developm ent o f landform s o f any signifi cally w ith in creasin g h eig h t fro m th e g ro u n d an d
cance. The quantity and size o f m aterials lifted and becom es inactive bey o n d 182 cm h e ig h t e x c e p t
m oved by w ind determ ine the degree o f w ind abra during strong gales and storm s.
sion. W ind erosion is believed to be effective only Attrition in v o lv es m e ch an ic al te a r an d w ear
upto ]82 cm above the ground surface. M axim um o f the p articles su ffered by th e m se lv e s w h ile they
w ind erosion occurs at a short distance above the are being tran sp o rted by w in d th ro u g h the processes
ground, say at a height o f 20-25 cm because here o f saltation and su rface creep . Saltation in v o lv es the
w ind velocity and sedim ent m ovem ent are m oderate m o v em en t o f san d s and g rav els th ro u g h the m ech a
w hereas ‘at the ground sedim ent transport is high but nism s o f bo u n cin g , ju m p in g an d h o p p in g by turbu
velocity o f transport is low. A t a height velocity is len t air flow . S altatin g g rain s (sa lta tio n is derived
high but the quantity o f sand available for abrasion from Latin w ord ‘saltare’ w h ich m e an s ‘to leap’)
is sm all’ (R.J. C horley et al., 1984). frequently rise to a h eig h t o f 5 0 c e n tim e tre s over a
U nlike rivers and glaciers w inds erode the sand bed and u p to 2 m e tres o v e r p eb b ly surface by
rocks from all sides because o f their variable d irec the co m b in ed actio n o f a e ro d y n a m ic lift and the
tions. W ind erosion occurs in three w ays viz. (1) im pact o f o th er saltatin g g rain s w h ich retu rn back to
deflation, (2) abrasion or sandblasting and (3) the gro u n d su rface. Surface creep in v olves move
attrition. The process o f removing, lifting and blowing m ent o f rela tiv e ly b ig g e r p a rtic le s alo n g the ground
away dry and loose particles o f sands and dusts by su rface by stro n g w inds. T h u s, the p articles, while
winds is called deflation (derived from L atin w ord they are m ov in g , co llid e a g a in st eac h o th er and are
deflatus, w hich m eans blow ing aw ay). L ong co n tin further co m m in u ted in fin er p articles.
ued deflation rem oves m ost o f loose m aterials and
25.3 EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
thus depressions or hollow s know n as ‘blow outs'
Long-continued erosional works through the
are form ed and bedrocks are exposed to w ind ab ra
m echanism s o f abrasion or sandblasting and de
a r id a n d SEM IA RID G EOM ORPHOLOGY 465
flation p ro d u ces so m e ch a ra c te ristic la n d fo rm s in ex c a v a te d v o lu m e o f 3 2 0 0 k m 3 and a d ep th o f 134 m
desert areas su ch as b lo w -o u ts o r d e fla tio n b asin s, b elo w se a lev el.
m ushroom ro c k s o r p e d e s ta l ro c k s, in s e lb e rg s , Mushroom rocks - T h e ro ck s hav in g b ro ad
demoiselles, yardangs, zeugen, ventifacts, dreikanters, u p p e r p a rt an d n arro w b ase re se m b l;n g an u m b rella
stone lattice, w in d w in d o w s etc. b u t ‘p ro b ab ly no o r m u sh o rro m are ca lle d m u sh ro o m ro ck s or pedes
m odern g e o m o rp h o lo g ist w o u ld a cc ep t th a t w in d tal ro ck s or p ilz fe lse n (n am e d by J. W alther) (fig.
action has been o f an y real im p o rta n c e in th e e v o lu 2 5 .1 ) . T h e s e u n d e r c u t , m u s h r o o m - s h a p e d
tion o f featu res su ch as in se lb e rg s, p e d im e n ts, and p e d e sta lro c k s are fo rm ed d u e to ab rasiv e w orks o f
w ider e ro sio n al p la in s ’ (R .J. S m all, 1970). w in d . T h e b ase o f th e in d iv id u a l ro ck blo ck is
Deflation basins- D e p re ssio n s fo rm e d in the ab rad e d v ig o ro u sly fro m all sid es b eca u se o f v ari
deserts due to re m o v a l o f san d s th ro u g h th e p ro cess a b le d ire c tio n s o f w in d an d ac tiv e ab rasio n lim ited to
o f deflation are c a lle d d e fla tio n b asin s o r b lo w -o u ts six feet h e ig h t fro m th e g ro u n d w h ile th e u p p er p art
or desert h o llo w s, th e d e p th o f w h ich is d ete rm in e d is le ast a ffected by ab rasio n . T h e se p ed esta l ro ck s
by g ro u n d w a te r ta b le . T h e size o f th e se en c lo se d are ca lle d ‘gara’ in S a h a ra an d ‘pilzfelsen’ in G e r
depressions v arie s fro m sm a lle r o n es lik e ‘buffalo m any.
wallows’ o f th e A m e ric a n G re a t P lain s (w h ere th o u Inselbergs are v ery c o n tro v e rc ia l la n d fo rm s.
sands o f sm a ll e n c lo se d d e p re ssio n s m a rk sandy In selb erg , a G erm an w o rd , w as u sed by P a ssa rg e in
deserts) to v ery la rg e d e p re ssio n s su ch as ‘pang 1904 to in d icate sh arp ly risin g re sid u a l h ill a b o v e the
kiang’ h o llo w s o f th e M o n g o lia n D esert, g reat flat su rfaces in S o u th A frica. S u ch re sid u a l h ills and
Q u attara d e p re s s io n o f th e W este rn E g y p tian D esert m o u n d s o f rela tiv e ly re s is ta n t ro c k s in the arid re
and B ig H o llo w n e a r L a ra m in e in W y o m in g state o f gions are also c a lle d ‘bornhardts’ a fte r th e n a m e o f
the U S A (5 k m w id e , 15 km lo n g an d 100 m deep). fam o u s g e m o rp h o lo g ist B o rn h a rd t. P a ssa rg e an d
T he Q u a tta ra d e p re s s io n is e stim ated to h av e an D avis have tak en in selb erg s as th e re p re s e n ta tiv e
lan d fo rm s o f the p e n u ltim a te stag e o f th e a rid c y c le
o f ero sio n . In selb erg s h av e n o w b een a lso lo c a te d in
su b h u m id and h u m id c lim ates. T h u s, th e o rig in o f
in selb erg s only th ro u g h w in d ero sio n h as b een re
futed. A cco rd in g to L .C . K in g th e in se lb e rg s are
form ed due to tw in p ro cesses o f scarp re tre a t an d
p ed im en tatio n o v er c o a rse -g ra in e d ig n e o u s ro c k s. It
m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t in selb erg s are th e p ro d u c t o f
w eath erin g and ero sio n in d iffe re n t c lim a tic re g io n s.
Fig. 25.2 : Inselbergs (bornhardts).

Demoiselles represent rock pillars having
Fig. 25.1:Example of mushrrom rock or gara.
relatively resistant rocks at the top and soft jocks
466 g eo m o r p h o lo g y
below (fig. 25.3). T h ese featu res arc fo rm ed due to th e ir to p s. T h e se are fo rm ed in those desert areas
d ifferen tial ero sio n o f hard ro ck s (less ero sio n ) and w here te m p eratu re d u rin g n ig h t b e c o m e s so low that
so ft rocks (m ore e ro sio n ). T h e d em o iselles arc m a in the m o istu re in th e jo in ts an d c re v ic e s o f rocks
tained so long as th e re sistan t cap ro c k s arc seated at freezes. T h e frozen m o istu re a g ain th a w s d uring day
th e top o f the pillars. tim e. T h e alte rn a te freeze an d th a w o f m oisture
c au se ex p an sio n an d c o n tra c tio n o f v o lu m e respec
tively. T his m ech an ism cau ses d isin teg ratio n o f rocks
alo n g the jo in ts . T h e d is in te g ra te d fin e m a teria ls are
blow n aw ay by th e w ind. T h e re p e titio n o f this
m cch an ism resu lts in th e fo rm a tio n o f zeugen.
Y a r d a n g s are ste e p -s id e d d e e p ly undercut
o v erh an g in g rock rid g es se p a ra te d fro m o n e an o th er
by long g ro o v es o r c o rrid o rs o r p a s s a g e w a y s c u t in
desert floors o f rela tiv e ly s o fte r ro c k s (fig . 2 5 .5 ).
They range in size from a m e tre to a k ilo m e tre . T h e
y ard an g s are usu ally 8 m h ig h fro m th e c o rrid o r flo o r
bu t they attain th e h eig h t o f 6 0 m in th e L u tt d e s e rt
o f Iran. T h ey are fo rm ed w h ere a lte rn a te b a n d s o f
hard and so ft ro ck s are v ertical o r in c lin e d to the
h o rizo n tal p lane. T h e in te rv e n in g b e d s o f so fter
Fig. 25.3 : Demoiselles. ro ck s are ab rad ed an d e ro d e d m a te ria ls a re b lo w n
Z e u g e n - R ock m asses o f tab u lar form resem aw ay by d efla tio n p ro cess. T h e m o s t c h a ra c te ristic
b lin g a cap p ed ink p o t stan d in g on so fter rock p ed es featu re o f y ard an g s is th e ir p a ra lle lis m . T h e y are
tal o f shale, m u d sto n e etc. are called zeugen (fig. usually fo rm ed in the areas w h ich are c h a ra c te riz e d
25.4). T he bases o f such featu res are b ro ad er than by d irectio n al stead y w in d s. Y a rd a n g s h a v e b een
called ‘c o c k s c o m b ’ by A. H o lm e s.
Fig. 25.5 : Yardangs.
D reikanter - F a c e te d ro c k bo ulders* cobbles

an d p e b b le s a b ra d e d by lo n g p e rio d s o f w in d erosion
are ca lle d ventifacts. A v e n tifa c t o r fa c e te d rock
b lo c k m ay h av e as m a n y a s e ig h t a b ra d e d facets. The
ro ck p ie c e s (b o u ld e rs ) h a v in g th re e a b ra d e d facets
are calle d dreikanter w h ile th e b o u ld e rs w ith tw o
a b ra d e d fa c e ts a re c a lle d zw eikanter.
ARID AND SEMIARID GEOMORPHOLOGY •467
Stone lattice - T he rocks o f varying co m p o coarser m aterials are transported in stages and steps
sitions and resistan ce w hen abraded by pow erful by rolling, leaping and jum ping.
wind charged w ith ero sio n tools (rock p articles)
become o f uneven su rface as the pow erful w ind 25.5 D EPOSITION AL W ORK O F WIND
abrades w eaker sectio n s o f rocks and rem oves the D epositional w ork o f w ind is geom orpho-
abraded m aterials w h ile relativ ely resistan t sections logically very im p o rtan t because significant fea
are least affected by ab rasio n . Such pitted and fluted tures like sand d u n es and loess are form ed. D eposi
rock surfaces are called stone lattice. tion o f w ind blow n sedim ents occurs due to m arked
red u ctio n in w ind speed and obstructions caused by
Wind bridges and windows - H oles are
bushes, forests, m arsh es and sw am ps, lakes, big
formed due.to co n tin u o u s ab rasio n o f stone lattice by
rivers, w alls etc. S ands are d ep o sited on both w ind
powerful w ind. T h ese holes are grad u ally w idened
w ard and leew ard sides o f fixed obstructions. The
and ultim ately they reach the o p p o site side o f the
accu m u lated sand m ounds on eith er side o f the
rocks. Such holes fo rm ed th ro u g h ab rasio n across
o b stru ctio n s are called sand shadows. A ccum ula
the rocks are called wind windows. T h e holes are
tions o f sands b etw een o b stacles are called sand
further w id en ed and en larg ed th ro u g h the p ro cesses
drifts.
of abrasion and d eflatio n in such a w ay th at an arch
like features h av in g in tact ro o f are form ed. T h ese are 25.6 DEPO SITIO N AL LAN DFORM S (BEDFORM S)
called window bridges.
Ripple Marks
25.4 TRA N SPO RTA TIO N A L W O RKS O F WIND R ipple m ark s are sm all-scale d ep o sitio n al
T h e tran sp o rta tio n a l w ork o f w ind differs features o f sands. T hese w ave-like features are form ed
from oth er ag en ts o f ero sio n (viz. rivers, glaciers and m ainly by saltation im pact. R ip p les are d iv id ed into
sea w aves) su b stan tially b ecau se the d irectio n o f (i) tran sv erse rip p les and (ii) lo n g itu d in a l rip p les.
w ind is hig h ly variab le. W ind tran sp o rt involves
Sand Dunes
entrainm ent o f lo o sen ed g rain s o f sands and d u st in
H eaps o r m o u n d s o f san d s are g en erally called
the air and th e ir m o v e m en t to new locations o f
sand dunes or sim ply d u n es. T h o u g h san d d u n es are
deposition. W ind tran sp o rts the m aterial through the
sig n ifican t d ep o sitio n al featu res o f d e se rt areas b u t
m echanism o f suspension, saltation and traction.
they are also fo rm ed in all th o se areas w h ere san d s
Very fine m aterials w ith a d ia m ete r o f less than 0.2
are av ailab le in pro fu sio n and w in d is cap a b le o f
mm are k ep t in su sp en sio n by upw ard m o ving air.
tran sp o rtin g and d e p o sitin g th em in su ita b le areas.
Such m aterials k ep t in su sp en sio n are called dusts
T hus, dunes are also fo rm ed in co astal areas (called
and extrem ely fin e p articu la te m atters are called
as coastal du n es), along th e riv er b an k s (riv erin e
haze or smoke. T he su sp e n d ed m atters are carried
dunes), along th e lake sh o res (lac u strin e d u n es) etc.
by w ind fo r g reater d istan ces. T he m aterials larger
T h ere is a w ide ran g e o f v ariatio n in the sh ap e, size
than 0.2 m m in d ia m e te r are tran sp o rted th ro u g h the
and structure o f d iffere n t ty p es o f d u n es. T h ey also
m echanism o f b o u n cin g , leap in g or ju m p in g . T his
vary in h eig h t and length. O n an a v erag e, th e ir h eig h t
m echanism o f w ind tran sp o rt is called saltation.
ranges b etw een a few m etres and 2 0 m e tres b u t so m e
The m echanism o f tran sp o rt o f lo o sen ed m aterials
tim es they are several h undred m etres in height and 5-
on the ground su rface is called surface creep or
6 km in length. T he w indw ard slope is generally gentle
traction w herein the m a teria ls alw ay s touch the
(5°-15°) w hile leew ard slope is steep (20°-30°).
ground and m o v e fo rw ard w ith o u t saltatin g . The
following are the m ain c h ara cteristics o f w ind tra n s Formation of Sand Dunes - F o rm atio n o f
port. (1) T he d irectio n o f w in d tran sp o rt is variable sand dunes b eg in s w ith the acc u m u la tio n o f san d s in
because w ind very o ften ch an g e s its d irectio n . (2) the form o f low sand m o u n d s d u e to o b stru c tio n in
Wind transport in v o lv es larg e areas and g reater the w ind sp eed cau sed by fix e 4 o b stru c tio n s (e.g.
distances (thousan d s o f k ilo m etres). (3) W in d tra n s trees, bushes, g rasses, ro ck s, h ills etc.). T h e se a c c u
ports the m aterials a t the gro u n d su rface and above m u lated low san d m o u n d s b eco m e o b stacles in them
*he ground (in the air). (4) O nly very fine m aterials selves and cau se g rad u al acc u m u la tio n o f san d s.
are transported to g reater d istan ces in o ne step w hile T hus, sand m o u n d s g rad u ally g ro w in h e ig h t a n d
468
length and u ltim a te ly b e c o m e ty p ic a l sa n d d u n e s. It are a s o f a g ric u ltu ra l fie ld s, h u m a n se ttle m e n ts (vil

m a y b e p o in te d o u t th a t m o s t o f s a n d d u n e s are la g e s an d to w n s), fo re s ts etc. are b u rie d u n d er im
m o b ile la n d fo rm s a s th e y g e n e ra lly m o v e fo rw a rd in m e n se c o v e r o f san d s. It is re p o rte d th a t T h a r D esert
the d ire c tio n o f w in d . F o rm a tio n o f sa n d d u n e s is s p re a d in g to w a rd s U tta r P ra d e s h d u e to gradual
re q u ire s (i) a b u n d a n c e o f s a n d s, (ii) h ig h v e lo c ity m ig ra tio n o f san d d u n e s.
w in d , so th a t h u g e q u a n tity o f sa n d s m a y b e b lo w n Dune Types - D u n e s a re c la s s ifie d on various
a n d tra n s p o rte d to fo rm d u n e s , (iii) o b s ta c le s o f b a se s viz. m o rp h o lo g y , s tru c tu re , o rie n ta tio n , loca
tre e s, b u s h e s , fo re s ts , ro c k o u tc ro p s , w a lls, ro ck tio n , g ro u n d p a tte rn , in te rn a l s tru c tu re , n u m b e r o f
b o u ld e rs etc. so th a t s a n d m a y b e tra p p e d an d fo rc e d slip fa c e s etc.
to se ttle d o w n a n d (iv ) s u ita b le p la c e s fo r th e a c c u
(1 ) R .A . B a g n o ld (1 9 5 3 ) re c o g n iz e d tw o ba
m u la tio n o f s a n d s . D u n e s are g e n e ra lly fo rm e d in
sic ty p es o f d u n e s on th e b a sis o f fo rm s viz. (i)
g ro u p s . S u c h d u n e a re a s are c a lle d dune complex,
crescentic dunes o r barchans a n d (ii) longitudinal
dune colony o r dune chain.
dunes o r seifs.
D u n e s fo rm e d d u e to th e o b s ta c le s o f sh ru b s
(2) J.T . H ack (1 9 4 1 ) c la s s ifie d s a n d d u n e s of
are c a lle d nebkhas w h ile th e d u n e s d e v e lo p e d in the
th e w estern N a v a jo C o u n try (U S A ) in to 3 ty p e s e.g .
lee o f d e s e rt d e p re s s io n s are ca lle d lunettes. It m ay
(i) transverse dunes, (ii) parabolic dunes a n d (iii)
b e e m p h r z e d th a t m o s t o f d u n es d o n o t re q u ire an
o b s ta c le fo r th e ir fo rm a tio n . R e g u la r d u n es are d e
longitudinal dunes.
v e lo p e d o n m o s t r e g u la r d e s e rt su rfa c e s w h ere w in d s (3) M elto n (1 9 4 0 ) id e n tifie d 3 ty p e s o f d u n es-
h a v e a s in g le d o m in a n t d ire c tio n . T h e ax es o f d u n es (i) sim p le d u n es fo rm e d b y u n id ire c tio n a l w in d , (ii)
a re o rie n te d a t rig h t a n g le s to th e w in d d irec tio n . d u n es fo rm ed by w in d in c o n flic t w ith v eg e ta tio n
M igration of Dunes - M o st o f d u n es are not an d (iii) co m p le x d u n e s fo rm e d by v a ria b le w ind.
s ta b le at th e p la c e o f th e ir fo rm a tio n ra th e r they are (4) E .D . M c k e e (1 9 7 9 ) a fte r h is g lo b a l stu d y
m o b ile . M ig ra tio n o f d u n e s in v o lv e s m o v e m e n t o f o f san d d u n es c la ss ifie d th e m on th e b a s is o f th e ir
w h o le sa n d m o u n d d o w n w in d (fig. 2 5 .6 ) w h erein m o rp h o lo g y , g ro u n d p a tte rn a n d th e ir in te rn a l stru c
s a n d g ra in s are s a lta te d (m o v e d ) up th e lo w -an g le tu re in v o lv in g th e n u m b e r o f s lip fa c e s in to (i) d o m e
w in d w a rd slo p e to th e c re s t by th e w in d then th ey fall d u n e, (ii) b arch a n , (iii) b a rc h a n o id , (iv ) tra n sv e rse
o v e r in to th e w in d sh a d o w on th e leew ard slo p e o f d u n e, (v ) p a ra b o lic d u n e , (v i) lin e a r o r lo n g itu d in a l
th e d u n e. T h u s, th e le e w a rd slo p e or slip face o f the d u n e (seif), (v ii) re v e rs in g d u n e (2 s lip fa c e s ), and
d u n e b eco m es steep . T h e re p e titio n o f th is m e c h a (v ii) sta r d u n e (h a v in g c e n tra l p e a k w ith 3 o r m ore
n ism re su lts in c o n s ta n t m o v e m e n t o f san d g rain s arm s).
fo rw a rd w h ich c a u s e s g ra d u a l m ig ra tio n o r sh iftin g
o f san d d u n es re su ltin g in to d e s e rt sp read . T h e rate
o f d u n e m ig ra tio n v arie s fro m p la c e to p lace. O n an
a v e ra g e , d u n e s m ig ra te at th e ra te o f a few m e tre s p e r
y e a r b u t at p la c e s th e y m ig ra te at th e rate o f 3 0 -4 0 m
p e r an n u m . D u n e m ig ra tio n is v ery h arm fu l as v ast
Wind Direction
------------------------------------►
Fig. 2 5 .7 : S e if dunes.
(5 ) A n o th e r g e n e ra l c la s s ific a tio n involves
th e fo llo w in g m a in ty p e s o f d u n e fo rm s a t global
le v e l - (i) o b s ta c le o r to p o g ra p h ic d u n e s : (a) sm all
Fig. 25.6: Migration of sand dunes. d u n e o r nebkha fo rm e d in th e le e o f a sh ru b , (b)
ypgr WfrJT-t-r ' "• ■ ' * •......
ARID AND SEMIARID GEOMORPHOLOGY 469
c re sc e n tic lu n e tte fo rm e d to th e le e o f a sm all d e se rt o f a k ilo m etre o r m o re an d av era g e h e ig h t o f se v eral
d ep re ssio n (p la y a ), (c) w in d -sh a d o w d u n e s fo rm ed h u n d red m etres. W in d w a rd slo p e o f th ese d u n es is
in th e le e o f a h ill, (d ) d u n e fo rm e d to th e w in d w ard g en tle w h ile le e w a rd slo p e is steep . T h ese d u n es are
sid e o f a h ill, (e ) d u n e fo rm e d in th e p ro x im ity o f fo rm ed in th e in n e r p arts o f th e g re a t d eserts w here
p la teau , (ii) lin e a r o r lo n g itu d in a l d u n e s o r seifs, (iii) h ig h v elo city w in d s are c o n sta n t in d irec tio n (u n id i
sta r d u n e s, (iv ) d o m e d u n e s, (v ) re v e rs in g d u n e s, (vi) rectio n al) o r th ey c h a n g e th e ir d irec tio n seasonally.
parab o lic d u n e s , (v ii) b a rc h a n d u n es, (v iii) b arch an o id T h u s, lo n g itu d in a l d u n es a re g en era lly fo rm ed in the
rid g e d u n e s , a n d (ix ) tra n s v e rs e d u n es. h e a rt o f trad e -w in d d eserts. G re a t sy stem s o f lo n g i
(6 ) C la s s ific a tio n b a se d on lo catio n - (i) co astal tu d in al san d d u n es are fo u n d in A u stra lia n , L y b ian ,
sand d u n e s , (ii) in la n d o r d e s e rt san d d u n es, (iii) S ah aran , S o u th A frican an d T h a r d e se rt (In d ia).
riv e rin e s a n d d u n e s . A ctiv e lo n g itu d in a l d u n es are d e v e lo p e d in th e areas
(7 ) C la s s ific a tio n b a s e d on sh a p e - (i) lo n g itu d ev o id o f v eg etatio n an d p e rsiste n t w in ds. L o n g itu
d in al s a n d d u n e s o r se ifs , (ii) tra n s v e rs e san d d u n es d in al d u n es are a lm o st p arallel to e a c h o th e r an d th e y
or b a rc h a n s , a n d (iii) p a ra b o lic san d d u n es. are sep arated by san d -free b are su rfa c e s k n o w n as
L o n g i tu d in a l s a n d d u n e s - S and du n es form ed re g o r hammada. S u ch sand-free corridors b e
p a ra lle l to th e w in d d ire c tio n are c a lle d lo n g itu d in a l tw een p arallel d u n es are called gassi in S a h a ra (fig.
d u n e s. T h e y a re h u g e a e o lia n la n d fo rm s e x te n d in g 25.8). S u ch co rrid o rs in th e d e se rt are u se d as p a th s
h u n d re d s o f k ilo m e tre s in le n g th w ith av e ra g e w id th k n o w n as caravans.
Fig. 25.8: Sand-free corridors or gassi.
Transverse sand dunes - D u n es fo rm ed tran s Barchan dunes - S a n d d u n e s o f c re s c e n tic

verse to th e d ire c tio n o f p re v a ilin g w in d s are c a lle d shape h av in g tw o h o rn s (fig. 2 5 .9 ) are c a lle d b arch an s.
tran sv erse d u n e s . T h e s e a re fo rm e d by in e ffe c tiv e In fact, b a rc h a n s are s p e c ia l ty p e s o f tra n s v e rs e
w inds a lo n g th e c o a s ts a n d m a rg in s o f d e se rts. T h ey d u n es. T h e w in d w a rd s id e h a v in g g e n tle s lo p e is
are n o t v e ry common d e p o s itio n a l fe a tu re s in e x te n c o n v e x in p la n w h ile th e le e w a rd s id e is c o n c a v e in
sive d e s e rts . T h e y a p p e a r as w a v e -lik e fe a tu re s. p la n w ith ste e p slo p e. T h e h o rn s a lw a y s p ro je c t
470
dow nw ind. T ransverse d u n es are tran sfo rm e d into

barchans (T urkish w ord b ark an m ean in g thereb y
sandhill) w hen sand su p p ly b eco m es m o re lim ited
dow nw ind. T hey are fo rm ed in g ro u p s w h en th e re is
am ple supply o f sands. Iso lated b arch an s are fo rm ed
w hen the supply o f san d s is in ad eq u ate. T h e crest o f
a b archan is d iv id ed into tw o h o rn s d o w n w in d d ue to
d o m in an t p rev ailin g w in d s, w in d e d d ies and lim ited
supply o f sands.
It m ay be p o in ted o u t th at the m ech an ism o f
the fo rm atio n o f tw o h o rn s o f b arch an s is n o t p ro p Fig. 25.9 : Barchan.
erly u n d ersto o d . W in d ed d ies tran sfo rm the leew ard Parabolic dunes - P a ra b o lic sa n d d u n e s gen
slo p e into co n cav e elem en t and rem o v e the sands erally d ev elo p in th e p a rtia lly s ta b iliz e d sa n d y ter
fro m the m id d le p o rtio n and d ep o sit them along the rains. T hey are u su ally U -sh a p e d h a v in g convex
sides to form horn. T h ese h o rn s are sh arp en ed and nose w hich m ig ra te s d o w n w in d . T h e s e d u n e s are
ex ten d ed d o w n w in d by the p rev ailin g w in d and thus m u ch lo n g er an d n a rro w e r th a n b a rc h a n s b u t are
crescen tic shape o f b arch a n s is d ev elo p ed .
alw ay s asso ciated w ith a b lo w o u t.
Iso lated b arch an s m ig rate freely acro ss the Other forms of dunes - T h e d u n e s h av in g
d esert plains. In fact, b arch a n s ‘are larg e en o u g h to
m u ltip le s'lipfaces, h ig h c e n tra l p e a k , ra d ia lly e x
m aintain th e m selv es as th ey m ig rate and rep resen t a
ten d in g th ree o r m o re a rm s are c a lle d star dunes.
rem ark ab le b alan ce b etw een accu m u latio n , tran s
T h ese d u n es are fo rm e d by v a ria b le w in d s. U n lik e
p o rtatio n , and e ro s io n ’ (A . B lo o m ). S even H edin has
o th er d u n es, s ta r d u n es g ro w v e rtic a lly a n d th u s do
o b serv ed th ree cases o f m ig ratio n o f active b archans.
n o t m ig rate la terally . T h e d u n e s h a v in g in te rm e d ia te
(1) B arch an s ad v an ce reg u larly w ith co n stan t rate
c h ara cteristics b e tw e e n s ta r d u n e s a n d tra n s v e rs e
w hen the san d supply is co n stan t. (2) T hey advance
d u n es are called reversing dunes w h ic h a re fo rm e d
w ith d ece leratin g rate w hen the san d su p p ly goes on
w hen w in d s b lo w in g fro m o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s are
in creasin g b u t the h e ig h t co n tin u es to in crease. (3)
b alan ced in stre n g th an d d u ra tio n . T h e s e d u n e s h av e
T hey ad v an ce w ith ac c e le ra te d rate w hen th e sand
tw o slip fa ces o p p o site to e a c h o th e r. T h e d u n e s
sup p ly c o n tin u es to d e c r e a s e . R e g u la r ad v a n c e m e n t
fo rm ed o f c o a rs e r san d s le ft b e h in d d u e to m ig ra tio n
o r m ig ratio n o f b arch an s resu lts in g rad u al sp read in g
o f lo n g itu d in a l d u n e s are c a lle d whalebacks or
o f d eserts. D esert sp read en g u lfs v ast area s o f b o r
whaleback dunes. V e ry la rg e w h a le b a c k d u n e s are
d erin g in h a b ited reg io n s and o ases w ith in d eserts. It
ca lle d draas. T h e y are u su a lly lo n g itu d in a l in plan
b eco m es d iffic u lt to cro ss d eserts w hen b arch a n s are
h a v in g g re a t h e ig h ts re a c h in g 4 0 0 m o r m o re . T hey
fo u n d in g ro u p s and co lo n ies. S an d -free c o rrid o rs o r
are ch aracteristic featu res o f th e S ah aran a n d N am ibian
gassi b etw een tw o ran g es o f b arch a n s are u sed as
d e se rts b u t th e y are u n c o m m o n in th e A u stra lia n
caravan routes.
d e se rts. T h ey g e n e ra lly a p p e a r to b e c o m p o u n d or
N early all typ es o f san d d u n es are fo u n d in c o m p le x d u n es.
India. L arg e lo n g itu d in al san d d u n es are fo u n d a b u n
dantly in th e w estern p art o f G re a t In d ian D e se rt Loess
(T har D esert). T h ese san d d u n es attain the h e ig h t o f L o e ss is th e e x a m p le o f m o s t sig n ific a n t w in d
ab o u t 30 m etres o r so. C o astal san d d u n es are fo u n d b lo w n d e p o s its. L o e s s (G e rm a n te rm lo e ss m e an in g
along M alab a r co ast, O rissa co ast, K u tch , T in n e v a lli th e re b y fin e lo a m , lo o s e o r u n c o n s o lid a te d m ateria l)
c o a st etc. w h ere m ain ly lo n g itu d in a l d u n es h av e r e p r e s e n ts th ic k d e p o s its o f U n s tra tifie d , no n -
d ev elo p ed . T ra n sv e rse d u n es are fo u n d a lo n g the in d u ra te d , b u ff-c o lo u re d , w e ll s o rte d , fin e g rain ed
riv erin e b an k s o f th e G an g a, th e K o si, th e K rish n a, se d im e n ts c o n s is tin g o f q u a rtz s ilt (0 .0 5 m m - 0.02
th e G o d av ari riv ers etc.
m m o r le ss in d ia m e te r) w ith sm a ll c la y fra c tio n a s d J
a rid and semi a r i d g eo m o rph o lo gy 471
h ig h e r c o n te n t o f c a rb o n a te m in erals (ab o u t 4 0 p er ‘adobe’. L o ess is e x te n siv e ly fo u n d in Illin o is, Iowa,
cent). T h ere is total ab se n c e o f lam in ae in th e lo e ssic N e b ra sk a etc. A m e ric a n lo e ss is p a rtly g la cial and
d ep o sits. L o ess d e p o sits g en era lly o c c u r at very p artly d e se rt lo ess. A very fin e e x a m p le o f th ic k
d ista n t p la ces from the so u rce areas o f th e ir s e d im e n t lo ess (18 to 25 m ) d e p o sits is fo u n d a lo n g th e rig h t
sup p ly . S ed im e n ts req u ire d fo r the a c c u m u la tio n o f bank o f the p re se n t v alley an d b o th th e b an k s o f th e
loess are d eriv e d from d esert areas, Hood p la in s o f p alaco ch an n e l o f th e N a rm a d a riv e r a t B h e ra g h a t
riv e r v alley s, co asta l areas and g lacial o u tw ash . T he (n ear Ja b a lp u r in M .P .).
initial re lie fs arc e lim in a te d d u e to d e p o sitio n o f
loess but so m e tim es h ig h e r p eak s and h ills p ro jec t 2 5 .7 FLUVIAL DESERT LANDFORM S
w ell above the loessic surface. In fact, the d ep o sitio n al B ad lan d , p e d im e n ts, b a ja d a s an d p la y a s are
su rface b e c o m e s fe a tu re le ss. L o ess is read ily ero d ed sp ecial types o f la n d fo rm s o f arid an d se m i-a rid
in h u m id c lim a te s an d th u s d e n se n etw o rk o f rills and reg io n s caused by m e ch an ic al d is in te g ra tio n o f ro ck s
g u llies arc fo rm ed . and w ater actio n .
L o e ss is d iv id e d in to (1) desert loess and (2)
B adland T op o g ra p h y
glacial loess on th e b a sis o f so u rc c s ol' su p p ly o f
sed im e n ts fo r its fo rm a tio n . A c c o rd in g to M. Pecsi T he reg io n s of w eak s e d im e n ta ry fo rm a tio n s
(1 9 6 8 ) ab o u t 10 p e r c c n t o f the land area o f the g lobe arc ex ten siv ely ero d ed by n u m e ro u s rills a n d c h a n
is c o v e re d by lo e ss d e p o s its o f v ary in g th ick n esses nels w hich arc o cca sio n ally d e v e lo p e d d u e to o c c a
(1 m to 100 in). A c c o rd in g to R .V . R u h e (19 7 4 ) sional rain sto rm s. T h e lin ear flu v ial e ro s io n re s u lts
about o ne th ird are a o f th e U S A is co v crc d by aeolian in the form ation o f rav in e s and g u llie s w h ic h a re
d ep o sits. T h e m o st e x te n siv e d e p o sits o f loess are divided by num erous u n d u latin g n arro w rid g es. T h u s,
found in N o rth C h in a w h e re lo ess is sp read o v er an the ground su rface b eco m es so u n e v e n an d c o rru
area o f 7 ,7 4 ,0 0 0 k m 2 (3 ,0 0 ,0 0 0 sq u are m iles) having gated d ue to n u m ero u s g u llies and ra v in e s th a t it
a th ic k n e ss from 9 0 m to 30 0 m. C h in e se loess is b eco m es e n tirely d iffic u lt to w alk on it. S u c h ty p e o f
y ellow in c o lo u r, v ery so ft and im p erm eab le. The lan d scap e is called b ad lan d to p o g ra p h y .
loess te rra in (sp re a d in the Y ello w b asin ) has been
Bolsons and Playas
h eavily ra v in a te d an d g u llie d resu ltin g into the d e
T he in term o n tan e b asin s in arid o r se m ia rid
v elo p m en t o f badland topography. R iv ers form
natural le v e e s a lo n g th e ir b an k s d u e to d e p o sitio n ol areas are g en erally called b o lso n s. S u ch b a s in s a re
sed im en ts d e riv e d th ro u g h the ero sio n ol loess. T his c h aracterized by 3 u n iq u e la n d fo rm s w h ic h fro m th e
p h e n o m e n o n c a u s e s silta tio n and rise of riv er beds. m o u n tain fro n t d o w n w a rd are p e d im e n ts , b a ja d a s
S o m e tim e s th e riv e r b ed s b eco m e h ig h e r than the and p la y a s (fig. 25.10). N u m ero u s ep h em eral stream s
su rro u n d in g g ro u n d su rface. T h ere o ccu rs severe after o rig in atin g from the s u rro u n d in g m o u n ta in
flash flo o d w h e n e v e r the le v ees are b reach ed . T h is is fronts d rain into the b o lso n s. S o m e w a te r c o lle c ts in
the reaso n th a t th e H w a n g H o (now Y ello w river) the cen tre o f the b o lso n s an d form te m p o ra ry la k e s.
w as c o n s id e re d ‘sorrow of China’. T h e Y ellow Such tem p o rary lak es are c a lle d p la y a s. F o r e x a m
riv e r tra n s p o rts th e la rg e st am o u n t o f silt load (1 6 4 0 ple, L ake L ap N o r is a p la y a in th e c e n tre o f th e
m illio n to n n e s p e r y ear) o f all the m a jo r riv ers o f the T arim B asin. T h e p la y as ran g e in area l e x te n t fro m
w ofld. C h in e se lo ess is the e x am p le o f d e se rt loess as a few sq u are m e tres to ten s o f sq u are k ilo m etres.
th e d e p o sits h av e o ccu rred d ue to d ep o sitio n o f d u sts T h ese arc ca lle d ‘k h a b a r i’ an d ‘m a m la h a ’ in A ra
blow n from the d eserts o f cen tral A sia. bian d eserts w h ile they are k n o w n as ‘s h a tts ’ in
T h e loess areas o f E u ro p e in clu d e B o rd e area S ahara. P lay a lak es m ay last fo r d a y s, w eek s o r even
o f G erm an y , low p altcau area o f cen tral B elg iu m and lo n g er b efo re th ey are c o m p le te ly d rie d u p by e v a p o
eastern F rance. L oess is know n as ‘Sim on’ in F ran ce ratio n . E v ap o ra tio n o f p la y a lake w a te r re su lts in the
and B elgium . E u ro p ean loess is the e x a m p le o f fo rm atio n o f e n c ru sta tio n o f a lk a lin e m a te ria ls (so
glacial loess. N orth A m erican loessic areas are spread d iu m b ic a rb o n a te o r so d iu m c a rb o n a te ), sa lt d e p o s
o v er sem i-arid regio n and the b asin s o f th e M issis- its su ch as b o rax . S u ch sa lt-c o v e re d p la y a b e d s are
sippi and th e M issou ri. H ere loessic d e p o sit is called called ‘salinas*.
Fig. 25.10: Mountainous desert landforms-mountainfront, pediments, bajada, bolson and playa.
Bajada and sem iarid reg io n s ra th e r th e y a re fo u n d w id e ly in
G ently sloping dep o sitio n al plain betw een tro p ical and te m p e ra te c lim a te s . A tru e p e d im e n t
pedim ents and playa is called bajada. B ajad a is rep resen ts ro ck cu t su rfa c e s o f m o u n ta in s id e . T h is
form ed due to coalescen ce o f several alluvial fans. featu re is, in fact, a slo p e o f d e riv a tio n o r tr a n s p o r
T hus, bajada is a w holly dep o sitio n al feature. T he tation as thin v en ee r o f d e b ris a ls o m o v e s th ro u g h
slope in its upper part ranges betw een 8° and 10° but this su rface d o w n th e slo p e. T h e s e b a re ro c k su rfa c e s
it becom es 10 to zero in its lo w erm o st p ortion to u ch ex ten d fo r sev eral k ilo m e tre s in le n g th . T h e g e n e ra l
ing the playa (fig. 25.10). g rad ie n t ran g es b e tw e e n l°-7°. S e v e ra l th e o rie s h av e
b een p o stu la te d to a c c o u n t fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
Pediments d e se rt p ed im en ts.
P edim ents situated b etw een m o u n tain fro n t
and bajada in interm o n tan e basin are bro ad , e x te n (1) L a w so n 's R e c e s s io n T h e o r y - A c c o rd
sive, and gently slo p in g areas o f ro ck -cu t su rfaces to A .C . L aw so n (1 9 1 5 ) p e d im e n ts a re d e v e lo p e d
w hich spread as ap ro n s aro u n d the bases o f m o u n becau se o f g rad u al re c e ssio n o f m o u n ta in fro n t cau sed
tains. T he term (p ed im en t) w as first used by G .K . by w eath e rin g an d e ro s io n . D u e to b a c k w a s tin g o f
G ilbert (1882) fo r the su rfaces o f the allu v ial fans m o u n ta in fro n t th ro u g h m e c h a n ic a l d is in te g ra tio n
that encircle m o u n tain s in d eserts. A cco rd in g to o f ro ck s an d c o n s e q u e n t a e o lia n a n d flu v ia l ero sio n
K irk B ry a n .(1922) ‘p e d im en ts are slo p es o f tran s m o u n ta in fro n t is s u b je c te d to g ra d u a l re c e ssio n .
T h is p ro c e ss re s u lts in th e f o rm a tio n o f m o re and
portation cu t on b ed ro ck , u su ally co v ered w ith a
m o re sm o o th ro c k -c u t p la in s . A s th e m o u n ta in front
veneer o f alluvium in tran sit from high to lo w er
re c e d e s d e d ris is d e p o s ite d in th e lo w e r se g m e n t o f
levels. In form and fu n ctio n , a p ed im en t is sim ila r to
the p e d im e n t a n d th u s th e a llu v ia l d e p o s its in the
an alluvial fan, the d iffe re n c e b ein g th at a p ed im en t
fo rm o f a llu v ia l fa n s e x te n d u p s lo p e o n th e p ed i
is an erosional lan d fo rm and a fan is c o n s tru c tio n a l’ m en ts. T h u s, th e th ic k n e s s o f th e v e n e e r o f d e p o sits
(A . B loom ). It m ay be p o in ted out th at p ed im e n ts are a lso in c re a se s. P e d im e n ts a re e x h u m e d d u e to re
now not co n sid ered to be co n fin e d only to the arid m o v al o f d e p o s its u n d e r th e im p a c t o f d ia stro p h ic
a r id AND SEM IA R ID GEOM O RPH O LO G Y
m ovem ents. T h e th in c o v e r re stin g on th e p ed im en t

ate zo n e rep resen ts the zone betw een degradational
m ay also b e re m o v e d th ro u g h c lim atic ch an g e s o r
zone (in n er z o n e \ and aggradational zone (outer
from long c o n tin u e d aeo lian d e fla tio n (fig. 2 5.11).
zone) w here lateral ero sio n is m o st active. T his zone
is also called as zo n e o f p ed im en tation . The forma
tion o f p ed im en t is initiated by active dow ncutting o f
in n er zone resu ltin g into rapid rate o f erosion o f
m o u n tain front. T h e eroded m aterials are rem oved
and d ep o sited by ephem eral stream s resulting from
o ccasio n al strong rain sto rm s in the basins. Thus,
sev eral alluvial fans are form ed on the low er seg
m en ts o f hillslo p es. T h ese alluvial fans gradually
co alesce to form b ajadas. G radually, the stream s are
g rad ed and b raid ed in the in term ed iate zone. R ock
fan s are fo rm ed in the in term ed iate zone due to
lateral ero sio n by th e stream s. T hese ro ck fans gradu
ally ex ten d to b eco m e p ed im en ts.
Fig. 25.11: Formation o f pediments due to recession o f

mountain front.
(2 ) S h e e t-flo o d T h e o r y o f M c G e e -A c c o rd -
ing to W .J. M c G e e (1 8 9 7 ) p e d im e n ts are fo rm ed due
to e ro sio n o f w e a th e re d b e d ro c k s by sh eetflo o d s
o rig in a tin g fro m o c c a sio n a l to rre n tia l rain fa ll in
d e s e rts . T h e e r o d e d m a te r ia ls a re tr a n s p o rte d
d o w n slo p e a n d a re d e p o s ite d as b a ja d a s. T h e a d v o
cates o f th is c o n c e p t d o n o t a tta c h any im p o rtan ce to
lateral e ro s io n in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p ed im en ts I Al luvial Mountain
I Zone Degradation.
b eca u se , a c c o rd in g to th e m , c o n ca v e su rface o f (Aggradation
p e d im e n ts c a n n o t b e fo rm e d b y la teral ero sio n . T he
critics m a in ta in th a t sh e e tflo o d s m ay h av e an cillary
in flu e n c e o n p e d im e n ts o n c e th ey are fo rm ed b ut Fig. 25.12 : Formation o f pediment according to D.W.
th ey c a n n o t in itia te th e fo rm a tio n o f p ed im en ts. Johnson.
(3 ) L a te r a l E r o s io n T h e o r y - G .K . G ilb e rt (4) C o m p o site T h eo ry - It m ay be m e n tio n ed
a ttrib u te d th e fo rm a tio n o f p e d im e n ts to lateral th at the above m en tio n ed th eo ries o f p ed im en t fo r
c o rra sio n b y s tre a m s. L a te r o n S. P a ig e (1 9 1 2 ), E lio t m atio n are b ased on th e m e c h a n ism o f m o n o -
B la c k w e ld e r (1 9 3 1 ), D .W . Jo h n so n (1 9 3 2 ), B erk ey , g eo m o rp h ic p ro c e ss. O n th e o th e r h a n d , som e
M o rris e tc. a lso a d v o c a te d fo r la teral e ro sio n by g eo m o rp h o lo g ists h ave o p in ed th a t p ed im en ts are
stream s as p o w e rfu l m e c h a n is m o f p e d im e n t fo rm a fo rm ed by m o re than one g eo m o rp h ic process. F o r
tion. A c c o rd in g to D .W . J o h n so n th e re are 3 zones ex am p le, K irk B ry an , W .M . D av is, R .P .S harp, Jam es
alo n g th e m o u n ta in s e n c irc lin g an e n term o n ta n e G ilu ly , J.L. R ich , W .H . B rad ley , L.C. K ing, T .J.D .
b asin viz. (i) in n e r z o n e, (ii) o u te r zo n e and (iii) F air etc. h av e p le ad ed fo r c o m p o site o rig in o f p e d i
in te rm e d ia te z o n e (fig . 2 5 .1 2 ). I n n e r zo n e re p re
m ents.
sen ts th e m o u n ta in fro n t w h e re d o w n c u ttin g (v e rti
cal e ro sio n ) by stre a m s is m o s t activ e. T h is zone is, (i) K irk B ry an (1 9 2 3 ) h as p o stu la ted tha
th u s, zo n e o f d e g r a d a tio n . O u te r z o n e rep resen ts p ed im en ts are d e v e lo p e d in th ree w ay s viz. (a) d u e to
th e lo w e r se g m e n t w h ich e x te n d s u p to the m arg in o f lateral ero sio n by stream s co m in g o u t fro m the
th e e n te rm o n ta n e b asin (p lay a). In fact, th is zo n e is m o u n tain fro n t, (b) d u e to ero sio n o f fo o th ill zo n es
c h a ra c te riz e d b y d e p o sitio n to fo rm b ajad a. T h is by rills, and (c) d u e to d isin te g ra tio n o f m o u n tain
zon e, th u s, is th e z o n e o f a g g r a d a tio n . I n te r m e d i fro n ts u n d er th e im p act o f m e c h a n ic a l w eath erin g .
G EO M O RPH O LO G Y
474
(ii) A cco rd in g to W .M . D av is (1 9 3 8 ) first the

m o u n tain fro n t is d isin te g ra te d d u e to m ech an ical
w eathering and then th e w eath ered m aterials are
tran sp o rted d o w n slo p e by sh eetflo o d s. T h ese tw in
p ro cesses cau se g rad u al recessio n o f m o u n tain fro n t
and co n seq u en t d ev e lo p m e n t o f ro ck cu t p ed im en t
su rface. It is ev id en t th a t D av is' c o n ce p t involved the
v iew s o f A .C . L aw so n (recessio n o f m o u n tain front)
and M cG ee (sh eetflo o d ero sio n ) for the d e v e lo p
m e n t o f p ed im en ts.
(iii) A cco rd in g to R.P. S h arp (1 9 4 0 ) lateral
e ro sio n , w eath erin g an d rillw ash play th eir relativ e
ro les in the d ev elo p m en t o f ped im en ts. A cco rd in g to
h im the pedim ents o f N ev ad a (U S A ) ow es th eir
ex isten ce 40 p er cen t to rainw ash.
2 5 .8 ARID CYCLE OF EROSION

T he co n cep t o f arid cy cle o f erosion w as
p o stu lated first by W .M . D avis in 1905. It m ay be
p o in ted out that this co n cep t is ap p licab le on ly in the
cases o f m ountainou s d eserts and not in the case o f
open low -level deserts. F u rth er, besides w ind, w ater
also plays very im po rtan t role in arid cycle o f e ro
sion.
Initial S tage
T he initial stage o f arid cy cle o f ero sio n o f
m ountain-girt deserts is ch aracterized by ex trem ely
dry clim ate (m ean annual rainfall less than 25 cm ),
upliftm ent o f deserts by fo ld in g or fau ltin g , d ev elo p
m ent o f interm ontane basins, in itiatio n o f in land and
centripetal drainage etc. In itially , the in term o n tan e
basins (o f tectonic o rig in ) have th e ir in d e p en d en t
d rainage system and th ere is no d rain a g e c o m m u n i
cation am ong the basins. T he cen tres o f iso la ted
in term on tane basins b eco m e b ase level o f ero sio n .
E vaporation is very active. P lay a is fo rm ed d u e to
accum ulation o f so m e w ater in the cen tre o f the
basins. N early all o f the stream s are c o n se q u e n t an d
drain into the en clo sed b asin s. T h e c y c le o f e ro sio n
begins w ith the d eg rad a tio n o f m o u n tain s and fillin g
(through sed im en tatio n ) o f the b asin s.
Youth
E rosion and d e p o sitio n bo th g o h an d in h an d
and thus the initial re lie fs are g ra d u a lly re d u c e d
because o f erosion o f the m o u n ta in s and fillin g o f the
b asins (fig. 25.1 3 (2 )). T h e w a te r d iv id e s a re g rad u - Fig. 25.13 : Stages o f cycle o f erosion in a rid regions :(1) •'
ally n arro w ed and lo w ered b eca u se o f b a c k w a s tin g initial stage, (2) youth, (3) m aturity and (4)‘
old stage. ,
arid and s e m ia r id g e o m o r p h o l o g y
475
and d o w n w a stin g re sp e c tiv e ly . T h e lo w e r seg m en ts fact, a g rad ed su rface is fo rm ed th ro u g h the process
o f h illslo p es are m o re v ig o ro u sly d isse c te d by rill o f p ed im en tatio n . T h is g ra d ed su rfa ce has been
and gully e ro sio n c a u s e d by o cca sio n a l rain sto rm s. n am ed d ifferen tly by vario u s g eo m o rp h o lo g ists as
It is e v id e n t th a t th e re a re tw o zo n es o f g eo m o rp h ic p a n fa n by A .C . L aw so n (1 915), p ed ip lain by L.C.
sig n ifican ce viz. (i) z o n e o f d e g ra d a tio n on h ig h e r K ing, p ed ip la n e by A .D . H o w ard etc.
lands and (ii) zo n e o f a g g ra d a tio n ( o f th e b asin s).
A lluvial fa n s a re fo rm e d at o u te r m a rg in s o f the 25.9 SAVANNA CYCLE OF EROSION
enclosed b asin s. B a ja d a s a re fo rm e d d u e to c o a le s S av an n a cy cle o f ero sio n is related to the
cence o f s e v e ra l a llu v ia l fan s. D e fla tio n by w ind d e v elo p m en t o f lan d scap es in the sem i-arid en v iro n
becom es a c tiv e w h e n e v e r lo o se sa n d s are av ailab le. m e n t o f S av an n a reg io n o f A frica. T h ere is a w ide
D eflation c a u s e s s m a lle r d e p re ssio n s k n o w n as b lo w ran g e o f o p in io n s ab o u t the m o d e o f m orphological
outs. P la y a la k e is fo rm e d in th e c e n tre o f th e basin. e v o lu tio n o f lan d scap es in A frican S av an n a region.
Som e sa n d d u n e s a re fo rm e d h e re an d th e re alo n g the P rev io u sly , th e m o d e o f d ev elo p m e n t o f landscapes
m argins o f p la y a . R e lie f is re m a rk a b ly re d u c e d by o f this reg io n w as rela ted to arid g eo m o rp h ic cycle
the end o f y o u th fu l stag e. b u t recen tly a g ro u p o f g e o m o rp h o lo g ists has pro
p o sed sep arate cy cle o f ero sio n to acc o u n t fo r typical
Maturity lan d fo rm s o f S av an n a reg io n on the g ro u n d th at
R e lie f d e c re a se s ra p id ly b e c a u se o f p ro g re s clim atic c o n d itio n s (dry and h u m id seasons w ith
sive e ro sio n o f m o u n ta in d iv id e s an d fillin g o f e n m ean annual hig h tem p eratu re) o f this reg io n p ro
clo sed b a sin s. T h e p ro g re s s iv e re c e ssio n o f w ater d u ce d istin ctiv e su ites o f la n d fo rm s, and ex ten siv e
d iv id es in c re a s e s th e siz e o f e n c lo se d basin s. T he ero sio n su rfaces are ch a ra c te riz e d by g ro u p s o f
level o f th e se b a s in s a lso rise s b eca u se o f grad u al in s e lb e rg s and c a s tle k o p p ie s . T h e m o d e o f fo rm a
s e d im e n ta tio n . B a ja d a s are fu rth e r en ric h ed , w id tion o f these ex ten siv e ero sio n su rfaces has been
ened, an d e x te n d e d u p slo p e. E x te n siv e ro ck -cu t p ed i d ifferen tly d escrib ed by g eo m o rp h o lo g ists viz. a c
m en ts are fo rm e d b e tw e e n th e re c e d in g m o u n tain c o rd in g to C o tto n (C .A . C o tto n , 1942) th e se are
fronts and b a ja d a zon e. M o u n tain d iv id es are breached fo rm ed by p o w erfu l lateral co rrasio n . C otton em
d ue to th e ir p ro g re s s iv e re c e ssio n . T h is p ro cess p hatically asserted th at the in selb erg -an d -p lain to
leads to th e in te g ra tio n o f b a sin s and d rain a g e sy s p o g rap h y , as th e end p ro d u ct o f arid cy cle o f ero sio n ,
tem . T h e h ig h e r b a s in s b e c o m e trib u ta ry to the lo w er w as ch aracterized by the p resen ce o f in selb erg s b u t
b asin s as th e w a te r o f th e fo rm e r is d rain e d into the total ab sen ce o f p ed im en ts, w h ich are, in fact, the
la tter by th e s tre a m s w h ic h h av e b reac h ed the d i rep resen tativ e ero sio n al lan d fo rm s o f arid en v iro n
v ides b e tw e e n th e m (fig . 2 5 .1 3 (3). D eflatio n o f m en t and n ot o f sem i-arid e n v iro n m e n t as is the case
sands by w in d s b e c o m e s m o re activ e. T h is p ro cess o f S av an n a reg io n o f A frica. L .C . K in g refu te d this
c au ses th e fo rm a tio n o f b a re s u rfa c e s-d e se rt p a v e co n ce p t o f C o tto n and m a in tain ed th a t lan d scap e
m en ts. d e v elo p m en t in A frican S av an n a o f se m i-a rid en v i
ro n m en t w as th e resu lt o f p e d ip la n a tio n c y cle h av
Old Stage
in g tw in p r o c e s s e s o f s c a r p r e t r e a t and
A ll th e h ig h la n d s are re d u c e d to a lm o st plain
p ed im en ta tio n .
su rface o f v ery lo w h e ig h t. N u m e ro u s resid u al hills
p ro jec t a b o v e th e g e n e ra l flat d e se rt su rface. T h ese K ing's ex p la n a tio n o f S a v a n n a lan d scap es
low h ills k n o w n as in se lb e rg s o r b o rn h a rd ts lo o k like th ro u g h the p ro cess o f p e d ip la n a tio n h as also been
islan d s in th e v a st d eserts. D e flatio n o f san d s by ch allan g ed on the g ro u n d th a t d ry an d h u m id clim ate
w ind is m o st activ e. S ev eral p e d im e n ts are c o a w ith m ean an n u al h ig h te m p e ra tu re g en era tes an
le sce d and form e x te n siv e p ed ip lain , w h ich are, in en v iro n m en t o f in ten se ch em ic a l w ea th e r in g w h ich
fact, the resu lt o f p ed im en ta tio n and scarp retreat. is a d o m in an t g e o m o rp h ic p ro cess o f la n d fo rm d e
T he alm o st fe atu reless d e se rt su rface p ro d u ced at v elo p m en t in S a v a n n a e n v iro n m e n t ch a ra c te riz e d
the end o f arid cy cle o f ero sio n is called d esert b y (i) h ig h te m p eratu re, an d (ii) a b u n d an c e o f su rface
p en ep la in w herein residual hills are called in selb ergs and g ro u n d w a te r d u rin g h u m id seaso n . S u c h c li
w h ic h h a v e b e e n c o n s id e r e d e q u i v a l e n t to m atic co n d itio n lead s to in ten se c h em ica l w e a th e r
m o n d a n o c k s o f flu v ially o rig in a te d p en ep la in s. In ing o f p a re n t ro ck s u p to c o n sid e ra b le d e p th . E vi
476
w a te r ro c k s a re d e c o m p o s e d a n d the n a tu re a n d
d e g re e o f d e c o m p o s itio n d e p e n d s o n th e lith o lo g ic a l
a n d s tru c tu ra l p r o p e r tie s o f p a r e n t ro c k s . T h e b e d
ro c k s u rfa c e ly in g b e lo w th e d e c o m p o s e d p a re n t
ro c k s is c a lle d b a s a l w e a t h e r in g s u r fa c e . There
m a y b e tw o fo rm s o f w e a th e r e d z o n e i.e . e ith e r (i) the
ro c k s a re im p e rfe c tly d e c o m p o s e d u p to c e rta in d ep th
w h e re in u n d e c o m p o s e d r o c k p a rts a s s u m e the form
o f ro u n d e d c o r e s t o n e s o r w o o ls a c k s , o r (ii) the
e n tire ro c k m a s s u p to c o n s id e r a b le d e p th is to ta lly
d e c o m p o s e d a n d ro tte d a n d th u s is f o r m e d a d e c o m
p o se d w e a th e re d z o n e , th e b a s e o f w h ic h is s e p a ra te d
fro m u n w e a th e re d b e d ro c k . T h u s , th e s u rfa c e ,of
u n w e a th e re d b e d ro c k is c a lle d b a s a l w e a th e rin g
s u rfa c e w h ic h is ir r e g u la r in p r o f ile d e p e n d in g on
ro c k re s is ta n c e . T h e u n d u la tin g b a s a l w e a th e r in g
su rfa c e m ay b e e x p o s e d to th e a tm o s p h e r ic c o n d i
tio n if th e w e a th e re d m a te r ia ls a re r e m o v e d b y
d e n u d a tio n a l p ro c e s s e s . T h e d o m e d p a r t o f th e s u r
fa c e is su b je c te d to e x f o lia tio n w e a th e r in g w h e re in
th in la y e rs are p e e le d o ff. It m a y b e , th u s , o b s e rv e d
th a t th e d o m in a n t p ro c e s s o f la n d s c a p e d e v e lo p m e n t
in S a v a n n a re g io n is d e e p c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g a n d
flu v ia l actio n .
J.C . P u g h (1 9 6 6 ) h a s p r e s e n te d h is m o d e l o f
S a v a n n a c y c le o f e ro s io n w h e re in th e c y c le b e g in s
fro m su c h an in itia l s u rfa c e w h ic h h a s d e v e lo p e d
e ith e r o v e r w e a th e re d o r u n w e a th e r e d ro c k s . I n i
tia lly , th e re is in te n s e c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g o f u n d e r
ly in g ro c k s d u e to h ig h te m p e r a tu r e a n d a b u n d a n t
w a te r b o th o n th e g r o u n d s u r f a c e o r b e lo w the
g ro u n d s u rfa c e . T h e ro c k s a re g r a d u a lly r o tte d d o w n
w a rd le a d in g to d e c o m p o s itio n o f r o c k s (fig . 2 5 .1 5 ).
Fig. 25.14 : Deep chem ical weathering and form ation o f D e c o m p o s e d m a te r ia ls a re p a r tly re m o v e d by
domes in Savanna region - (A) limited weath w a te r d u e to fa ll in b a s e le v e l ( s e a le v e l) o f erosion .
ering o f surface r o c k ; (B) downward weath It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t th e r e m o v a l o f w eath ered
ering o f rocks upto considerable depth and
m a te ria ls is e f f e c te d b y in c is io n b y s tre a m s . T he
form ation o f dom ed basal weathering sur
re m o v a l o f m a te r ia ls le a d s to e x p o s u r e o f b asal
fa c e ; (C) rem oval o f pa rt o f decom posed
w e a th e rin g s u rfa c e a t p la c e s (fig . 2 5 .1 4 C ). T h e e x
m aterials a n d exposure o f subsurface d o m e ;
p o s e d d o m ic a l ris e o f th e b a s a l w e a th e r e d s u rfa c e is
(D) form ation o f bornhardts, after R.J. Small,
c a lle d in c ip ie n t in s e lb e r g . T h e e x p o s e d s u rfa c e is
1970.
c a lle d in c ip ie n t p la in s u r f a c e w h ic h is g ra d u a lly
d e n c e s o f d e e p c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g u p to th e d e p th e x te n d e d la te ra lly th r o u g h th e p r o c e s s o f scarp
o f 3 0 -4 5 cm (1 0 0 -1 5 0 fe e t) h a v e b e e n c o lle c te d fro m re tre a t w h ic h le a d s to e lim in a tio n o f s m a ll d o m ic a l
d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e re g io n . E v e n g re a te r d e p th o f ris e s o r d o m e s o r in s e lb e r g s . T h is is fo llo w e d by
w e a th e r e d p ro file u p to 2 0 0 fe e t h as b e e n re p o rte d u p liftm e n t o f th e la n d a n d h e n c e s e c o n d stage or
fro m J o s ^ p la te a u io f N ig e ria . It h a s b e e n d e m o n c y c le o f d e e p c h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g is in itia te d w h i c h ,
s tra te d th a tc lu e to h ig h te m p e ra tu re a n d a b u n d a n t re s u lts in th e f o r m a tio n o f s e c o n d p la in su rface a n d ,
a r id a n d s e m ia r id g e o m o r p h o l o g y ■m
477
Initial surface
Decomposed
i& r i W - -Vs*
Backwearing
Backwearing Insclberg
t r u n c a t e d by
backwearing
Dome-on-Dome
Inselberg
Higher s u r f a c e
L ower
surface
Fig. 25.15 : Form ation o f dome-on-dome inselbergs, after J.C. Pu°h (1966) in R.J. Small, 1970.
d o m e -o n -d o m e to p o g ra p h y (fig . 2 5 .1 5 D ). It is, thus, slo p es and th e se h av e n o t b een fo rm e d b y th e tw in

a p p a re n t th a t P u g h d id n o t a tta c h an y im p o rta n c e tp p ro cesses o f p e d ip la n a tio n o f L .C . K in g i.e., scarp
th e p ro c e s s o f p e d im e n ta tio n in th e e v o lu tio n o f re tre a t an d p e d im e n ta tio n ra th e r th e se a re , in fact,
S a v a n n a la n d s c a p e s . c o n c a v e w a sh s lo p e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n fo rm e d due
M .F . T h o m a s (1 9 6 6 ) re fu te d th e c o n c e p t o f to rem o v al o f w e a h te re d m a te ria ls . A c c o rd in g to
J.C . P u g h re la te d to d e e p w e a th e rin g an d fo rm a tio n T h o m a s, S a v a n n a la n d sc a p e s a re th e re s u lt o f e tc h
o f u n d u la tin g b a sa l w e a th e rin g su rfa c e , an d the in g and rem o v a l o f e tc h e d m a te ria ls b y s tre a m s and
p e d ip la n a tio n c o n c e p t o f L .C . K in g . A c c o rd in g to s u rfa c e w ash . T h e re s u lta n t la n d s c a p e b e c o m e s
h im p e d im e n ts o f N ig e ria n S a v a n n a are n ot basal e tc h p la in an d n o t a p e d ip la in .
CHAPTER 26 : GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 478-491
Ice and related phenomena ; types of glaciers ; movement o f glaciers ;
erosional work o f glaciers ; erosional and residual landforms ;
transportational and depositional works o f glaciers ; depositional
landforms ; glacio-fluvial deposits and landforms ; glacial geomorphic
cycle ; ice ages and pleistocene glaciation.
GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
26.1 ICE AND RELATED PHENOMENA ing sn o w is tra n s fo rm e d in to g ra n u la r sn o w o f denser

T h e m o v in g ice m ass d o w n slo p e u n d er the form . S u ch g ra n u la r sn o w is c a lle d firn o r neve.
im p a c t o f g rav ity is c a lle d g lacier. A b o u t 10 per cent F u rth e r c o m p a c tio n o f g ra n u la r sn o w p ro d u c e s pure
o f th e e a rth 's su rfa c e is now co v ere d by glaciers. so lid g lacial ice.
A b o u t 2-3 m illio n y ears B P g la ciers ex ten d ed o v er
2 6 .2 TY PES OF GLA C IERS
a lm o s t o n e -th ird o f th e e a rth 's lith o sp h eric su rface.
G la c ie rs are g e n e ra lly d iv id e d in to 2 b road
G la c ie rs are fo rm e d d u e to a cc u m u la tio n o f ice
ca te g o rie s viz. (i) m o u n ta in o r v a lle y g la c ie rs and
ab o v e s n o w -lin e u n d e r e x tre m e c o ld clim ate. S n o w
(ii) c o n tin e n ta l g la c ie rs . H .W . A h lm a n n ( 1953) clas
lin e is g e n e ra lly d e fin e d as a zo n e b etw ee n p e rm a
n e n t an d se a so n a l sn o w . In fact, sn o w -lin e d en o tes sifie d w o rld g la c ie rs on th e b a s is o f th e ir th e rm a l and
th a t h e ig h t a b o v e w h ic h th e re is p e rm a n e n t sn o w m o rp h o lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s . H e d iv id e d g la ciers
c o v e r and th u s it c o rre sp o n d s to the lev el w h ere in to 3 b ro ad c a te g o rie s ( c o n tin e n ta l g la c ie rs , valley
a v e ra g e te m p e ra tu re is a lw a y s b elo w fre e z in g p o in t g la c ie rs an d p ie d m o n t g la c ie rs ) a n d in to 11 su b ty p es
d u rin g th e w a rm e s t m o n th o f th e y ear. T h e sn o w -lin e as fo llo w s -
is a t th e lo w e s t h e ig h t (O m o r s e a -le v e l) in th e p o la r 1. G la c ie rs w ith o u t g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l co n
re g io n a n d in c re a s e s e q u a to rw a rd w h ere it te n d s to stra in ts o r g la c ie rs o f e x te n s iv e ic e s h e e ts c h a ra c te r
o c c u r b e tw e e n 5 0 0 to 6 0 0 0 m . T h e sn o w -lin e is iz ed by g la c ia l m o v e m e n ts in all d ire c tio n s . T hese
fo u n d a t th e h ig h e s t e le v a tio n in th e d rie r p a rt o f the g la c ie rs h a v e b e e n f u r th e r d iv id e d in to 3 su b ty p e s -
T ib e ta n p la te a u a n d A n d e s (6 5 0 0 m ). T h e e stim a te d (i) C o n tin e n ta l g la c ie r s
n u m b e r o f all ty p e s o f g la c ie rs all o v e r th e w o rld (ii) Ice c a p s
ra n g e s b e tw e e n 7 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e a re a s o f
(iii) H ig h la n d g la c ie r s
a c c u m u la tio n o f h u g e v o lu m e o f ice a re c a lle d snow-
2. G la c ie rs w ith g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l co n strain ts
fields w h ic h g e n e ra te g la c ie rs o f d iffe re n t d im e n
o r c o n fin e d to m o re o r le s s m a rk e d c o u rs e s .
s io n s. T h e g la c ie rs g ro w b y g ra d u a l tra n s fo rm a tio n
(iv ) V a lle y g la c ie r s o f A lp in e ty p e
o f s n o w in to granular snow, th e n in to firn o r neve
a n d fin a lly in to solid glacial ice. S n o w is a flu ffy (v ) C ir q u e g la c ie rs
m a ss o f lo o s e ly p a c k e d s n o w fla k e s o f v ery low (v i) G la c ie r to n g u e s
d e n s ity h a v in g an o p e n fe a th e r-lik e a p p e a ra n c e . (v ii) W a ll- s id e d g la c ie r s
S e m i-c o m p a c te d sn o w d u e to th e w e ig h t o f o v e r ly (v iii) T r a n s a c tio n g la c ie r s
GLACIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
3. C a k e -lik e ic e sh eets (27 km ), R im o g la c ie r (4 0 km ), H im a rc h e g lacier,

(ix ) #P ie d m o n t g la c ie rs B arch e g lacier, M in ap in g la c ie r (all lo c ated in th e
(x) F o o t g la c ie rs K ash m ir H im a lay a); H isp a r g la c ie r (60 km ), B aifo
(xi) S h e lf ice g la cier (62 km ), B alto ro g la cier (58 km ), S iachen
Ice Sheets or Ice Caps - T h e b ig g e st g la ciers g la cier (72 km ), B atu ra g la cier (58 km ), S asaini
on the ea rth 's lan d s u rfa c e a re c a lle d ice sh eets w h ich g la cier (158 km ), M o h il Y az g la c ie r (29 km ), Y az
are b ro ad d o m e s w ith fla tte n e d c ro s s -se c tio n c o v e r G hil g lacier (29 km ), K h u rd o p in g la c ie r (41.6 km ),
ing th o u sa n d s o f sq u a re k ilo m e te rs. T h e se are h u n (all in K arak o ram ran g e) ; M ilan g la c ie r (19 km ),
d reds o f k ilo m e te rs in w id th . T h e y s u b m e rg e u n d e r K ed arn ath g la cier (14 km ), G an g o tri g la cier (25
km ), K osa glacier (11 km ) (all in K um aun H im a la y a );
ly in g to p o g ra p h y . Ic e ra d ia te s o u tw a rd fro m the
Z em u g lacier (25 km ) and K a n c h e n ju n g a g la c ie r (16
cen tre o f th e ice m a ss. T h e se ra d ia tin g ice m a sse s are
km ) (all. in S ikkim ).
called ice sh eets. T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n ice sh eets
and ice cap s is th a t o f area l e x te n t e.g . d o m e -sh a p e d P ie d m o n t G la c ie rs - T h e g la c ie rs fo rm ed
ice m a sses sp re a d in g o v e r m o re th a n 5 0 ,0 0 0 k m 2 are d u e to co alescen ce o f sev eral m o u n ta in o r v alley
called ice sheets w h ile sm all ice sh e e t w ith an area glaciers at the fo o th ill zo n e are c a lle d p ie d m o n t
less th an 5 0 ,0 0 0 k m 2 is c a lle d ice cap. T h e cen tral glaciers. S uch g laciers are fo u n d on ly in c o ld e r areas
p art o f an ice c a p o r ice s h e e t is c a lle d ice dome. T he and not in the tropical or te m p erate re g io n s b ec a u se
m o st e x te n siv e ice sh e e ts a re A n ta rc tic an d G re e n they m elt w hen they reach the foothill zone. M elasp in a
land ice sh e e ts. g lacier o f A lask a (U S A ) is typ ical ex a m p le o f p ie d
m o n t glaciers.
Continental Glaciers - C o n tin e n ta l glaciers
are, in fa c t, e x te n s iv e ice sh eets. T h e se are called Ice s h e lf is a flo atin g th ick ice sh eet o r ice cap
c o n tin e n ta l b e c a u s e th e y c o v e r m o st p a rt o f the attach ed to the coast. S in ce th ere is no fric tio n o f ice
c o n tin e n t. E x te n s iv e ic e s h e e ts ra d ia te o u tw ard from w ith the bed and hen ce ice can sp read freely . S u ch
the c e n tre a n d m o v e d o w n slo p e . D u rin g P leisto cen e g laciers are ab u n d an tly fo u n d alo n g th e A n ta rc tic
coasts e.g. Ross Ice Shelf, R onne-Filchner Ice S helf etc.
Ice A g e e x te n s iv e ic e s h e e ts m o v e d fro m tw o cen tres
(v iz. L a b r a d o r a n d K e e w a tin ) an d c o v e re d ab o u t one Ic e fie ld is co m p arativ ely flat and ex te n siv e
h a lf o f N o rth A m e ric a n c o n tin e n t. A t p re se n t the m ass o f ice sheets.
b ig g e s t c o n tin e n ta l g la c ie rs a re A n ta rc tic and G re e n C irq u e glaciers - The ice occupying an arm chair-
la n d ic e s h e e ts . T h e A n ta rc tic c o n tin e n ta l g lacier shaped cirque in the mountains is called cirque glacier.
h a v in g a n a v e ra g e th ic k n e s s o f 4 0 0 m co v ers an area N ic h e g la c ie r rep resen ts a sm all u p la n d ice
o f 8 m illio n s q u a re k ilo m e te rs. T h e ice sh eets rise m ass w hich rests upon a slo p in g ro c k face.
a b o u t 4 5 0 0 m a b o v e m e a n se a -le v e l. T h e G reen la n d
c o n tin e n ta l g la c ie r w ith th e th ic k n e ss o f 3 0 0 0 m at its 2 6.3 MOVEMENT OF GLACIERS
c e n tra l d o m e is s p re a d o v e r an are a o f 1 ,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 km G lacier m o v es u n d er the im p act o f th e force
w h ic h is a b o u t th re e -fo u rth o f th e islan d . S m a lle r ice o f g rav ity w h ich is the resu lt o f th e th ic k n e ss o f ice
caps o c c u r in A rc tic C a n a d a , Ic e la n d , N o rw ay etc. m ass and the g rad ie n t o f the bed. In te ch n ica l te rm s
Mountain or Valley Glaciers - T h e bo d y o f g la cier ad v an ces b ecau se ‘it d e fo rm s to stress se t up
ice m o v in g d o w n s lo p e u n d e r th e im p act o f grav ity in the ice m ass by the fo rce o f g ra v ity ’. T h e stre ss is
th ro u g h th e v a lle y b o rd e re d by ro c k v alley w alls in set up b ecau se o f the w eig h t o f o v e rly in g ice. H y d ro
th e m o u n ta in s is c a lle d m o u n ta in g la c ie r o r valley static p ressu re and sh aar stresses are the tw o m ain
g la c ie r o r A lp in e g la c ie r. T h e le n g th o f th ese g la c o m p o n en ts o f in tern al stress. T h e h y d ro static p re s
c ie rs ra n g e s fro m a few k ilo m e tre s to 2 0 0 0 km . T h ey su re re p re se n tin g the w eig h t o f o v erly in g ice is the
a re lo c a te d g e n e ra lly a b o v e th e sn o w -lin e as they are sam e in all d ire c tio n s o f th e ice m ass. T hus, it is the
a b la te d w h ile d e sc e n d in g d o w n th e sn o w -lin e. T h e sh ear stress w h ich , b ein g th e o u tc o m e o f the w eig h t
im p o rta n t g la c ie rs o f th e H im a lay an re g io n s are o f the su p erin cu m b en t ice and su rface slo p e o f th e
g lacier, cau ses the p articles o f ice to slip p a st o ne
(fig u re s in b ra c k e ts d e n o te the le n g th o f valley
g la c ie rs ) - R u p a l g la c ie r (1 6 km ), P u n m ah g la c ie r an o th er. *
g eo m o r ph o lo g y
480
T h ere are three ty p es o f m o v em en t o f g laciers w orks. T h e te rm glacierization means the coverage
viz. (i) by slid in g o v e r b ed ro ck , (ii) by in tern al o f an a re a by m o v in g g la c ia l ice while glaciation
d efo rm atio n (know n as creep ) o f the ice, and (iii) by re fe rs to th e actio n o f m o v in g ice on land. It may be
altern ate co m p ressio n and e x ten sio n o f the icem ass. p o in ted o u t th at g la c ia tio n m ay in c lu d e both the
T h e rate o f m o v em en t o f g la cier d ep en d s on the p ro cesses o f o c c u p a tio n o f la n d b y ice m asses and
th ickness o f glacial ice and its slope e.g. the g reater e ro sio n al an d d e p o sitio n a l w o rk s o f ad v an cin g gla
the thickness o f glacial ice, and steep er its slope, the ciers.
faster the m o v em en t o f the g la cier and vice versa. T h e e ro sio n a l w o rk o f th e g la c ie rs is accom
T h e rate o f m o v em en t o f glacial ice d ecreases from p lish ed th ro u g h the m e c h a n is m s o f abrasion, pluck
the ce n te r line to w ard s the sides or ed g es o f the in g and p o lis h in g . P u re ice m a ss is geom orpho
glaciers because the friction o f the ice against rock walls logical ly in activ e b u t w h en c o a rs e d e b ris is carried
retard s the flow from the surface tow ards the bottom by the g la c ie r at its b ase it b e c o m e s a c tiv e agent of
or the bed. T h e av erag e velocity o f m ost o f the ero sio n . T hus, the g la c ic r e ro d e s its b ed and side
g laciers ranges betw een 3 m and 300m per year. The w alls w ith the help o f to o ls o f e ro s io n (c o a rse debris)
in ternal defo rm atio n o f the ice m akes the glaciers th rough the m c ch an ism o f a b ra sio n . L arg e particles
slu g g ish in th eir m ovem en t. F or exam ple. M eservc o f w ell jo in te d ro ck s arc d c ta c h e d by the m oving
G lacier in V icto ria L and o f A ntarctica m oves at the glacial icc. T h is m e ch an ism is c a lle d plucking.
rate o f 3-4m per year. On the other hand, m ore active
basal sliding o f the ice causes higher velocity o f the 26.5 EROSIONAL AND RESIDUAL LANDFORMS
glaciers. F or exam ple, Franz Jo se f G lacicr o f N ew T he lan d fo rm s carv c d out o f g la cial erosion
Z ea lan d m oves at the rate o f 300m p er year. m cludc b u m p s (w h a lc b a c k , rock d ru m lin ) and de
Jakobshavn Isbrae G lacier o f G reenland m oves at pressions, U -shaped valleys, h an g in g v alleys, cirques,
m uch faster velocity (viz. 7-12 km per year). Sudden aretes, horns, n u n atak s, c rag an d tail, g lacial stair
increase in the velocity o f the glaciers causing ve w ay, ro ch csm o u to n n ces, tro u g h lak es, tarn, fiords
locities o f 4-7 km per year is called p e rio d ic g la cial ctc.
surge. The occasional glacial surge is characterized
by the m ovem ent o f ice at the rate o f 5m per hour. U -Shaped V alleys
T h e forw ard m ovem ent o f glacicr is called a d v a n c e T h e cro ss-sec tio n of g la cial v a lle y s or glacial
ment of glaciers w hile w ithdraw al o f glacicr is troughs of m o u n tain g la c ie rs is U -sh a p e d w hich is
k n o w n as retreat of glacier. The d estruction o f ch aracterized by steep v alley w alls w ith concave
g la cial fro n t due to m eltin g o f ice consequent upon slope and broad and fiat v alley flo o r (fig s. 26.1 and
in crease o f tem p eratu re is called ablation of glacier. 2). Som e tim es, U -sh ap ed v a lle y s are associated
w ith tributary v alley s c a lle d as hanging valleys.
2 6 .4 EROSIONAL WORK OF GLACIERS A cco rd in g to one g ro u p o f g la c io lo g is ts g laciers do
N o rm ally , a g la c ie r is su pposed to erode the
ro ck s, tran sp o rt the ero d ed m aterials and d ep o sit the
ero d ed m a teria ls at su itab le places like o th er agents
o f ero sio n and d ep o sitio n b u t th ere are tw o c o n tra st
ing view p o in ts as reg ard s g lacial erosion. O ne g ro u p
o f g la cio lo g ists, very o ften called as p ro tectio n ists,
b eliev es th at g la c ie r instead, o f ero d in g the ro ck s
p ro tects them as it co v ers the bedrocks. T h is p ro tec
tio n c o n cep t is b ased on the b e lie f th at g lacial ice is
so fter than the ro ck s an d h en ce it can n o t ero d e them .
The second g ro u p o f g la cio lo g ists d o es n o t accep t
the g la ciers as in ert ag en ts o f ero sio n ra th e r take
them as activ e p o te n t ag en ts o f ero sio n an d d e p o si
tion. O n an av erag e, g la ciers m o d ify the p re-ex istin g
landscapes th ro u g h th e ir ero sio n al and d ep o sitio n al Fig. 26.1: U-shaped valley.
GLACIAL G E O M O R PH O LO G Y
not fo rm th e ir o w n v a lle y s b u t flo w th ro u g h p re o f h an g in g v alley s. (1 ) A c c o rd in g to g la c ia l e r o sio n

ex istin g flu v ia lly o rig in a te d v alley s. T h ey m o d ify sch o o l h a n g in g v alley s are c a rv e d o u t e n tire ly by
p re-ex istin g riv e r v alley s th ro u g h th e m e ch an ism o f g la cial ero sio n . T h e h a n g in g v alley s, a c c o rd in g to
ab rasio n a n d p lu c k in g an d th u s they tra n sfo rm th em th is c o n ce p t, are th e re s u lt o f d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e
into U -sh a p e d v alley s. O n th e o th e r h an d , the a d v o lev els o f m ain a n d trib u ta ry g la c ia l v alley s b e c a u se
cates o f e x tre m e g la cial e ro sio n b e liev e th a t g laciers o f d iffe re n tia l o v e r-d e e p e n in g b e tw e e n th e m a in a n d
dig o u t th e ir ow n v alley s th ro u g h w h ich th ey flow . It trib u tary v alley s. T h e m a in g la c ie r b e in g lo n g e r,
m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t if w e lo o k at th e d ep th and w id er and m o re e x te n siv e th an its trib u ta rie s e ro d e s
w idth o f g la c ia l v a lle y s it b eco m es c le a r th at such its v alley m o re th an th e trib u ta ry g la c ie rs a n d h e n ce
e n o rm o u s v a lle y s c a n n o t b e d u g o u t by glaciers the v alley o f th e m ain g la c ie r b e c o m e s m u c h d e e p e r
alone. It m a y b e c o n c lu d e d th a t g lacial v alley s are and h en ce th e trib u ta ry v a lle y s h a n g o v e r th e m a in
m o d ified fo rm s o f p re -e x istin g valley s. v alley. (2) A c c o rd in g to g la c ia l p r o te c tio n s c h o o l
the m ain v alley s are w a te r-e ro d e d a n d th e ir trib u ta r
Hanging Valleys ies o rig in atin g from h ig h e r m o u n ta in s c a rry ic e w ith
T h e v a lle y s o f trib u ta ry g la ciers w h ich jo in them . T h e m ain v alley s are m o re a n d m o re d e e p e n e d
the m ain g la c ia l v a lle y s o f m u c h g reater d ep th are b ecau se o f w a te r actio n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e
called h a n g in g v a lle y s (fig . 2 6 .2 ). A fter d eg laciatio n trib u taries are u n ab le to d eep e n th e ir v a lle y s lik e th e
the m e lt-w a te r o f h a n g in g v alley s m ak es w aterfalls m ain valleys b eca u se th ey are fu ll o f ice. T h u s, th e
w h ile jo in in g th e m a in v alley . T h ere are tw o c o n level o f th e trib u tary g la cial v a lle y s b e c o m e s h ig h e r
trastin g o p in io n s a b o u t th e o rig in and d ev elo p m en t than the m ain v alley s. C o n s e q u e n tly , th e trib u ta ry
Fig. 26.2 : Hanging valley.

482 GEOMORPHOLOGY
valleys appear h a n g in g o v e r th e m a in v a lle y s. T h is (1 ) A c c o rd in g to 'glacial protection theory
sc h o o l p re s e n ts th e fo llo w in g e v id e n c e s in its s u p of Garwood* d e p re s s io n s a re fo rm e d b y fro s t action
port. (i) N o t all th e trib u ta ry g la c ia l v a lle y s u n i an d w a te r-e ro s io n a n d so il c re e p d u rin g in terg lac ial
fo rm ly h a n g o v e r th e m a in v a lle y s , (ii) not all th e p e rio d b e fo re th e fo rm a tio n o f c irq u e s (co rries).
g la c ia l v a lle y s are a s s o c ia te d w ith h a n g in g v a lle y s , T h e s e d e p re s s io n s are la te r m o d ifie d b y g la c ie rs to
a n d (iii) n o t all th e trib u ta ry g la c ia l v a lle y s are fo rm c o rrie s . In fact, g la c ia l ic e o ffe rs p ro te c tio n to
h a n g in g v a lle y s , a n d (iv ) h a n g in g v a lle y s are fo u n d c o rrie s.
o n ly in th o se a re a s w h e re trib u ta ry g la c ie rs o rig in a te (2 ) A c c o rd in g to ‘bergschrund theory* o f
fro m h ig h e r h e ig h t th a n th e m a in g la c ie r. D .W . J o h n s o n b a s a l s a p p in g is th e m o st a c tiv e proc
ess o f c o rrie e x c a v a tio n . A c r e v a s s e o r a b e rg sc h ru n d
Cirques
is c a u s e d in th e g la c ia l ice d u e to its m o v e m e n t (fig.
The a rm c h a ir-s h a p e d o r a m p h ith e a tric c irq u e
2 6 .3 ). A lte rn a te fre e z e a n d th a w a t th e in te rse c tin g
or corie is a h o rs e s h o e - sh a p e d , s te e p w a lle d d e p re s
p o in t o f the c irq u e w all a n d b e r g s c h ru n d causes
s io n re p re s e n tin g a g la c ia te d v alle y h ead . C irq u e s
m e c h a n ic a l d is in te g ra tio n o f ro c k s a n d th u s d e e p e n s
are v a rio u s ly n a m e d in d iffe re n t c o u n rie s e.g . cwm
th e d e p re s s io n . T h is m e c h a n is m is c a lle d b a s a l s a p
in W a le s , corrie in S c o tla n d , kar in G e rm a n y , botn
p in g . G ra d u a l in c re a s e in th e b e r g s c h ru n d a n d c o n
in N o rw a y etc. T h e re are fo u r m a in ty p e s o f c irq u e s
se q u e n t a c c e le ra tio n o f basal sapping re s u lts in the
v iz . (i) sim p le c irq u e s, (ii) c o m p o u n d c irq u e s, (iii)
fo rm a tio n o f w ell d e v e lo p e d c o rrie . T h is th e o ry is
h a n g in g c irq u e s, a n d (iv ) n iv a tio n c irq u e s. T h e re are
c ritic is e d on tw o m a in c o u n ts v iz . (i) m o s t o f the
3 m a in c o m p o n e n ts o f an o p en c irq u e (fig. 2 6 .3 ). (1 )
b e rg s c h ru n d s are v ery sm a ll a n d th e y d o n o t re a c h
H e a d w all is a lm o s t v e rtic a l fro m th e c irq u e b asin
th e ro c k w all o r h e a d w a ll a n d (ii) m o s t o f the
a n d m a y a ttain th e h e ig h t o f 6 0 0 m to 9 0 0 m w ith
g la c ie rs c o n ta in v ery fe w b e r g s c h r u n d s .
w a ll-lik e ste e p slo p e . T h e re is no a c c u m u la tio n o f
d e b ris at its b ase. It m a y be n o te d th a t the a b se n c e o f (3 ) T h e glacial erosion theory o r v e ry o fte n
a n y d e b ris (ta lu s) d e n o te s th e fact th a t th e re is no role k n o w n as cyclic theory of cirque formation of
o f w e a th e rin g in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c irq u e s an d thus W .H . H o b b s (1 9 1 0 ) a d v o c a te s th a t c irq u e s a re fo rm e d
g la c ia l e ro s io n is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e ir fo rm a tio n . (2) a c c o rd in g to th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e c y c le o f m o u n
The s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f c irq u e s is th e ir b asin s ta in g la c ia tio n . F irs t, a s m a ll h o llo w is fo rm e d .
w h ic h r e p r e s e n t th e f lo o r s o f c ir q u e s . A f te r L a te r, th is h o llo w in c re a s e s in s iz e d u e to g la c ia l
d e g la c ia tio n th e c irq u e b a sin m a y fo rm la k e s if w a te r e ro s io n a c c o rd in g to th e b e r g s c h r u n d th e o ry o f W .D .
c o lle c ts in it. (3 ) T h e th ird c o m p o n e n t is th re s h o ld J o h n s o n . G r a d u a l l y , t h e w a l l o f t h e h o ll o w
which is th e o u te r m a rg in o f c irq u e . re c e d e s a n d u ltim a te ly s e m ic ir c u la r a rm c h a ir sh ap ed
Theories of cirque formation - T h e f o llo w
in g c o n d itio n s fa v o u r th e fo rm a tio n a n d d e v e lo p
m e n t o f c irq u e s , (i) T h e w a te r-e ro d e d v a lle y s sh o u ld
b e w id e ly s p a c e d b e fo re th e in itia tio n o f g la c ia tio n .
(ii) T h e re s h o u ld b e w id e s p re a d in te n s e s n o w fa ll so
th a t s n o w fie ld c a n b e fo rm e d a n d g la c ie rs m a y b e
in itia te d , (iii) T h e lith o lo g y sh o u ld b e h o m o g e n e o u s
in c o m p o s itio n . I f c irq u e s a re m o s t s ig n ific a n t an d
in te re s tin g la n d fo rm s o f g la c ia l e ro s io n th e ir o rig in
is a ls o c o m p le x a n d is s till u n c e rta in . V a rio u s
g e o m o rp h o lo g is ts h a v e p o s tu la te d th e ir c o n tra s tin g
h y p o th e s e s to a c c o u n t fo r th e o rig in o f c irq u e s e.g .
(i) G la c ia l P r o te c tio n T h e o ry o f G a r w o o d , (ii)
B e rg s c h ru n d N iv a tio n T h e o ry o f W . D. Jo h n so n ,
(iii) C y c lic T h e o ry o f H o b b s, (iv ) M e ltw a te r a n d
R a in w a te r T h e o ry o f L e w is , a n d (v ) R o ta tio n a l slip
T h e o ry .
GLACIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
depression o r c irq u e is fo rm ed . I f c irq u e s a re fo rm e d in te rse c tio n o f tw o s te e p -sid e d c irq u e s is c a lle d cel.

on both th e sid e s o f a m o u n ta in , th e y re c e d e b a c k a n d A re te is c a lle d a serrate range in E n g lan d . A p y
form sh arp m o u n ta in p e a k . T h e in te rs e c tio n o f re ra m id a l o r tria n g u la r-fa c e te d p e a k fo rm e d d u e to
ceding c irq u e s fo rm s c o ls. U ltim a te ly , th e w h o le re c e ss io n an d in te rs e c tio n o f th re e o r m o re cirq u e s is
upland is d is s e c te d b y th e re c e ss io n o f c o rrie s a n d is c a lle d horn on th e b a sis o f M a tte rh o rn p e a k of
transform ed in to fre tte d u p la n d . S w itz e rla n d (fig . 2 6 .4 ). T h e c re s t-lin e o f a retes an d
p y ra m id a l p e a k s is c a lle d ‘col-and-peak topogra
Tam phy’. C o n v e rg in g a re te s lo o k in g lik e a sta r fish in
A ro c k b a sin is fo rm e d a t th e flo o r o f th e p la n a re c a lle d ‘star-fish aretes’. S e v e ra l ex am p les
cirque basin d u e to e ro s io n c o n s e q u e n t u p o n g re a te r o f p y ra m id a l p e a k s o r h o rn s a re fo u n d in th e H im a
thickness o f ice m a ss a n d its e n o rm o u s p re ssu re . la y as e.g . M t. G o d v in A u ste n a n d B ro a d P e a k in th e
A fter d e g la c ia tio n th is ro c k b a sin is fille d up w ith K a ra k o ra m R a n g e , B a d rin a th a n d N a n d a D e v i in
w ater and th u s fo rm s a sm all g la c ia l la k e w h ich is U .P . H im a la y a , M t. K a ila sh in T ib e t, M t. E v e re st
called as a c irq u e la k e o r sim p ly a tarn . an d M a k a lu in N e p a l etc.
Cols, Aretes and Horns Nunatak
A h ig h p la te a u o r a m o u n ta in ra n g e afte r T h e h ig h e r p e a k s an d m o u n d s su rro u n d e d by
being e ro d e d ra th e r in c o m p le te ly by g la c ie rs m ain ly ice fro m all sid es are c a lle d n u n a ta k s. T h e y lo o k lik e
through th e p ro c e s s o f c irq u e re c e ssiso n re m a in s ‘as scattered sm all isla n d s a m id e x te n siv e ice m a sse s.
rem nants b etw ee n the steep , co n cav e g laciated fo rm s’. T h a t is w hy th ey are also c a lle d g la c ia l isla n d s. T h e y
Such im p e rfe c tly g la c ia te d u p la n d su rfa c e is called d ecre ase in size d u e to e ro s io n c a u s e d by g la c ia l
scalloped upland o r biscuit board topography. lateral ero sio n an d fro st a c tio n .
T he s c a llo p e d u p la n d is tra n sfo rm e d in to fretted
upland by c o m p le te d is s e c tio n o f the terrain th ro u g h Crag and Tail
cirque re c e ss io n . A p e c u lia r la n d fo rm h a v in g v e rtic a l e ro d e d
steep u p g la cial sid e and ta il-lik e a p p e a ra n c e w ith
lo w er h eig h t d o w n g la c ia l sid e is c a lle d c ra g a n d tail
HORN
(fig. 2 6 .5 ). S u ch la n d fo rm is d e v e lo p e d o v e r o ld
v alcan ic o r b a sa ltic p lu g s w h ic h p ro je c t a b o v e the
g ro u n d su rface as re sis ta n t k n o ts. T h e se v o lc a n ic
p lu g s o ffe r re sista n c e in th e flo w d ire c tio n o f g la c ia l
ice and h en ce th e sid e facin g th e d ire c tio n from
w hich the ice co m es b e c o m e s ste e p d u e to e ro s io n
and is called crag. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e o th e r sid e
bein g sh eltered by g la cial ice b e c o m e s e lo n g a te d
w ith g en tle slo p e and a p p e a rs lik e a tail.
Flow D irection
Fig. 26.4 : An example o f a hom.

T o m o u n tain d iv id e is sh arp en ed d u e to re c e s
sion o f cirq u es on its bo th sides. Such sh arp en ed
p eak s resem b lin g saw -teeth s are called aretes. A n
arete is, in fact, a saw -to o th ed d iv id e co n sistin g o f a
series o f close and in terv en in g rid g e s e g m e n ts.’ T h e R o ch es m o u to n n e e s -R o c h e s m o u to n n e e s are
gap form ed due to c u ttin g o f h e^ d w alls b eca u se o f stream lin e d asy m m e tric a l h illo c k s, m o u n d s o r h ills
484
h a v in g o n e s id e s m o o th ly m o u ld e d w ith g e n tle slo p e ro c h e s m o u to n n e e s . (i
(o n s e t o r s to s s sid e ) a n d th e s te e p e n e d a n d c ra g g y lee o n e m e tre in le n g th h a v in g ic e -sm o o th e d convex
s id e (fig . 2 6 .6 ). T h e te rm ro c h e s m o u to n n e e w as first su rfa c e , (ii) A t la rg e -s c a le ro c h e s m o u to n n e e s m t
u se d by d e S a u s su re in 1804 fo r th e stre a m lin e d se v e ra l h u n d re d m e tre s in th e ir d im e n s io n . T h ey are
ro c k y e m in e n c e s re s e m b lin g a s h e e p in ly in g p o s v ery o fte n a lig n e d to s tru c tu ra l w e a k n e s s , (iii) A t the
tu re. T h e o n s e t o r sto ss s id e is s m o o th e n e d th ro u g h la rg e st-sc a le ro c h e s m o u to n n e e s re p re s e n t com plete
th e m e c h a n is m s o f a b ra sio n a n d p o lish in g by th e h ills w h o se o n s e t s id e s h a v e b e e n sm o o th ed by
a d v a n c in g ice w h ile th e lee sid e is ste e p e n e d d u e to a d v a n c in g ice w h ile th e le e s id e s h a v e b e e n steepend
p lu c k in g o u t o f jo in t b lo c k s b y d e sc e n d in g ice m ass. by d e s c e n d in g ice. S e v e ra l ro c h e s m o u to n n e e s are
T h e re is w id e ra n g e o f v a ria tio n in th e d im e n sio n o f fo u n d in th e g la c ia te d v a lle y s o f K a s h m ir H im alaya.
Lee Side
Sleep Slop'
Fig. 26.6: Roches moutonnees.
G la c ia l sta ir w a y s - G lacial sta irw a y s, also arm s o f th e s e a w h ic h h a v e o c c u p ie d U -shaped

k n o w n as g ia n t s ta ir w a y s o r c y c lo p e a n sta ir s, are g la c ia te d v a lle y s w h ic h w e re d u g o u t b e lo w sea-
very p icturesque and bew ild erin g glaciated landform s. lev el th ro u g h th e m e c h a n is m s o f a b ra s io n a n d pluck
T h e le n g th o f e a c h sta ir ra n g e s fro m a few m e tre s to ing by v alley g la c ie rs d e s c e n d in g fro m c o a s ta l m oun
se v e ra l k ilo m e tre s. E a c h sta ir is s e p a ra te d fro m the tain s. F io rd s a re c h a r a c te r iz e d b y s te e p sid e w alls
o th e r by v e rtical c liffs m e a su rin g 30 to 3 0 0 m etres. an d se v e ra l h a n g in g v a lle y s . T h e y a re v e ry deep
T h e s e sta irs are fo rm e d in a v ariety o f m a n n er. T h e to w a rd s th e c o a s ta l la n d a n d b e c o m e s h a llo w for
a d v a n c in g ic e o f g la c ie rs c a rv e s o u t g ia n t stairw ay s so m e d is ta n c e to w a rd s th e s e a b u t th e y ag ain be
th ro u g h th e p ro c e sse s o f a b ra sio n and p lu c k in g o f c o m e d e e p . T h u s , th e re is s lig h tly ra is e d p a rt be
ste e p fa u lts w h ic h c o m e a c ro ss th e p ath s o f m o v in g
g la c ie rs. T h e p lu c k in g o f ro ck s at th e fo o t o f fau lts
fo rm s v e rtic a l c liffs. S m a lle r d e p re ssio n s are fo rm ed
a t th e b a se s o f c liffs. T h e se d e p re ssio n s b eco m e
la k e s w h en th e y a re filled w ith m e lt-w ate r. T h ese
sm a lle r la k e s a re c a lle d p a te r n o ste r la k e s (fig.
2 6 .7 ). T h e s e la k es a p p e a r as b ea d ed la k e s b eca u se
th e y a re a s so c ia te d w ith step o r stair.
G la c ia l g ro o v e s -S m a ll-sc a le stre a m lin e d d e
p ressions are called glacial grooves. In dividual groove
m a y m e a su re 12 km in le n g th , 100 m in w id th and 3 0
m in d e p th .
F io r d s - F io rd s are g lacial tro u g h s w hich
h a v e b e e n o c c u p ie d by th e sea. In fact, fio rd s are the Fig. 26.7: Glacial stairways and
g l a c ia l g e o m o r p h o l o g y
m
tween the fiords and th e sea. T h is raised p a rt is called T h e g lacial d eb ris is d iv id ed in to 3 types on
th re s h o ld o f f io r d s . A c c o r d in g to s o m e th e b asis o f lo catio n e.g. (l)en g tec x a ! d eb ris, w hich
geom orphologists th ese th resh o ld s are, in fact, su b is tran sp o rted w ith in th e glacier, (2 ) supragiacial
merged term inal m o rain es. M o st o f fio rd s h av e d e d eb ris, w h ich e x ists on the su rface o f the glacier and
veloped d u rin g the p erio d o f in ten se g laciatio n o f (3 ) su b g la cia l d eb ris, w hich is found a t the base o f
dissected coastal p la teau s and m o u n tain s in S co t th e g lacier. G lacial sed im en ts are tran sported along
land, N orw ay, G reen lan d , L ab ra d o r, B ritish C o lu m th e sid es, flo o r an d sn o u t o f th e glacier. T he debris
bia, A laska, P atag o n ia, N ew Z ea lan d etc. T h e w orld- fallin g directly in to a g la cier is tran sp o rted w ithout
distribution o f fiord s is co n d itio n ed by (A . H olm es to u ch in g the bo tto m o f th e glacier. T h e debris falling
and D orris L. H o lm e s, 1978)-(i) te cto n ic stru ctu res on to th e surface o f a g lacier is tran sp o rted dow nslope
in upland re g io n s n e a r the sea, (ii) p re-ex istin g along w ith the m o v in g ice m ass. T he m aterials
valleys w hich fo llo w th e se stru ctu re s, an d (iii) heav y d eriv ed from the bed by subglacial ero sion are tran s
glaciation by seaw ard m o v in g ice o f su ffic ie n t th ic k ported by touching the bottom .
ness. T here are th re e v iew s reg ard in g the o rigin o f
fiords. (1) D eep valley s w ere carv ed out by glaciers 26.7 DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
descending from th e co astal m o u n tain s above sea D epositional landform s form ed due to set
level. A t m u ch la ter d ate th ese g laciated v alley s w ere tling dow n o f glacial drifts (glacial sedim ents o f
subm erged u n d er sea w ater to form fiords. (2) F iords varying sizes) in clu d e m orain es or m o ra in ic ridges
were form ed by glacial ero sio n b elo w sea-level. Sea and dru m lin s.
level w as sig n ifican tly lo w ered d u rin g P leistocene
Ice A ge and thus p re -e x istin g flu v ially o riginated M oraines
valleys w ere fu rth er d eep e n ed by glaciers. T hese M oraines are ridge-like d ep o sitional features
valleys w ere later su b m erg ed u n d er sea w ater b e o f glacial tills. T hey are long but narrow ridges w ith
cause o f rise in sea-lev el d ue to d eg laciatio n and height m ore than 30m . M o rain es are generally d i
these su b m erg ed g la ciated v alley s b ecam e fiords. vided into 4 m ain categories on the basis o f locational
(3) F iords are su p p o sed to h ave been form ed due to aspect o f glacial d ep o sits viz. (1) end or term inal
tectonic facto rs. A cco rd in g to this co n ce p t fiords and rece ssio n a l m o rain es, (2) lateral m o rain es,
have been form ed d u e to su b m erg en ce o f grabens (iii) m edial m o rain es and (iv) g ro u nd m oraines
which w ere form ed n ear the co ast b ecau se o f fau lt (see figures 8.15 and 26.8). V .K . P rest (19£$) clas
ing o f the coastal land. sified m oraines in 3 m ain types on the basis o f
orientation o f m oraines w ith resp ect to ice m o v e
26.6 TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITIONAL
m en t—
WORKS OF GLACIERS
T he rock d eb ris carried by the g laciers are (1) M oraines deposited transverse to ice m ove
collectively called g la cia l d rifts. S om e tim es, the m ent.
term m orain e is used fo r th e d eb ris tran sp o rte d by (1) G round m oraines, (ii) E nd m oraines-ter-
the glaciers and also fo r th e la n d fo rm s m ad e by the m inal m o rain es, recessio n al m o rain es and push
deposition o f glacial d eb ris. M o rain e, in fact, is a m oraines,
collective term w hich sh o u ld be used fo r d ep o sitio n al (iii) Ice-thrust m oraines, (i v) R ibbed m oraines,
landform s o f direct g la cial o rig in . T h e g lacial d rifts (v) D e G eer o r cro ss valley m o rain es and (vi) L inear
include (1) till, (2) ic e -c o n ta c t s tr a tifie d d rift, (3) ice-b lo ck ridge.
outw ash,etc. T he u n so rted an d n o n stra tifie d glacial
(2) M oraines deposited parallel to ice movement.
drifts are called tills w h ich are fu rth e r d iv id ed into
(i) G ro u n d m o rain es-flu tted and drum linized,
(i) basal or lodgm ent till an d (ii) a b latio n till. T h e
basal or lodgm ent tills are c o m p a c t, to u g h , d en se and (ii) M a rg in a l an d m e d ial m o ra in e s, (iii)
nch in clay. T hey are d ep o sited a t the b ase o f the In terlo b ate and kam e m o rain es’and (iv) L in ear ice
glaciers. T he ab latio n tills are p o o rly c o n so lid ated block ridge.
an^ lack in fine grain sizes. H ie ic e -c o n ta c t stratified (3) N on o rien ted m oraines.
^rifts are m odified g lacial d e b ris by m eltw ater. T ill (i) G ro u n d m o rain es-ab latio n m oraines, (ii)
,s also know n as b o u ld er clay.
disintegration moraines, (iii)Interlobate and kam e moraines s e d im e n ts a lo n g th e m a rg in s o f a g la c ie r w hen it

and (iv) Irregular ice-block ridge and rim ridge. co n tracts in size d u e to m eltin g o f ice. L ateral m oraines
(1 ) T e r m in a l m o r a in e s , a lso k n o w n as enare
d g e n e ra lly lo n g , n a rro w a n d steep sided ridges
m ra in e s, a re fo rm e d d u e to d e p o s itio n o f g la c ia l till p a ra lle l to th e g la c ia l v alley s. T h ey are several
acro ss th e m o v in g ice sh e e ts at th e s n o u ts o f g la c ie rs h u n d re d m e tre s in h e ig h t. (3 ) M e d ia l m o ra in es are
a fte r a b la tio n o f ice. T e rm in a l m o ra in e s a re h o rs e fo rm e d d u e to d e p o s itio n o f g la c ia l sed im en ts along
sh o e s h a p e d o r c re s c e n tic rid g e s h a v in g c o n c a v e th e in te rn a l m a rg in s o f tw o g la c ie rs a t th e ir conflu
slo p e s fa c in g g la c ia l v a lle y s . T h e y stre tc h fo r h u n e n c e (fig . 2 6 .8 ). T h e y p ro je c t a b o v e th e surface o f
d re d s o f k ilo m e tre s in le n g th an d m o re th a n 100 g la cial v alley . (4 ) G r o u n d m o r a in e s are form ed
m e tre s in h e ig h t. T h e re c e ss io n o f g la c ie rs o r ice w h en g la cial s e d im e n ts (till) a re d e p o s ite d at the
sh e e ts re s u lts in th e d e p o s itio n o f sev eal irre g u la r flo o r o f g la cial v alley s. T h e se d im e n ts a re n o t sorted
rid g e s , m o u n d s s e p a ra te d by b asin s. S u ch la n d sca p e b eca u se co arse an d fin e s e d im e n ts a re d ep o sited
is c a lle d ‘k n o b a n d b a s in to p o g r a p h y ’. (2 ) L a tera l together. T he nonoriented m o rain es are usually form ed
m o r a in e s a re p a ra lle l rid g e s o f till on e ith e r sid e o f d u e to m ix tu re o f ab la tio n till an d ic e -c o n ta c t stra ti
a g la c ie r. T h e y are fo rm e d d u e to d e p o sitio n o f fied g lacial drift.
T ribu taries
Lateral
m oraines
Fig. 26.8 : D ifferent fo rm s o f morainic ridges.
Drumlins few m e tre s to 6 0 -1 0 0 m e tre s in h e ig h t and from a few

T h e s w a rm s o f ro u n d e d h u m m o c k s re su ltin g h u n d re d m e tre s to o n e -tw o k ilo m e tre s in length.
f ro m th e d e p o s itio n o f g la c ia l till are c a lle d d ru m lin s U su a lly , th e se o c c u r in c lu ste r a n d r e g u l a r pattern. ,|
(fig . 2 6 .9 ). T h e y lo o k lik e an in v e rte d b o a t o r sp o o n . S u ch to p o g ra p h y is c a lle d ‘b a s k e t o f eg g topogra- |
In fact, d r u m lin s “ a re e llip tic a l o r o v o id h ills, b lu n t p h y ’. C o lo n ie s o f d ru m lin s are fo u n d in Finlay »
o n th e u p g la c ie r e n d (s te e p e r slo p e ), w ith an e lo n N o rth e rn Ire la n d a n d W isc o n c in sta te o f the (J5 >__
g a te d o w n g la c ie r tail” (A . B lo o m , 1978). T h e se are w h ere 1 0 ,000 d ru m lin s a re fo u n d in g ro u p . D r u ^ .
strea m lin ed h ills w h ic h v a ry in s iz e ra n g in g fro m a clu ste rs h av e a lso d e v e lo p e d in m id d le N ew f 9* 4
g l a c ia l g e o m o r p h o l o g y 487
and Southern M ichigan states o f the USA. D rainage as the result o f fluvial erosion. The follow ing are the
pattern becom es irregular and indeterm inant in the prevalent viewpoints regarding the origin o f drumlins.
'areas dom inated by drum lin clusters. D rum lins re (1) According to some geomorphologists drum
semble roches m outonnees in shape as both have lins have been form ed due to m odification in the
one side with steep blunt slope and the other side term inal m oraines by the glaciers. Several reces
with gentle slope with long tail but they differ in sional term inal m oraines parallel to each other are
origin as the form er are the result o f deposition o f form ed due to recession o f glaciers during intergla
glacial till (boulder clay) w hile the latter are ero cial period. These m orainic ridges are later m odified
by advancing glaciers during next glacial period.
sional in character. It m ay be further pointed out that
ITie advancing glaciers erode the upglacier sides o f
the upglacier side o f drum line is steep w hile roches the pre-existing term inal m oraines and deposit the
moutonnees’ dow nglacier side is steep. Though most eroded materials on the dow nglacier sides. Thus, the
of the geom orphologists consider drum lins as the upglacier side is steepened and the dow nglacier side
outcome of glacial deposits but som e consider them is sm oothened and lengthened (fig. 26.9).
DIRECTIO N OF ICE M OVEM ENT
Fig. 26.9: Drumlin.
(2) Some geom orphologists believe that drum (4) According to Leverett drumlins are form ed
lins are formed due to deposition o f glacial till due to deposition o f glacial till (boulder clay) by the
(boulder clay) below the ice under special circum glaciers.
stances. A ccording to this viewpoint when the gla
cier is overloaded with sediments, these are not 26.8 G LA C IO -FLU V IA L D E P O S IT S AND
carried upto the snout but are deposited below the LANDFORMS
ice and form mounds. These mounds attract more The snount o f a glacier starts m elting due to
sediments to be deposited because they obstruct the increase in temperature when it descends below
movement of ice. These till mounds grow in size and snow-line. The process of m elting o f a glacier is
become drumlins. called ablation. M eltwater escapes through num er
(3)The third group o f geomorphologists is of ous but small and temporary stream s. These stream s
the view that dumlins are formed due to fluvial carry sediments for longer distances and deposit
erosion. According to them mounds are formed due them in various forms. These stream s still carry
to deposition o f huge amount of boulder clay during some ice. Thus, the deposition o f sedim ents after the
glacial period. These mounds are later modified by ablation (melting) o f a glacier is called glacio-flu-
fluvial erosion during interglacial period. Water vial deposit and the landform s resulting from such
erodes the onward side of these mounds and deposit deposit are called glacio-fluvial landform s. The
them on the leeward side. Thus, the onward side is sediments are deposited in the form o f low alluvial
steepened and the leeward side is smoothened and fans (if deposited on land) or deltas (if deposited in
lengthened. standing water). The fans spread out and coalesce
m GEOMORPHOLOGY
in to plains ca lled as o u tw a s h plains* The g la cio - b u t n arro w w a te r c h a n n e ls are fo rm e d b elo w the
flu vial landform s in clu d e e s k e r s , k a m e s , k a m e ter- su rfa c e o f ice o f th e g la c ie rs. T h e se d im e n ts c a rrie d
n c e , k e ttle , k e ttle h o le s , o u tw a s h p la in s etc. (fig . by th e se s u b g la c ia l c h a n n e ls , w h en o b stru c te d , set
26. 10). tle d o w n to fo rm e sk e rs. T h e e s k e rs can b e o b serv ed
a fte r th e m e ltin g o f all o f th e o v e rly in g ice.
S o m e tim e s, a se rie s o f s w e llin g s are strung
a lo n g th e e sk e rs a t re g u la r in te rv a ls. S u ch e sk ers are
called b e a d e d e s k e r s (fig . 2 6 .1 1 ).
Fig. 26.10: Depositional landforms by glaciers.

Eskers Fig. 26.11 : An example o f beaded eskers.
E sk ers are long , n arro w and sin u o u s rid g es o f
sands an d g rav els and are situ a ted in the m id d le o f K am es
g ro u n d m o rain es. T h e sid es o f esk ers are very steep. K am es are sm all h ills o r irre g u la r m o u n d s o f
T hey vary' in h eig h t an d w id th ran g in g fro m a few b ed d ed san d s an d g ra v e ls w h ic h a re d e p o s ite d by
m etres to te n s o f m e tre s an d ex ten d fo r k ilo m etres in m e ltw ate r n ear o r at th e e d g e o f th e re tre a tin g ice
length parallel to the direction in w hich ice m oved sheets. T h ey are, in fact, sm all a llu v ia l co n es if
previously. E skers are form ed in the region o f varying d ep o sited on th e la n d o r sm all a llu v ia l d eltas if
reliefs. T hey are exten d ed through valleys, sw am ps, d ep o sited in th e la k es. S o, k a m e s are c la ssifie d into
lak es and undulating terrains and thus they are very co n e k a m es an d d e lta k a m e s. T h e y are ch ara cter
u sefu l from the p o in t o f transportation as roads are ized by steep sid e slo p es. N a rro w fla t to p p e d terrace
easily co n stru cted alo n g eskers. S everal hypotheses lik e rid g es fo rm e d a lo n g th e tro u g h b etw ee n the
h ave been p o stu lated fo r the origin o f eskers. g la cier and th e v alley sid e are c a lle d k a m e terraces.
(1 ) It is g en e ra lly b e lie v e d th a t w a te r ch an n el T h e m o u n d s fo rm e d in h o llo w s a n d p e rfo ra tio n s in
is issu e d fro m th e sn o u t o f g la c ie r d u e to m e ltin g o f d eca y in g ice are c a lle d m o u lin k a m e s o r perfora
ice. T h is c h an n e l tra n sp o rts g lacial fine sed im en ts tio n k a m es.
d o w n th e slo p e. T h e free flow o f this ch an n e l is
o b stru c te d b e c a u se o f any o b stacle. C o n seq u en tly , K ettles and H u m m o ck s
sed im en ts are d e p o site d in th e m id d le o f the valley K ettles are d e p re ssio n s in th e o u tw a sh plains*
p arallel to th e m ain ch an n e l. T h u s, lo n g and n arro w K ettles are fo rm e d d u e to m e ltin g o f la rg e blocks of
b u t lo w e s k e r is fo rm ed . ice. L arg e k e ttle s are d o tte d w ith n u m ero u s low
m o u n d s w h ic h a re c a lle d h u m m o c k s .
(2 ) W a te r ch an n e l o f m elt w a te r is fo rm ed at
th e su rfa c e o f th e g la c ie r an d th u s fin er sed im e n ts are O u tw ash
d ep o sited a t the ice su rface. W h en the w h o le ice g ets T h e m e ltw a te r c a u s e d d u e to ablation o f a
m e lted , sed im e n ts settle d o w n at th e flo o r o f the g la c ie r a t its sn o u t d e s c e n d s th ro u g h th e term inal
g la cial v alley an d th u s e s k e r is fo rm ed . m o rain e an d s p re a d s lik e sh e e t w ater. T h is spreading
(3 ) H o llo w tu n n e ls a re fo rm ed d u e to m e ltin g w a te r e ro d e s th e te rm in a l m o ra in e s an d d eposits the
o f ic e a t th e b o tto m o f m e ltin g g la ciers. T h u s, long e ro d ed se d im e n ts in fro n t o f th e te rm in al m oraines
glacial g e o m o rp h o lo g y 489
anH jjjos fo rm s a p la in w h ic h is c a lle d o u tw a s h p la in d e p re s s io n s w h ich a re e n a lrg e d b y w e a th e rin g an d
(fig. 2 6.12). O u tw a s h p la in s a rc c h a ra c te riz e d b y g la cial e ro sio n to fo rm cirques w h ic h a re c h a ra c te r
w ell so rted s e d im e n ts . O u tw a s h p la in s a lso k n o w n ized by s e m i-c irc u la r sh a p e a n d v e rtic a l h e a d w a lls.
as ‘s a n d a r ’ (in Ic e la n d ic la n g u a g e ) a re c h a ra c te r T h e re is g ra d u a l g ro w th in c irq u e s a n d b ec a u se o f
ized by m u lti-th re a d c h a n n e ls w h ic h a re c a lle d re c e ssio n m a n y c irq u e s u n ite to fo rm com pound
‘braids’. O u tw a s h p la in s a re , in fact, fo rm e d d u e to cirques. G ro w th a n d re c e ss io n o f c irq u e s le ad s to
co alescen ce o f s e v e ra l a llu v ia l fa n s in fro n t o f te rm i ero sio n o f h ills w h ic h s u b se q u e n tly b e c o m e n a rro w
nal m oraines. an d sh arp . S u c h s h a rp p e a k s a re c a lle d aretes o r
horns. T h o u g h se v e ra l trib u ta ry g la c ia l v alley s a re
d e v e lo p e d by th e e n d o f y o u th fu l sta g e b u t h a n g in g
v alley s are n o t p e rfe c tly d e v e lo p e d .
Drumlin
Moraine Maturity
T h e b e g in n in g o f m a tu re sta g e is h e ra ld e d b y
fu lle r d e v e lo p m e n t o f g la c ie rs an d th e ir v a lle y s.
N u m e ro u s m o u n ta in g la c ia l v a lle y s u n ite to fo rm
tru n k g la cial v alley s. G lacial e ro s io n by d iffe re n t
g la c ie rs d iffe rs c o n s id e ra b ly b e c a u se o f d iffe re n c e s
in th e ir size, slo p e, m a ss o f ice, te m p e ra tu re , q u a n
tity o f d e b ris etc. H a n g in g v a lle y s a re fo rm e d d u e to
g re a te r e ro sio n o f tru n k v a lle y s th a n th e trib u ta ry
v alley s w h ich jo in th e tru n k g la c ie rs. T h e re is m a x i
m u m d e v e lo p m e n t o f c irq u e s an d h e n c e e x c e p t
m o u n ta in p eak s all o f th e m o u n ta in o u s a re a s a re
Fig. 26.12 : Moraines, drumlins and outwash. c o v e re d w ith ice. T h e se p eak s p ro je c tin g a b o v e ic e
co v ere d su rfa c e are c a lle d n u n a t a k s w h ic h lo o k lik e
26.9 GLACIAL GEOMORPHIC CYCLE ro ck islan d s am id ice sh eets. E re te s an d h o rn s are
It m a y b e m e n tio n e d th a t g la c ia l c y c le o f
fu rth e r sh a rp e n e d b e c a u se o f c o n tin u e d c irq u e r e
ero sio n , th o u g h p ro p o u n d e d by W .M . D av is in 1900 cessio n . G la c ia l s ta ir c a s e s o r giant stairs are
an d 1906 o n th e s a m e lin e o f n o rm al c y c le o f ero sio n fo rm ed d u e to d iffe re n tia l e ro sio n o f ro c k s o f v a ry
an d b a s e d o n b a s ic te n e t o f s e q u e n tia l d e v e lo p m e n t ing resistan c e. T h e b a c k w a lls o f c iq u e s u ltim a te ly
o f la n d fo rm s th ro u g h tim e , c o u ld n o t be fu lly e la b o u n ite d u e to c o n tin u e d c irq u e re c e ss io n a n d h e n c e
rate d a n d th e re fo re th e c o n c e p t re m a in e d m o stly as m o st o f th e c irq u e s are e lim in a te d . T h is in d ic a te s th e
a th e o re tic a l p ro p o s itio n ra th e r th an a p ra c tic a l one. en d o f m a tu re stag e.
It m ay b e b e c a u s e o f th e fa c t th a t th e c y c lic a s p e c t o f
g la c ia te d to p o g ra p h y c o u ld n o t be p ro p e rly stu d ie d Old Stage
and u n d e rs to o d d u e to in a c c e s s ib ility o f g la c ia te d T h e o n set o f o ld sta g e is c h a ra c te riz e d by
areas. T h e re is a n o th e r p ro b le m o f b ase level o f ro u n d in g and p o lish in g o f p e a k s (a re te s ) a n d lo w e r
ero sio n as in th e a b s e n c e o f a n y c le a rly d e fin e d b ase ing o f m o u n ta in o u s area. D e p re s sio n s are fille d w ith
level o f e ro s io n th e p ro d u c tio n o f g la c ia te d p en ep lain ero d ed d eb ris. D iffe re n t ty p e s o f m o ra in ic rid g e s
a t th e en d o f g la c ia l c y c le o f ero sio n c a n n o t be (e.g. lateral, m e d ia l, g ro u n d an d te rm in a l m o ra in e s )
p o ssib le. T h e th e o re tic a l fo rm o f g la c ia l c y c le o f are fo rm ed d u e to d e p o s itio n o f g la c ia l m o ra in e s.
e ro s io n , th o u g h s tr o n g ly re je c te d by m a n y F lat an d a lm o st p la in su rfa c e w ith g ro u n d slo p e o f
g eo m o rp h o lo g ists, m ay b e p re se n te d as fo llo w s — ab o u t 5° is fo rm e d b e c a u se o f d e p o s itio n o f till. T h e
o ld stag e te rm in a te s w ith th e re c e ss io n o f g la c ie rs
Youth an d a b la tio n o f g la c ia l sn o u ts.
T h e g la c ia l c y c le o f e ro sio n b eg in s w ith the
d e v e lo p m e n t o f v alley o r m o u n tain g la c ie rs in the 26.10 ICE AGES AND PLEISTOCENE GLACIA
h ig h m o u n ta in o u s reg io n s. G alciers m o v e d o w n slo p e TION
b e c a u se o f th e p re ssu re fo rce o f g rav ity an d e x p a n Ice ag e re fe rs to c lim a tic c h a n g e to s u c h a n
sio n o f ic e sh e e ts. In itia lly , ice fo rm s in h o llo w s an d e x te n t th a t te m p e ra tu re b e c o m e s so lo w o v e r v ery
t7 U
GEOMORPfiOLOGr
ex ten siv e areas in v o lv in g m illion s o f billion s o f jor periods o f m ountain building (Le. pre-Cambria#^
square kilom eters that there is perm anent ice sheet C aledonian, Hercynian or Variscan and Tertiary
covers for fairly lon g period o f geo lo g ica l tim e. mountain building periods) and ice ages ( ix . pce-
Such prolonged period o f subzero temperature w as Cam bnan, perm o-Carboniferous and Pleistocene ice
first called as G r e a t Ice A g e by L ouis A g a ssy z in ages) are considered, no correlation is established
1840 and Jean de Charpentier (1 8 4 1 ) propounded betw een the even ts o f mountain building and ice age
the con cep t o f co n tin e n ta l g la c ia tio n . Jam es G eikie excep t betw een Tertiary m ountain building and
(1 8 9 4 ) studied different aspects o f ice ages. A ccord P leistocene ice age as the former w as follow ed by
ing to him a great ice age c o n sists o f sev eral phases the o n set o f large-scale continental glaciation during
o f g la c ia l and in te r g la c ia l p erio d s w h ere tw o gla Q u atern ary ep o ch (k n o w n as P leistocen e glaciation)
cial periods a re se p a ra te d by a p erio d o f relativ ely w herein R o ck ies and A lps becam e centres o f ice
warm c o n d itio n an d th is p e rio d is called inteTglacial sheets and c o n seq u en t glaciation o f major parts o f N.
period. E v e n a g la c ia l p e r io d o r g la cia l sta g e c o n A m erica and E u ro p e respectively.
sists o f se v e ra l s h o rte r p erio d s w hen ice sheets T h e h y p o th esis o f p o le w a n d er in g en vis
advance. S u ch s h o rte r g la cial p erio d s are called ages that there are p erio d s w hen p o le s (n o rth and
s ta d ia ls w h ich a re s e p a ra te d by p erio d s o f retre at o f south) ch an g e th eir p o sitio n s and h en ce cause c li
ic e sh eets an d a re c a lle d by in tersta d ia ls b u t these m atic ch an g e le ad in g to g laciatio n . It m ay b e p o in ted
are c o ld e r th a n in te rg la c ia l p erio d s. o ut th at th e co n ce p t o f p o le w an d e rin g h a s been
T he e v id e n c e s o f th re e ice ages h av e been rejected on the b asis o f p la te te c to n ic th eo ry . I t has
tra c e d and th e ir c h ro n o lo g y h as been reco n stru cted been d em o n strated th at it is n o t th e p o le w h ich itself
e.g . (i) p r e -C a m b r ia n ic e a g e, (ii) p erm o -C a rb o n - ch an g es its p o sitio n b u t it is th e co n tin e n ta l displace
ife r o u s ice a g e, an d (iii) P le isto c e n e ice a g e. Som e m en t and d rift w h ich is re sp o n sib le fo r th e changes
s c ie n tists a re o f th e v ie w th a t ice ag es are rep eated in the p o sitio n s o f p o le s (see c h a p te r 11, p late
after c e rta in s p e c ifie d p e rio d o f tim e, say after te c to n ic s).
2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 m illio n y ears. It m ay be m e n tio n e d th a t c o n tin e n ta l d rift is
N u m e ro u s fa c to rs and h y p o th e se s h av e been n o t in itse lf a cau se fo r ice ag e an d g la ciatio n rather
p ro p o s e d to a c c o u n t fo r th e c a u se s o f ice ag es viz. (i) it h elp s in d e c ip h e rin g g lo b a l c lim a tic ch an g es. The
c h a n g e s in to p o g ra p h ic re lie fs, (ii) w an d erin g o f ad v o cates o f c a r b o n d i-o x id e h y p o th e sis state that
p o le s , (iii) c o n tin e n ta l d rift, (iv ) ca rb o n d i-o x id e c o n sid era b le d e c re a se in th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f carbon
h y p o th e s is , (v ) v o lc a n ic d u s t h y p o th e sis, (v i) p re d i-o x id e in th e a tm o sp h e re re s u lts in marked de
c e s s io n o f e a r th ’s a x is, (v ii) o b sta c le s in w arm o cean crease in lo w e r a tm o s p h e ric an d g ro u n d surface
c u r re n ts , (v iii) v a ria tio n in s o la r ra d ia tio n , (ix) te m p eratu re le a d in g to c o ld c lim a tic c o n d itio n which
S im p s o n 's h y p o th e s is etc. It m ay b e p o in te d o u t th a t c au ses ice age. T h is h y p o th e s is is b a se d on the
th e m a jo r c a u s e fo r ic e ag es is c lim a tic ch an g e c o n c e p t th a t c a rb o n d i-o x id e a llo w s solar rays to
le a d in g to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s u b z e ro c o n d itio n re a c h th e e a rth 's su rfa c e b u t re -ra d ia te s the terrestrial
a n d o th e r fa c to rs as m e n tio n e d a b o v e m a y lead to rad ia tio n b a c k to th e g ro u n d s u rfa c e and hence
d e s ire d c lim a tic c h a n g e i.e. in itia tio n o f co ld c li in c re a se s te m p e ra tu re . T h is is c a lle d g reen h oose
m a te . effe c t. In c re a s e d w e a th e rin g o f rock s and upliftm ent
T h e h y p o th e sis o f to p o g r a p h ic r e lie f ch a n g es o f lan d h a v e been taken as m ain reason s f o r decrease
in a tm o s p h e ric carbon d io x id e . It has been argued by
e n v is a g e s that p eriod s o f m ountain bu ild in g, when
the s c ie n tis ts th a t th is is o n ly hypothetical proposi
there is la r g e-sc a le w id esp read o ro g en etic m o v e
tio n as th e re is no re c o rd about the lev el o f carbon
m en t le a d in g to form ation o f lo fty m ou n tain s, are
d io x id e in th e atm osphere during prehistoric period.
fo llo w e d by p eriod s o f la r g e-sc a le g la cia tio n b e
It has a lso been argued that any fluctuation in carbon
c a u s e very lo w tem perature (b e lo w freezin g point) is
d io x id e cannot initiate co ld clim a te r a t h e r greater
i t s
record ed on h igh m ou n tain s, w hich leads to accu m u

concentration m ay ca u se g lo b a l w arm ing. The
lation o f th ick ic e sh eets, w h ich under the in flu en ce
crease in atm ospheric carbon d io x id e, as is happen
o f th eir m a ss and gravity fo rce m o v e (ad van ce)
ing sin ce 1860, is due to an th rop ogen ic factors (e.g-
d o w n h ill c a u sin g w id esp rea d g la cia tio n . If the m a
QLAClAl OEOMORPHOLOOY 491
Industrialization, urbanization, autom obiles, d efo r 2. Y arm outh, 3. S angm an and 4. post-glacial period
estation etc,) and not due to natural factors. (H olocene period)!
The volcanic d u st h yp oth esis en v isag es that T here w ere three centres o f ice sheets in N .
in the event o f violent volcanic eru p tio n s huge q u an A m erica viz. (1) L ab rad o r ice sheet, (2) H udson bay
tity of dust and ash is throw n into the sky and thus a or K eew atin ice sheet, and 3. C ordillarean ice sheet
thick veil o f dust and ash is form ed around the earth. or R ockies ice sh eet from w here ice sheets advanced
This dust veil scatters and reflects m ajo r portion o f southw ard and affected the areas upto N ebraska
solar radiation and hence red u ces the am o u n t o f state o f the U S A. It m ay be m en tio n ed that the G reat
insolation received at the earth's surface. Thus, m arked L a b e s o f N . A m e r ic a ( S u p e r io r , M ic h ig a n ,
decrease in ground su rface and lo w er atm o sp h eric H uron, E rie and O n tario ) ow e th eir ev o lution to th e
temperature causcs cold co n d itio n w hich favours a d v a n c e m e n t an d re tre a t o f ice s h e e ts d u rin g
cold clim ate and form ation o f ice sheets. It m ay be P leisto cen e g laciatio n . It m ay be po in ted out that
mentioned that decrease in atm o sp h eric and ground P leisto cen e glaciatio n affected and m o d ified m o st o f
surface tem perature by v o lcanic d u st veil m ay not be the topographic features o f N. A m erica m ainly C anada
prolonged for longer d u ratio n b ecau se after few and the U SA , no rth ern E u ro p e and Siberia.
years the effect o f volcanic d u st on so lar radiation F o u r g lacial perio d s altern ated by in terg lacial
disappears because m o st o f dusts and ashes settle periods durin g P leisto cen e ice age h ave also b een
down on the ground surface. reported in the H im alay as on the b asis o f ev id en ces
V ariation in so la r ra d ia tio n d ue to cyclic av ailab le from the K arew a lak e d ep o sits in th e K ash
developm ent and d isap p ea ran ce o f sun sp o ts has m ir basin and P leisto cn e terraces o f the K argil b asin,
been taken as one o f the p o ten t cau ses o f ice ages. several m orain ic rid g es, U -sh ap ed and h an g in g v a l
V ariation in so lar rad iatio n has been related to, leys in the G an g o tri and E v e re st areas.
according to som e scien tists, in crease and d ecrease T he P leisto cen e g laciatio n m o d ified th e to
in the core o f the sun. S im p so n (1938) p ro p o sed his p og rap h y o f the d irec tly a ffected areas th ro u g h a d
hypothesis o f cy clic p attern o f variation in so lar v ancing and retre atin g ice sh eets and le ft far-reac h
radiation. ing in flu en ces on g lo b al e n v iro n m e n t th ro u g h ra d i
cal clim atic ch an g es, flu ctu atio n s in se a level (gla-
Pleistocene Glaciation
cial-eu sta tic ch an g es in sea lev el i.e. fall and rise in
The recent ice age occurred during P leistocene
sea lev els due to w ax in g -ad v a n cin g and w an in g -
period, about 10,00,000 y ears B P (b efo re p resen t),
retre atin g ice sh eets), flu ctu atio n in p re c ip ita tio n
when about h a lf o f N. A m erica, n o rth ern E u ro p e and
and riv er d isch arg e, ch an g es in h y d ro lo g ical c o n d i
most o f S iberia w ere co v ere d by ad v an c in g ice
tio n s and w ater b alan ce in in d irectly affected and
sheets. T he P leisto cen e ice age c o n tin u ed u pto
d ista n t areas. T h e P leisto cen e ice ag e c a u se d (i)
9,91,000 years as the ice sh eets b eg an to retre at
eq u ato rw a rd sh iftin g o f clim atic zo n es, (ii) w o rld
about 25,000 years BP. A b o u t one fifth o f th e earth 's
w id e g la cio -eu sta tic ch an g e s in sea le v el, and (iii)
surface w as affected by P leisto cen e g la ciatio n . T h e
iso static ad ju stm en t (su b sid en ce in lan d a re a b e
Pleistocene ice age reg istered fo u r p h a se s o f a d
cau se o f c o n fin in g w eig h t an d p ressu re o f ice sh eet
vancem ent and retreat o f ice sh eets. P e n c k and
d u rin g g lacial p erio d fo llo w ed by rise in lan d d u e to
Bruckner have iden tified fo u r g la cial p e rio d s o f
u n lo a d in g o f ice sh eet d u rin g in teg lac ial p erio d and
advancing ice sheets viz. G u n z, M in le l, R iss and
afte r final w ith d raw al o f ice sh eet).
urm in Europe. T hese g lacial p e rio d s w ere a lte r
nated by relatively w arm in terg lac ial p e rio d s c h a r T h e in flu e n c e o f P le isto c e n e p e rio d on the
acterized by retreat o f ice sh eets. S im ila rly , fo u r earth 's su rface w as so im m en se th a t m o st o f th e
glacial periods have also been identi fled in N . A m erica to p o g rap h ic featu res w ere g reatly m o d ified an d w ere
viz. 1. N ebraskan, 2. K ansan, 3. Ilin o in , an d 4. g iv en new and fin al sh ap e. In fact, ‘no p ro p e r in te r
isconcin glacial p erio d s w hen ice sh e e ts ad v a n c e d p reta tio n o f p re se n t d ay to p o g rap h y can be m a d e
sou w ard. T hese glacial p erio d s w ere se p a ra te d u n less the in flu en ces o f g eologic and clim atic ch an g es
from w arm interglacial -periods v iz. 1. A fto n ian , d u rin g the P le isto c e n e p erio d are p ro p e rly s tu d ie d .’
C H A P T E R 27 PERIG LA CIA L GEOMORPHOLOGY
*%.£%j> _p L-
M eaning and concept ; periglacial climate ; periglacial areas ; perma
frost ; active layer; mechanism of periglacial processes (congelifraction,
frost heaving, congelifluction, nivation, fluvial process, and aeolian
process) ; genetic classification of periglacial landforms ; periglacial
cy cle o f erosion.
PERIGLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
27.1 MEANING AND CONCEPT 2 7 .2 PERIGLACIAL CLIMATE

The term periglacial literally means around It is difficult to define periglacial climate
the ice or peripheral to the margins of the glaciers but because there is considerable variation in conditions
. now this term is used for both ‘p e r ig la c ia l la n d from one periglacial area to the other. Not only this,
s c a p e ’ and ‘p e r ig la c ia l c lim a t e ’. Periglacial areas even periglacial zones also register variations in
are those which are in permanently (perennially) their nature and location. L.C. Peltier's periglacial
frozen condition but without permanent ice cover on morphogenetic region has been defined on the basis
the ground surface. The periglacial climate is char of mean annual temperature of -15°C to 1°C, mean
acterized by mean annual temperature ranging be annual precipitation of 120 to 1400 mm (mostly in
tween - 1°C and -15°C and mean annual precipitation solid form), high velocity wind and least fluvial
of 120 mm to 1400 mm (mostly in solid form). In action. Periglacial climate is divided into two major
fact, periglacial areas are characterized by perma subtypes on the basis of regional variations e.g. 1.
nently frozen subsoil (p erm a fro st), seasonally thawed Iceland type (maritime arctic type), and 2. S ib e r ia
topsoil ( a c tiv e la y e r ), frequent changes of tempera type (continental arctic). Iceland type or marine
ture and an incomplete vegetation cover. The tei^n arctic type of periglacial climate is characterized by
periglacial was first used by W. Lozinski in 19t)6, low mean annual temperature but above 0°C and
though some subglacial processes were already de high precipitation, mostly in the form o f snow fall
scribed by earlier scientists e.g. nivation process by during winter whereas very low mean annual tem
F.E. Matthes in 1900, subglacial climate and process perature is recorded in Sibera type or continental
(dominated by solifluction) by J.G. Anderson in
type of periglacial climate. Winter temperature falls
1906 etc. Later on D.D. Cairnes (equiplanation),
H.M. Eakin (altiplanation), B. Hogbom (frost heave) down to -60°C. Precipitation is moderate but sum
etc. studied different periglacial processes. mer precipitation occurs as rainfall. On an average,
periglacial climate is characterized by long and cool
Periglacial areas are of two types viz. (a) the
present day periglacial zones, as are found in the winter with temperature below 0°C, freezing of
Arctic regions of Alaska, Canada, Greenland and surface and subsurface water and moisture, absence
Siberia and also in Antarctica, and (b) the fossil of weathering and erosion, short and relatively war®
zones of Pleistocene and other parts of past Ice Ages. summer with the absence of night frost, thawing of
P e r m a f r o s t and a c t iv e la y e r are the two most strik surface ice, active fluvial action and solifluction for
ing features of periglacial areas. very short duration. The tfansititonal periods be
-v. •'/
PERIGLACIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y &
tween w in te r an d s u m m e r an d su m m e r an d w in te r o f th e g e o g rap h ical are a o f th e g lo b e is c o v e re d

becom e m o s t id e a l a n d stim u la tin g fo r th e actio n o f p erm afro st.
periglacial p ro c e s s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f p erig lacial
lan d fo rm s b e c a u s e a lte rn a te th a w (d u rin g d ay tim e)
and fre e z in g (d u rin g n ig h t) c a u se d iu rn al fr e e z e a n d
th aw c y d e w h ic h h e lp s in th e m e c h a n ic a l d is in te
Late winter Segregated Ice
g ratio n o f ro c k s.
2 7 .3 PERIGLACIAL A R E A S
P e rig la c ia l a re a s are n o t p e rm a n e n t in th eir
lo c a tio n ra th e r th e se s h ift th e ir lo c atio n o r g et o b lit
e ra te d d u e to c lim a tic c h a n g e s le ad in g to ch an g e s in
te m p e ra tu re re g im e . F o r e x a m p le , m a n y o f the ^Frozem: Ground
p e rig la c ia l a re a s o f P le isto c e n e p erio d h av e n ot
beco m e fre e fro m p e rig la c ia l e n v iro n m en t. P res- Late Summer
e n d y . a b o u t 2 0 p e r c e n t o f th e su rfa c e a re a o f the
g lo b e is u n d e r p e rig la c ia l c lim a te , o u t o f w h ich m o st
o f th e a re a s a re fo u n d in th e n o rth ern h em isp h ere.
P e rig la c ia l a re a s o f th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re in clu d e
tu n d ra r e g io n o f A la s k a (U S A ) and C an ad a, n o rth
ern E u ro p e a n d m o s t o f S ib eria. A b o u t h a lf o f the
are a o f th e fo rm e r U S S R co m es u n d er p erig lacial
clim a te . P e rig la c ia l a re a s are also fo u n d o v er hig h
m o u n ta in s in lo w la titu d e s. In In d ia too, p erig lacial
E a r ly w in ter
areas a re fo u n d in th e H im a la y a s m a in ly in the
ea ste rn H im a la y a s . T h e m o st c h a ra c te ristic and sig
Newly Frozen G rcjyii^
n ific a n t p a r t o f p e rig la c ia l area s is p e r m a f r o s t (p er
m a n e n tly fro z e n g ro u n d ).
2 7 .4 PER M A FR O ST
T h e m o s t strik in g fe a tu re o f p e rig la c ia l areas
is th e p e rm a fro s t o r p e rm a n e n tly fro zen g ro u n d
w ith o u t p e rm a n e n t ice co v er. T h e term p e r m a f r o s t
w as firs t u s e d b y S .W . M u lle r w h ile K. B ry an u sed Fig. 2 7.1 : Permafrost and active layer. After, R.J. Small,
p e r g e liso l (p e rg e lis o l = p er, m e a n in g p erm a n e n tly + 1970.
g e la r e , m e a n in g to f r e e z e + s o lu m , m e a n in g
A ctive Layer
s o il= p e rm a n e n tly fro z e n so il). T h e d e p th o f p e rm a
T h e top la y e r o f p e rm a fro st is c a lle d ac tiv e
fro st v a rie s fro m p la c e to p la ce. T h e g re a te st d ep th o f
la y er w h ich is c h a ra c te riz e d by d iu rn a l freeze (d u r
6 0 0 m h as b e e n d is c o v e re d n e a r N o rd v ic (n o rth ern
ing n ig h t) and th a w (d u rin g d ay tim e) c y cle d u rin g
S ib eria). T h e d e p th o f p e rm a fro st h as b een no ted as
the in terv en in g p e rio d s o f su m m e r an d w in te r se a
5 0 0 m in T a m y r P e n in s u la o f S ib eria, 3 1 4 m n ear
sons. It is co m p le te ly fro zen d u rin g w in te r a n d is
C ap e S im p so n in A la sk a an d 4 5 0 m in n o rth ern
th aw ed d u rin g th e su m m er. T h e d e p th o f ac tiv e la y e r
C anada.
ran g es fro m a few c e n tim e tre s to 3 m e tres. A ll the
P erm a fro st is c la ssifie d in 3 c a te g o rie s e.g. (i) p e r i g l a c i a l p r o c e s s e s v iz . c o n g e l i f r a c t i o n ,
co n tin u o u s p e r m a fr o st, (ii) d isc o n tin u o u s p e r c o n g e liflu c tio n , fro st h eav e, n iv a tio n etc. o p e ra te in
mafrost an d (iii) s p o r a d ic p e r m a fr o st. A b o u t 50 the activ e la y e r an d th e m a in d riv in g fo rce o f th e
p e r c e n t a n d 4 7 p e r c e n t a rea s o f A la sk a an d C a n ad a p erig lacial p ro c e sse s is re la te d to th e rm al c o n d itio n s
a a d e a r s tw h ile U S S R are c o v e re d by c o n tin u o u s and i.e. seaso n al an d d iu rn al c h a n g e o f te m p eratu re. T h e
d isc o n tin u o u s p e rm a fro st. N early 2 0 to 25 p e r c e n t a ctiv e la y e r th a w s d u rin g d ay tim e an d fre e z e s din'-
494 GEOMORPHOLOGY
in g n ig h t as te m p e ra tu re rises a b o v e 0°C b u t rem ain s subglacial clim ate. S u b seq u en tly , th e p ro cesses o f
co m p lete ly th a w ed d u rin g la te su m m er. T h is lay er ‘planation by frost action* (by W rite in 1910),
ag ain freeze s (d u rin g flight) an d th a w s (d u rin g day ) equiplanation - a p ro cess o f d o w n w a stin g resp o n
w ith th e o n set o f w in te r seaso n and b eco m es c o m sib le fo r the p la n atio n o f lan d (by D .D . C a im e s in
p letely fro zen d u rin g w in te r seaso n . T h is is w hy this 1912), altiplanation-a sp ecia l p ro c e ss operating
la y er is c a lle d activ e la y e r b eca u se this b eco m es o v er the hill to p s a n d h illslo p e s (b y H .M . E akin in
activ e d u e to a lte rn a te fre e z e an d th aw m e ch an ism 1916), frost heaving (by B. H ogbom in 1914),
w h ile the p e rm a fro st b elo w th e activ e lay er is cryoplanation (by K. B ry an in 1946) etc. w ere
in a ctiv e b ec a u se it is p erm a n e n tly fro zen th ro u g h o u t d escrib e d by v ario u s scien tists. T h e m ain p eriglacial
th e y ear. K irk B ry an u sed th e term molisol (m o ller p ro cesses in clu d e congelifraction o r frost weath
m e a n in g th e re b y to m a k e so ft and so lu m m ean s soil ering, congelifluction o r solifluction o r soil creep,
(fig. 2 7.1). frost heave, nivation, cryoturbation o r
croplanation, aeolian and fluvial processes.
2 7 .5 MECHANISM OF PERIGLACIAL PR OCESSES
S ev eral p erig la c ia l p ro cesses h av e b een d e C ongelifraction
sc rib e d by m a n y p erig la c io lo g ists b u t they do not W eath erin g p ro cesses u n d er p erig la c ia l c li
ag re e c o lle c tiv e ly on th e ir e x ac t m o d e o f m e ch a m ate in clu d e ‘freeze-thaw action’, ‘contraction
n ism . F .E . M a tth e s (1 9 0 0 ) d escrib e d the p ro cess o f cracking’ and ‘chemical weathering’ b u t freeze -
nivation w h ich b eco m es activ e in such clim ate thaw action is by far the m o st activ e m e c h a n ism o f
w h ich is c h a ra c te riz e d by altern ate freeze and thaw ro ck -sh atterin g . C o n g elifractio n , sim p ly k n o w n as
d u e to ch an g e s in te m p eratu re b u t there is no co m frost weathering (L atin w o rd c o n g e la re -to freeze
p lete g la ciatio n . J.G . A n d erso n (1 9 0 6 ) d escrib ed the and fractare-to b reak ), in clu d es fre e z in g o f m o istu re
p ro cess o f solifluction w h ich b eco m es o p erativ e in and w ater d u rin g n ig h t an d s u b se q u e n t th aw in g
Fig 27.2 : Demonstration o f the mechanism o f the process o f frost-heaving. A-wooden log fixed in the soils o f the active
layer, I-IV-stages o f upward thrusting (frost-thawing), I-humus soil layer, 2- humid sandy loam soil, 3-upper
layer o f permafrost, 4- seasonally frozen surface, 5-formation o f cavity due to upward pushing o f wooden log
due to freezing o f moisture, 6-filling o f cavity by silt and B1-B4 successive stages o f heaving (thrusting) (Aft*r
/, Belokrylov).
p e r ig l a c ia l g e o m o r p h o l o g y 495
during day-tim e (in sum m er) m aking a co m p lete by ex p an d in g and gro w in g fro zen p art o f active
‘diurnal freezethaw cycle’ w hich d isin teg rates the layer. T his vertical p ressu re sets up lateral th ru st in
rocks because o f continuous alternate ex p an sio n and the co n stitu en t m aterials o f in terv en in g lay er cau s
contraction. F reeze-thaw is co n fin ed only to the ing heav in g o f u p p er layer.
‘active layer’ because it ex p erien ces tem p eratu re S eg reg ated ice in the frozen activ e la y er in
changes. A few perig lacio lo g ists have ex p ressed late w in ter also h eav es up the g ro u n d su rface fo rm
their doubt about the effectiveness o f congelifraction. ing ‘pingos’ and ‘contorted surface’. F ro st h eav in g
A part from the voices raised ag ain st the e ffe c tiv e also helps the c o n g eliflu c tio n p ro cess (tran sp o rta
ness o f freeze-thaw w eathering, it is the on ly sig n ifi tion o f w ater-so ak ed soil d o w n slo p e).
cant process for rock-w eathering and co m m in u tio n
o f larger blocks under periglacial co n d itio n s. Congelifluction
T he process o f d eb ris-m o v em en t in periglacial
Frost Heaving reg io n s has been v ario u sly d efin ed and a n u m b e r o f
F rost heaving is co n n ected w ith ‘freeze-th aw term s have been su g g ested . F irst J.G . A n d erso n
cy cle’ but it is given sep arate en tity as it helps in (1906) p ro p o sed the term ‘solifluction’ (so lu m -so il,
m oving the coarse g rain s upw ard. F ro st heav in g is flu ere-flo w ) fo r slow m o v e m en t o f d eb ris, soaked
defined as b ulg in g and su b se q u en t su b sid en ce o f the w ith w ater, from h ig h e r to lo w er slo p es. S o liflu ctio n
ground surface by ex p an sio n in w ater to form ice. term w as rep laced by congelifluction o f J. D ay lik
F rost-heave w orks in tw o w ays viz. (i) heaving by (1951) to inco rp o rate only so il-flo w in the p erig lacial
vertical th ru st and (ii) h eav in g by lateral thrust. Ice clim ate h aving p erm a fro st ly in g b elo w an activ e
segretation is one o f the m o st im p o rtan t process o f layer. K. B ryan (19 4 6 ) u sed the term cryoturbation
frost-heave. F ro st su sc ep tib le grains (0.01 mm or w hich included all types o f m assm o v em en t o f reg o lith
less in size) in the ‘a c tiv e la y e r ’ are frozen during under periglacial environm ent. R ecen tly , gelifluction
night in su m m e r and, th erefo re, they ex pand their is used in place o f co n g eliflu c tio n .
sizes by 9 to 10 p e r cent. T he rep etitio n o f this
T he m ech an ism , rate o f m o v e m e n t a n d m o r
process resu lts into ice seg reg atio n w hich incudes
phological effects o f so liflu ctio n (c o n g e liflu c tio n )
ice in sev eral form s lik e ice lenses, ice lay er parallel
need critical an alysis. G ro u n d su rface freeze s d u rin g
to the g ro u n d su rface, p ip k rak er etc. S low ly and
w inter season resu ltin g in to e x te n siv e fo rm a tio n o f
slow ly se g re g a te d ice g row s in size and heaves up
ground ice w hich cau ses ex p an sio n in th e a c tiv e
co arser u n fro zen m aterials co m in g from nearby
layer so that ‘a state o f m in im u m p a c k in g ’ o f g rain s
areas. T he rep etitio n o f this m ech an ism brings larger
is activised resu ltin g into lo o sen in g o f soil te x tu re.
p articles on the g ro u n d su rface and it appears as if
F rozen ground su rface starts th a w in g w ith th e b e g in
ground v o m its stones. T h is vertical thrust gives rise
ning o f su m m er p ro v id in g su ffic ie n t w a te r in th e
to the fo rm atio n o f ‘p a t te r n e d g r o u n d ’ including
active lay er to red u ce its sh ear stren g th . T h e m e lt-
stone circles, stone po ly g o n s, stone nets, stone g ar
w ater acts as a lu b rican t w ith the re su lt w a te r-so a k e d
lands and sto n e stripes. I. B elo krylov ex p lain ed and
debris finds it easy to flo w d o w n slo p e u n d e r th e
validated the functio n in g o f the m ech an ism o f frost-
force o f g ravity. T h e local co n d itio n s in c lu d in g
heave through an ex p erim en t (fig. 27.2). It is ap p ar
grain-size, com p o sitio n o f m aterials, a m o u n t o f m elt-
ent from fig. 27.2 that a w ooden log fixed in the
w ater, depth o f freeze-th aw and th e p re se n c e o f
active layer w as pushed u pw ard by the p ro cess o f
frost heaving and it u ltim ately fell on the ground. veg etativ e co v e r co n tro l the rate o f so liflu ctio n . It
m ay be p o in ted out th at th e rate o f so liflu ctio n is
L ateral thrust is cau sed w hen the u p p er part o f
ex ceed in g ly slow as it ran g es b etw een 3cm an d 30
thaw ed ‘active layer’ starts freezin g w ith the advent
of w inter season and p ro ceed s d o w n w ard . M ean cm per year. S o liflu ctio n is m ost activ e d u rin g tra n
while there is an in term ed iate lay er in u nfrozen state sitional perio d s b etw een w in ter and su m m e r seaso n s
between the frozen p art o f activ e layer ab o v e and as these perio d s ex p erien ce activ e freeze -th aw c y
perm afrost below un less the w hole o f activ e lay er is cles. S o liflu ctio n stops d u rin g late su m m e r b eca u se
rozen during late w inter. T h e in terv en in g unfrozen m elt-w ater is ev ap o ra ted an d d u rin g w in te r b eca u se
but m obile zone com es u n d er heav y p ressu re ex erted all m o istu re is frozen; ?> -
S o liflu ctio n is m a in ly a p ro cess o f tra n sp o rta m o u s am o u n t o f d eb ris w h ich lim it the flow o f
tio n o f reg o lith s b u t it also sm o o th e n s re lie f w hile stream s resu ltin g in to ag g rad atio n . y«
passing o v er it an d h en ce h as so m e g eo m o rp h o lo g ical
sig n ifican ce. S o liflu ctio n h elp s in cryoplanation Aeolian Process
(p lan atio n by fro st a ctio n ) by sm o o o th e n in g the W in d actio n b eco m es effectiv ely operative in
in terflu v es an d by ag g ra d a tio n o f v alley floors. the p en u ltim ate stag e o f p erig lacial cycle w hen the
S o liflu ctio n also h elp s in th e scu lp tu rin g o f ‘pat re lie f is su b seq u en tly red u ced resu ltin g into gentle
terned ground9. D iffe re n tia l m o v e m en t o f deb ris slope o f 5° or less and w eath erin g m aterials are
o v er th e slo p e fo rm s ‘stone-banked terraces and co m m in u ted so fin ely th at they can easily be trans
lobes,’ ‘stone streams’, ‘earth wrinkles’ etc. (ero po rted by w ind. It is o b v io u s th at w ind sw eaps aw ay
sio n al fe a tu re s). ‘Talus cones’, and ‘plications’ fine g rain s from one p lace and d ep o sits them in other
m ay be re g a rd e d sp ecial featu res o f so liflu ctio n . p laces m aking ero sio n al (faceted , flu ted and grooved
su rfaces) as w ell as d ep o sitio n al (lo ess and sand
Nivation d ep o sits) features.
N iv a tio n is a w id e term w hich in clu d es a
v arie ty o f su b p ro cesses rela ted to the ‘snow patches’ 27.6 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF PERIGLA
e ith e r im m o b ile or sem ip erm an e n t. T h e p ro cess o f CIAL LANDFORMS
n iv a tio n in c lu d es th e su b p ro cesses o f w eath erin g S a v in d r a S in g h (1974) attem p ted to p resen t
u n d e r a sn o w -p a tch , m e ltw a te r ero sio n from beneath a genetic classificatio n o f p erig lacial la n d fo rm s (fig.
a sn o w p atch , an d d o w n h ill ero siv e creep o f w ater- 2 7 .3 ) on th e b a s is o f th e w o rk s o f v a r io u s
p erig lacio lo g ists, alth o u g h m any ex p o n en ts are n o t
sa tu rated sn o w . S in ce sn o w -p a tch es are co n sid ered
unanim ous on the ex act m o d e o f th e ir orig in . It is
to b e im m o b ile an d h en ce c o rrasiv e p o w er can n o t be
d ifficu lt to nam e a p articu la r la n d fo rm on th e basis
a ssig n e d to th em b u t freeze -th aw is m o st effectiv e
o f a single pro cess, as g en erally m an y processes
a ro u n d the ed g es and at the b ases o f sn o w -p atch es.
operate co llectiv ely at v ary in g m a g n itu d e s in pro
Fluvial process d u cin g single lan d fo rm . In su ch c ases th e m acro
It is c o m m o n ly ag reed th a t the ru n n in g w ater level lan d fo rm s h av e been n am ed afte r the m ost
as an e ro s iv e a g e n t u n d er p erig lacial co n d itio n s is o f do m in an t p rocess. R eg io n al v aria tio n s in th e general
less sig n ific a n c e than o th e r p ro cesses as flow o f ch aracteristics o f the p erig lacial la n d fo rm s pose
stream s d ep en d s on the m ercy o f tem perature changes. fu rth er d ifficu lties in th e ir g en etic classificatio n
T h e re is m a rk e d irreg u larity and flu ctu atio n in the b ecau se p erig lacial areas are so v arie d in n atu re that
s tre a m flo w . W in te r freezin g su sp en d s all stream th eir co m p lete sim ilarity b e c o m e s a re m o te possibil
flo w s w h e re a s s u m m e r th aw p ro v id es so m e w ater ity. T he v ariatio n s in the p e rig la c ia l lan d fo rm s are
b u t th e s tre a m s b eco m e slu g g ish b ecau se th e y ^ r e larg ely d ue to the d iffe re n c e s fo u n d in perm afrost,
o v e rlo a d e d by la rg e a m o u n t o f d e tritu s fed by dep th o f activ e lay er, g eo lo g ical stru ctu re , vegeta
s o liflu c tio n a n d h e n c e o v e rlo a d e d stream s cease to tion co v er, m e ch an ism o f p e rig la c ia l p ro cesses etc.
b e an a c tiv e e ro s iv e ag en t. S o m e tim es, su d d en flux F u rth er su b d iv isio n s o f th e se la n d fo rm s have been
o f w a te r by s u m m e r th a w re su lts in flo o d s o f c ata m ad e on m icro -lev e l on th e b a sis o f th e ir size, shape,
stro p h ic d im e n s io n c h a rg e d w ith e n o rm o u s ero siv e p attern , stag e o f fo rm atio n , e ro sio n , d ep o sitio n etc.
In the c lassificatio n th e fo llo w in g abbreviations
p o w er. A c c o rd in g to J.L . Je n n e ss (1 9 5 2 ) p erig lacial
have been u sed to d e sig n a te d iffe re n t processes
stream s are p o w e rfu l e ro siv e ag en ts in A rctic C an ad a
as they h a v e c a rv e d o u t ra v in e s an d g u llies o f 6 0 -9 0 resp o n sib le fo r th e g e n e sis o f th e se lan dform s.
m d ep th . O n th e o th e r h an d , L .C . P e ltie r and A. R ap p C = co n g e lifra c tio n
h a v e o p in e d th a t stre a m s in the p erig lacial areas are S = so liflu ctio n
o nly th e a g e n ts o f tra n sp o rta tio n o f d eb ris. J. C o rb el F H = fro st h eav e
h as m a in ta in e d th a t th e stream s in m a ritim e arctic N = n iv atio n
c lim a te are c a p a b le o f re m o v in g d e b ris c o m in g from 1. Congelifractate Landforms
th e sid e w alls o f th e v alley and m a k in g v ertical ( 1 ) involutions™ ’0
e ro sio n w h e re a s th e stream s b eco m e slu g g ish in (on the b asis o f sh ap e) ^4
c o n tin e n ta l a rc tic c lim a te b e c a u se o f su p p ly o f e n o r (i) F o ld in v o lu tio n s
P r;-
f-''tM" ' -•
PBRIGLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
(ii) P illa r in v o lu tio n s (2 ) Steep slope-seated landforms

(iii) A m o rp h o u s in v o lu tio n s (iv) S to n e g arlan d s : so rted an d unsorted
(2) H u m m o c k s 0 (v ) S to n e strip e s : so rted and un so rted
(on th e bsis o f fo rm ) 3. Contorted Surface™-®
(i) E arth h u m m o ck (1 ) F ro st h e a v e - riv en co n to rted surface
(ii) T u rf h u m m o c k (2) F re e z e -th a w -riv e n co n to rted surface

4. Solifluctate Landforms8
(iii) M im a m o u n d
(d u e to d if f e r e n c e s in th e m o v e m e n t o f
(iv) P aisa so liflu ctio n )
(3) Pingoc (1) Solifluction terraces
(i) R o u n d e d -to p p in g o o r c lo se d p in g o (i) S to n e -b a n k e d te rra c e s
(ii) C ra te r-p in g o o r o p en p in g o (ii) T u rf-b a n k e d te rra c e s
(o n th e b a sis o f re g io n a l c h a ra c te ristic s) (2 ) Solifluction lobe
(i) M a c k e n z ie -ty p e p in g o (c lo se d p in g o ) (i) S to n e -b a n k e d lo b e
(ii) E ast G reen lan d -ty p e p in g o (open pingo) (ii) T u rf-b a n k e d lo b e
(on th e b a sis o f sh ap e) (3) Plication
(i) C irc u la r p in g o (4) Depositional landforms
(ii) E lo n g a te d p in g o (i) T a lu s o r scree
(iii) F o ssil p in g o (ii) s tra tifie d scree
(4) T h e r m o k a r s t s c (5) Stone streams
(on th e b a sis o f size) 5. Altiplanation Landforms,nfhc
A- macro-Iandforms (P o ly p ro c e ss o r h ig h a ltitu d e la n d fo rm s)
(d u e to s u b sid e n c e o f g ro u n d su rface) (1) Frost-riven landforms having moving
(i) T h e rm o k a rs t o r th a w la k e s veneer of debris
(ii) C a u ld ro n su b sid e n c e o r su b sid (i) A ltip la n a tio n te rra c e s
e n c e b asin (ii) A ltip la n a tio n c liffs .
(iii) D ry v alley s (2) Landforms due to differential weathering
(iv) C av es (i) T o rs o r ‘sto n e c itie s ’
B- micro-landforms (ii) F ro st-riv e n c liffs
(d u e to m in o r s u b sid e n c e o f su rfa c e ) (3) Depositional landforms
(i) F u n n el sh ap ed sin k a n d p it (i) B lo c k field s
(ii) S in k h o le s (ii) S to n e stre a m s
(iii) T h aw sin k (iii) B o u ld e r fie ld s
C- fossil thermokarsts 6. Nivation LandformsN
(5) Frost-riven cliffs (1) Nivation hollows
(6) Frost polygons (o n th e b a s is o f sh a p e )
2. Patterned Ground”1* (a) L o n g itu d in a l h o llo w s
(on the basis o f sh ap e) (b ) T ra n s v e rs e h o llo w s
(1) Gentle slope-seated landform s (c) C irc u la r h o llo w s
" ® Stone cricles : so rte d an d u n s o rte d (2 ) Depositional landforms

(ii) Stone nets : so rte d an d u n s o rte d (i) N iv a tio n te rra c e s
(iii) S tone p o ly g o n s : so rte d a n d u n s o rte d (ii) N iv a tio n p la tfo rm s
Polygon Stone Go rlond Stone stripe
Gentle slope
Steep slope
Denuded Surface
A ltip la n a tio n T errace
Sto ne s t r e a m
S olifluction Terrace
Stone B a n k e d L o b e and Terrace
T h e r m o K a r s t L ak e
T u r t B a n k e d Lobe a n d T erra c e J
Turf H u m m o c k
J' ™ Asym m etrical Valley
F ro st P o lyon
Depo sitio nal Valley
Active la y er
Nivation H a l l o w
Involutions
Fig. 27.3 :Periglacial Landforms (after Savindra Singh, 1974, Deccan Geographer, vol. 12, No. 2, p. 132).
p e r ig l a c ia l g e o m o r p h o l o g y
(iii) N ivation ridge fo u n d in the p erig lacial en v iro n m en t o f arctic and

(iv) N ivation fan su b arctic areas. P aisa m ay b e d estro y ed by rise in
w ater tab le in the n earby sw am p s o r by fractu re in its
7. Aeolian Landforms
u p p er surface, i t is fo rm ed by fro st h eav in g u n d er the
(1) Erosional landforms
in flu en ce o f ice seg reg atio n .
(i) G roo v ed b ed ro ck su rfaces
(ii) P eriglacial loess
Pingos
P in g o is an E ask im o w o rd w h ich m ean s iso
(iii) V en tifacts lated d o m e -lik e lo w m o u n d s o r h ills fo u n d in p e rm a
(2) Depositional landforms fro st areas. T h is w o rd w as first u sed by A .E . P o rsild
(i) P erig lacial loess in the y ear 1938. T h ey are fo u n d in c o n tin u o u s as
w ell as d isc o n tin u o u s p e rm a fro st area s. T h ey are
(ii) P erig lacial san d dunes
ab u n d an tly fo u n d in the a rctic areas (65°N -75°N ) o f
8. Periglacio-fluvial Landforms C an ad a, A lask a, G re e n la n d a n d S ib e ria . T h e y ran g e
(1) A sy m m etrical v alley s in h eig h t from a few m e tre s to 6 0 m a n d fro m a few
(2) T h aw -g u llies m eters to 3 0 0 m e tres in d ia m e te r. S m all p in g o s h av e
clo sed tops w h ereas b ig p in g o s h a v e o p e n to p s.
(3) T h aw - rav in es
T hey are cla ssifie d in tw o ty p e s on th e b a s is o f
Involutions shape: (i) c lo se d p in g o s , an d (ii) o p e n p in g o s (fig .
In v o lu tio n s are co n to rted form s o f stratified 27.4).
deposits o f u n c o n so lid a te d m aterials ju s t below the A c c o rd in g to ‘fr o s t-h e a v in g h y p o t h e s is ’
ground su rface o f the p erm a fro st areas. T hey are
p in g o s are su p p o se d to be fo rm e d in tw o w a y s.
formed d u e to sq u eezin g and b u ck lin g o f stratified
but u n co n so lid ated m aterials. S o m e tim es the in ter
penetration o f d ep o sits d ue to acu te sq u eezin g is so
com plex th a t the fo rm o f the d ep o sits is so greatly
distorted th a t th e ir o rig in al form s can n o t be id en ti
fied. On th e b asis o f sh ap e in v o lu tio n s are div id ed
into (i) fo ld in v o lu tio n s, (iii) p illar in v o lu tio n s and
(iii) a m o rp h o u s in v o lu tio n s.
)
Hummocks »*m 7i rrr ha * ••v * ;1
t * ,.
•.
• • f , • '« • ••• *. • " ••
S m all u p stan d in g w rin k les on the su rface o f ~ — ‘ Z. — — ~~ — •
perm afrost are called h u m m o ck s. T h ese are fo rm ed

due to sq u eezin g o f the g ro u n d su rface b eca u se o f ^Permafrost
lateral p ressu re ex erted by freezin g o f activ e layer.
The squeezing o f the g ro u n d su rface re su lts in the
form ation o f sm all knots. A c co rd in g to T a b e r h u m
m ocks are form ed d u e to fro st h eav in g . H m m o c k s
are divided into tw o ty p es on th e b asis o f p resen ce or
absence o f vegetation i.e. (i) turf hummocks (w ith
small vegetation) and (ii) earth hummocks (w ith
out vegetation).
P aisa
A special category o f hum m ock found in
mpy areas and com posed o f peats having thin ice
layers '" s id e is called p aisa w h ich is a b o u t 10 m in Fig. 27.4 : Formation and development o f pingos. After,
eig an to 2 0 m in d ia m ete r an d is m o stly R.J. Small, 1970. >
;-'v ‘S-.'.
(1 ) T h e y a re fo rm e d d u e to ris e o f g ro u n d s u rfa c e p in g o ca n b e fo rm e d d u e to f r o s t h e a v in g o n ly w hen ;
c a u se d by la te ra l th ru s t in th e m a te ria ls o f a c tiv e th e m a te ria ls a re f r o s t- s u s c e p tib le i.e. th e ir d ia m e te r 5
la y er. L a te ra l th ru s t is c a u s e d d u e to d o w n w a rd is 0 .0 2 m m o r le ss w h e re a s th e m a te ria ls in v o lv e d in
in c re a sin g p re s s u re e x e rte d by fre e z in g o f u p p e r th e fo rm a tio n o f m o s t o f p in g o s h a v e d ia m e te r o f the
su rfa c e o f a c tiv e lay er, (ii) T h e ice le n se s fo rm e d in p a rtic le s b e tw e e n 0.1 a n d 0 .5 m m . A c c o rd in g to him
th e ac tiv e la y e r g ro w in siz e to fo rm s e g re g a te d ice p in g o s a re fo rm e d in th e f o llo w in g m a n n e r. T h e re is
d u e to ice s e g re g a tio n . T h is s e g re g a te d ice e x e rts a fro z e n la k e w h ic h is s u r r o u n d e d b y p e rm a fro st.
p re ssu re u p w a rd a n d th e g ro u n d s u rfa c e rise s to fo rm T h e re is u n fro z e n la n d b e n e a th th e fro z e n la k e (fig.
d o m e -sh a p e d p in g o s. 2 7 .5 A ). T h e re is still s o m e w a te r a t th e b o tto m o f the
A c c o rd in g to J.R . M a c k a y (1 9 6 2 ) p in g o s are la k e b u t s lo w ly a n d s lo w ly th e w h o le w a te r is fro zen
n o t fo rm e d d u e to fro st-h e a v in g . A c c o rd in g to h im (fig , 2 7 .5 B ) a n d th u s u n fro z e n la n d is tra p p e d b e -
F r o z e n To Bo ttom
Lacustrine Sedimenty^ '7- ^ . -~-'CP

W t r .- . t-J7
B m'izjrsr
Tr r r c r f i
,
Fig. 27.5: Stages of the formation of pingo according to J.R. Mackay, 1962.
PERIGLACIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
501
tween the lake ice and perm afro st. E x p an d in g p er (sorted and unsorted, (iv) stone stripes (sorted and
m afrost exerts pressu re on unfro zen land (fig. 2 7 .5B) unsorted), and (v) stone garlands (sorted and un
and hence unfrozen po rtio n cau ses th e g round sorted). T hese features are further divided into tw o
surface to rise u p w ard (fig. 2 7 .5C). T h e w ater o f the groups on the b asis o f slope g radient e.g. (i) patterns
unfrozen land is co n v erted into ice w h ich co llects dev elo p ed on flat grqund surface having slope gra
and grow s ju s t b elo w th e b u lg e (fig. 2 7 .5D ). T his ice d ien t upto 6° (e.g. sto n d x ircles and stone polygons),
core causes fu rth er rise in th e b u lge. T h u s, a pin g o is and (ii) patterns dev elo p ed 6n sloppy surface having
formed. the slope g rad ien t betw een 6° and 30° (e.g. stone
nets, stone stripes and stone g arlands) (fig. 27.6).
Thermokarst
F rost heaving and solifluction play m ajo r roles in the
T h erm o k arsts, th o u g h sim ilar to the karst developm ent o f patterned ground.
topography o f c a rb o n a te ro ck s in ap p earan ce, vary
significantly from th e k arstic lan d fo rm s b ecau se the
latter are fo rm ed d u e to ch em ica l reactio n s o f w ater
and co n seq u en t d isso lu tio n o f carb o n ate ro ck s (lim e
stones and d o lo m ite s) w h ereas th erm o k arsts are
form ed d ue to th a w in g o f fro zen gro u n d in p erm a
frost areas b eca u se o f ch an g e s in th erm al co n ditions.
In fact, th e rm o k a rst refers to n eg ativ e landform s
(sinks and d e p re ssio n s) w h ich are fo rm ed due to
collapse o f g ro u n d su rface b ecau se o f th aw in g o f the
ice o f the a c tiv e la y e r o f p erm a fro st due to rise in
te m p e ra tu re . T h u s , th e k a r s tic la n d fo rm s are
lithologically c o n tro lle d w h ereas the therm o k arstic
landform s are th e rm a lly co n tro lled .
T herm okarsts include surface pits, sinks (funnel
sinks, sin k h o le s), h o llo w s, rav in es, dry valleys, Fig. 27.6 : Different form s o f patterned ground .
caves, th aw la k es, su b sid en ce cauldron etc. T hese
landform s are fo rm ed d ue to co llapse o f upper su r
A
face b e c a u se o f m e ltin g o f ice in the activ e layer due
to rise in te m p e ra tu re . T h e ch an g e in the tem perature
o f the ro ck s m ay be d u e to (i) rem oval o f vegetal
cover, p lo u g h in g o f the land and co n stru ctio n o f
tanks and lak es, and (ii) clim atic change.
Patterned Ground
P attern ed gro u n d refers to the d ev elo p m en t o f
such la n d fo rm s in the perig lacial areas w hich have
the g eo m etrical shap es (lik e circles, po ly g o n s, nets,
stripes an d garlan d s) and are so system atically ar
ranged acco rd in g to the gro u n d slope th at they look
lik e patterns o f lan d fo rm s as if arranged by m an.
A .L. W ashburn (1956) classified the p attern s on the
b asis o f th eir shapes and sorting o f m aterials in 5
types e.g. (i) stone circles (sorted and unsorted), (ii) Fig. 27.7: Development o f stone polygons byfrost heav
ing, after R.J. Small, 1970.
stone polygons (sorted and unsorted), (iii) stone nets
GEOMORPHOLOGY Wt
Stone Glacier th e to p an d c litte rs (tra in s o f b lo c k s) o n th e sides. T h & lIB
S to n e o r ro c k g la c ic r consists* o f tw o lay ers. ro ck b lo c k s, m a in c o m p o n e n ts o f to rs, may be H
T h e u p p e r la y e r c a rrie s ro c k p ie c e s an d ro ck b lo c k s c u b o id a l, ro u n d e d , a n g u la r, e lo n g a te d etc. in shape.
w h ile the lo w e r la y e r c o n s is ts o f silt, san d , m u d etc. T h ey m ay be s e a te d at th e to p o f th e h ills, on the m
T h e se m a te ria ls are m o v e d u p w a rd an d are b ro u g h t fla n k s o f th e h ills o r on fla t b a sa l p la tfo rm s ranging 1
to th e g ro u n d s u rfa c e b e c a u se o f frost h e a v in g . T h ere from 6m to 3 0 m in h e ig h t. T h e y a re fo u n d in differ- 1
arc c o n tra stin g o p in io n s a b o u t th e m o v e m e n t o f e n t c lim a te s v a ry in g fro m c o ld to h o t and dry to 1
sto n e g la c ie rs . A c c o rd in g to A . C h aix (1 9 2 3 , 1943) h u m id . T h o u g h to rs h av e d e v e lo p e d o v e r alm o st a lt
u p p e r p art o f ro ck g la c ie r m o v e s d o w n th e slo p e at ty p e s o f ro ck s b u t th ey a re fre q u e n tly fo u n d in the
th e ra te o f 1.0 to 1.5m p e r y e a r w h ereas th e lo w e r re g io n s o f g ra n ite s.
p art m o v e s at th e ra te o f 0 .3 m to 1.0 m p e r year.
V a rio u s th e o rie s o f to r fo rm a tio n h a v e been
Block Fields p u t fo rth (e.g . 1. P e d ip la n a tio n T h e o ry o f L .C . K ing,
B lo c k fie ld re fe rs to th e n atu ra l c o lle c tio n o f 2. D eep B asal W e a th e rin g T h e o ry o f D . L . L in to n
la rg e sto n e b lo c k s at th e Hat su rfa c e o f th e hill to p s
in th e p e rig la c ia l a rea s. T h e s e b lo c k fie ld s are also
c a lle d blockmeer a n d falsenmecr. T h e sto n e b lo ck s
a re fo rm e d d u e to fro st w e a th e rin g (c o n g c lifra c tio n ).
Stone Streams
A c c u m u la tio n s o f ro c k d e b ris in th e v alley
flo o rs are c a lle d stone streams o r boulder fields.
T h e sto n e d e b ris m o v e s d o w n slo p e a lo n g the valley
flo o r. T h e re is w ell s o rtin g o f ro ck d e b ris in th e sto n e
s tre a m s. T h e u p p e r la y e r c o n s is ts o f larg e a n d co arse
d e b ris w h ile th e lo w e r la y e r is d o m in a te d by fine
m a te ria ls . W a te r c h a n n e l is d e v e lo p e d b etw ee n the
v a lle y w alls an d sto n e stream . S o rtin g o f ro c k d eb ris
o c c u rs th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f frost heaving. S to n e
s tre a m s m o v e d o w n slo p e d u e to th e fo rce o f g rav ity ,
f ro s t h e a v in g a n d so liflu c tio n .
Altiplanation Terraces
F la tte n e d s u m m its an d b e n c h -lik e fe a tu re s
d e v e lo p e d on h ig h e r a ltitu d e s o f sp u rs an d h ill sid es
in p e rig la c ia l a re a s a re c a lle d a ltip la n a tio n te rra ces.
T h e s e te rra c e s a re s e p a ra te d by s c a rp s w h ic h ran g e
in h e ig h t fro m 2 m to 12m . T e rra c e s are 10 to 9 0 m
lo n g a n d u p to 8 0 0 m w id e . T h e a n g le o f th e sc a rp s Fig. 27.8 : Stone banked terraces an d garlands.
v a rie s fro m 15° to 22°. T h e b a se o f th e sc a rp s m ay be 3. P e rig la c ia l T h e o ry o f J. P a lm e r a n d R .A . N eilson,
c h a r a c te riz e d b y fro s t riv e n c liffs. T h e s e te rra c e s are 4. T w o -S ta g e T h e o ry o f J. D e m e k , 5. G la c ia l Theory
th e re s u lt o f th e p ro c e s s o f a ltip la n a tio n w h ic h in o f R. D a lh e tc .) b u t th e re is n o u n a n im ity a m o n g the
c lu d e s fr o s t s a p p in g , c o n g e lifr a c tio n and
e x p o n e n ts b e c a u s e to rs a re n o t c o n fin e d to a particu
c o n g e liflu c tio n (s o liflu c tio n ). T h e te rra c e s h a v in g
la r ro c k ty p e a n d c lim a te . In p e rig la c ia l area s tors are
s to n e s a re c a lle d s t o n e - b a n k e d t e r r a c e s (fig . 2 7 .8 ).
fo rm e d d u e to w e a th e rin g o f ro c k s a lo n g th e jo in ts
th ro u g h th e p ro c e s s o f c o n g e lifra c tio n (fro st w eath
Tors
T o rs , o n e o f th e m o s t c o n tro v e rsia l la n d fo rm s, e rin g d u e to fre e z e a n d th a w c y c le ) a n d rem o v al o f
a re p ile s o f b ro k e n a n d e x p o s e d m a s s e s o f h a rd ro c k s w e a th e r e d m a t e r i a l s th r o u g h th e p r o c e s s o f
h a v in g a c ro w n o f r o c k b lo c k s o f d iffe re n t s iz e s on c o n g e liflu c tio n (s o liflu c tio n ).
PBRIGLACIAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
J. P alm er and R .A . N eilso n p o stu la te d th e ir in those ro ck s w h ich w ere w id ely jo in te d , (ii) reg o lith s
periglacial th e o r y in 1962 to a c c o u n t fo r the o rig in w ere re m o v e d by so il c re e p (c o n g e liflu c tio n ) an d
o f tors o f D a rtm o o r a re a o f E n g la n d , w h e re in fro st h eav e d u rin g P le isto c e n e p e rio d (P le isto c e n e
congelifraction and co n g e liflu c tio n w ere tak en as ice a g e an d g la c ia tio n ) w ith th e re s u lt ro c k b o u ld e rs
the m ost active p ro cesses fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f g ra a p p e a re d on th e su rfa c e as to rs w h ic h w ere s u b je c te d
nitic tors in D artm o o r area. S o il re stin g on g ran ite to fro st w e a th e rin g . A c c o rd in g to D e m e k b o th th e
surface was rem oved by so liflu ctio n (co n g eliflu c tio n ) p ro cesses i.e. fro st w eath e rin g an d rem o v a l o f w e a th
e re d m a teria l o p e ra te to g e th e r. R .A . D alh (1 9 6 6 ),
which rendered the g ra n ite su rfa c e n u d e an d b are.
a fte r the o b se rv a tio n o f to rs in n o rth e rn N o rw a y ,
This bare g ran itic su rfa c e w as su b je c te d to fro st
m a in ta in e d th a t to rs w ere g la c ia te d la n d fo rm s. It
w eathering (c o n g e lifra c tio n ) d u e to fre e z e -th a w c y
m ay be p o in ted o u t th a t to rs w e re p re v io u sly a s s o c i
cle. W herever the ro ck s w ere w id ely jo in te d , b ig
ated w ith g ra n ite s an d p e rig la c ia l c lim a te b u t now
rock blocks w ere fo rm ed . T h e fin e w e a th e re d m a te
they h av e b een fo u n d on a v a rie ty o f ro c k s e.g.
rials w ere rem o v e d by so liflu c tio n an d h en ce the
g ran ites, b asalt, sa n d sto n e s, lim e s to n e s etc. a n d th a t
granitic blocks g et th e m se lv e s a rra n g e d o n e upon too in d iffe re n t clim a tic c o n d itio n s ra n g in g fro m
another to form tors. In o rd e r to ex p lain the o rig in tro p ical to p erig la c ia l c lim ates. In In d ia to rs h a v e
and ch ara cteristics o f to rs o f B o h em ian u p lan d o f b een fo u n d o v e r g ran ites (C h o ta n a g p u r h ig h la n d s
form er C h eck o slo v ak ia J. D em ek p ro p o u n d ed a tw o - i.e. P alam au u p la n d , R an ch i p la te a u , S in g h b h u m
sta g e th e o ry o f to r fo rm atio n . A c c o rd in g to him area etc.), basalts (D eccan plateau), san d sto n es (R o h tas
there w ere tw o stages in the fo rm atio n o f to rs viz. (i) p lateau , R ew a p la teau , J a w a h a rla l N e h ru U n iv e rs ity
rocks w ere deeply w eath e red u p to g re a te r d ep th cam p u s etc.) etc. It m ay b e c o n c lu d e d th a t it is v e ry
(110 m at places) and th ick re g o lith s w ere fo rm ed d iffic u lt to ex p lain th e a s s o c ia tio n o f to rs to th e
under w arm and h u m id c o n d itio n s o f T ertiary p e clim atic co n d itio n s o f th e lo c a litie s w h e re th e y are
riod. A t the sam e tim e b ig ro c k b lo c k s w ere fo rm ed p resen tly found.
Fig. 27.9 : transverse nivation hollow.

Nivation Hollows
h o llo w s w h ich are g en e ra lly fo u n d a lo n g th e h ill
H ollow s or d ep ressio n s p ro d u ced by snow - sid es in d iffe re n t fo rm s. T h e ir size ra n g e s fro m a fe w
patch erosion o r n iv atio n p ro cess are ca lle d n iv atio n h u n d red m e te rs to 1.5 k ilo m e te rs. L e w is c la s s ifie d
n ivation hollow s on the basis o f th ree types o f snow - 2 7 .7 PERIGLACIAL CYCLE OF EROSION
p atch into (i) transverse, (ii) longitudinal, and (iii) L.C . P e ltie r p resen te d h is m o d e l o f p erig lacial I
circular types. P re-ex istin g to p o g rap h ic c o n fig u ra cy cle o f ero sio n in 1950 afte r b e in g c o n v in c e d by the
tion, i.e. p rev io u sly fo rm ed sm all d ep ressio n s, play g eo m o rp h o lo g ica l s ig n ific a n c e o f p erig la c ia l proc- f
im p o rtan t role in th e d ev elo p m en t o f these h o llow s, esses o f ero sio n an d w e a th e rin g . H e en v isag e d the
as they (p rev io u sly fo rm ed sm all h o llo w s) are e n cy clic d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n d fo rm s in p erig lacial areas
larged by snow p atch ero sio n and rem oval o f d ebris through the su c c e ssiv e sta g e s o f y o u th , m a tu re and
by solifluction. T h e se h o llo w s also give birth to old (fig. 2 7 .1 0 ) sta g e s on th e lin e o f D av isian m odel
altip la n a tio n te rra c e s. L o n g itu d in a l h o llo w s are o f ‘g e o g r a p h ic a l c y c le ’. It m a y be p o in te d o u t that
form ed d u e to sn o w p a tch ero sio n in the fluvially P eliter p o stu la ted th e c o n c e p t o f c y c lic ev o lu tio n o f
ero d ed riv e r v alley s an d rav in es. S u rface co n fig u ra p erig lacial la n d fo rm s at the tim e (1 9 5 0 ) w hen m a
tion d o es n o t p aly any ro le in the fo rm atio n and jo rity o f the g e m o rp h o lo g ists p le a d e d fo r o u trig h t
d e v elo p m en t o f c irc u la r h o llo w s, the d ia m ete r o f rejectio n o f D av isian m o d el o f s e q u e n tia l c h a n g e s o f
w h ich ran g es fro m a few m eters to one k ilom eter. lan d fo rm s th ro u g h tim e and tim e -d e p e n d e n t m odel
T h ese are fo rm ed o v er g en tly slo p in g surface. It m ay o f lan d scap e d e v elo p m en t, an d in th e c o u n try (G e r
be m e n tio n ed th at a few scien tists (e.g. R u ssell and m an y ) w here m o st o f th e g e m o rp h o lo g is ts w ere
W aters) called th em as nivation cirques but they h o stile to D av isian p o stu la tes.
c an n o t b e fo rm ed by g lacial action. R .P . S in g h a lso p r e s e n te d a s c h e m e o f
Periglacial V alleys p erig lacial cy cle o f ero sio n in 1971. A c c o rd in g to
P eltier the p erig lacial c y c le o f e ro sio n is a c c o m
P erig lacial valley s are asy m m etrical in th eir
plish ed th ro u g h th e m e c h a n ism o f c r y o p la n a tio n
c ro ss-sectio n h aving one side o f g en tle slo p e w hile
w hich in clu d es tw o p ro c e sse s— (i) c o n g e lifr a c tio n
o th er side o f steep slope. T he asy m m etry o f valleys
( f r o s t- w e a th e r in g ) , a n d ( ii) c o n g e lit u r b a t lo n .
is e x p lain ed on the b asis o f varying d eg rees o f frost
S o liflu c tio n (S a v in d ra S in g h , 1972) is a lso a s ig n ifi
w eath erin g and so liflu ctio n on valley sides because
o f unequal am o u n t o f in so latio n receiv ed on tw o can t p ro cess in th e p erig la c ia l c y c le o f e ro s io n .
sides. T h e valleys stretch in g from N .W . to S.E. T ho u g h m ajo rity o f g e m o rp h o lo g ists h a v e re je c te d
(n o rth ern h em isp h ere) rece iv e m ore in so latio n on the validity o f p erig lacial c y cle o f e ro sio n b u t P e ltie r
th e ir so u th -w estern sid es w ith the resu lt freeze-th aw has claim ed , on th e b asis o f c h a ra c te ristic la n d fo rm s
ev id en ces, th at the cy clic d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n d fo rm s
c y cle (th aw d u rin g d ay tim e and freezin g durin g
in p erig lacial clim a te is a reality .
n ig h t) b eco m es m o re activ e and hen ce fro st w eath
e rin g c a u s e s b re a k in g an d sh atterin g o f rocks. The Youth S ta g e
w e a th e re d m a te ria ls are rem o v ed by so liflu ctio n P erig lacia l cy cle b eg in s w ith th e o n s e t o f
d u rin g d ay tim e b eca u se o f av ailab ility o f w ater as p erig lacial clim a te an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f p e rm a fro st.
lu b ric a to r (th e re is th aw o f fro zen m o istu re and In th e b eg in n in g c o n g e lifra c tio n (fro s t w e a th e rin g )
w a te r d u rin g d ay tim e). T h u s, the v alley sid e is b eco m es m o re activ e w ith the re s u lt p re -e x istin g
s teep e n ed d u e to slo p e re tre a t cau sed by so liflu ctio n . slo p es are c o n v e rte d in to ste e p s lo p e s o f b a re b ed
Such slo p e is c a lle d active slope. C o n tra ry to this, ro ck s h av in g th e an g le o f 25° - 30°. T h e se steep
;he n o rth -e a ste rn slo p e is u n d e r the c o n d itio n o f b ed ro ck slo p es a re s u b je c te d to p a ra lle l re tre a t due to
perm anent fre e z in g a c tio n b e c a u se o f sh ad e and b ack w a stin g fo ste re d by c o n g e lifra c tio n . F ro st ac
e a st a m o u n t o f in so la tio n d u e to sla n tin g su n 's rays, tion g iv es b irth to fr o s t-r iv e n c liffs o n th e b ases o f
th e se slo p es. Smafll c r y o p la n a tio n su r fa c e s w ith
rh u s, su ch slo p e b e c o m e s in a c tiv e b e c a u se it is
slo p e an g le o f 15° - 20° are d e v e lo p e d on the low er
>rotected fro m ice c o v e r. O n the o th e r h an d , the
se g m e n t o f fro s t-riv e n slo p e s. T h e s e su rfaces are
•ther g ro u p o f sc ie n tis ts is o f th e v iew th a t th e so u th - a lm o st s im ila r to p e d im e n ts o f h o t d e s e rt areas. The
/e ste rn slo p e w o u ld b e c o m e g e n tle b e c a u se th e m elt w e a th e re d d e b ris, re stin g o n c ry o p la n a tio n surfaces,
.haw ed) w a te r w o u ld so o n d ry up b e c a u se o f rela- is r e m o v e d d o w n s l o p e b y c o n g e l i f l u c t i o n |
vely g re a te r in so la tio n an d h e n ce so liflu ctio n w o u ld (so liflu c tio n ) w ith th e re s u lt d e b ris slid e s dow n and |
ot be o p e ra tiv e w h ile it w o u ld be o p e ra tiv e on the is d e p o site d in th e v alley s. S o m e p o rtio n o f d eb ris is |
D rth-eastern slo p e. also d e p o site d at th e lo w e r s e g m e n t o f cry o p lan atio n i
p e r ig l a c ia l g e o m o rp h o lo g y 505
Fig. 27.10 : Periglacial cycle o f erosion according to L.C. Peltier, 1950, in R.J. Small, 1970.
surfaces b ecau se the rivers, b ein g seasonal in char Veryêxtensive cryoplanation surface is form ed due
acter, are unable to transport all o f the debris. Thus, to congelifraction and cryoturbation but they are
small surfaces o f cryoplanation, frostriven c liffs and lo w ered in h eig h t by the co m b in e d a ctio n o f
aggraded v a lley s (fig . 2 7 .1 0 ) are the sign ificant congelifraction and co n g eliflu ctio n .
m orphological m an ifestion s o f youthful stage o f
Old Stage
periglacial c y c le o f erosion.
H ills are com pletely destroyed by their gradual
Mature S ta g e low ering due to co n gelifraction and co n g eliflu ctio n
D iv id es are con tin u ou sly w asted due to paral and the slop e d eclin es to 5° or le ss. W eathered
lel retreat in the frost-riven slo p es and a few m orpho m aterials are com m in u ted to finer grade w herein
logical features o f youth stage (i.e. scattered rock wind action b eco m es m ore sign ifican t. Sand dunes
remnants, frost-riven cliffs, rounded upland etc.) are form ed at p laces w hereas d eflation o f fin e m ate
d isap p ear but th ere is c o n tin u o u s g ro w th in rials form s ventifacts. R ivers a lso b eco m e a ctiv e as
cryoplanation surfaces due m ainly to parallel retreat they b ecom e able to transport the debris. T h e end
in slop es. V alleys are continuously aggraded and product o f the c y c le is cryoplantion surface or
flat hill crests are reduced in slop e angle o f 20° - 30°. cryoplain, sim ilar to D avis' peneplain.
C H A PT E R 2 8 REGJONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 5 0 6 -5 5 3
K um aun H im alay a region ; G anga plain ; S. E. C h o ta n a g p u r re g io n ;
7 ' . R an ch i p la te a u ; P alam au u p la n d s ; B elan b a s in ; B h a n d e r p la te a u ; G im a r
hill region ; w est coastal plains.
28
REGIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
R eg io n al g e o m o rp h o lo g y d eals w ith the d e o f C h o tan ag p u r re g io n ) ; B elan basin (to re p re se n t a

scrip tio n o f g eo m o rp h o lo g ical p erso n ality to g eth er d rainage basin as a g eo m o rp h ic u nit) ; B h an d er
w ith ev o lu tio n o f m o rp h o lo g ical features o f a region plateau); G irn ar hills; coastal p lain s etc.
at m acro, m eso and m icro -sp atial scales. T he study
28.1 KUMAUN HIMALAYA REGION*
o f g eo m o rp h o lo g y at m acro -lev el involving even
th e w hole co n tin en t and in som e cases the entire Location
g lo b e (for exam ple, fo r the stu d y o f p lanation su r T he K um aun H im alay a, rep resen tin g three
faces) is called mega geomorphology, w hile the parallel ranges o f the H im alay as viz. the H im adri
study o f g eo m o rp h o lo g ical ch aracteristics o f d iffer (G reater or Inner H im alay a), the H im achal (L esser
en t p h y sio g rap h ic reg io n s o f a co n tin en t or a country or M iddle H im alay a) and S iw alik (O u ter H im alaya),
or even su b reg io n s o f a m ajo r p h y sio g rap h ic region form ed d uring T ertiary p erio d due to folding of
(e.g. C h o ta n ag p u r reg io n ) e.g. R anchi p lateau w ithin T ethys geosynclinal sed im en ts, is the eastern p art of
C h o ta n a g p u r reg io n , falls u n d er the do m ain o f U.P. H im alayas and is located betw een the latitudes
mesogeomorphology, and the geo m o rp h o lo g y o f a o f 28° 44' N — 30° 49' N and lo n g itu d es o f 78° 45' E —
very sm all area in v o lv in g a few square k ilom eters is 81° 01' E, co v erin g an area o f 21,035 km 2 o f th ree
called micro geomorphology (e.g. a sm all gully d istric ts (fig. 2 8 .1 ) viz. N a in ita l, A lm o ra and
basin, co n flu en ce area o f tw o rivers, a sea beach, P ithoragarh o f K um aun d iv isio n o f U ttar P radesh.
channel bed at a specific location etc.). T he m ost T he m ajo r d rain ag e system c o n sists o f lim ited area
convenient and w idely accep ted g eo m o rp h ic unit o f the A lak n an d a system , the R am g an g a system (w ),
represents a drainag e basin. An attem p t is being and the Kali system (fig. 28.2). T h e R am g an g a, and
m ade to select a few p h y sio g rap h ic regions, though the Sarju are co n seq u en t stream s w h ich follow the
random ly selected or say p u rp o sely selected, o f the regional slope and drain so u th w ard . T he altitude
country for the descrip tio n o f regional g eo m o rp h o ranges from 204 m in the so u th to 7 ,4 3 6 m m .s.l. in
logical characteristics so that alm o st all o f the four the north.
m ajor physical div isio n s (e.g. H im alayan region,
great northern plain, D ecean plateau and coastal * Based on (1) R.L. Singh, 1967 : Morphometric analysis of
plain) are well represented e.g. K um aun H im alayas; lerrain, Bulletin No. 2, NGSI. Varanasi.
great plains o f northern In d ia ; S.E. C h o tan ag p u r (2) D.S. Jalal : Geographical Perspective of
region, Ranchi plateau, P alam au upland (su b reg io n s Kumaun.
m
REGIONAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y
Fig. 28.1: Location of Kumaun Region, After D.S. Jalal.
Geological Formations great boundary fault s e p a ra te s s a n d s to n e a n d shale

T h e g e o lo g ic a l f o r m a tio n s o f K u m a u n b ed s o f N ah an stag e o f th e S iw a lik fo rm a tio n fro m
H im alay a a re d iv id e d in to th ree b ro ad stratig rap h ic the E o ce n e fo rm atio n o f the lo w e r H im a la y a n fo r
zones viz. (i) th e o u te r H im a lay an o r su b -H im alay an m atio n zone. T h e S iw a lik fo rm a tio n s are d iv id e d
or S iw alik fo rm a tio n zo n e, (ii) the cen tral o r lo w er into, from lo w e r to u p p er, lo w e r, m id d le a n d u p p e r
H im alayan fo rm atio n zo n e, an d (iii) the g reater S iw alik fo rm atio n zo n es.
H im alayan fo rm atio n zone. T h e central or low er H im alayan form ation
T h e sub-Himalayan stratigraphic zone, also zone c o m p rise s E o c e n e s e d im e n ta rie s (s a n d s to n e s ,
called as S iw a lik z o n e , c o n s is tin g o f T e rtia ry lim esto n e s, q u a rtz ite s, sh a le s ) an d g ra n ite s a n d o th e r
sedim entaries, rep resen ts the fo o t-h ill zo n e k now n c ry sta llin e ro ck s. T h e lith o lo g y c o n s is ts o f (i) Krol
a s S iw a lik s ,o f the K u m au n H im alay a. T h e lith o lo g y belt h av in g (a) in fra K ro l, (b ) K ro l s a n d s to n e s , (c)
consists o f san d sto n es, lim esto n es, sh ales, clay s and K rol lim e sto n e s, an d (d ) T al q u a rtz ite s ; (ii) D eohan
conglom erates. T he thickness o f sed im en taries ranges Tejam belt (in c lu d e s th ic k lim e s to n e s, d o lo m ite s
from 5000 to 55 0 0 m at places. T h e sed im en tary an d th ick to p s e c tio n o f q u a r tz ite s ) ; a n d (iii) A lm o ra
h orizontal beds have been g reatly d istu rb e d b ecau se D u d ato li c ry s ta llin e m a ss. T h e g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a
o f intense folding and hen ce they d ip n o rth -w e s t tio n s a ro u n d N a in i T a l h av e b e e n g re a tly d is tu rb e d
w ard w ith d ip angles ran g in g b etw een 30° to 70°. T h e and co m p lica ted d u e to fo ld in g a n d fa u ltin g ac tiv itie s.
508 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Fig. 28.2-: Drainage system o f Kumaun Himalaya, After D.S. Jalal.
T he higher or greater Himalayan forma conditions reg ister w ide ran g e o f v aria tio n s from
tion zone, separated from the lo w er or C entral valley floors in the S iw alik s to th e sn o w -c o v ered
Himalayan form ation zone by Main Central Thrust peaks in the greater H im alay as, b u t av era g e annual
o f the H im alaya, co n sists o f q u artzites, m igm atites, tem perature co m es to ab o u t 15°C w h ereas m ax i
geneisses, g am et-sch ists, dio ritic am p h ib o lites and m um su m m er tem p eratu re reac h es 29°— 30°C o r
a series o f highly fo ssilife ro u s sed im en tary rocks. even m ore. D ay tem p eratu re d u rin g Jan u ary ranges
betw een 4.5°C — 10°C. N ig h ts b eco m e very cool and
CUmattc Environment occasio n ally reco rd snow fall b u t sn o w la y er d isap
T he K um aun H im alay an region reco rd s vari pears after a few hours. R ain y seaso n stretch es from
able clim ates because o f g reat altitu d in al and topo- 15 June to 30 S eptem ber. A v erag e an n u al rainfall
g ^ p h ic variations. B asically, the clim ate is m onsoon com es to ab o u t 1350 m m .
type but there is m uch spatial variation in clim atic T he altim etric in flu en ce on tem p eratu re is so
elem ents due to altim etric factor. T h o u g h therm al g reat that w hile valleys reco rd d ay tim e tem perature
r e g io n a l g e o m o r p h o l o g y
509
o f above 30°C in M ay, the nearby high p eak s record D rainage S y ste m
snow falls. It m ay be m en tio n ed th at it is not only the T h e d ra in a g e sy stem an d p a tte rn s o f th e
altitude w hich affects w eath er co n d itio n s m ost, but K um aun H im a lay a h av e been larg ely co n tro lle d by
slope aspect also influences w eath er p h enom ena. lith o lo g ical and stru ctu ra l p attern s. T h e stream s are
The latitudinal zone betw een 1200m — 2100m records lo cally called as gads and gadheras. T h e d rain a g e o f
m axim um sum m er and w in ter p recip itatio n . T he the region is fo rm ed by th ree d rain a g e sy stem s (o f
rainfall starts d ecrease bey o n d 210 0 m. T h e south co u rse u p p er reac h es) viz. (i) th e K ali sy stem , (ii) th e
facing slopes o f ran g es receiv e m uch m o re rainfall R am g an g a sy stem , and (iii) th e K o si sy stem . T h e
than the no rth w ard slopes. W in ter d ep ressio n s (cy w estern p art o f A lm o ra and N ain i T al d istric ts is
clones) cause sn o w fall a t the a v erag e rate o f seven to d rain ed by the easte rn h e a d w a te rs o f th e A la k n a n d a
eight days p e r m o n th from Jan u ary to M arch. T he system . M ajo r p a rt o f the K u m au n H im a la y a is
average th ick n ess o f sn o w fall th ro u g h w in ter c y d rain ed by the feed e rs o f th e K ali riv e r w h erein
clones from N o v em b er to M arch ran g es betw een sig n ifican t trib u tarie s are K alp an i, K uthi Y an k ti,
three-five m eters. D hauli G an g a, G ori G an g a, S arju , L a d h ia etc. In
fact, upper reaches o f the K ali system d rain Pithoragarh
‘T he m icro -clim atic co n d itio n s usu ally d iffer
d istrict and eastern p arts o f A lm o ra an d N ain i T al
from valley to valley and lo cality to lo cality acc o rd
districts. T h e K ali leav es th e h illy re g io n an d en ters
ing to the (i) d irec tio n o f rid g es, (ii) d eg ree o f slope,
the plain s at B alam d eo an d is c a lle d S a rd a d o w n
(iii) sunny o r shady asp ects o f slo p es, (iv) inten sity
stream . T he sig n ific a n t stream s o f th e S iw a lik ra n g e
of forest co v er and (v) n earn ess to g la c ie r’ (S.C .
m eet the m a ster stream s a fte r c u ttin g a c ro ss th e
K harkw al and N ity an an d , in R .L. S ingh, 1971). S.D .
K aushik (1962) has d iv id ed U .P. H im a lay a into S iw alik ranges.
seven clim atic zones on the b asis o f altitu d e viz. (i) It m ay be p o in te d o u t th a t th e m a jo r stre a m s
tropical zone (latitu d in al zo n e : 300— 9 0 0 m , m ean h ave very steep ch an n e l g ra d ie n t an d flo w th ro u g h
annual tem p eratu re o f 21.1°C , Ju n e : 29.4°C , Ja n u d eep and n arro w v alley s in th e ir u p p e r a n d m id d le
ary : 13.3°C); (ii) warm temperate zone (altitu d e : reach es w h ereas th ey w id en o u t in lo w e r re a c h e s. It
900— 1800 m , te m p e ra tu re -a n n u a l : 18.9°C, Ju n e : m ay be clarifie d th a t h ere u p p er, m id d le an d lo w e r
27.2°C, January 11.1 ° C ) ; (iii) cool temperate zone reach es o f m a jo r stream s h a v e b een u sed in a v ery
(altitude : 1800-2400 m , te m p eratu re - annual : restricted sen se as the reac h es o f th e se m a in stre a m s
13.9°C, June: 2 1 .1°CC, J u n e : 13.3°C, January: 6 .1°C), fallin g w ith in the K u m au n H im a la y a h av e b e e n
(iv) cold zone (altitu d e : 2 4 0 0 -3 0 0 0 m , tem p eratu re- divided into upper, m iddle and lo w er reaches (courses)
annual : 10.3°C, Ju n e 17.2°C, Jan u ary : 2.8°C ), (vi) w h ereas th ese stream s h av e th e ir sp an s a lso on
alpine zone (altitu d e : 3 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 0 m , te m p eratu re - alluvial plains. T h e ch an n el g ra d ie n t o f u p p e r re a c h e s
annual - 4.5°C Ju n e : 13.3°C, Jan u ary : b elo w zero o f the K ali (L ip u lek h and G a rb y a n g , 13 k m ), th e
for 6 m onths), (v n ) glacial zone (altitu d e : 4000- G ori G an g a (b etw een U n ta D h u ra an d M ila m , 9 k m )
4800 m, tem perature : 10 m o n th s b elo w zero, tw o and the S arju (b etw een Jh u n d i an d L o h a rk h e t, 9 k m )
months betw een 2.2°C and 3.9°C , sn o w m e lts in July is 115.4 m /k m , 1 1 3m /km an d 6 6 .6 m /k m re s p e c
and A ugust), and (v iii) perpetually frozen zone tively. It is sig n ific a n t to n o te th a t th e K ali w ith in a
(altitu d e: above 4 8 0 0 m , c o ld d esert, no v eg etatio n ). sh o rt span o f 13 km o f its u p p er re a c h re g iste rs a total
It is apparent from the c h a ra c te ristic featu res fall in h eig h t (v alley flo o r h e ig h t) o f 1500 m , th u s
of clim atic conditions o f th e K u m au n H im a la y a th at g iving a steep ch an n el g rad ie n t o f 115m p er k ilo m eter
the landscapes o f the reg io n are sh ap ed by a ran g e o f ch an n el len g th . S im ila rly , the G o ri G a n g a re g iste rs
g eo m o rp h ic p ro c e s s e s v iz . f lu v ia l ( s tr e a m s ) , a total altitu d in al d ro p o f 12 0 0 m w ith in a d is ta n c e o f
periglacial and glacial p ro cesses. B esid e s, all ty p es 9 km o f its u p p e r reac h an d th u s fo rm s a very ste e p
w eathering m ech an ism s (m ec h an ica l, ch em ical, c h an n el g ra d ie n t o f 113.3 m e ters p e r k ilo m e te r. The
lotic, an d p h y sico -b io ch em ical w e ath e rin g ) are o p ch an n e l g ra d ie n t o f th e K ali d e c re a se s fro m 1 15.4 m /
erative in the region. A ll th e se h av e c o n trib u ted km in the u p p er reach to 2 3 .4 m /k m in th e m id d le
u Ha * S developm ent o f a m o saic o f p ic tu resq u e reach an d fin ally to 4 .0 m /k m in th e lo w e r re a c h o f
154 km b etw ee n D h a rc h u la a n d T a n a k p u r. The c h a n
glaciaU andfoirns8 fr° m flUVia‘ *° Pe riS lacial and
nel g rad ie n t o f the G o ri G a n g a d e c re a se s fro m 113.3
GEOMORPHOLOGY
510
m /k m in th e u p p e r reac h o f 9 km le n g th to 55.3 m /k m S in g h , 1971) an d re p re s e n ts Chhakhata region or

in the m id d le re a c h o f 38 k m le n g th b etw ee n M ilam th e land o f sixty lakes. T h e s ig n ific a n t la k e s are
and L ilam and fin ally to 34.3 m /k m in th e lo w e r Naini lake, Bhim Tal (tal m e a n s la k e ), Naukuchia
reach o f 262 km b etw ee n L ila m an d Ja u ljib i, w h ere Tal (w ith n in e c o rn e rs ), Sat Tal (se v e n la k e s) and
it co n flu es w ith the K ali. T h e S arju is c h a ra c te riz e d Khurpa Tal (ta b le 2 8 .1 ). T h e s e la k e s a re su p p o se d
by rela tiv e ly less steep c h an n e l g ra d ie n t th an th e to h av e b een fo rm e d by re c e n t te c to n ic m o v e m e n ts
K ali and the G ori G an g a, as th e ch an n e l g ra d ie n t alo n g fa u lts an d d iv e rs ifie d lith o lo g y (D .S . Jalal).
b etw een Jh u m d i an d L o h a rk h e t (a d ista n c e o f 9 km ) A n th ro p o g e n ic fa c to rs (d e fo re s ta tio n a n d c u ltiv a
is 6 6 .6 m /k m w h ich d ro p s to 5.3 m /k m b etw een tion on h ills lo p e s ) an d n a tu ra l p ro c e s s e s (lik e la n d
L o h ark h e t an d P a n c h e sh w a r c o v erin g a ch an n el slid e s an d e a rth m o v e m e n ts ) h a v e le d to d is a p p e a r
d ista n ce o f 202 km . an ce o f sev eral la k e s e .g . L a m p o k h a ra , S a ria T al
(ro tte n la k e ), S u k h a T al (d ry la k e ), C h o rik h e t,
T h e A la k n a n d a sy stem in clu d es very sm all
N ag a rig a o n , B h a g tu ra , M ai w a T al e tc . a re th e e x a m
g eo g rap h ical are a o f th e K u m au n H im a la y a w h erein
p les o f e x tin c t la k es. T h e s ig n ific a n t n a tu ra l la k e s
th e G irth i-K io g a d and th e P in d a r are th e sig n ific a n t
o u t sid e th e lak e re g io n o f N a in ita l d is tric t a re T a ra g
stream s. M o st o f the stream s tak e th e ir so u rces from
T al, (in the W este rn R a m g a n g a v a lle y ), S h y a m a la
th e sn o w -c o v ered ran g es an d g la ciers (e.g. P in d ar
T al, Jo lin g k o n g g ro u p o f la k e s, A n c h a ri T a l e tc .
riv e r from P in d ari g lacier).
‘M o st o f th e se lak es o rig in a te d as a r e s u lt o f d a m
T h e K ali sy stem co v ers the la rg e st g e o g ra p h i
m in g o f riv e rs by la n d slid e d e b r is ’ (D .S . J a la l).
cal area o f th e K u m au n H im a lay a. T h e sig n ifican t
C o n s tru c tio n o f ro a d s , b u ild in g s , la y in g o u t o f
source trib u taries o f the K ali riv er are (i) the K alapani,
w aterp ip es and p o w e r c a b le s , c o n s tr u c tio n o f s e w e rs
o rig in atin g at the elev atio n o f 4 ,2 6 6 m n ear L u p u lek h
on h ig h e r sid es o f h ills lo p e s s u r r o u n d in g th e la k e s
P ass, an d (ii) the K uti riv er, o rig in atin g from a sm all
glacier. T he stream d o w n stream from the c o n flu d e c re a se th e re s is tin g fo rc e o f s lo p e m a te r ia ls an d
en ce o f th ese tw o stream s (e.g. K alap an i and K u ti) is th u s c a u se slo p e fa ilu re s a n d h a z a r d o u s e a rth flo w s
called the K ali riv er. T h e m a jo r trib u ta rie s o f th e an d la n d slid e s. E x a m p le s m a y b e c ite d fro m N a in ita l
K ali are the E astern D h au li, th e G ori (o rig in ates to w n w h ich is lo c a te d on h ills lo p e s s u rro u n d in g
fro m M ilam g la c ie r at th e h eig h t o f 3,463 m ), the N ain i lak e. T h e c o n s tru c tio n o f b u ild in g s a n d ro ad s
S arju etc. T h e sig n ific a n t stream s e m erg in g fro m the is g ra d u a lly in c re a s in g u p s lo p e . T h e lith o lo g ie s c o n
lesser H im alaya are the D ab k a, the B au r, the B h ak h ra, sist o f sh a le s an d d o lo m ite s . T h e e n c ro a c h m e n t o f
th e G aula, th e N a n d h a u r etc. b u ild in g s an d ro a d s a t th e c o s t o f n a tu ra l v e g e ta tio n
Lakes h as d e c re a se d th e s a fe ty fa c to r w h ic h m a y re s u lt in
K u m aun H im a la y a s are far fam o u s fo r n a tu se v e re la n d slid e s an y tim e . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d that
ral lak es an d very o ften the reg io n is also c a lle d as a v ery m a ss iv e la n d s lid e o c c u r r e d in th e n o rth w e s t
lake region. T h e lak e reg io n o f K u m au n H im a la y a ern sid e o f th e la k e in 1 8 8 4 a n d a s iz e a b le p a rt o f
is m ain ly ‘co n fin e d to a b elt o f a p p ro x im a te ly 25 km N ain i la k e w as fille d w ith d e b ris . T h is in fille d p a rt o f
length an d 4 km w id th n e a r th e o u te r frin g e o f th e th e la k e on M a lli T a l s id e is n o w u s e d a s h elip ad
L e sse r H im a la y a in th e d is tric t o f N a in ita l’ (R .L . (S a v in d ra S in g h , 1 9 9 1 ).
Table 28.1 : Characteristic Features of Natural Lakes of Kumaun Himalaya

L akes A ltitu d e M a x im u m M a x im u m M a x im u m C a tc h m e n t W a te r v o lu m e
(m , m sl) d e p th (m ) le n g th (m ) w id th (m ) a r e a ( k m 2) (m illio n m 3)
N aini L ak e 1938 2 5 .7 0 1457 467 5 .5 0 5 .9
B h im T al 1345 2 4 .7 5 1716 532 1 1 .2 0 4 .2
S at Tal 1320 18.00 875 -- _
5 .0 0
N a u k u c h ia T al 1320 4 1 .2 5 1050 880 2 .6 0 7 .0
K h u rp al T al 1610 3 8 .0 0 350 -- 0 .5 9
S o u rc e : S .C . Jo sh i et. al, 1983 ; L .S K h a n k a an d D .S . J a la l, 1984.
r e g io n a l g e o m o r p h o l o g y 511
Geomorphological Processes and Morphological G ori, the D hauli G an g a, the K ali and th e ir num erous
Characteristics tributaries in the G reater H im alay a are ch aracterized
T he geom orphic personality o f the K um aun by th eir ju v e n ile ch ara cteristics as in d icated by th e ir
H im alaya is the outcom e o f the interplay betw een long, d eep and n arro w valley w alls o f convex plan,
endogenetic processes (tectonic m ovem ents includ deep gorges, w ater falls, fap id s and terraces at vary
ing neotectonics viz. folding, faulting, tilting, w arp ing elevations.
ing, upliftm ent etc.) and exogenetic processes, m ainly ‘A ll along the L esser H im alayan dom ain, the
glacial and fluvial pro cesses to g eth er w ith w eath er general aspect o f drain ag e b asin s is th at o f reju v en a
ing and m assm o v em en t o f rock w aste.
tion o f a m ature system . T h e W estern R am ganga,
G la c ia l p ro c e s s co m p risin g the glaciers o f G a g a s , K o si, G o m a ti, S a ry u , P a n a r, E a s te rn
the past ice ag e o f P leisto cen e glaciation and present R am ganga, C h an d rab h ag a, L ad h iy a etc. h ave w ide
day active g la ciers has greatly co n d itio n ed the to p o valleys (s e ra ) w ith tw o or th ree levels o f riv er
graphic features o f the K um aun H im alaya. ‘G en er terraces ( b a g a r ) ’ (D .S . Jalal).
ally, all the H im alay an valleys betw een 2 ,000 and
‘T he H im alay an valleys have u n d erg o n e in
3,000 m d ep ict glacial featu res w h erev er they have
term itten t upheavals, and each up h eav al has caused
not been co m p letely o b literated by (p resen t) fluvial
a reju v en atio n o f the v alleys. T h e ev id en ce o f rece n t
action. G lacial to p o g rap h y is w ell preserv ed above
rejuvenation, pro b ab ly a co n seq u en c e o f uplift, is
an elevation o f 3,000 m in g e n e ra l’ (R .L. Singh,
reflected by steep en in g o f tran sv erse V -sh a p ed v al
1971). The glacial featu res included erosional (U-
leys in m any o f the H im alay an riv ers and also by
shaped valleys w ith h an g in g valleys, h igh horned
riv er terraces, in cised m ean d ers and k n ick p o in ts in
peaks form ed by fro st sh atterin g , p atern o ster lakes,
the form o f w aterfalls e tc .’ (S .C . K h ark w al, in R .L .
glacial lakes etc.), d ep o sitio n al (m o rain ic deposits
Singh, 1971). T he co n v ex form and steep v alley
like lateral, m edial, term in al and gro u n d m oraines)
w alls o f the tran sv erse sectio n s o f m a jo r stream s an d
and glacio-fluvial d ep o sitio n al features.
trib u taries reveal reju v en atio n cau sed due to risin g
P resently, the sn o w lin e occurs at 4 ,8 0 0 m msl phase o f the H im alay as and n eo tecto n ics.
and 5,500 m m sl on the so u th ern and external ranges
D efo restatio n has led to acc elera ted rate o f
and on the In d o -T ib etan w ater-d iv id e respectively.
soil erosion assisted by rain w ash , rill and g u lly
The significant g la ciers o f the K um aun H im alay a
erosion. The fo o t-h ills o f the S iw alik s and o ld e r
a re as f o ll o w s — (1 ) P in d a r i , K a p h in i an d
alluvial fans h ave been in ten siv ely g u llied and thus
S undardhunga g laciers o f the P in d ar riv er valley ;
ex ten siv e b ad lan d s h ave been fo rm ed . T h e te rra ced
(2) N akuri g lacier in th e R am g an g a (E) valley; (3)
fa rm in g c o n s e q u e n t u p o n d e v e g e ta tio n o f the
Milam, Kalaba, Sankalpa, B am las, B aldhunga, Talkot,
h illslo p es has also accelerated soil ero sio n resu ltin g
Poting and B altai g laciers o f the G ori riv e r valley ; in trem en d o u s in crease in the sed im en t lo ad o f the
(4) G ulpth, Sona, S u u ala, T ijan g g laciers etc. o f the
rivers. T he sed im en ts b ro u g h t d o w n by the stream s
D hauli G anga basin; and (5) M an g sh a, L am p ia,
are u n lo ad ed at the ju n c tio n o f fo o t-h ills o f the
Bithir, T hum and R onkan g la ciers in the K uti riv er S iw aliks and t a r a i region to fo rm b h a b a r an d n u
valley. It m ay be m en tio n ed th a t the m e lt-w ate r from m ero u s allu v ial fans. ‘T h e d ep o sitio n al activ ity in
the snouts o f these g laciers feed s the stream s co m in g
creases in the B h ab ar b elt w h ere the riv ers and
out of the greater H im alay a and h en ce th ese stream s
stream s have fo rm ed co a le sc in g (allu v ia l) fan s o f
(e.g. the Pindar, the R am g an g a (E ), the G ori, the
gravel d ep o sits. T h e ag g rad in g n atu re o f th e riv ers is
D hauliganga, the Kali etc.) m ain tain su ffic ie n t d is
m an ifest in th e ir b raid ed co u rses in the B habar. T h e
charge even during su m m er season.
general flatn ess o f the T arai b elt c au ses th e riv ers to
F lu v ia l e ro s io n has been resp o n sib le fo r the m e a n d e r’ (D .S . Jalal).
evolution o f a variety o f lan d fo rm s in clu d in g d eep
and narrow gorges, w aterfalls, terraces etc. in the Morphometric Characteristics
G reater and L esser H im alay an ran g es and g u llies on T h e K u m au n H im a lay a is c h a ra c te riz e d by
the foot-hill zones o f the S iw aliks. T h e u p p er reach es high ab so lu te reliefs w h erein e x c e p t th e fo o t-h ill
o the stream s like the P indar, the R am g an g a (E ), the zone o f the S iw alik s an d B h a b a r-T a ra i b e lt w h ic h
512 GEOMORPHOLOGY
h av e ab so lu te reliefs b etw een 204 m an d 6 0 0 m re la tiv e ly lo w a ltitu d in a l g ro u p s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith

m .s.l., m o st o f the reg io n (m o re than 9 0 p e r c e n t o f h ig h d isse c tio n in d e x . It m a y b e m e n tio n e d that
the g eo g rap h ical area ) re p re se n ts m o u n tain o u s te r sin ce d is s e c tio n in d e x is a ra tio b e tw e e n relativ e
rain ran g in g in a b so lu te reliefs from 6 0 0 m to m o re re lie fs an d a b s o lu te re lie fs a n d h e n c e it is n o t very
than 7000 m. F ig. 28 .3 d e n o te s a ltitu d in al zo n es o f e ffe c tiv e m o rp h o m e tric d e te rm in a n t o f th e stag es o f
K um aun H im alay a. T h e h ig h e r p eaks in c lu d e N an d a c y c le o f e ro sio n . S o u th e rn s lo p e s re c o rd h ig h d rain
D evi (7 ,8 1 7 m ), D u n a g iri’ (7 ,0 6 6 m ), T risu l (7 ,1 2 0 ag e d e n sity (stre a m le n g th p e r u n it a re a ) b eca u se o f
m ), N a n d a k o t (6,86 1 m ), S ia h i D e v i, A ro d e v , h ig h rain fa ll a m o u n t w h e re a s lo w d ra in a g e d ensity
D h an ia d h a r etc. h as d e v e lo p e d on th e n o rth e rn s lo p e s b e c a u se th ese
are rain sh ad o w areas. A v e ra g e slo p e ra n g e s b e
tw een 8° an d 40° b u t d e e p a n d n a rro w riv e r v a lle y s
Kumoun Himalaya and steep p eak s h av e v ery ste e p slo p e s.
ABSOLUTE R E L I E F
Physiographic Regions
G en erally , th e K u m au n H im a la y a n re g io n is
d iv id ed into fo u r la titu d in al p h y s io g ra p h ic re g io n s
viz. (1) o u te r H im a la y a or S iw a lik s w ith T a ra i a n d
B h ab ar zo n es, (2) H im a ch al o r L e s s e r H im a la y a , (3 )
H im adri or G reater H im alaya, and (4) T ra n s-H im a la y a
(fig. 2 8.4).
Hftght in m e t r e *
gy> 4800
2U00 - ifB00
12 00 - 2«*00
6 0 0 - 12 00
< 1200
Fig. 28.3 : Absolute reliefs o f Kumaun Himalaya, after

D.S. Jalal.
Relative relief (d iffe re n c e betw een h ig h e st
and lo w e st p o in ts p e r u n it area ) ran g es b etw een 6 0 m
and 5 7 0 m . N o rm a lly , th e K u m au n H im a lay a is
d iv id e d in to tw o re la tiv e re lie f zo n es w h ich are
d istin g u ish e d by th e d iv id in g lin e o f S iahi D ev i—
R an ik h et ran g e. T h e a re a to th e n o rth o f this ra n g e is
c h a ra c te riz e d by m o d e ra te to h ig h re la tiv e reliefs
i.e. 6 0 m — 300m w h ereas so u th e rn p art has very h ig h
re la tiv e reliefs ra n g in g b etw ee n 3 0 0 -5 7 0 m . D is se c Fig. 28.4 : P h ysio g ra p h ic reg io n s o f the K um aun
tion index n o rm ally ran g es b etw een 0 .1 6 (1 6 % ) to Himalaya, after D.S. Jalal.
0 .2 0 (2 0 % ) b u t at c ertain lo c a litie s it is m o re than 20
(1) T h e O u t e r H im a l a y a n S u b m o n t a n e R
percent. T h is m o rp h o m e tric p ara m e te r d e n o te s late
g io n in c lu d e s fro m n o rth to s o u th th re e p arallel
youth to m a tu re stag e o f te rra in d e v elo p m en t. It is
su b re g io n s viz. (i) S iw a lik ra n g e s , (ii) p ie d m o n t
significant to p o in t o u t th at d isse c tio n in d ex is re la
zo n e o r B h a b a r zo n e , a n d (iii) T a ra i b elt. T h e S iw alik
tively lo w on h ig h e r h e ig h ts (ab o v e 1200m ) w h ile
ran g es an d th e ir fo o t-h ill z o n e s a re c o m p o s e d o f
REGIONAL g e o m o r p h o l o g y 513
sedim entaries o f late T ertiary to Q u atern ary periods, (4 ) The Tran#*Mbnalayaw re p ort t%located to
T h e continuity o f S iw alik ran g es is broken by lo n g i the north and north-cant of the Himadri region smd
tudinal structural valleys and so u th w ard flow ing come* under rain *hadow, The valley* of the G ori
stream s. T h e absolute re lie f ran g es betw een 750 m (Johar), the Dhauli ( I anga (Darma and (h a u d a n * ),
and 1200 m. T he foot-hill zone has been intensively the Kuti (Byan*) etc, arc characterise geomorphk
gullied. T he B h ab ar zone lying to the south o f the feature*.
S iw aliks is ch aracterized by thick gravel d eposits
and ranges in w idth from 10 to 20 km . T he w ater o f 28.2 GANGA PLAIN
m ost o f stream s d isap p ea rs in this zone b ecau se o f L ocation
high p erm eab ility o f g ravel d ep o sits. T h e B h a b a r T he G an g a plain i* a m a jo r part o f the G reat
zone is d rain e d by a n u m b er o f stream s viz. Phika, Plains o f north India w hich com pri*e th e R ajasth an
D hola, D abka, B aur, K osi, B h ak h ra, G au la, Sukhi, plain, the P unjab plain and the G an g a plain and h av e
N andhaur, K ali (S h ard a) etc. T h e T arai belt, located been form ed through the p ro cess o f allu v iatio n by
to the south o f the B h ab ar zone, d eriv es its nam e the S atluj, Ihe CJanga and the B rah m ap u tra d rain a g e
from p erp etu ally w et g ro u n d su rfacc cau scd by re a p system s during Jate T ertiary and Q u atern a ry p eri
p earance o f d isap p ea red w ater o f stream s in the ods. In fact, the great plain* are in the form o f a
B habar zone and high w ater table. T h is subregion transitional belt betw een the H im alaya* in th e no rth
has a w idth o f 10 to 25 km w here the stream s have and the D eccan plateau in the south c o v erin g an area
d ev elo p ed m e a n d e rin g co u rses and are b raided at o f m ore than 7 ,7 7 ,0 0 0 km 2 from R ajasth an to W est
places. B engal. T he great plains run fo r a d ista n c e o f 2 4 0 0
(2) The H im a c h a l or L e s s e r H im a la y a n km from w est to east and have a w idth o f 4 8 0 km in
region, lo c ated to the no rth o f the O u ter H im alaya, the w est and 144 krri in the east.
is 60 to 80 km w id e and ab so lu te re lie f ranges
Origin
betw een 1500 m -3 0 0 0 m at m .s.l. T h is zone is sep a
T hough on ap p earan ce the orig in o f the g re a t
rated from the S iw a lik s in the south by M ain B o u n d
plains appears to be sim p le but actu ally it is v ery
ary T h ru st (M B T ) and by the M ain C entral T h ru st
m uch co m p licated . A cco rd in g to E . S u e s s a h u g e
from the H im a d ri o r the G re a te r H im alay a in the
depression w as form ed betw een the H im a lay as and
north. T his reg io n is also k n o w n as the la k e re g io n
the D eccan plateau after the fo rm atio n o f the fo rm er.
because it has n u m e ro u s natu ral lakes as discussed
T his d epression w as nam ed by S u ess as fo r e d e e p
earlier (e.g. N ain i lak e, B him T al, N au k u ch iaT al,
w hich was in the form o f a sy n clin e w hich w as
S at Tal, K h u rp a T al etc.). T h e co n tin u ity o f latitu d i
actually a synclinoriurn b ecau se o f asy m m etric al
nal ranges has been b ro k en by n u m ero u s stream s
floors. This synclinoriurn was filled w ith the sedim ents
like the R a m g a n g a (W ), th e K osi, the S arju, the
b ro u g h t by the H im alay an riv ers and th u s the g reat
R am ganga (E ), the K ali etc. and th e ir trib u taries.
p lains cam e into ex isten ce. A cco rd in g to S u ess the
(3) The G r e a t e r H im a la y a n R e g io n or floor o f the f'oredeep w as asy m m etric al w ith g entle
Himadri ‘largely cov ered w ith perpetual snow , ranges slope n orthw ard but steep so u th w ard slope. T h u s,
in altitude b etw ee n 3 0 0 0 and 7 0 0 0 m , m o st o f the the asy m m etrical co n fig u ra tio n o f the floor o f the
peaks attain in g h e ig h ts m o re than 7 0 0 0 m . T h e zone fo red eep allo w ed v ariatio n in the th ick n ess o f a llu
consists o f g la c ie r-g a rla n d e d m a g n ifice n t ran g es o f via from north to so u th (in crease in th ick n ess south
theN andadevi m assif, th e P anchchuli (6 ,9 9 4 m ) group w ard). A cco rd in g to him the flo o r o f the fo red eep is
and the Y irg n aju n g (6 ,9 0 4 m ) g ro u p . T h e N an d ad e vi c o n n ected w ith the H im alay as and the D eccan p la
m assif in clu d es th e p eak s o f N an d ad e vi (7 ,8 1 6 m), teau th rough so lid basal rocks.
N anda K ot (6 ,6 6 1 m ), N an d ag h u n ti (7 ,4 3 6 m ) and C o n v ersely , C o t. S ir B u r r a r d p o stu la te d th a t
T rishul (7, 120 m )-n o u rish in g such c eleb rate d g la d u rin g the H im alay an o ro g en y a rift v alley w as
ciers as the S u n d ard h u n g a, P in d ari, K ap h in i, M ilam form ed betw een the H im a lay as an d th e D e c c a n
and S urajkund. T h e G re a t H im alay an b elt is d is p lateau . T h e g reat p lain s w ere fo rm e d d u e to s e d i
sected by d e e p g o rg es o f th e riv ers like the P in d ar, m en tatio n o f th is rift v alley b y th e m a te ria ls b ro u g h t
the G ori, th e D h au li an d the K a li’ (D .S . the Jalal). d o w n by the riv e rs co m in g o u t o f th e Himalayas,
514 GEOMORPHOLOGY
This concept has been sev erely critcised on the th a t lith o lo g ically th e G a n g a p lain is m o notonous
ground that the fo rm atio n o f su ch a m assiv e rift ex cep t so m e v aria tio n s in th e n o rth ern p art w here the
valley m easu rin g 2 4 0 0 km in len g th m ay n o t b e an B h ab ars o f th e H im a lay as g rad e in to th e p lain s and
ordinary geological ev ent. in th e so u th ern part. In fact, ‘allu v iu m is o n e con
tin u o u s and c o n fo rm a b le series o f flu v iatile and sub-
It m ay be m e n tio n ed th a t th e g reat p lain s w ere
aerial d ep o sits, m a in ly c o m p o se d o f u n consolidated
form ed due to the c o m b in atio n o f sev eral g eo lo g ical
b eds o f clay , san d , g rav el, an d th e ir m ixture in
and g eo m o rp h o lo g ical p ro cesses e.g. fo rm atio n o f
v ary in g p ro p o rtio n ’ (R .N . M ath u r, 1961). T he base
depression b etw een th e H im a lay as and the D eccan
m en t o f allu v ial d ep o sits and th e ir e x a c t thickness
plateau, fillin g o f the d e p ressio n by the sed im en ts
co u ld n o t be ascertain ed in sp ite o f sev eral attem pts.
b ro u g h t by th e riv ers co m in g fro m th e H im a lay as as
A cco rd in g to O ld h am the th ic k n e ss o f alluvium
w ell as from the fo rela n d o f th e p en in su lar India,
ran g es betw een 4 0 0 0 -6 0 0 0 m w h ereas G len n ie’s
gradual rece ssio n o f sea, reg io n al up h eav al etc. It is
estim ate o f allu v iu m d ep th co m es to ab o u t 2000m .
believ ed th a t in the g eo lo g ical p ast th e A rab ian Sea G anga alluvia are classified into k h a d a r a n d b h a n g a r .
ex ten d ed upto G arh w al and K u m au n as isB v id en ced K h ad ar rep resen ts alluvial d ep o sits in the riv e rin e
by the p resen ce o f lim esto n e b ed s o f G arh w al and tracts or the flood p lains o f the riv ers w h ere the
K um aun. T his p art o f th e A rab ian S ea w as called co n stitu en ts o f kh ad ar i.e. silt, clay and san d , are
G u lf o f Sind. S im ilarly , B ay o f B engal ex ten d ed renew ed alm ost every y ear d u e to a llu v ia tio n fo l
up to S h illo n g p la te a u in th e fo rm o f E astern G ulf. A low ed by floods. On the o th er han d , b h a n g a r re p re
d ep ressio n w as fo rm ed after the H im alay an orogeny sents o ld er alluvium o f relativ ely h ig h e r la n d s w h ich
b etw een the H im a la y a s and th e D eccan plateau. The are not su b m erg ed u n d er w ater d u rin g flo o d s. T h e
riv ers c o m in g from the H im alay as and the D eccan B h ab ar and Tarai reg io n s co n tain g rav el d ep o sits
p la teau began to u n load sed im en ts in the dep ressio n . co m p risin g co arse sands, p eb b les and c o b b les w ith
T he se d im e n ta tio n o f the d ep ressio n w as accelerated clay and silt. ‘O ne distinctive character o f the b h a n g a r
b ecau se o f a v ailab ility o f m ore sed im en t load due to is the form ation o f k a n k a r p a n s (h ard p an s) in the
in c re ased e ro siv e p o w er o f the H im alay an rivers sub-soil zone through cap illa ry actio n o w in g to the
co n se q u e n t upon reju v e n atio n cau sed by d ifferen t altern atin g calcareo u s sand and clay b ed s h ere as
p h ases o f u p liftm e n t o f the H im alay as. T he c o n tin u also elsew h ere in the zone o f seaso n al rain fa ll, w h ich
ous se d im e n ta tio n m ig h t hav e cau sed gradual su b adds to soil m oisture reten tio n in th e su b so il z o n e ’
sid en ce o f the flo o r o f the d ep ressio n . T hus, c o n tin (R .L. Singh, 1971).
u ed se d im e n ta tio n an d su b sid en ce m ig h t have re D .C. D assarm a and S. B isw a s (1 9 7 1 -7 2 ) e s
su lte d in the fillin g o f the d ep ressio n w ith great tab lish ed the fo llo w in g stra tig ra p h ic s u c c e s s io n s o f
th ic k n e ss o f sed im en ts. G rad u al retre at o f the A ra the Q u atern ary allu v iu m d e p o sits re stin g o v e r the
b ian sea freed the p re v io u sly su b m erg ed land. T his V indhyan b asem e n t in the a llu v ia l-fille d B e la n b a
led to g rad u al ex te n sio n o f the p lain s. T h e plain w as sin (A llah ab ad d istrict, U .P .) fro m b e lo w u p w a rd —
e x te n d e d in the B ay o f B en g al th ro u g h gradual (i) g rav el-m o ttled clay fo rm a tio n , (ii) re d b ro w n
g ro w th in the G a n g a delta. g rav el-san d fo rm atio n , (iii) y e llo w s ilt fo rm atio n ,
T h e G a n g a p la in is d iv id e d into th ree reg io n s (iv) calich e fo rm atio n , (v) b u rie d so il la y e r, (vi)
viz. u p p er G a n g a p la in , m id d le G an g a p lain and aeolian sand form ation, and (vii) m o d e m soil horizon.
lo w er G an g a p lain . It m ay be m e n tio n ed th at the T h e se q u en ce o f o ld e r an d n e w e r a llu v ia is
G an g a plain is g e o lo g ic a lly an d g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a lly rep ea ted th ro u g h o u t u p p er, m id d le a n d lo w e r G anga
m o n o to n o u s b eca u se o f m o re o r less u n ifo rm ity o f p lain s b u t ‘th e re is c o n s p ic u o u s a b se n c e o f older
g eo lo g ical fo rm atio n s and m o rp h o lo g ic a l c h a ra c te r alluvium in the d elta reg io n , w h ich is q u ite extensive
istics as ev id en ced by a lm o st flat d e p o sitio n a l plain in the northern p arts o f the re g io n ’ (R .L . S ingh, 1971).
surface.
Physiographic Regions and Morphological Char
Geological Formation acteristics
L ith o lo g ically , th e G a n g a p lain is c h a ra c te r G e o m o rp h o lo g ic a lly , th e e n tire G a n g a plain
ized by Q u atern a ry allu v ia w ith v ary in g c o m b in a is m o n o to n o u s as n o s ig n ific a n t b o ld re lie fs o f m oun
tio n s o f clay , silt, san d and grav els. It is, th u s, e v id e n t ta in o u s an d d is s e c te d p la te a u re g io n s a re found.
515
Extensive flood plains, natural levees, sh arp m e an facto r in the m a jo r riv e rs ’ (S a v in d ra S in g h a n d A .

ders ox-bow lakes, gu llied riparian tracts, b raid ed D ubey, 1988).
channels, bluffs etc. are the only m o rp h o lo g ical ‘T o tal am o u n t o f a v e ra g e an n u al silt c a rrie d
features o f the G anga plain. T ho u g h the e n tire G an g aaw ay from U tta r P rad esh to B ih a r by th e G anga
plain exhibits g eom o rp h o lo g ical h o m o g en eity b u t it
sy stem (in clu d in g th e Y a m u n a sy ste m ) is a b o u t
is divided into three reg io n s fo llo w in g R .L . S in g h 2 3 ,4 5 6 ha m eters o r 3 2 8 .3 8 4 m illio n to n n e s and
( 19 7 1) viz. (1) upper G an g a plain, (2) m id d le G an g aav erag e annual ru n o ff o f th e G a n g a s y ste m a t U .P .-
plain, and (3) low er G an g a plain. B ih ar b o rd er is 2 1 ,3 2 8 th o u san d h a m e te rs o r 2 1 3 .3 8
(1) th o u san d m illio n m 3. T h e a v e ra g e an n u a l silt load
U p p er G a n g a P lain lies b etw een the
Y am una valley in the w est and 100m co n to u r in the facto r is ab o u t 3 .4 7 6 h a m /1 0 0 k m 2/y e a r o r 0 .3 4 7 6
east covering an area o f 1,49,029 km 2 o f U ttar mm per year. It m ean s th at ev ery y e a r a b o u t 3 .4 7 6 m m
Pradesh. The drainag e o f the area co m p rises tw o o f u p p er soil o f U ttar P rad esh (u p p e r G a n g a p la in ) is
drainage system s o f the G an g a and the Y am u n a (It eroded and carried aw ay to th e sta te o f B ih a r (m id d le
may be m entioned th at the Y am u n a is also a trib u tary G an g a p lain ) by th e G an g a riv e r s y s te m ’ (S a v in d ra
o f the G anga and hence the u p p er G an g a plain is S ingh and A. D u b ey , 1988).
drained by a single d rain ag e sy stem i.e. the G an g a T he to p o g rap h ic fe a tu re s in c lu d e a llu v ia l fa n s
drainage system ). M o st o f the stream s ad o p t parallel and cones i n the s u b m o n ta n e o r p ie d m o n t z o n e to th e
courses and jo in the m a ster stream s at acu te angles. north o f plains, riv e r b lu ffs, n atu ra l le v e e s, flo o d
Extrem ely low chan n el g rad ie n t b ecau se o f alm o st plains, m ean d ers, m e an d er c u t-o ff, o x -b o w la k e s,
level plain country m ak es the riv ers slu g g ish and uplands or b h an g ar lands, san d y stre tc h e s o r ‘b h u r s ’,
their erosive p o w er is m ark ed ly reduced. T h e d ra in gu llied rip arian tracts o f m a jo r an d trib u ta ry s tre a m s ,
age pattern is p in n ate b ut the overall pattern is broken riv er b anks, b raid e d c h a n n e ls , m ic r o - s e a
dendritic. S ig n ifican t riv ers are the Y am u na, the sonal form s on riv e r b ed s (e.g. sa n d b a rs, s a n d
G anga, the R am g an g a, the G o m ati, the G h ag h ra and islands, shoals etc.), d en se n e tw o rk o f g u llie s a n d
their nu m erous trib u taries. bad lan d in the Y am u n a lo w e r C h a m b a l tra c t a n d in
T h o u g h lin ear ero sio n is very lim ited but the the in terv en in g zo n es b etw ee n th e G a n g a p la in a n d
areal erosion in the form o f soil ero sio n is m ore the fo o t-h ill zone o f the fo rela n d o f In d ia n P e n in s u la
w idespread in the G an g a plain. ‘Soil ero sio n is the etc.
m ost com m on w id esp read g eo -en v iro n m en tal p ro b ‘T h u s, the m ic ro -le v e l to p o g ra p h ic fa c e ts a n d
lem o f the m a jo r catch m e n t areas o f big rivers in th eir reg io n al c h a ra c te ristic s re n d e r p o s s ib le th e
U ttar P radesh. M icro p ed o g en ic ero sio n al p ro cesses d elin eatio n o f as m an y as fo u r p h y s io g ra p h ic u n its
are the p rim ary and basic m ech an ism resp o n sib le for i.e. (i) the su b m an tan e belt, (ii) th e G a n g a -G h a g h ra
the soil loss. D u rin g the rainy seaso n rill and inter- doab reg io n , (iii) the G a n g a -Y a m u n a d o a b , a n d (iv )
rill erosion cau ses soil loss from the b h a n g a r (o ld er Y am u n ap ar in the rav in e tr a c t’ (R .L . S in g h , 1971).
alluvial areas) and the k h a d a r (n ew er allu v ial areas)
(2) M id d le G a n g a P la in c o v e rin g an a re a o f
and the ero d ed sed im en ts are b ro u g h t to the m ain
1,44,409 k m 2 is sp read o v e r E a s te rn U tta r P ra d e s h
rivers via rills, gu llies, nalas, and trib u tary stream s
and w hole o f B ih a r p lain s. ‘T h e w e s te rn a n d e a s te rn
which in d u e co u rse partly d ep o sit them in the flood
sides o f the reg io n are w id e o p en fo rm in g as it d o e s ,
plains and partly entrain the sed im en ts from U ttar
the central p art o f th e e a s t-w e s t c o n tin u u m o f the
Pradesh (upper G ang a plain) to B ih ar (m id d le G an g a
vast iso tro p ic G a n g a P lain - th e re is no p h y s ic a l
plain). F oothill zones o f the H im alay as (in the north)
bo u n d ary as the p lain im p e rc e p tib ly o p e n s u p in the
and the foreland o f the Indian P en in su la (in the
w est from o ut ol th e U p p e r G a n g a p la in and so
south) and riparian tracts o f m ajo r alluvial rivers are in v isib ly d ies o u t in to th e lo w e r G a n g a p la in in the
the main sites o f active and rapid rate o f fluvial cast. A s such, it is a tran sitio n al reg io n , p a r ex ce lle n ce,
erosion w hereas vast alluvial tract is w ashed out interposed in the en o rm ity o f the G an g a v alley , and all
through surface runoff. Rill and gully ero sio n is
its physical, h um an and eco n o m ic fab ric seem s to have
responsible for accelerated rate o f soil ero sion and been w oven o ut o f the v ario u s u n iq u e p h e n o m e n a
increase in sedim ent d ischarge and sed im en t load interplaying in tra n sitio n ’ (R .L . S in g h , 1971).
516 geom o rph o lo g y
T h e re g io n is d ra in e d by th e G a n g a an d its (3) Lower Ganga Plain - The Lower Ga

m a jo r trib u ta rie s lik e th e G h a g h ra , th e G a n d a k , th e P lain, in real sen se o f th e te rm , in c lu d es the Kishanganj
K osi and th e ir n u m e ro u s trib u ta rie s in th e n o rth ta h sil o f P u rn e a d is tric t (B ih a r), w h o le of the West
m id d le G a n g a p la in a n d th e S o n , th e P u n p u n , th e B e n g a l S ta te (e x c lu d in g th e P u ru lia d is tric t an d the '
M o h an i etc. d ra in th e so u th m id d le G a n g a p la in . m o u n ta in o u s p a rts o f D a rje e lin g d is tric t) an d m ost
G eo lo g ic a lly , th e re g io n h a s m o re o r le ss th e sam e o f E a s t P a k is ta n (n o w B a n g la d e s h ) as well. Though
allu v ial fo rm a tio n s as th o s e o f th e u p p e r G a n g a th e w h o le o f th is p la in is n o w p e rc e iv e d as deltaic,
p lain . T h e riv e rs h a v e d e v e lo p e d h ig h ly sin u o u s an d th e real d e lta c o n s titu te s a b o u t tw o -th ird of th is p lain
m e a n d e rin g c o u rs e s a n d th e y a re n o to rio u s fo r fu ri ly in g to th e so u th o f th e R a jm a h a l-G a ro a lig n m e n t...
o u s flo o d s a n d fre q u e n t c h a n g e s in th e ir c o u rse s. T h e T h e re g io n e m b ra c e s an a r e a o f a b o u t 80,968 km 2,
K osi riv e r h as re g is te re d c o n tin u o u s w e s tw a rd s h ift e x te n d in g fro m th e fo o t o f th e D a rje e lin g H im a la y a
in g in its c o u rs e b u t n o w th e c h a n n e l h as b een in th e n o rth to th e B a y o f B e n g a l in th e so u th
sta b iliz e d b y a rtific ia l le v e e s (e m b a n k m e n ts). S im i (m a x im u m stre tc h a b o u t 580 k m ) a n d fro m th e edge
la rly , th e re h a v e b e e n s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s in th e o f th e C h o ta n a g p u r H ig h la n d s in th e w e s t to th e
c h a n n e ls o f th e G a n g a , th e G h a g h ra , th e S o n etc. T h e b o rd e r o f E a s t P a k is ta n (B a n g la d e s h ) a n d A s s a m in
G a n g a c h a n n e l b eco m es b raid e d d u rin g p o st-m o n so o n th e e a st (m a x im u m s tre tc h a b o u t 200 k m ) ’ (R .L .
p e rio d an d th e riv e r b ed m o rp h o lo g y c o m p rise s S in g h , 1971).
n u m e ro u s riffle s, p o o ls , b ra id s , san d b ars, san d is T h e reg io n is d ra in e d b y th e s tre a m s o f tw o
la n d s, sa n d flats a n d s e a s o n a l b e d san d d u n es. T h e m a jo r d r a in a g e s y s te m s o f th e G a n g a a n d th e
n o rth m id d le G a n g a p la in is c h a ra c te riz e d by the B ra h m a p u tra an d a few m in o r s y s te m s v iz . th e K a sa i
p re se n c e o f n u m e ro u s p a la e o c h a n n e ls, o x -b o w lak es, sy stem , th e S u b a rn a re k h a s y ste m , th e M a h a n a n d a
ta n k s an d p o n d s lo c a lly k n o w n as ta ls (fo rm ed due sy stem , th e K a ra to y a sy ste m , th e T is ta s y s te m , th e
to s h iftin g in riv e r c o u rs e s ) w h ic h are o f very rare S an k o sh sy stem , etc. T h e R a rh P la in is d ra in e d by
o c c u rre n c e in th e so u th m id d le G a n g a p lain . O th e r th e M a y u ra k sh i, th e D a m o d a r, th e D w a rk e s h w a r,
m o rp h o lo g ic a l fe a tu re s in c lu d e n a tu ra l lev ees, r a the K asai, the S u b a rn a re k h a etc. G e o m o rp h o lo g ic a lly ,
v in e s an d b a d la n d s in th e rip a ria n tra c ts o f th e riv ers, th e reg io n , lik e th e u p p e r a n d m id d le G a n g a P la in s,
flo o d p la in s , m e a n d e r lo o p s, e ro d e d b u t u n sta b le is m o n o to n o u s as th e e n tire re g io n is a lm o s t f e a tu re
less p la in e x c e p t a few lo c a l re lie fs o f 10 to 30 m
r iv e r b an k s, sa n d y fe a tu re s lik e d h u s etc.
rising above the general su rface. M a ld a -W e s t D in a jp u r
‘O b v io u s ly , it is d iffic u lt to d iv id e th e reg io n trac t, th e trac ts b o rd e rin g th e C h o ta n a g p u r p la te a u ,
in to p h y s ic a l s u b -u n its on an y p ro m in e n t fo u n d a tio n co a sta l area s o f M id n a p u r, a n d duars ( e q u iv a le n t to
o f re lie fs , e x c e p t th ro u g h th e h e lp o f th e riv e r s y s tarai o f U tta r P ra d e s h ) o f J a lp a ig u ri a n d D a ije e lin g
te m s w h ic h g e n e ra lly c a rv e o u t s o m e w h a t in ter- are th e area s w h e re so m e re lie fs a re n o te d . F o r
d is tin g u is h a b le r e lie f a n d s lo p e , d iffe re n tia l n a tu re e x a m p le , la te ritic a llu v iu m in th e M a ld a -D in a jp u r
o f d ra in a g e b a s e d on ra in fa ll re g im e s an d th e p r o x tra c t h as b een d is s e c te d to p ro d u c e p ro m in e n t re
im ity o f th e h ills, a n d th e a ll-re s u lta n t su b -so il w a te r lie fs; th e b o rd e rin g a re a s o f th e C h o ta n a g p u r h a v e
ta b le o f v a ry in g d e p th s in d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e b e e n g u llie d an d ra v in a te d ; c o a s ta l a re a s o f M id n a p u r
r e g io n ’ (R .L . S in g h , 1 971). T h u s , fo llo w in g R .L . a re c h a ra c te riz e d by a s e rie s o f s a n d d u n e s a n d the
S in g h (1 9 7 1 ) th e M id d le G a n g a P la in is d iv id e d in to la te ritic a llu v iu m h a s b e e n in te n s iv e ly g u llie d to
tw o b ro a d s u b re g io n s v iz. (A ) th e G a n g a P la in N o rth fo rm b a d l a n d ; th e duars o f J a lp a ig u ri a n d D a rje e lin g
an d (B ) th e G a n g a P la in S o u th . T h e G a n g a P lain a re c h a ra c te riz e d by s w a m p s , m a rs h e s , bills, levees
N o rth is fu rth er su b d iv id e d in to (i) th e G a n g a -G h a g h ra etc. T h e a llu v ia l m o rp h o lo g ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s o f
D o a b , (ii) th e S a ry u p a r P lain (th e G h a g h ra -G a n d a k th e re g io n h a v e b e e n c o n d itio n e d by th e te c to n ic s,
in te rflu v e ), (iii) th e M ith ila P la in (th e G a n d a k -K o si c h a n g e s in riv e r c o u rs e s a n d s e a le v e ls. R .L . S in g h
in te rflu v e ), a n d (iv ) th e K o si P la in (th e K o si- (1 9 7 1 ) d iv id e d th e L o w e r G a n g a P la in , o n th e basis
M a h a n a n d a in te r f lu v e ) ; w h ile th e G a n g a P lain S o u th o f m ic r o - o r d e r d iv e rs itie s w ith in th e ap p aren tly ho
is s u b d iv id e d in to (i) th e G a n g a -S o n d iv id e , (ii) th e m o g e n e o u s s u rfa c e c o n f ig u r a tio n , in to th e fo llo w
M a g a d h P la in , a n d (iii) th e A n g a P la in . in g p h y s io g ra p h ic s u b d iv is io n s : (i) th e n o rth ern
: , v_,r _ . t
plain ch aracterized by duars (tara i) an d B a rin d Physiographic Regions
t r a c t; (ii) the D elta p ro p e r c o m p risin g (a) th e la n d o f E sse n tia lly , th e re g io n is a h illy u p la n d tra c t
dead and d eca y in g riv e rs (M o rib u n d d e lta ) in th e d o tte d w ith h ills, a lte rn a te v alley s, fo re st-c la d m o u n
north (M u rsh id ab ad an d N a d ia ), (b ) th e a c tiv e D e lta tain s an d e x te n siv e riv e r b a sin s c h a ra c te riz e d b y
o f the S undarbans and (c) th e m a tu re d e lta (p a rts o f u n d u la tin g an d le v el su rfa c e s. O n th e b a sis o f to p o
B irbhum , B u rd w an , M id n a p u r, a n d e n tire d is tric ts g ra p h ic c h a ra c te ristic s an d th e su p e rim p o sitio n o f
o f H ooghly an d H o w r a h ) ; (iii) th e w e ste rn m a rg in o f m a p s o f a b so lu te an d re la tiv e re lie fs , d is s e c tio n
the delta is ca lle d the Rarh p la in w h e re th e la te ritic in d ex , av e ra g e slo p e s etc. th e S .E . C h o ta n a g p u r
alluvial lan d scap e a lo n g w ith th e c o a sta l s c e n e ry at R eg io n is d iv id e d in to fiv e ^ p h y sio g ra p h ic re g io n s
D igha beach has d e v e lo p e d (R .L . S in g h , 1971). viz. (1) w estern h ig h la n d s re g io n , (2 ) c e n tra l p la te a u
re g io n , (3 ) D a lm a h ig h la n d re g io n , (4 ) D h a n jo ri
28.3 S.E. CHOTANAGPUR REGION* h ig h la n d reg io n , a n d (5 ) S u b a rn a re k h a p la in re g io n
The R egion (1) T h e Western Highlands s itu a te d to th e

T he S .E . C h o ta n a g p u r re g io n , re p re se n tin g w est o f th e c en tral p lain o f S in g h b h u m a n d in c o rp o
the so u th -easte rn s e g m e n t o f th e C h o ta n a g p u r H ig h ratin g T irilp o si, K a ra m p a d a , T h o lik a b a d , S a m th a ,
lands and c o v e rin g an a re a o f 1 3,447 k m 2 (21° 5 8 'N A n k u a, G irg a, K u n d ru g u tu a n d S o n g ra B lo c k s a n d
- 23°11' N a n d 85° E - 86° 54 ' E ) is d ra in e d by the n o rth ern m a rg in al ran g es o f th e P o rh a t fo re s t d iv i
S u b arn arek h a an d its trib u ta rie s an d th e S o u th K oel sion, are lo c ated a b o v e 305 m h e ig h t a b o v e m .s.l. b u t
river w ith its tw o m a jo r trib u ta rie s i.e. th e N o rth and at certain p la ces, so m e o f th e p e a k s ris e a b o v e th e
g en eral su rface w ith th e h e ig h t o f 8 0 0 m a n d m o re .
South K aro riv e rs an d th e ir n u m e ro u s efflu e n ts. It is
T h e w estern h ig h la n d s re p re s e n t th e g e o m o rp h ic
endow ed w ith d iffe re n t g e o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n s su ch
fe a tu re s o f a h ig h ly d isse c te d h illy te rra in w ith s te e p
as the D h a rw a ria n an d C u d d a p a h fo rm a tio n s in the
d e sc e n t in th e east. T h e e a ste rn e s c a rp m e n t o f th e
w estern h ig h la n d s , th e g ra n ite -g n e iss ic ro ck s o v e r
w estern h ig h la n d s is steep in th e n o rth b u t b e c o m e s
the cen tral p la te a u , c o n g lo m e ra te , p h y llite s and m o d e ra te in th e so u th . T h e riv e rs h a v e e ro d e d a n d
lavas o f D a lm a a n d D h a n jo ri h ig h la n d s an d fo rm a d isse c te d th is p a rt o f th e re g io n b y a c tiv e d o w n w a rd
tions o f Iro n -O re -S e rie s o v e rla in by T e rtia ry g rits, ero sio n and h av e c h a n g e d it in to a ru g g e d h illy
gravels and re c e n t a llu v iu m o f the S u b a rn a re k h a c o u n try w ith fla t-to p p e d iso la te d h ill ra n g e s , s te e p
plains. T h e re g io n h as e x p e rie n c e d sev eral p h a se s o f h illsid e s and n a rro w an d d e e p v alley s. T h e h ills lo p e s
fo ld in g ( A r c h a e a n f o l d i n g o f D h a r w a r ia n are g en era lly free fro m c o a rse d e b ris a n d th e y e x
s e d im e n ta r ie s ) , f a u l t i n g , ti l t i n g , v u lc a n ic i ty , h ib it ex a m p le s o f c o n v e x o -re c tilin e a r c o n c a v e s lo p e
upliftm ents (th re e p h a se s o f T e rtia ry u p liftm e n t), p ro file s an d are c la d w ith d e n s e sal fo re s ts .
erosion an d d e p o s itio n re su ltin g in th e fo rm a tio n o f *The h ig h la n d reg io n is d ra in e d b y th e S o u th
palimpsest topography. K o el an d th e S an ja y riv e rs w ith th e ir n u m e ro u s
trib u ta rie s w h ereas th e m a in riv e rs e x c e p t th e S a n ja i
T h e a n n u a l ra in fa ll ra n g e s fro m 1200 m m to
d rain fro m n o rth to so u th (N o rth K a ro ) a n d s o u th to
m ore than 1500 m m an d th e v eg etal co v er in c lu d es
n o rth (S o u th K aro ) fo llo w in g th e lo n g itu d e s whiles
dry d ecid u o u s, m o ist d ec id u o u s trees and sh ru b s an d
th e trib u ta rie s run a lm o st p a ra lle l to th e la titu d e $
g ra s s e s w ith v a r y in g d e n s ity o v e r d i f f e r e n t g u id e d by the jo in ts o f th e ro c k s . T h e S a n ja i riv e r
p h ysiographic reg io n s. T h e d istin c tiv e sets o f c li flo w s fro m w est to e a s t fo llo w in g th e g re a t s h e a r
m atic elem en ts, p lan t co v er and so ils o f th e reg io n zo n e. T h e se riv e rs h av e c u t th e ir v a lle y s a c ro s s th e
have produced definite suites o f m icro -m o rp h o g en etic h ig h la n d s an d h a v e s e g m e n te d th e re g io n in to a
regions. n u m b e r o f sm all p la te a u s , ra n g e s a n d re c ta n g u la r
b lo c k s. T h e n a tu ra l g a p , fo llo w e d b y th e S a n ja i
riv e r, d iv id e s th e w e ste rn h ig h la n d s in to tw o s u b -
pr ^ uced in abridged form from Facets of Geomorphology : re g io n s viz. (i) th e K o lh a n h ig h la n d s a n d (ii) th e
avindra Singh and D.P. Upadhyay, 1980 : Physiographic
P o rh a t h ig h la n d s.
regions, landforms and erosion surfaces of S.E. Chotanagpur
egion, in Facets of Geomorphology, edited by Anil Kumar, The K olhan highlands a re lo c a te d to th e
Thinkers Library, Allahabad, pp. 55-76.
so u th o f the B e n g a l-N a g p u r ra ilw a y lin e s a n d c o n s is t
S.E.CHOTANAGPUR GEOLOGY i:
^
> i,
)
0
L
7 3 0 Km
mmmJ
REGION> A
V.
c
■ T H
rrrrjTtrtfary grits
gravels
12 LLuChaibasa Stage
_l_ JL —i
I— i— i— i — i Iron ore Stage
0 5 10 15 20
Km
SEE B a s ic r o c k s in Iron
ore S e r i e s
fTTTil D/ianj or I l a v a ,
S O U T H - E A S T CHOTANAGPUR ^ “ and conglomerate
R EGION Dal ma la va
G ra n ite s
85*E SO U TH -EA ST
CHOTANAGPUR
-23*N / R EG IO N 23 H
Chandil y*
-i
* y
“v ÎTharsawan*
stf* .H e sa d i
c t Y ji* C h akrad h arp u r/^ R Jkh a
j f H S • Sonua ® | 6 ° W"’S -
-30' 30-
lanoharpftjr Hatâmaria ^
cj / Gua
• ‘y * ^ -
,'Mj4n>garhCr
-22 16
4 * < - .S 12
~i— —r— —* Miles
10 15 20 25 Km
65 30' 86 30'
__ L_ __ i___ _I_
Fig. 28.5 : Location o f S.E. Chotanagpur Region.
of a series of complex and confused mesh of hills (798 m) of the central range ; Bamni Buru (632 m),
and mountains. There are three parallel hill ranges Dinda Buru (755 m), and K u ili Buru (485 m) of the
which are separated by alternate valleys i.e. (a) western range; and K iri Buru (897 m), Papalta Buru
western range, (b) central range (known as Sasangada (680 m), Sasangda Buru (925 m), Bara Buru (780m) j
vBuru range). The hills are locally called as buru. The and Raijori Buru (822 m) of the eastern range.
significant hills include Maha Baru (685m), Rung The Porhat highlands are hilly in character
Buru (593 m), Kulpu Buru (630 m) and Budha Buru and are made of a number o f isolated hills and steep
walled valleys. The isolated hills have steep slopes tively a lowland which is characterized by shallow
with vegetation covers and Fine debris and the val and flat river valleys, ‘dungris’, granitic blocks,
leys are narrow and deep with big boulders at the tors and gentle slopes. The eastern part of this part
base. Waterfalls are not frequently found but the of the plateau is charactrized by the presence of tors,
gorges are numerous which show late youth to early granitic boulders, exfoliation domes and blocks of
mature stage of terrain development. * rectangular shape. Haldipokhar tors are significant
High and very high drainage density, fine to granitic landforms. Tata-Haldipokhar road passes
very fine drainage texture and high to very high through a typical region of granitic tors.
stream frequency of drainage network of the western The river valleys of the central plateau are
highlands are the result of weak Dharwarian forma flat, shallow and wide with low banks and gentle
tions which have been converted into steep scarps, valley-side slopes. The dolerite dykes normally oc
isolated hills, hill ranges and tableaus by the dual cur along the joints of the granitic mass. Tors are
actions of Archaean folding and subsequent fluvial very rare in Singhbhum granite arid Chakradharpur
erosion. gneiss but are frequently found over Arkasani
(2) The Central Plateau Region granophyre. Moderate and low drainage density,
often
termed as ‘granitic plain of Singhbhum’ extends moderate to coarse drainage texture and moderate to
from the western highlands in the west to the poor stream frequency of the drainage network of
Subarnarekha valley and Dhanjori highlands in the the central plateau may be attributed to compara
east and from Dalma hills in the north to the Baitarni tively resistant granite-gneissic formation, level to
basin in the south. The plateau is characterized by an gentle slope categories, flattish topography and
undulating surface the monotony of which is broken peneplain stage of the basin development. The coef
by dolerite dykes locally known as ‘dungris’ (low ficient of correlation between drainage density and
hills) which follow the joints of the granitic rocks average slope ranging between 0.66 and 0.94 clearly
standing as lines of low hills above the general indicates control of average slope on drainage density.
surface and are the result of differential erosion. In (3) The Dalma Highlands are located in th
fact, the central plateau region is a wide, open and north-eastern part of the S.E. Chotanagpur region
rolling plain surface above which project the low and consist of resistant volcanic lavas and easily
dolerite dykes in the form of monadnocks which erodible phyllites and mica-schist ranges. Accord
break the topographic monotony of the region. The ing to Dunn (1941) the ‘Dalma is a residual ridge left
central plateau region is divided into two sub-re in consequence of its resistance to denudation’. The
gions viz. (i) Gamharia Plateau and (ii) Northern Dalma highlands run from west to east along the
Lower Plateau. Ranchi - Singhbhum and Purulia - Singhbhum bor
The Gamharia Plateau is located to the ders uninterruptedly for a distance of 240 km and are
south of Hat Gamharia and extends upto the border the eastern continuation of the Porhat highlands
of Orissa in the south, the general altitude of which which occupy the ancient syncline of the Arachaean
ranges between 305 m and 500 m but a few hills rise folding. The Suru river has carved out its valley
upto 550m at m.s.l. The low range near Hat Gamharia cutting across the Raisindri hill range making a
acts as a water divide of the Baitarni, the Kharkai gorge of 30 m depth from where two parallel ranges
and the South Koel river systems. From Hat Gamharia run eastward i.e. the Karanti Buru range in the north
to Jaintgarh, the plateau exhibits the characteristics and Jamda Buru range (480 m) in the south.
of a peneplain dotted with dolerite dykes at a few The Subarnarekha river enters the region from
places which, projecting above the general surface, the north superimposing its course over Dalma lavas
are the examples of monadnocks. The principal and flows between low carbon - phyllite ranges on its
residual hills are Dadra Buru (570m), Gharipat Buru right bank and high epidiorite ranges on the left bank
(562m),CharadaBuru (490 m), Jangi Buru (595 m), wherein its valley is entrenched and incision is well
Changuria Bum (560 m) and Saka Buru (415 m).
marked which shows rejuvenation due to Tertiary
The Northern Lower Plateau, representing upliftment. The Dalma hill (926 m) dominates the
the northern part of the Central Plateau, is compara landscape of the Dalma highlands as the hill was the
centre of the volcanic explosion during Arachaean Morphogenetic Processes and Evolution of
period. The Dalma hill is succeeded by Demna hill Landforms
in the east which is the source o f the Dimna-Jhore On the basis of Peltier's scale (1950) of the
river which has superimposed its course overepidiorite determination of intensity o f different processes of
and carbon - phyllite hill. weathering and erosion based on two parameters of
mean annual temperature (25.5°C) and mean annual
The basins o f the Dalma Highlands present
rainfall (1313 mm), the region is dominated by
contrasting characteristics o f drainage density as the
moderate chemical weathering and masmovement,
western part has very high and high drainage density
moderate to minimum wind-action, maximum flu
whereas moderate drainage density has developed in
vial erosion, dominant processes o f chemical and
the eastern part because of a number of geological,
physical weathering, mass movement and running
lithological, tectonic, slope and relief factors.
water and falls in the dom ain o f m oderate
(4) The Dhanjori Highlands form a triangu morphogenetic region.
lar mass between the central plateau and the
The rivers of the peneplained central plateau
Subaranrekha valley which narrows down in the
become over-loaded by debris during rainy season
north-east o f the region. It is highly dissected region
which taboo vertical erosion but the lateral erosion
due to differential erosion of a variety of rocks which
becomes active. This fact is validated from the
vary in resistance, hardness and attitudes. The Dhanjori
presence of wide, flat and shallow valleys o f the
conglomerates and quartzites unconformably rest
central plateau region. Contrary to this, the rivers o f
upon the rocks of the Iron-Ore-Stage and are overlain
the western highlands are still engaged in valley
by Dhanjori lavas. The piedmont region of Dhanjori
incision which may be seen near Hesadih where
pahar is characterized by coarse talus and big boul
Roro river has developed a narrow and deep valley
ders whereas fine debris is removed by the ‘lores’
and near Ankua falls where the Koina river has
and rills each year.
carved out a long, narrow and deep valley with a
(5) The Subam areha Plain lies between waterfall at Ankua. The steep slope gradient o f the
Dalma and Dhanjori highlands wherein the valley western highlands has provided an extra force to the
region stretches from Jamshedpur with a width of 15 rivers for vertical erosion. The rivers o f the Dalma
km and narrows down to about 8 km near Ghatsila and Dhanjori highlands present the same process o f
beyond which it widens out over the Tertiary gravel valley deepening which is evidenced by waterfalls,
deposits. The Subarnarekha flows over the central gorges, rapids, pot holes, high banks and steep
axis o f the Arachaean folded mountains and has valley-side slopes. The Tertiary upliftment added a
developed its plain over the anticline of Archaean new chapter in the geomorphic history o f fluvial
period and shows signs of rejuvenation throughout processes by uplifting the old peneplained surface
its course due to Tertiary uplift. Its confluence with and providing steep gradients to the rivers.
the Kharkai river, known as ‘rivers m eet’ is marked The western highlands are very much af
by frequent sand deposits and typical ‘badlands’. fected by chemical weathering whereas the central
The rivers have formed extensive terraces. The 74 m granitic plateau exhibits high intensity of physical
terrace (D. Niyogi, 1968) with a width of 2.75 km is weathering. Dalma and Dhanjori highlands are at
located in the S.W. of Bahragora where the river tacked by both physical and chemical weathering.
following its entrenched course Hows some 18 m High range of daily, monthly and annual tempera
below the terrace. The 61 m terrace is located near ture over central granitic plateau is responsible for
Jamsola village and is 750 m wide. T’he terraces on physical weathering in the form of block disintegra
the bank of the Subarnarekha arc highly dissected. tion, granular disintegration, shattering and exfolia
The Subarnarekha has cut a deep gorge on the Bihar- tion. The process of alternate contraction and expan
Qrissa border and has exposed the folded Archaean sion leading to peeling off the outer layer sheet after
structure. In fact, the Subarnarekha plain is an undu sheet in concentric form, may be frequently seen .■
lating one over which the entrenched Subarnarekha over the exposed granitic domes near Tori and
valley has been superimposed. Haldipokhar villages. The process o f formation
r e g io n a l geom orphology
rupture leading to the development o f cracks by ‘feedback mechanism* of the operation of open
lowering the confining pressure and ultimate strength system is very much active in the region which, to
of buried rock masses due to removal of overlying some extent, demonstrates the steady state of system
materials by erosion, may be seen in the upper operation and is reflected in the parallel retreat of the
reaches of the Chandi Nadi near Tori village where scarp faces wherein slope angles are constant.
overlying material has been removed by the river The present landscape museum of the S.E.
and the internal stress of the granitic mass being Chotanagpur region consists of structural landforms
relieved has resulted in vertical splitting of the rocks. (mesas, batholithic domes, structural water falls
The example of block disintegration due to differen etc.), tectonic landforms (anticlines and synclines,
tial expansion and contraction owing to varying uplifted plateaus, uplifted peneplains, escarpments,
rates of absorption of heat in the rocks of different waterfalls and rapids, divides etc.), erosional fea
colour in the region causing different specific heat tures (peneplains, dungris or monadnocks, interstream
and coefficients of expansion, may be seen in the areas, dissected hills and hill ranges, dissected pla
exposed section of Ankua Murga falls where rectan teaus, valleys, gorges, incised meanders, steps and
gular blocks are scattered over the upper parts of the terraces, cut-off spur mounds, synclinal ridges and
falls and many of them have fallen at their bases. The anticlinal valleys etc.), weathering landforms (tors,
effects of shattering leading to granular disintegra exfoliation domes etc.), depositional features (tanrs,
tion of rocks due to occasional summer light shower (uplands), dons (lowlands), sand terraces, alluvial
over the heated granites are frequently observed plains, natural levees etc.) and composite landforms
over Data Dungri near Holdipokhar. (lava capped mesas and buttes, synclinal valleys and
The western Dalma and Dhanjori highlands anticlinal ridges, composite escarpments, etc.).
are highly affected by chemical weathering which is ‘Mesas and buttes’ are the characteristic
obvious from the formation of laterite cappings over features of the Dalma and Dhanjori highlands and
these highlands. The high temperature, abundant are locally called as ‘Pahars’ and are capped by
rainfall, much infiltration of rain water etc., acceler laterites which are the products of chemical weath
ate the rate of chemical decomposition of rocks. The ering of basaltic cover. Sahebajra Pahar, Mantaiia
rainwater is impeded by forest canopy and thus its pahar, Rangmati Pahar and Narwa Pahar are exam
packing capacity of the soil is reduced and impeded ples of mesas of Dhanjori highlands while Demna
water reaches the ground as ‘areal stream s’ through hill, Netara Pahar and Chandmari Pahar etc. are the
the branches and stems of trees and infiltrates into mesas of the Dalma highlands. These mesas and
the ground with the result the soluble materials are buttes, separated from each other by river valleys
dissolved from the ‘illuviation zone’ of the surface and having steep sides (scarps) and flat-topped sur
soil and the depth of ‘illuviation zone’ is increased. faces have been originated due to the dissection of
Consequently, the regolith cover is generally deep in the lava plateau by the vertical erosion of rivers and
these highlands which is the product of deep chemi have given birth to radial drainage pattern.
cal weathering. Biotic weathering is generally active
The ‘granitic dom es’ black in colour and 2m
in the forest covered zones of the study region while
to 8m in height are the result of the removal o f the
deflation by gusty winds during hot and dry summer
Dahrwarian rocks from the batholiths o f granitic
months causes onion weathering over the bare
intrusions of Archaean period due to continuous
granitic domes.
denudational processes and ‘onion or exfoliation
The weathered materials of the scarp-faces of weathering’ causing peeling off the shattered thin
Dhanjori, Dalma and western highlands are col layer. Some specific examples may be cited from
lected in the piedmont regions during dry months Ghamaria plateau and Arkasani granophyre area
and are removed by fluvial processes in rainy season (Tori dome on the left bank o f the Chandi river, near
which helps in the parallel retreat of scarp-faces. Kharsawan village and near Haldipokhar village,
Thus, the output (debris) of open system of scarp- near the right bank of the Bhangbanga river, etc.).
face o f slope profile provides input to the rivers A number o f waterfalls o f varying origin are
emerging from the bases of these slopes and hence found in the S.E. Chotanagpur region but they are
522 GEOMORPHOLOGY
not so frequent as in the adjoining Ranchi plateau. peneplained surface o f the western highlands dates
Pheruaghagh fall, located on the N. Karo river near back to pre-Tertiary period, Gamharia peneplain
Ranchi-Singhbhum border along the junction of represents Tertiary peneplain and post-Tertiary
granites and Dharwars, originated due to structural peneplanation is in progress which may be regarded
control, differential erosion, and was further accen as the present levels o f the rivers.
tuated due to Tertiary upliftment. The Ankua water ‘D ungris’, the erosional remnants standing
fall located on the Koina river in Ankua Block along like monadnocks above the peneplained surface of
the junction of the comparatively resistant rocks of the central plateau, run in N.E— S.W. and N.W.—
the Iron-Ore-Series in the south and weak calcare S.E. directions in accordance with the general trends
ous rocks of Kolhan series in the north, is the result of joints in granite rocks. The upper surface of these
of differential weathering and may be termed as dungris is highly decomposed and the general slope
vertical barrier fall. The Murga fall, located on the varies from 10° to 30°. They are affected by spheroi
Kumirta river near Orissa-Bihar border, is the result dal weathering and look like human skulls (Data
of structural difference in rock formations and dif Dungri, Jeria Dungri, Satbhaiya Dungri etc., are the
ferential erosion by the said river. Some minor water typical examples).
falls are found in Dalma and Dhanjori highalnds
The shapes of ‘river valleys’ and their valley-
wherein ‘in many almost inaccessible places the
side slopes vary according to the geological struc
numerous small streams have cut beautiful little ture and the stage of their development in different
waterfalls, often set deep in the hill cleft and almost
physiographic regions as the western highlands are
arched over by vegetation’ (Dunn, 1929). characterized by ‘V ’ shaped valleys which indicated
The ‘anticlines and synclines’ were formed downward erosion and valley incision and early
by the great tectonic movement during Archaean stage of valley development as evidenced by high
period but now these have been completely modified banks and steep valley-side slopes, waterfalls, gorges,
by denudational processes. The rivers originated rapids etc., while the valleys o f the central plateau
from the regional anticline, located in the northern are graded and, are flat and shallow having low
part o f the region in east-west direction, developed banks and gentle valley-side slopes. The valleys o f
their valley through it and converted it into a series the Dhanjori and Dalma highlands are ‘V ’ shaped
of parallel ridges. Sursi Buru and Raisindri ranges (not always) and are characterized by river piracy,
are the remnants of ancient Sonapet anticline whereas gorges and waterfalls. The valleys of the Subarnarekha
the phyllite ranges situated in the south of Dalma plain show incision and ‘valley in valley’ topography.
range represent Dhalbhum anticline. The syncline
‘cut-off spur-mounds (Savindra Singh, 1977)
received massive lava flows, the remains o f which
are found along the escarpment zone of the western
may be seen between plyllite hills and Dalma range.
highlands, over the central granitic mass and Dhanjori
The ‘escarpm ents’ o f the western highlands and Dalma highlands. The formation o f these
stretch from south to north along the junction of landforms might have taken place due to the loss of
Iron-Ore Series in the west and granite-gneiss in the cohesion in the granitic rocks punctuated by rock-
east. The escarpments are characterized by upper joints of varying magnitudes and dimension, slope
steep free-face element and lower rectilinear ele failure caused by back and downwearing of scarp-
ment and is the result o f differential erosion and faces and gullying action fostered by chemical weath
upliftment. The western highlands were affected by ering creating ‘Hollow blocks’ due to the removal of
Archaean tectonic movements and during Tertiary ‘rotted core’, and swift removal o f weathered mate
period differential upliftment raised them by 700m rials downslope’ (Savindra Singh 1977). The fol
while the adjoining central plateau was uplifted upto lowing four stages may be forwarded for the devel
300 m only. This differential upliftment was aided opment o f cut-off spurmounds :
by differential erosion which resulted in the forma
(i) The ‘lores’ (emphemeral rills) descended
tion of the present escarpment.
from the river-facing escarpments and
The ‘peneplains’ o f the region are generally eroded the scarp-sides creating long spurs
uplifted ones lying at different altitudes. 610 m projecting towards the river valleys.
ggGJONAL GEOM ORPHOLOGY
(it) C h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g d ecom p osed th e geomorphic history and in recollecting the tom pages
r o c k s a lo n g th e j o in t s c r e a tin g ‘h o l l o w of the book of geomorphic history on the basis o f the
b lo c k s ’ w h ic h w e r e e n la r g e d d o w n s lo p e basic tenet of ‘present is key to the past9 wherein
g iv in g r is e to p a r a lle l r ills o n b o th th e the present available geomorphic features help in
s id e s . unlocking the geomorphic mystery o f the region.
(iii) L e n g th e n in g o f th e s e g u llie s c a u s e d b y The recognition and identification o f planation
th e h e a d w a r d e r o s io n o f ‘l o r e s ’ , d iv id e d surfaces have always presented formidable problem
th e sp u r s in to s e v e r a l p a r ts. before the geomorphologists because ‘this is die
(jv) The summital convexity of these mounds weakest point of chronological approach o f die study
is the result of the joint actions of rain- of landforms’ (Savindra Singh, 1978 a) but even the
wash and soil-creep. adherents of ‘dynamic equilibrium theory’ (based
The continuous denudation of Archaean anti on process-form approach) are still sceptical about
clines has resulted into ‘inversion of relieF wherein their views of the rejection of the existence of planation
‘anticlinal valleys’ and ‘synclinal ridges’ have surfaces.
been developed in the study region viz., the R . P . Singh (1969) has recognized three ero
Subarnarekha, the Kanki Jhor and the Sona valleys sion surfaces in the S.E. Chotnagpur region viz.
are typical examples of anticlinal valleys because 915m surface, 61 Om surface and 305m surface. The
these rivers drain over the central axis of the central analysis of different superimposed profiles o f 30
geo-anticline of Archaean age whereas the adjoining sample basins and altimetric frequency histograms
hill ranges are the synclinal ridges. indicates the presence of four erosion surfaces in the
‘Tors’ are the typical landforms of the gra study region which are further substantiated by he
nitic plateau of the S.E. Chotanagpur region. Dome superimposed profiles of the whole region.
tors are found over the exfoliated granitic domes (i) The 915m surface, which may be termed
(Kharsawan and Haldipokhar dom es); ground tors as ‘Sasangda surface’, closely corre
are located on flat basal platforms (Turi Tor) and sponds to the planation surface o f the
valley-side tors have developed over the valley- same height in the western highlands o f
side slopes (Lakhimposi or Kanki tor, Poradiha tor, Ranchi plateau as recognized by R.P. Singh
(1969) and Savindra Singh (1978 b). The
and Tirildih tor). These tors are the results of deep
Sasangda and Dalma hills represent the
chemical weathering of granite rocks, removal of
same heights of 915 m which mark the
weathered materials by solifluction (in periglacial
same surface which may be recognized as
environment during Carboniferous period) and
the remnant of post-Dalma peneplain which
rainwash resulting into the piling up of ‘core stones’ was further eroded by Gondwana or pre-*
or ‘woolsacks’ one upon another. Tertiary cycle.
Erosion Surfaces (ii) The 610 m surface is indicated by the
The present geomorphic stage of the S. E. accordant summit levels o f the hills o f the
Chotanagpur region has become an example of western highlands, Dalma and Dhanjori
‘palimpsests’ wherein several chapters of denuda highlands, which is similar to the 610 m
tion, upliftment, warping, tilting, vulcanicity etc. surface o f the central Ranchi plateau
have been written, erased (obliterated), rewritten, (Savindra Singh, 1978 b) and it may be
resulting into the development of a storehouse of compared with the ‘Gondwana surface1
complex landforms consisting of remnants of older of L.C. King (1950) recognized in the
planation surfaces, truncated anticlines and spurs, African continent.
topographic discordance, knick points, waterfalls, (iii) The 457 m surface may be termed as
terraces, flood plains, wide and meandering valleys, ‘G am haria plateau surface’ which is
imposing scarps, tors etc. which very well speak the the result o f mid-Tertiary cycle o f erosion
story of ceaseless operation of weathering and ero and is spread over whole o f the Gamharia
sion processes and help in reconstructing the past plateau where central drainage axis is
located.
524
\
GEOMORPHOLOGY
(iv) The 305m surface indicates the surface of which again well coincides with the district bound-
the northern lower plateau presenting the ary. In the east the Subarnarekha ri ver takes a sudden
late Tertiary peneplain. turn to the south and makes the eastern boundary of
Two surfaces o f 381 m and 230 m are also the district, half-way between Ranchi and Purulia
indicated by the superimposed profiles and altimeric district. To the south, the plateau gently descends to
frequency histograms which seem to be structural the district boundary which very well coincides with
surfaces. In fact, the 910 m surface is uplifted the southern edge of the plateau, where many dis
peneplain, 610 m surface is the peneplain surface sected, low, and forest-clad small plateaus emerge to
while 457 m and 305 m surfaces are the results o f present beautiful scenery o f the region. Thus, in a
differential erosion. broader sense, whole o f the district o f Ranchi maybe
included within the limits of the Ranchi plateau.
28.4 RANCH! PLATEAU*
Geology and Tectonics
Delimitation of the Ranchi Plateau
The Ranchi plateau proper has an average
Few Attempts have been made by the Indian
elevation of 1066m in the west, 685m in the central
geographers to delimit and demarcate the Ranchi
part and 305 m in the east and south. The basal rocks
Plateau. P. Kumar (1957) has included the entire
of Ranchi plateau belongs to Dharwarian ancient
district o f Ranchi within the bounds of the Ranchi
sedimentary strata in which batholithic intrusions of
Plateau. J. Singh, (1971) while dividing Chotanagpur
granites took place. These rocks were further meta
South into geographical regions, has recognized the
morphosed by orogenetic movement. Granites and
‘Patland R egion’ as a separate region which has gneisses are the main lithological elements of Ranchi
been further sub-divided in to : (i) the Ranchi Patland plateau and in majority of cases they project above
region and (ii) the Palamau Patland region. R.P. the peneplain surface like mounds and domes. Ac
Singh and A Kumar (1970), on the other hand, have cording to N. Iyer (1931 -32) the following groups of
excuded the Pat region or the Western Highlands granite-gneiss occupy major part of the plateau : (1)
from the Ranchi plateau. K. Bagchi and Sen Gupta Normal type of granite includes (i) medium to coarse
(1958) have pleaded for the inclusion of the western grained with subordinate banding, (ii) foliated and
Pat region into the Ranchi plateau and for the exten banded type with rectangular porphyritic crystalls of
sion o f the plateau to the Damodar Valley upto its felspar, (iii) foliated antf banded type with ovoidal
confluence with the Bhera river east o f Ramgarh in porphyritic crystals of felspar, and (iv) epidotised
the north. granites. (2) Undifferentiated and hypabyssal types
Though the Pat region also extends into are fine-grained and are found in the marginal areas.
Palamau upland in the west, but the N. Koel river, (3) Differentiated hypabyssal types include granite
which makes a district boundary between Palamau alpites, coarse-grained pegmatites, quartz veins and
and Ranchi districts for some distance, certainly dykes.
divides the Pat region and hence the eastern part of The western Ranchi plateau, mainly the west
it should be included within the limits of the Ranchi ern highlands, received a basaltic cover, termed as
piateau. In the north, the northern edge of the Deccan trap, during the later part of Cretaceous
northern escarpment, which overlooks the faulted
period. This basaltic lava was later on weathered to
Damodar Valley and nearly coincides with the north
lateritic basalt. The riverine areas of the Subarnarekha,
ern boundary o f Ranchi district may be taken as its
the South Koel, the north Koel, the Sankh and their
northern limit and thus the Damodar Valley should
major tributaries received alluvium over which have
be excluded. The eastern section of the northern
limit may be demarcated by the Subarnarekha river developed the ravine lands.
The Ranchi plateau has been affected by
several earth movements (mainly orogenetic) o*
* Reproduced from National Geographer : Savindra Singh, different ages and magnitudes. These are the earth
1977, 1978 : Physiographic regions, landforms and erosion
surfaces of Ranchi plateau. National Geographer, Vol. 13, movements which can be held responsible for deve -
No. 1, pp. 43-65. oping cracks and fractures in the granito-gneissie
rocks and accentuating the joints in the rocks. Terti The region characterized by seven small plateaus
ary period registered successive upliftments - (i) 305 (as mesas and buttes) capped by laterite cover, is
m in the Western Ranchi plateau during early Terti abruptly terminated in the east by a steep escarpment
ary, (ii) 305 m between middle and late Tertiary, running from Khamar pat in the N.E. to Garsaru in
followed by a further upliftment of 91.4 m. the S.W. The foot-base of the highlands abruptly
rises to 800 m from the base of 700 m and then die
The Ranchi plateau is represented by sub
height continues to increase upto 1,000 m. A series
tropical monsoon climate characterized by two con
of ranges starting from Khamar Pat (1068 m) near
trasting seasons of hot and wet summer and cold and
the Ranchi-Palamau border to Chama village facing
dry winter with meager rainfall (mean annual rain
Jamgai Pahar make the eastern margin of the high
fall and temperature being 1476 mm and 24°C re
lands. ‘From the distance these hills give the impres
spectively).
sion of magnificent natural wall stretching from
Physiographic Regions north to south in unbroken line but a near view shows
On the basis of geological characteristics, them to consist of rocky spurs of various heights
general reliefs and superimposition of isopleths of with deep valleys radiating from the central mass
relative reliefs, average slopes, dissection indices, (R.P. Singh and A. Kumar, 1970).
drainage density, drainage texture and stream fre The escarpment may not be the result o f a
quency together, the Ranchi plateau may be deviled single factor either upliftment or differential erosion
into 5 physiographic regions of 1st order and 13 but both might have played their roles in bringing out
regions of the second order as follows— its present form of composite scarps. The western
1. W estern H ighlands or Pat Region part of the Ranchi plateau was elevated by 305 m
before the Cretaceous lava flows occurred. This
(i) N.E. western highland region
upliftment raised the western highlands 305m higher
(ii) S.W. western highland region than the adjoining central Ranchi plateau and hence
2. C entral R anchi Plateau the initial escarpment might have been of tectonic
(i) Chainpur peneplain or Bhitar Barwe origin. The Cretaceous lava flows laid a thick basal
region tic cover (500 feet/152 m) over the western region
(ii) Lohardaga-Gumla peneplain region having granite-gneissic formation. Basalt being more
resistant to erosion than granite-gneiss might have
(iii) Ranchi plateau proper acted as a protective cover whereas the granite
3. Southern D issected Low er Plateau formation of the adjoining central Ranchi plateau
(i) Palkot hills region might have been eroded more than the basaltic
(ii) Basia plateau region cover. Thus, the differential erosion of basalt and
granite-gneiss might have further accentuated the
(iii) Khunti-Torpa upland region
escarpment giving its present form.
(iv) Simdega upland region
The continuity of escarpment is broken near
(v) Bano upland region Adar by a wide gap known as Bahar Barwe, which,
4. Eastern Low er Plateau in fact, divides the western highlands into (i) N.E.
(i) Silli-Muri peneplain region highlands and (ii) S.W. highlands. The S.W.section
(ii) Panch pargana region of the highlands is characterized by ‘ridge and
valley topography’ whereas the N.E. section has
(iii) Porhat hills region
been segmented into numerous flat-topped tableaus
5. Northern Escarpm ents locally called as pats (mesas and buttes) which give
(1) The western highlands or patlands the name ‘patland’ to this region.
placed above 700m at m.s.l. and rising upto 1067 m The entire western highlands have granite
and at some places above 1100 m, includes the gneissic base (nearly at 915 m) upon which are found
police station limits of Chainpur (mainly eastern
Deccan Trappean lavas which have been weathered
part), Bishunpur and the western part of Lohardaga.
to laterites (primary laterites) because o f their for
526 GEOMORPHOLOGY
mation in situ within the required climatic condi Differential erosion has been responsible for
tions of tropical climate with alternate wet and dry the formation of residuaT hills of different shapes
seasons. Laterite-capped mesas, locally called as (flat-topped and conical hills). These residual hills,
‘pats’ have been carved out of once a regular high though in patches, are the remnants of previous
but flat surface by the rivers which were rejuvenated fluvial cycles of erosion and presently they project
due to Tertiary upliftment. These ‘pats’ have steep above the general peneplain surface. Exfoliation or
scarp faces, flat top-surface and rectilinear slope onion weathering has resulted in the formation of
element below the scarps. The significant ‘pats’ of exfoliation domes. Several tors have developed on
the N.E. Western Highlands are Bangla Pat (1072 the shattered granite-gneissic exposed batholithic
m), Mahua Pat (1067.5m), Rudni Pat (1064.42 m), domes.
Khamar Pat (1068 m), Dhauta Pat (1062.24 m), The plateau registers general descent east
Bagru Pat (1057.75 m), Maidan Pat (1052.26 m), ward and there is abrupt descent at the easternmost
Dhulua Pat (1053 m), Turmu Pat (above 1036 m) etc. margin of the plateau where all o f the streams, which
whereas the significant pats of the S.W. Western drain eastward make waterfalls of varying dimen
Highlands are Bar Pat (1097 m), Gungru Pat (1074.5 sions while leaving the central Ranchi plateau. The
m), Chandi Pat (1064.76 m), Aunra Pat (1036.22 m), Hundrughagh falls (76.67 m) on the Subarnarekha,
Luchu Pat (1021.68 m), Chandwal Pat (849.6 m) etc. the Johna or Gautamdhara falls (25.9 m) on the
(2) The central Ranchi plateau rising aboveGunga river, and the Dassamghagh falls (39.62 m
the southern and eastern lower plateaus (305 m), and 15.24 m) on the Kanchi river are located almost
includes Lohrdaga peneplain, eastern part of Gumia on a line running from N.E. to S.W. indicating the
subdivision, major parts of Ranchi Sadar subdivi line of recent upliftment (late Tertiary) beyond which
sion, Chainpur peneplain or ‘Bhitar Barwe’, and the youthful characteristics o f the downstream seg
western part of Khunti subdivision. The entire re ments of the rivers and their valleys are well marked.
gion is covered with granit- gneissic formation with These falls show common features o f abrupt front,
associated schists. The highest part of the central truncation of strata, gorges below the falls and in
Ranchi plateau is represented by a ridge (762.5 m) crease in channel gradient as the fault-line is ap
some 13 to 16 km south-west of Ranchi city. This proached.
ridge, perhaps the result of upwarping, acts as water Granite-gneissic tors are widely found over
divide from which the Subarnarekha and the South the central Ranchi plateau. These tors may be clas
Koel rivers take their sources and drain through the sified into 3 types : (i) dom e tors are rounded and
central Ranchi plateau with their numerous tributar pillowy in form and consist o f cuboidal blocks ; (ii)
ies. It is interesting to note that it is common to all of ground tors are piles o f mainly angular and rounded
the major rivers of the central Ranchi plateau to have
blocks ; and (iii) valley side tors are clitters devel
wide, shallow but terraced valleys with meandering
oped over the valleyside slopes. The R anchi tors are
channels and a closer view of the cross profiles gives
the result of continuous weathering and erosional
a clear picture o f symmetrical valleys wherein the
processes (Savindra Singh, 1977). The formation of
plateau gradually slopes towards the valleys.
cut-off spur mounds might have taken place due to
Three primary drainage axes radiate from the the loss of cohesion in the granite rocks punctuated
nucleus of the ridge (mentioned above) and divide
by rock joints of varying magnitudes and dimen
the major drainage basins of the region. The first
sions, slope failure caused by back and down wear
drainage axis runs eastward from the ridge and acts
ing of scarp faces and gullying action fostered by
as a water divide between the drainage basins of the
chemical weathering creating ‘hollow blocks’ due to
Damodar and the Subarnarekha. The second drain
age axis runs westward and forms a semi-circular the removal o f ‘rotted core’ and swift removal of
water divide and separates the source tributaries of weathered materials dow nslope’ (Savindra Singh,
the Damodar from those o f the south Koel. The third 1977).
drainage axis runs south-westward and acts as an Some step-like descents towards the valleys
effective water divide between the drainage basins of the major rivers (i.e. the Subarnarekha, the South
o f the Subarnarekha and the South Koel. Koel and their major tributaries) appear to be ter
527
races. Contrasting modes o f origin of these terraces youthful stage of small drainage basins of this re
(if they are true terraces at all) have been suggested gion. The Basia plateau is characterized by flat and
by a few geomorphologists e.g N.K. Bose (1940), rolling plateau country of granite-gneissic forma
S .P . Chatterjee. S.C. Chatterjee, K. Bagchi and A.K. tion having gentle inclination to the south. The
Sen Gupta. P. Kumar etc. Savindra Singh (1978C) Palkot Hill region is characterized by steep slopes,
has opined ‘that subsequent to upliftments (Tertiary) high relative reliefs, narrow and deep valleys of
rivers might have been rejuvenated and terraces small rivers which indicate juvenile stage of landform
might have been formed by downcutting but after development. A number of mountains and hills have
the upliftments those terraces might have been modi given birth to radial drainage pattern.
fied by overland flow with the result symmetrical The southern and north-western section has
descents from both the sides of the valleys produced
been greatly dissected and hence shows pronounced
the features of the valley side slopes.’
reliefs. Several small tablelands have issued numer
(3) The southern dissected lower plateau ous small rivulets and streams which form radial
covers an extensive area including Palkothills, Basia drainage pattern. The maximum relief, moderate to
plateau region. Khunti-Torpaupland region, Simdega high relative reliefs, moderate to steep slopes indi
upland region and Bano upland region. The plateau cate the juvenile characteristics of small drainage
gradually terminates into Gangpur and Singhbhum basins.
in the south and south-east respectively. Two cat (4) The eastern lower plateau is composed
egories of rocks i.e. (i) Dharwarian sedimentaries
of granite-gneisses, hornblende schists and mica-
(highly metamorphosed) associated with lavas and
schists. The ‘Gunga Ghat’ separates the central
intrusive igneous rocks (in the southern part of this
Ranchi plateau from the eastern lower plateau. In
region) and (ii) granite-gneisses (in the northern part)
fact, the Gunga Ghat represents a wider zone of steep
make the geological base of the southern dissected
slopes from which the plateau descends eastward
lower plateau. This region has favoured much denu
and ultimately terminates into the Subarnarekha
dation as the Dharwarian formations are softer and
valley. The residual hills rising in height from 550 m
weaker than the granite-gneisss of the central Ranchi
to more than 700 m are found on either side o f the
plateau. The plateau before reaching the southern
Subarnarekha valley. The entire span of this plateau
limit passes through three sets of descents viz. (i)
region is drained by the right-bank tributaries o f the
from 762.5 m to 686 m, (2) from 625 m to 595 m, and
Subarnarekha like the Uraongarha, the Raru, the
(3) from 457 m to 305 m. The rivers after descending
Kanchi, the Dara, the Karkari etc. The Subarnarekha
through these steps have made several waterfalls
and its major tributaries have developed graded
(e.g. Pheruaghagh falls on the Sankh and the South
profiles on the central Ranchi plateau but when they
Koel) and rapids.
descend through the eastern rim of the plateau (cen
The South Koel and the Karo rivers have
tral), they have formed waterfalls which are suc
developed broad and flat valleys over the granite-
ceeded by narrow and deep gorges e.g. Gautamdhara
gneissic surface but wherever they descend from the
or Johna falls and gorge at the junction of the Gunga
aforesaid three steps they have formed narrow val
leys bordered by steep scarps. After descending and the Raru and two consecutive falls on the Kanchi
from the 3rd step near the southern margin of the river (39.62 m and 15.24 m). After leaving the falls
plateau the Karo has formed a waterfal 1at Pheruaghagh and the gorge the Kanchi river has developed wide,
(20.11 m) having a narrow gorge through which it flat and meandering valley over the undulating sur
flows for a distance of 5 km. face of the lower plateau. The rivers of the eastern
The Bano upland having mica-schist forma lower plateau have developed radial and annular
tion of Dharwarian period has been dissected to the drainage patterns over the scarps, braided pattern
maximum degree because of soft rocks and general over flat and undulating surfaces and dendritic pat
descent of the terrain. The deep and narrow valleys, tern over well jointed granite-gneissic surface. The
steep scarp faces, cliff slopes, high drainage density following characteristic features of the eastern lower
and stream frequency are clearcut evidences of the plateau may be outlined—
528 GEOMORPHOLOGY -
(i) The eastern lower plateau descends from Khamar pat. The Sonasthali river, the main headwater
the dissected scarp-rim in the form of of the Damodar, emerges from the precipitous north
‘ghats’ of the central Ranchi plateau. ern scarp of Khamar pat near Chuthampani and it
(ii) The rivers after descending through the suddenly drops to make a fall of 30.48 m. Guided by
. ‘ghats’ register sudden breaks in slopes the steep slopes of the northern escarpment many
and in many cases make waterfalls which tributary streams, viz., Dhudhki, Dhangarha,
are succeeded by narrow and deep gorges Chirokhera, Dainkata, Saphi, Batuka, Nalkari,
downstream. Dhondhabetc. after emerging from the central Ranchi
plateau flow almost in straight courses to meet the
(iii) Many of the small rivers show every sign
Damodar river in the north. These streams have
of rejuvenation near the ‘ghats’.
extended their courses on the central Ranchi plateau
(iv) Thus, flat and wide valleys on the central by headward erosion and they have carved out their
Ranchi plateau just above the ‘ghats’ and deep and narrow valleys over the precipitous north
nafrow and deep valleys of young stage
ern scarps and their valleys are separated by long and
below the ‘ghats’ indicate topographic dis
projecting spurs (parallel to the valleys) which reach
cordance.
right upto the valley of the Damodar river. The
(v) Again, the rivers like the Subarnarekha, Dhangarha river has formed an imposing cascade of
the Raru, the Kanchi etc. have developed 21.33 m while it descends from the northern steep
flat, wide and meandering valleys on the scarp face.
lower section of this plateau region.
Genetic Classification of Landform s
(vi) Low spurs, dissected ridges, residual hills,
mesas and small buttes mark the topo On the basis of preceding discussions, fol
graphic features of the lower section of thelowing elaborate genetic classification of landforms
plateau. in the various physiographic regions o f the Ranchi
plateau may be suggested :
(5) The northern escarpm ent zone being a
part of the ‘Great Boundary Fault’ runs from Silli in (A) Due to Endogenetic Processes
the east to Khamar pat in the west and even to B ulbul 1. Structural
further westward, almost in unbroken line, over
(a) Pats or Mesas
looking the faulted Damodar valley in the north. The
escarpment is so precipitous that it drops from 610m (b) Batholithic domes
to 305 m within a distance of 8 to 11 km. (c) Structural waterfalls
The northern escarpment is a clear-cut testi 2. Tectonic
mony o f faulting activity during Lower Gondwanas.
{a) Anticlines and synclines (but now they
The western section of the northern escarpment from
have been completely modified by denu
Khamar pat to Bulbul is the result of upliftment and
dation and hence they are in the forms
subsequent sinking o f Gondwana sediments north
of ridges and valleys.)
ward and differential erosion o f basaltic cover above
(b) Uplifted plateau
and granitic basal formations below. From Khamar
pat eastward the escarpment overlooks the Damodar (c) Uplifted peneplains
valley which represents the axis o f the Narbada-Son (d) Fault-scarps
rift valley. In fact, the northern escarpments repre (e) Escarpments
sent the southern margins o f the Damodar fault
(/) Waterfalls and rapids
which was further accentuated by sinking o f the
(g) Divides
Damodar valley during Gondwana sedimentation
and block upliftment o f the plateau during Tertiary (B) Due to Exogenetic Processes
period. 1. Erosional /M
Many o f the source-tributaries o f the Damodar (a) Peneplains
river take their rise from the north-eastern flanks o f ( b ) Monadnocks
0#jtONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 529
(c) Interstream areas cycle, which termed as ‘Permian-Triassic Cycle*
(d) Hills (residual) might have reduced the region to a peneplain, o f
(e) Dissected plateaus which the western part was uplifted upto 305 m,
(f) Valleys upon which Cretaceous lavas were seated. The Ter
tiary period registered three phases o f upliftment
(g) Steps and hence interruptions in cycle took place several
(/i) Cut-off spurmounds times. The marginal areas o f the plateau character
(i) Terraces ized by waterfalls, knick points and breaks in slopes
and juvenile character o f the rivers where they de
2. Weathering
scend from the escarpments, tell the story o f Tertiary
(a) Tors upliftments.
(£>) Exfoliation domes
Erosion S u rfaces
3. D epositional A detailed analytical accounts o f erosion sur
(a) Alluvial fans and cones (seldom found) faces o f the Ranchi plateau have been presented in
Chapter 17 of this book. On the basis o f altimetric
(b) ‘D ons’ (low lands)
frequency histograms and curves, clinographic curves
(c) Lava plateau and superimposed profiles four surfaces are identi
(d) Sand terraces fied. (i) The flat upper surface (100 0 -1 100m ) having
accordant summit levels o f the western higher pla
(C) Composite Landform s
teau (Pat region) is the result o f deposition o f Deccan
(a) Lava-capped mesas and buttes Trappean basaltic lavas and was never eroded down
(b ) Synclinal valleys and anticlinal ridges to peneplain stage and hence it is structural in origin;
(ii) 915 m-surface o f the gneissic floor in the western
(c) Composite escarpments
highlands is uplifted peneplain ; (iii) 610 m-surface
M orphogenesis of the central Ranchi plateau is true planation sur
The geom orphological history of the Ranchi face ; and (iv) 305 m-surface o f the eastern and
plateau is very much complicated as several chapters southern Ranchi plateau is the result o f differential
of upliftments, intrusion and effusion of lavas, inter erosion. It is obvious that the last three surfaces are,
ruptions o f fluvial cycles, climatic changes etc. have in one way or the other, parts o f once an extensive
introduced com plexity in the present landform com planation surface formed before the first upliftment
ponents o f the region. The earliest chapter of the of the western highlands.
geomorphic story o f the plateau began with the
28.5 PALAM AU U PLA N D S*
Archaean folding o f Dharwarian sedimentaries, which
was followed by subaerial cycle o f erosion, which Location
was further interrupted (at least in the southern part The Palamau Upland (23° 39* 40"-24° 33'50"N
of the plateau) by Dalma lava flow. Thus, pre-Dalma and 83° 20' - 84° 56' 10" E), a part o f the Chotanagpur
landscapes and surface were obliterated. The inter Highland Region and covering an area o f 8,511.08
rupted cycle went on sculpturing the pre-Dalma km2(of Ranchi, Palamau and Hazaribagh districts o f
surface and subsequent lava structure o f Dalma- teihar) is a typical example o f ‘palimpsests with
flow and granite-gneissic formations o f the plateau. variegated landscapes resulting from the actions and
The whole of the Chotanagpur region experienced interactions of several endogenetic and exogenetic
glacial phase during upper Carboniferous period but processes since the Arachaean times. The dissected
the relics o f glaciation are not found over the Ranchi topography of the Palamau upland varies in physical
plateau except in the coal field of North and South characters because it corresponds to the neighbour
Karanpura. This glacial phase must have closed the
chapter o f earlier cycle and must have obliterated
* Reproduced in abridged form from Savindra Singh and S.S.
pre-Carboniferous landscapes. The withdrawal’of Ojha, 1980 : Geomorphological evolution of Palamau up
ice sheets might have ushered in a new era o f fluvial lands, India, National Geographer, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-25.
530 GEOMORPHOLOOY
hood o f several major relief features such as minimum monthly temperature varies from 9 4®C
Aurangabad hills and lower Hazaribagh plateau in (January) to 27.6°C (June). Maximum mean annual %
the north-east, ‘Patland’ in the south, and Surguja rainfall (1659.3 mm) is recorded in Bhandaria Anchal
plateau in the south-west and Vindhyan uplands in (in extreme south-western part o f the region) whereas
the north-west. General trend o f average slope o f the lowest mean annual rainfall (854 mm) is received in
Palamau upland trending from south to north is Panki Anchal (eastern part). Mean annual rainfall
indicated by the south-north course of the North gradually decreases from south to north. More than
Koel river, the master stream o f the region, which 80 per cent o f annual rainfall is received in the four
has divided the region into two equal halves i.e. the wet monsoon months o f June to September and
eastern and the western region. hence fluvial processes act in episodic manner.
Geology and Structural Growth Physiographic Regions

The chronology o f geology and structural The general system o f hills, irregular in forms
growth o f the Palamau upland dates back to the and occurrence, running from east to west, a direc
deposition o f Dharwarian sedimentaries in shallow tion more or less parallel to that o f the scarps o f the
seas followed by Archaean orogeny which folded adjoining plateau, is the result o f Tertiary upliftment
the Dharwarian formations into anticlinorium and of the south-western part (Bhandaria Anchal) and
synclinorium and subsequently metamorphosed ma secondly, the product o f jerks from south to north
jority o f the original sedimentaries. Pre-Cambrian caused by the movement o f the Gondwanaland (In
igneous activity resulted into the intrusion o f gra dian plate) during Himalayan orogeny. The hill
nitic batholithic domes under the Dharwarian crusts systems of the Palamau upland are classified into
wherein some granites were metamorphosed into four categories—
gneissses owing to continuous Archaean earth move (i) The hill system composed o f crystalline
ments. The region received Vindhyan formations in metamorphic rocks and covered with thick sal for
its north-western part which were folded by the ests includes hills upto and above 600 m height such
Hercynian orogeny from Cambrian to Silurian peri as Doki hill (641m), Chandawar hill (650 m) and
ods with an unconformity between Archaean gra Pagar hill (642 m) in Barwadih Anchal ; Juna hill
nitic intrusions and Vindhyans. Having a glacial (636 m), Sethwa hill (643 m), Manga hill (706 m)
phase during Carboniferous period, the region was and Bihi hill (751 m) inRanka Kalan and Bhandaria
endowed with massive Gondwana formations in its Anchal.
southern and eastern parts during M esozoic era. The
(ii) The hills formed o f sandstones or con
south-western part received lavas o f Deccan Trappean glomerates either belong to Barakar or Mahadeva
age during Cretaceous period which have been systems ranging in height from 500m to 794 m.
coverted into laterites in the ‘illuviation zone’ of the
(iii) The hill systems consisting o f ‘P a ts’ or
surface. The southern and south-western parts expe
tableaus to the south are composed o f crystalline
rienced three distinct phases o f Tertiary upliftments,
rocks and have their summits capped with sand
whereas the later Cenozoic and N eozoic eras led to
stones, ‘traps’ or laterites. Majority o f the ‘pats’ such
the extensive deposition o f alluvia in the wide cen as Netarhat Pat (115 m), Lamti Pat (1151 m), Galgat
tral tract o f the region. pat (1165 m) etc. are outside the present region.
Climatic Environment (iv) The hill ranges running west to east
Besides geological structure, earth movements almost parallel to the Panda and the Son rivers are,
and exogeneous processes, the physical landscape- perhaps, the continuation o f Mirzapur (U.P.) hills.
mosaics o f the Palamau upland are also the outcome The pre-Tertiary peneplained surface was up
o f climate mainly temperature and rainfall, plant lifted thrice in the southern part along with ‘patland
cover and pedogenesis. Mean annual temperature and Ranchi plateau during Tertiary period. Conse
varies from 16.9°C (January) to 33.5°C (May) whereas quently, the Tertiary and post-Tertiary fluvial proc
mean maximum monthly temperature ranges be esses operated ceaselessly to denude the uplan _
tween 24.4°C (January) and 4 1 .6°C (M ay) and mean which resulted into saucer like shape o f the region .
531
Fig. 28.6 : Physiographic regions o f Palamau Upland.
wherein the ground surface slopes from west, south (ii) The western region
and east towards the central lowland region. On the (1) The central lowland region compos
basis o f the general landscape characteristics as of alluvium deposited by the North Koel and the
outlined above, general reliefs, geological charac Amanat and their tributaries runs almost parallel to
teristics and superimposition o f isopleths o f abso the North Koel river from north-west to south-east.
lute and relative reliefs, average slope, dissection The region having peneplained surface dotted with
indices, drainage density, drainage texture and stream residual hills and monadnocks rising 60-70m abov
frequency the Palamau upland may be divided into the surrounding surface is further divided into two
the following four physiographic regions (fig. 28.6)— regions by the North Koel viz. (i) the eastern part
1. The central low land region including the western part of Hussainabad, Bishrampur
and Patam Anchals, and (ii) the western part com
(i) The eastern region prising the Bhaunathpur, eastern part o f Dhurki,
(ii) The western region Nagar Untari, Ramna, Meral, Majhiaon, Garhwa,
2. The western upland region Ranka Kalan and Chainpur Anchals.
(i) The northern upland The central lowland, lying between 150-450m
(ii) The southern upland height-group, is marked by more or less levelled
surface, occasional rises, residual hills, broad val
3. The north-eastern upland region
leys and ravines denoting the penultimate stage o f
(i) The Chhatarpur region
terrain development. The residual hills, partly or
(ii) The southern dissected region fully consumed by lateral planation by fluvial proc
4. The southern or trans-A m anat upland esses, are found in systematic fashion running from
region
north-east to south-west direction indicating once
(0 The eastern region the regular hill system o f the region.
532 geomorphology 1
The alluvial tract o f the central lowland has physiographic regions. The region spreads over the 1
not favoured very high drainage density, but it may Barwadih, Mnika, Panki, Balumath and Bhandaria
be pointed out that the drainage density is not as low Anchals. It experienced mid-Tertiary, late Tertiary
as it should have been for a region in penultimate and Pleistocene upliftments which are indicated by
stage because several hills have issued numerous the fallline located from west to east just on the
rills and small streams which have increased overall northern boundary o f the upland through which
drainage density of the region. descend several streams to flow northward. The
(2) The w estern upland region located to southern upland is divided into two subdivisions, (i)
the west o f the central lowland region and east of the The eastern segment, incorporating the Barwadih,
Kanhar river, which separates Surguja plateau (M.P.) Manika and Balumath Anchals is located in the
from the Palamau upland, and running from north to North Koel-Amanat inter-basin area. The Balumath
south, is characterized by dissected and highest tableland stands as water divide between the Damodar
latitudinal surfaces, river valleys, gorges, water river flowing eastward and the tributaries o f the
falls, rapids, divides, scarps, spurs and asymmetrical Amanat and the Auranga rivers flowing in the north
higher hills. The region has a central dividing range west direction. Patam fall is the significant waterfall
running from north to south acting as a water divide of the region, (ii) The western segment o f the
between the tributaries o f the North Koel river and Bhandaria Anchal is composed o f granite-gneissic
the Kanhar river. The northern segment of the west rocks.
ern upland, composed o f Vindhyan sandstones rep Morphogenetic P ro c e sse s
resenting eastward extension o f Kaimur ranges, has The varied topographic scenery o f the Palamau
been consumed to a large degree by denudational upland is the result of interplay o f several endogenetic
processes and consequently the planation surface of processes involving Archaean folding o f basal ,
the central lowland region is continuously increas Dharwarian sedimentaries, intrusions and effusions
ing westward into this region. The southern segment of magma in the forms o f batholiths, sills, and dykes
o f the western uplands consisting of granites and in Dharwarian formation, impulses o f fragmentation
gneisses o f Archaean formation has been changed of Gondwanaland o f which the Palamau upland
into a more diversified hilly surface with an average together the Chotanagpur Highlands and Peninsular
elevation o f 300m. The higher hills and spurs pro India were once an integral parts, Cretaceous lava
jecting from the ‘Pat region’ in the south, very flows, Tertiary upliftments and Quaternary alluviation,
often, assume the height of ‘P a t’ with an average several phases o f warping, faulting, tilting, rifting
elevation o f 1000 m. etc. on the one hand and exogenetic processes like
(3) The north-eastern upland tract resem weathering and erosion on the other hand.
bling the western upland region is spread over The upland has sustained the operation o f
Hariharganj, Chattarpur, easternm ost part o f several exogenetic processes because o f various
Bishrampur, Patan and Manatu Anchals. The region, phases o f climatic changes right from Archaean era
composed of Gondwana formations, is character to the present time. On an average, it may be pointed
ized by distinct topographic features o f hilly tracts, out that the Palamau upland was under the impact o f
detached hillocks, highly dissected surfaces and sub-aerial climatic conditions during Archaean era
scarps. The upland is further subdivided into (i) and thus it was dominated by fluvial processes. The
Chhatarpur region having a gently sloping sem i glacial phase during upper Carboniferous period left
circular surface and (ii) the southern dissected zone some imprints upon the pysiographic stage o f the
characterized by rugged topography covered with region. Deglaciation resulted into outflow o f abun
thick inaccessible sal forest. dant melt-water and thus the fluvial processes again
(4) The southern upland located just to the became dominant. Monsoon climatic conditions since
north o f ‘Pat region’and having distinct physiographic Cretaceous period presented ideal conditions for
characteristics such as high spurs, summits, water chemical and mechanical weathering and fluvial
divides, gorges, narrow and deep valleys, numerous processes. Since then the fluvial processes are ac
waterfalls etc. is distinguished from other three tively engaged in the back -wearing and down- |
wearing of the upland and some of its outcrops and central and northern parts of the Palamau upland is
exposures along the entrenched river valleys par increased by large temperature variation during day
ticularly in the S.W., S. and S.E. parts very well and night in the later part of April and in May. Thus,
speak of the various chapters o f denudation. differential heating causes flaking of surficial rocks
W eathering- According to Peliter’s (1950) and hence their layers are peeled off due to gusty
scale of denudational processes, the study region wind. Such ‘onion weathering’ is a very common
falls within the area of moderate chemical weather process over the residual bare-rock hills and domes
ing. Rainwater having components of carbon-di- which have been changed into exfoliation domes.
oxide from the atmosphere attacks directly on the The biological weathering is active in the frost-
minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, covered areas of the Palamau upland mainly in the
potassium, etc. The southern tract, consisting of southern, western and eastern uplands.
Bhandaria, Barwadih, Manika and Balumath Anchals, The Palamau uplands are affected by fluvial
is highly affected by the carbonation process be processes due to high rainfall in the southern region
cause of high rainfall intensity. Oxidation is preva and fluvial-cum aeolian processes due to high
lent on iron containing rocks found in small patches variation in temperature in the central lowland re
of Barwadih, Chainpur, Manika and Bhandaria gion. High rainfall has caused a dense network of
Anchals (Dharwar formation) and Daltonganj, streams which are responsible for high degree of
Lesliganj, Patan and Manatu Anchals (Gondwana erosion resulting into the development of ridge and
formation). Thick plant cover facilitates hydration ravine topography in the western and the southern
and solution in the southern physiographic region. uplands, while the northern region is marked by
Indirectly, plant cover accelerates chemical weath more sinuous courses of streams indicating penulti
ering in Chhatarpur, Patan and Manatu Anchals mate stage of fluvial cycle of erosion. The rejuve
(eastern upland region), Balumath, Manika and nated streams of the southern upland consequent
Bhandaria Anchals (southern upland) and partly in upon Tertiary upliftments have deepened their val
Ranka Kalan, Dhurki and Nagiu Untari Anchals leys. The augmented fluvial erosion is very much
(western upland) because the thick forest covers of substantiated by several rapids and waterfalls with
these areas intercept the rainwater and thus prevent narrow and deep gorges in the upper reaches of the
the rain drops from packing the soil with the result rivers. The rill and gully erosion is more active along
surface does not become impermeable crust rather the riparian tracts of the north Koel and the Amanat
allows much infiltration of rainwater into the soil rivers in Balumath, Manika, Lesliganj and Daltonganj
cover which facilitates dissolution of the soluble Anchals due to undulating topography, swift current
materials. Sometimes, the infiltrated rain water is of ‘nallas’ and sparse vegetation. The flat surface of
interlocked between the top soil cover and the im the central lowland and environs having negligible
permeable bedrock of the hill and scarp slopes of the vegetation are subjected to splash and sheet ero
aforesaid regions and flows downslope in the form sion. The valley-side slopes in the central lowland
of ‘interflow or underflow ’ and whenever it ex have been so greatly worn down that the river valleys
ceeds the saturation capacity o f the subsoil, it causes appear like ‘sand roads’ during dry summer season
moderate slumps. but are overflooded during rainy season. The loose
regoliths produced by weathering processes are flown
Mechanical weathering in the study region
away by gusty winds during dry summer months
is governed by the range of temperature. The low
(March to mid-June) whereas the cuirasses formed
minimum temperature during nights in January on
of humus coating of ‘illuviation zone’ of superficial
higher elevations particularly in the western, south
surface in the densely forested zone o f the southern
ern and eastern uplands causes hoar-frost and water
and south-western uplands supported by marked
zing in the joints and cracks of the rocks result
obstruction in wind-velocity taboo deflation by wind.
ing into expansion followed by thawing and contrac
tion uring day-time ultimately results into block Major Landform s
sintegration of rocks. Contrary to this, the expan The p a lim p se sts’ o f Palamau upland consist
sion coefficient <5f bare rock bills particularly in the o f several fossil landscapes (pre-Tertiary) and
534 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Cenozoic landforms. The landform assemblages as modified and at present the hill systems appear only
the result o f endogenetic processes include struc as the bones o f topographic skeleton. In the southern
tural waterfalls, anticlines and synclines in modified region, the antilclines have been converted into
forms, granitic structural domes, extensive plateaus, ridge and ravine topography particularly in Manika
escarpments, water divides, etc., which are seldom Anchal, while synclinal valleys have been filled up
found in their original form and have been greatly with silt and mud deposition derived from the wear
modified by denudational processes through ages. ing down o f anticlinal ridges. Another anticlinorium
The erosional processes have developed extensive is located in relict form in Bhaunathpur Anchal
erosion plains, monadnocks, interstream areas, re where Vindhyan ranges (not exceeding 365 m in
sidual isolated hills, dissected plateaus, deep and height) are found lying in east-west direction. In the
narrow valleys, river terraces, flat valleys with flood central lowland region, the anticlinal systems have
plains, etc., while tors and exfoliated domes tell the been largely removed by high degree o f denudation,
imprints of weatheimg processes. Alluvial fans and although at certain places (like Ramma Anchal)
cones, terraces, taulus or scree, flood plains, etc., are hillocks are observed in a linear fashion which
the outcome of depositional processes. present evidences in support o f the presence of
Structural W ater fa lls — Structural water anticlines in the past.
falls are the result of tectonic movements as the Escarpm ents - True picture o f escarpments
uplands experienced a series of upliftments during or vertical cliffs (structural in origin) along the hills
Tertiary period. Consequently, resultant waterfalls or plateaus is absent firstly due to non-occurrence o f
of varying heights are found in different geological any major boundary fault zone and secondly due to
formations which can be put in two groups. The first change in the original forms or relief features by
is the fall line having watefalls of varying heights at denudational processes, although micro-escarpments,
15.24m, 68.58 m, 117.77 m, 76.20 m, etc., occurring along the hill ranges of Bhandaria and Ranka Kalan
along the northern flank of Jarde Pahar composed of Anchals are noticed but erosional valley-side es
Vindhyan sandstones. These waterfalls indicate the carpments are frequently found. The original scarps
fracture zone in the north-western part (Bhaunathpur caused by Tertiary upliftments have been greatly
Anchal) o f the study region. The second line of modified by those rivers which rise in the uplands
structural waterfalls runs from south-west to north but drain over the central lowland region.
east direction along the northern boundary of the Residual Isolated H ills, M on a d n o cks, Rock
southern upland where rivers leave the plateau and E xposures, D om es etc.- Interbasin water divides
enter the plain topography o f the central lowland and inerbasin hillocks of the central lowland region
region. The major falls are found on the rivers like and environs have been wasted and worn back by
the Saphi (6.09 m and 4.57 m, one km east of Rodo), lateral planation ending into several monadnocks
the Gobardaha (21.33 m and 6.09 m, one km east of surrounded by fertile plains. These monadnocks o f
Chorhat), the Deori (4.57 m and 12.19 m, four km varying sizes, at certain places, bear exposed gra
nitic domes and somewhere are covered with regoliths.
east o f Barwadih), the Dhardhari (21.33 m and 18.28
Hill systems of the study region have been lowered
m, six km east o f Barwadih and Amdiha waterfalls
down and rounded by denudational processes and
7.62 m near Amdiha village), the Patam (Patam
thus conical hills are seldom found. Residual iso
waterfall, 45.72 m and Datam waterfall, 30.48 m, six
lated hills characterized by convexo-concave-recti
km north o f Enatutoli village near Herhanj in
linear slope elements are scattered over the central
Bhandaria Anchal), etc.ln fact, these waterfalls are
lowland region especially in Ramna, Meral, Majhiaon,
‘knick points’ or ‘heads o f rejuvenation’ caused
Bishrampur, Daltonganj and Garwa Anchals. Due to
by Tertiary upliftments but have been greatly modi
excessive fluvial erosion, rock exposures tending
fied by denudation and recession. towards north are frequently found in Chhatarpur
A nticlin es a n d Synclines - Anticlines and Anchal. When these exposures occur in the river
synclines of the study region date back to Archaean beds, they make rapids.
orogeny. Since then, they have been subjected to Tors are very typical land forms o f the region
continuous denudation and, hence, have been greatly which occur over Vindhyan sandstones and Archaean
535
granites in three categories, viz., (i) ground tors, (ii)
The streams of the central lowland region
hill-top tors and (iii) valley-side tors. These tors have formed flood plains especially in their lower
have been specifically studied in definite localities, reaches. Alluvium, comprised of silt, clay, sand and
for example, ground tors in Ramna Anchal, hill-top murrum particles, is the major constituent of these
tors on Perswan hill four km north of Ramna Anchal plains. Depositional terraces of sand and silt compo
and valley-side tors near Amdiha and Patam water sition are marked often along the river-sides.
falls.
It may be pointed out that the tors of the
Planation Surface
Palamau uplands are the result of complex weather The altimetric frequency histograms and su
ing processes and subsequent removal of scree by perimposed profiles of 29 sample drainage basins
selected from the four physicgraphic regions indi
solifluction under the influence of rain-wash (Savindra
cate six local surfaces of 700 m, 600 m, 500 m, 400
Singh, 1977). The periglacial environment during
m, 300m and 250 m. In fact, three surfaces i.e. 700
upper Carboniferous period might have ushered in
m and above, 600 m and 500 represent the upland
freeze and thaw cycles which might have caused
regions, while 400 m surface exhibits the intermedi
frost weathering leading to disintegration of rocks
ate position between the upland surface and central
into big blocks o f different shapes. The post-glacial
lowland region. Two surfaces of 250 m and 300 m
melt-water might have removed the fine materials
represent the broad peneplain surface of the central
leaving the core stones to rest one upon another. The
lowland region. Some of the remnants of hill tops
Tertiary upliftments might have caused further stress projecting above 750 m mainly in the southern
on the rocks and the joints might have been further upland may be treated as the representative of older
enlarged and accelerated resulting into more disinte surface of 800 m and it may be compared with the
gration o f pre-existing blocks. The continuous same surface of ‘Pat land’ further southward. Two
rainwash might have removed the debris and thus well defined surfaces of 600 m and 300 m of the
the present forms of the tors might have been pro Ranchi plateau (Savindra Singh, 1978b) are widely
duced. represented in the present study region.
O ther L andform s - Although exogenetic proc
esses have removed the basic characteristics of the 28.6 BELAN BASIN*
structural landforms of the study region, yet exten Location and General Aspect
sive plateaus, composed of hard granitic rocks capped The Belan basin, occupying a synclinal trough
with illuviation zone of laterites and covered with probably of Upper Vindhyan age jagged between
plants are very much found in the southern upland . Mirzapur hills in the north and converging ranges of
region. These plateaus are surrounded by hill ranges Kaimur hills in the south, is located between 24° 35’
rising more than 600 m above mean sea level. Patam, N - 25° 2.5’ N and 81° 45’ E - 83° 15’ E. The Belan
Jhikia, Deori, Saphi, Bahera, and Satbahini rivers river is a chief affluent of the Tons river and origi
draining over such type of extensive plateaus have nates in the Vindhyan ranges on the Vijaigarh high
dissected them into many segments giving them true lands and flows westwardly over the Vindhyan pla
shape of ridge and ravine topography. Deep and flat teau having an arba of 5698 km2of three districts viz.
valleys are o f common occurrence in the southern Mirzapur (U.P.), Rewa (M.P.) and Allahabad (U.P.).
hilly upland and centraj-cum northern plain regions After making a trough passage through the heart of
respectively. The rapid and waterfalls in the upper Mirzapur district it enters Meja tahsil of Allahabad
reaches of the rivers, which descend from the west district on its south-eastern border in the gap be
ern, southern and eastern uplands, are followed by tween Vindhyan hills and Rewa range and flows
narrow and deep gorges which clearly indicate valley upto 50 km to the south o f Meja, where it touches
incision. The inter-stream areas in the central region Pura Lochhan, the ruins of fortress in Daiy a, Lonamati
have low altitude because of complete erosion of the and Deogtyit. After flowing for about 15 km in Rewa
region to the base level, while those of the southern
hilly upland characterized by valley deepening as * Summarized from Savindra Singh and Renu Srivastava, 1974,
sume higher altitude in the form of anticlinal ridges. 1975 and 1976; and Renu Srivastava, 1976.
district, it again enters Allahabad district but only The general relief records varying altitudes in
after a short distance o f 8 km along the border it different parts of the basin viz. 300 m in the south
ultimately conflues with the Tons river (a tributary western part, 150 - 300 m in the eastern part, 300 to
o f the Ganga river) near Kaundy at the junction o f 450 m in the south-western pa# and less than 150m
Meja and Bara tahsils. In its general features, the in the north-western part. The general topography of
Belan very much resembles the Tons river, as both the region being hilly and plain is very complex. The
the rivers drain through such areas which have more basin has numerous hill ranges o f varying combina
or less similar lithology and have undergone the tions o f slope elements. The channel morphology in
vigorous operation o f fluvial processes and the dy the lower reaches is characterized by riffles and
namic wheels o f the cycle o f erosion have converted pools, sand bars and sand islands. The Belan valley
the regions into peneplains having different erosion is very narrow upto its confluence with the Bakhar
surfaces at different altitudes important being Kaimur river. It has cut steep banks rising to considerable
surface, Rewa surface, Panna surface, Ganga sur height, which in some cases extend upto 20 m or
face (continuation o f Trans-Yamuna surface) etc. more.
1 BELAN B A S I N
DRAINAGE PERIMETE1
Fig. 28.7: Location o f the Belan Basin, after R. Srivastava 1976.
Geology and Structure Dutt (1968), R.S.Dubey (1968), V.D. Chaubey

Though no significant work has been done by (1967), R.L. Sinha (1974) etc. throw light on the
the Geological Survey o f India in this region but geology and help in reconstructing the erosion sur
some information is available through the works o f faces and denudation chronology o f the Belan basin.
D.C. Dassarma and S. Biswas (1971-72) and R.S. The reconstruction o f geological structure of
Verma (1973). The different publications of the the Belan basin can be traced out from the geological
Geological Survey of India concerning with the literature o f the similar adjoining regions viz. Lower
similar adjoining areas and the work o f R.D. Oldham Son Valley (W .B.Meddlicott, 1859.E. Vrendenburg,
(1901), J.B. Auden (1933), G.V. Rao (1967), G.K. 1906, F. Ahmad, 1959), Rewa plateau, a part o f the
r eg io n a l g e o m o r p h o lo g y 537
eastern Vindhyan uplands etc. The basal rock forma rectilinear and basal con cave pediment slopes wherein
tion of the Belan basin dates back to upper Vindhyan the precipitous scarps represent sandstone capping
stage when sedimentation started in the Vindhyan while the rectilinear and pediment sections have
sea somewhere during upper Algonikan era. The developed over shales and siltstones.
Upper Vindhyan system consists of Kaimur, Rewa The upper Vindhyan system consists of two
and Bhander series, each of them having lower and series which are exposed along the Rewa escarp
upper stages consisting of massive sandstones, shales, ments viz. (i) Kaim ur series having (from below
siltstones, and very limited limestones. The north upward) Suket shales, lower Kaimur sandstones,
ward tilt of the basin caused by two successive Bijaigarh shales, Kaimur conglomerate, upper Kaimur
reverse faults in the region south of Kaimur hills sandstones, and (ii) Rewa series representing Panna
resulted into the formation of a syncline occupied by shales, lower Rewa sandstones, Jhiri shales and
the present Belan river. The northward tilt and a upper Rewa sandstones. The sandstone capping o f
probable syncline formation ‘might have resulted in, the Rewa escarpments belongs to upper Rewa
more or less, grading the Belan, which flowing over sandstones which are massive and well jointed. The
a stony surface, shows every sign of late mature sandstone beds have southward dip angle.
stage.’ The basal Vindhyan formation is covered
The Upper Vindhyan formations have been
with thick layer of alluvial deposits and fills of
buried under Quaternary alluvia in the Belan valley.
different nature having an average thickness of 20 m
The sections exposed on both sides of the Belan and
accumulated during Quaternary period.
the Seoti river in the Deoghat area (about 80 km
Lithologically, the basal rock types (Vindhyan south of Allahabad) and also in some deep gullies
bed-rocks) of the Belan basin are quartzitic sandstones, and nallas reveal the successive alluvial deposits
fine to medium grained in texture belonging prob over the upper Vindhyan bedrocks. The sequence o f
ably to the sandstone stage of the Kaimur series of Quaternary alluvial deposits from bottom (over
the upper Vindhyans. They are predominantly of Vindhyan bedrocks) to the present day surface in
light pink colour but in certain localities darker cludes (i) gravel-mottled clay-formation, (ii) red-
shades have also been noticed. Predominantly the
brown gravel-sand formation, (iii) yellow silt for
rocks are current bedded but occasional ripple marks
mation, (iv) caliche formation, (v) buried soil layer,
are also seen. The texture of the rocks is from
(vi) aeolian sand formation, (vii) modern soil hori
subrounded to rounded grains of quartz but some
zon.
spheroidal grains are also observed. Usually, the
rocks offer positive resistance to denudational proc Climatic Environment
esses as they are hard and tenanceous but in the The Belan basin is characterized by sub hu
deeply weathered areas the rock is weak and friable. mid warm subtropical monsoon climate having mean
Two or more joints are observed sometimes vertical annual rainfall ranging between 890 mm and 980
and sometimes horizontal intersecting each other. mm of which more than 80 per cent is received
The general strike of the beds in the whole during three wet monsoon months of July, August
Belan basin is east-west having northerly dips caused and September. Thus, the seasonal regime o f annual
by tectonic impulses from time to time. The magni rainfall makes the fluvial processes episodic in na
tude of dip angles varies from 11° to 15° but some ture because these become active only during wet
departures from this average attitude are also no monsoon months while the basin is least affected by
ticed wherein steeper dips of 25!) to 35° have been fluvial process during most part o f the year. Mean
registered in scattered patches. At certain places annual temperature is 25°C while mean maximum
reversal in the dip angles can also be seen wherein
and mean minimum annual temperatures are 32.8°C
beds have southerly dips.
and 19.4°C respectively. The hot and dry weather
The Vindhyan formations have been well conditions from March to June favour mechanical
exposed along the Rewa escarpments and numerous weathering of well jointed massive sandstones whereas
detached hills between the Belan valley and Rewa oxidation o f sandstones is favoured during wet
scarps. The Rewa escarpments consist of free face, monsoon season.
538 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Drainage It may be mentioned that ‘the processes of

The Belan river o f the 8th order on Horton's physical, chemical and biochemical weathering are
method of stream ordering is the master stream of the so intimately related and active in all the localities
region. The Belan river covering a distance of 267 with varying intensity that it is not possible to isolate
km receives 350 tributary streams in all wherein 182 the effect of one from the other. Physical (mechani
streams join the Belan from its right side while 168 cal) weathering causes block disintegration, shatter
streams are left-bank tributaries. The significant ing and exfoliation of rocks’ (Savindra Singh and N.
right-bank streams are the Bakhar, the Tanehwa and Rastogi, 1994). The block disintegration of Rewa
the Khabwa while important left-bank tributaries are sandstones due to pressure release caused by the
the Adwa, the Seoti and the Naina. It may be pointed removal of superincumbent load through denudational
out that right bank tributaries are very short while the processes and consequent accentuation o f rock joints
Adwa and the Naina rivers (left-bank tributaries) and increased tensile forces is the main weathering
form large basins. It is, thus, apparent that the Belan activity along the scarp faces o f the Rewa escarp
receives most of its water from its left-bank tributar ments. It may be pointed out that oxidation of
ies. The significant left-bank streams like the Adwa sandstones along the interfaces o f joints and root
and the Naina take their sources from the northern penetration is also responsible for block disintegra
flank of the Kaimur range and drain over flat terrain tion of massively bedded Rewa sandstones. This
o f the eastern' Rewa plateau. While leaving the mechanism causes disintegration o f sandstones along
plateau they form waterfalls of varying dimensions the joints and thus big sandstone blocks are dis
e.g. ranging in height from a few meters to 148 m lodged from the precipitous scarps and tumble down
(the Odda falls on the Odda river, a tributary of the the rectilinear slope element. ‘These rock blocks
Naina river). have formed thick covers of clitters over the middle
The source streams of the Adwa, while com and lower sections of the escarpments and blocks of
ing out o f the Kaimur range have formed parallel several tonnes in weight tumble down from the
hanging cliffs of the scarps and reach the slope base
drainage pattern as guided by the hillslope but the
after being disintegrated into smaller sizes due to
Adwa and the Naina rivers have developed dendritic
mutual collision in transit’ (Savindra Singh and N.
drainage pattern over Rewa plateau. At local scale
Rastogi, 19^4).
the drainage pattern is rectangular which is the result
The disintegrated blocks of sandstones strewn
o f rock joints and faults and lineaments. The drain
on the ground surface and sandstone boulders lying
age texture ranges from very coarse to coarse while
on the river bed are subjected to boulder cleavage
drainage density varies from moderate to low. Stream
through insolational hydration and dehydration. Ex
frequency is from poor to moderate but in the gullied
foliation and spheroidal weathering is active over
and ravinated areas (e.g. Deoghat areas) the stream sandstone blocks due to differential heating and
frequency and drainage density range from high to cooling during hot and dry summer months (March
very high. to June). ‘The shales and sandstones o f the Vindhyan
Morphogenetic P ro c e s se s
system of the study region are highly affected by
The Belan basin is affected by fluvial proc hydration and oxidation wherein iron decays from
esses during wet monsoon months, mechanical weath these rocks resulting into total breakdowp o f these
ering during hot and dry summer months (March to rocks which leads to the formation o f clays, silt and
June), and physico-bio-chemical weathering during sand through which the major soil groups of the
wet monsoon months (July to September). Based on region are developed’ (Savindra Singh and N. Rastogi,
1994). f
Peltier's m ethod (1 9 5 0 ) o f determ ination o f
denudational processes and morphogenetic regions L a n d sca p e C h a ra cte ristics
the Belan basin falls in moderate morphogenetic The present relief features o f the entire Belan
region characterized by moderate masswasting, maxi basin consist o f a mosaic o f different suites of
mum fluvial action, moderate chemical and me landforms ranging from (from south to north) eroded
chanical weathering and moderate wind action.. northern flanks o f the Kaimur range with less steep
slope than its southern precipitous escarpment sec into five physiographic regions viz. (1) Kaimur hills,
tion overlooking the Son valley; almost flat and (2) Rewa Plateau, (3) Rewa escarpment zone,(4)
rolling surface o f the eastern Rewa plateau having Vindhyan upland, and (5) plain country.
broad and flat river valleys ; abrupt descent of river (1) Kaimur hills running parallel to the Son
courses along the foreland of the Rewa plateau i.e. river form southern boundary of the Belan basin
Rewa escarpments making waterfalls o f varying stretch east to west and record the highest absolute
dimensions (ranging from a few meters to 148 m) reliefs of the entire basin i.e. 396 m to 457 m. The
and deep and narrow gorges ; sandstone tors and Kaimur hills are composed of quartzitic sandstones
sandstone anvils at the backslope of the Rewa es with greenish flagstones, shales and sandy siltstones.
carpments (i.e. on plateau proper where the plateau The Kaimur ranges have asymmetrical slopes i.e
terminates and the Belan plain b egin s); precipitous very steep slope with precipitous escarpments to the
but highly indented Rewa escarpments having free south facing the Son valley and gentle slope north
face element o f sandstones, rectilinear and basal ward. Most of the source streams o f the Adwa and
pediment sections of shales and siltstones ; highly the Naina rivers, forming the two most significant
gullied foot-hill zones forming badlands; isolated and most extensive tributary basins of the Belan
flat-topped hills resembling mesas and buttes char system, originate from the northern flanks o f the
acterized by flat top of sandstones, free face precipi Kaimur range. In fact, the Adh river, the source
tous scarps on all sides, rectilinear and concave basal stream of the Adwa has divided the Kaimur range
pediment section; intensively ravinated and gullied into two parallel ranges through active erosion.
riverine tracts having dense network of gullies of
(2) Rewa plateau also known as the ‘central
varying dimensions ranging from one meter to more
tableland’ composed of sandstones and shales is
than 20m ; river capture, m isfit valley and
characterized by flat and rolling plateau surface
palaeochannel (at Belan-Seoti confluence near
where the Adwa and the Naina and their tributaries
Deoghat), braided channel with sand bars and sand
have developed broad, flat and shallow valleys. ‘The
islands, riffles and pools in the Belan valley ; highly
central tablelands are affected by splash erosion and
denuded and subdued Vindhyachal range ; stony
sheetwash. The residual isblated hills standing as
wasteland etc.
monadnocks over these tablelands are marked by
‘The absolute relief ranges between 116 m linear fluvial erosion through radial and curvilinear
and 472 m giving relative relief of 356m. The Belan rills developed over bare rocks. Rainwash and asso
river emerges at the elevation of 305 m and makes ciated slumps of water-soaked debris are other proc
stupendous Mukha falls (16.7 m) and cuts through a esses which are active over these hills.
very deep gorge with vertical cliffs. This narrowness
o f the valley continues upto its confluence with the Sandstone tors and sandstone anvils, the
result of bio-chemical weathering, are significant
Bakhar river. Thereupon it flows through cultivated
landforms.
terrain having rock exposures on both the banks
throughout its course and ultimately terminates into (3) Rewa escarpm ent zone - The Rewa
the Tons river near Kaundi’ (Renu Srivastava, 1976). escarpments, also known as the Vindhyan escarp
The Adwa is the largest tributary (101 km) stream o f ments, are the most significant or picturesue land
the Belan follow ed by the Naina (77 km). These two scape features o f the Belan Basin. In fact, these
streams have developed their basins over Rewa represent the rims o f peinsular India. These escarp
plateau as well as over the infilled alluvial plains. ments representing the northern rim o f the Rewa
These two rivers originate from the northern flanks plateau overlooking the Belan valley ascend slow ly
of the Kaimur ranges and their source tributaries from 160m to 200 m and then are characterized by an
make numerous falls while leaving the plateau rims abrupt, vertical and precipitous escarpments from
and entering the lower plains viz. the Odda river, a 200m to 280 m and are highly crenulated and'in
tributary of the Naina forms two consecutive water dented having embayments (see fig. 3.9) (Savindra
falls o f 148 m (Odda falls) and 99 m. Singh, 1985). All the streams which take their sources
On the basis o f landscape characteristics, as on the northern flank o f the Kaimur ranges and drain
referred to above the entire Belan basin is divided northward make waterfalls and deep gorges while
540 GEOM ORPHOLOGY '1
descending through these escarpments. These wa escarpments (e.g. Intaha pahar 400 m, Murchapahar
terfalls range in height from a few meters to more 352 m, Murli pahar 330 m, Lutni pahar 412 m»
than 140 m. The Odda falls of 148 m on the Odda Gurihia pahar 383 m etc.) are examples of mesas
river, a tributary o f the Naina river, is the most capped with sandstones lying over shales and
significant fall o f the region. The fall is succeeded by siltstones. These detached isolated mesas are the
a very deep pool and long and deep gorge (148m result o f embayment and indentation o f the escarp
deep, 200-300m wide and 4 km long) dug out in the ments and their southward recession.
m assively bedded sandstone lithology. The Rewa (4) V indhyan flat or upland represents
escarpments are characterized by almost all the four highly denuded Vindhyan range with very low and
slope elements o f an ideal hillslope profile i.e. lim subdued reliefs ranging in height from 228 m to 244
ited summital convexity, precipitous free face, rec m. ‘Quartzitic sandstone beds constitute this.part of
tilinear and basal concave slope. The upper free face
the basin with practically no alluvial land. This part
is composed o f m assively bedded sandstones which
o f the basin is drained by the Belan and its two main
act as caprocks. The free-face element is experienc
tributaries viz. the Adwa and the Bakhar. The valley
ing parallel retreat. The basal or foot-hill sections
of the Adwa is an almost peneplained valley where
composed o f shales and siltstones are subjected to
intense gullying and hence they have been converted small rounded to elliposidal mounds predominantly
into badlands at places e.g. near Drummondganj. A stand out from the peneplain terrain. In the western
few isolated hills slightly away from the escarpment part of this valley high ‘m esas’ and ‘buttes’ are well
between the Belan valley and the foot-hills o f the marked’ (R. Srivastava, 1976).
BELAN B A S IN
ABSOLUTE RELIEF
Fig. 28.8: Physiographic regions o f the Belan basin : 1. Kaimur hills, 2. Rewa plateau or central tableland, 3. Rewa
escarpments, 4. Vindhyan upland, and (5) plain country or riverine zone ; after, R. Srivastava, 1976.
(5) Plain country - The northern riverine tributaries is supposed to be the southern extension
plain country formed by the filling o f the trough by o f the Ganga plains. The region has altitude below
Quaternary sediments brought by the Belan and its 150m (fig. 28.8). The Vindhyan bedrocks have been
covered with thick layers (upto 2 0 m ) o f alluvia Denudation Chronology and Erosion Surfaces
having different combinations o f sand, clay, silt and A detailed account o f denudation chronol
gravel as discussed earlier (see geology section). ogy, morphological evolution and erosion surfaces
The riverine tracts o f the Belan and its tributaries of the Belan basin has already been presented in
(like the Seoti) have been intensively gullied result chapter 17 (see section 17.5) o f this book. On an
ing into the development o f badlands. More than 40 average, the Belan basin may be considered as a
km2 of area in the Belan-Seoti confluence area of peneplained terrain but the only hurdle is that o f
Deoghat region falling in the Trans-Yamuna region significant breaks in the long profiles (channel
of Allahabad district has been severely gullied and thalwegs) o f the streams which take their sources on
ravinated due to ‘unnatural concentration o f surface the north flanks o f the Kaimur ranges, flow north
runoff at the time o f strong rainstorms, surface ward over the flat surface o f the central tableland
piping and tunneling due to infiltration o f rainwater (Rewa plateau) with broad and shallow valleys but
and eluviation o f soluble materials from A horizon suddenly register significant drops in their channel
to B horizon resulting into mudflow from B horizon gradients while descending through the Rewa es
and collapsing o f top layer, and removal of loose and carpments and thus make waterfalls and deep gorges
moistened soils caused due to alternate processes of ranging in height and depth from a few meters to 148
dehydration and hydration. The process o f ravination m. Question arises, do these waterfalls represent
has been augmented by anthropogenic factors such nick points and represent heads o f rejuvenation ?
as total devegetation, unscientific ploughing of gully No doubt, such conditions (nick points in the long
walls and intergully areas, overgrazing, faulty bunding profiles of major rivers o f 5th to 8th order) indicate
of gullies etc.’ (Savindra Singh, et. al., 1991). rejuvenation o f the northern rim o f Deccan foreland.
The Deoghat gullies are classified into (i) The subduction o f Indian plate beneath Asiatic plate
insignificantly gullied areas, (ii) moderately gullied culminated in the Himalayan orogeny and jerks
areas or foot-hill gullied zone, and (iii) intensely caused by the Himalayan upliftment introduced re
gullied zone or riverine gullied zone. On the basis of bound impact on the northern rims o f the D eccan
depth, these gullies are divided into (i) deep gullies foreland which was responsible for relative uplift o f
(depth, 10-30m), (ii) medium gullies (depth, 5-10 the latter in relation to the trans-Yamuna-Ganga
m), and (iii) shallow gullies (depth, less than 5 m). plain. This activity accelerated the rate o f denudational
The process o f gully erosion and gully development processes and caused disequilibrium o f action*.
at Deoghat has been studied in depth through field (Savindra Singh, 1985).
instrumentation by Savindra Singh and Alok Dubey As regards the morphometric determinants qf
(1996) for four consecutive years viz. 1991 to 1994. the stages of landscape development through cycle
The channel morphology o f the Belan river is of erosion, all the morphometric variables except
characterized by pools and riffles, sand bars, shoals circularity index (35 per cent) viz. (e.g. dissection
and sand islands and braided channels which be index, 80.3 per cent area under low dissection i.e. 0-
come more pronounced down the confluence with 10% ; hypsometric integral, 24%, average slope,
the Seoti river near Deoghat during post-monsoon 74.8 per cent o f total area under slope values o f less
period. The earthen bank rises 10 to 20 m from the than 3°; relative relief, 76% o f the area under low
river bed at places. These banks (riparian tracts) category = 15m - 30 m, etc.) put the Belan basin in
have been highly gullied. The Belan valley is also the penultimate stage o f basin developm ent. The
characterized by slump-terraces at Deoghat. The Belan basin could not develop a pear shape (circular
palaeochannel o f the Belan between the old and new shape) according to its old age because o f topo
confluences o f the Belan-Seoti near Deoghat has graphic control as the Kaimur range in the south and
been almost filled with recent alluvium and thus is the Vindhyachal range in the north have forced the
left a very narrow paleochannel. Belan to adopt highly elongated shape (fig. 2S.7).
542 GEOM ORPHOLOGY *
28.7 BHANDER PLATEAU* the V indhyan Sea sometimes during pre-Cambrian 1

The Region period. The ripple marks and embedded limestones ■S
throughout the lower and upper Vindhyan forma
Bhander plateau, located between Panna pla
tions substantiate the deposition of Vindhyan rocks
teau in the north-west and south-west and Rewa
in a shallow but sinking basin. There are clearcut
plateau in the east $ A * y iW -2 A * y y 1"N and 80° 16'30"-
unconformities in the geological and structural his
80°53'15"E) covers an area o f 2604.14 km2 in Pawai
tory of the region. The first unconformity, besides
and Panna tahsils (Panna district) and Satna tahsil
the unknown base upon which the lower Vindhyans
(Satna district) o f M.P. It is demarcated by the upper
were laid down, lies between lower and upper
course o f the Tons river in the south-east and east, by
Vindhyans while the second unconformity breaks
the Satna river in the north, by the Gurne river in the
the continuity o f structural growth between upper
north-west and by the Ken and its tributary Simarda
Vindhyan and recent deposits of Quaternary period.
in the south-west (see fig. 3.8). The eastern and
The alluvial deposits are extensively found in the
south-eastern margins o f the region having precipi
Tons valley region from Jukehi to the confluence of
tous scarps overlook the Tons which runs almost
parallel to the south-eastern and eastern rims of the the Satna and the Totis rivers and this tract widens
from south-west to north-east. Thickness o f alluvia
plateau through narrow, flat and rolling plain. From
its confluence with the Tons in the extreme north is limited from 10-18m. Again alluvia are exten
eastern part the Satna river makes the northern sively found over Satna-Nagod lower uplands in the
boundary wherein the northern scarps have an aver Satna valley-zone from the foot-hills of the northern
scarps to the Satna river. Similarly, alluvium forma
age distance o f about 22 km from it. The region is a
tions cover an extensive area in the north-western
difficult terrain having stony surface dotted with flat
part of the study region. The thickness o f alluvium
topped hills, ridges, valleys, precipitous scarps, val
increases from the foot-zone (a few centimetres) of
ley embayments and is covered with thin to thick
the escarpment to the river valley (18-20m ). The
vegetative cover except the northern lower uplands
and the Tons valley region which are basically rivers (Amran, Nandaha, Karari, Barua, Pathna,
agricultural lands. The plateau margins suffer from Gurseri, etc.) coming out o f the plateau top and
active denudation while the lower uplands undergo descending through the northern and eastern scarps
soil erosion and gullying. The rivers coming out of have deposited sediments in the low lying areas.
the plateau top are generally storm streams which
Morphogenetic P ro c e s se s
bear life during rainy months alone. The local popu
The present geom orphological setup o f
lation faces acute problems o f water (both for drink
Bhander plateau is the result o f the com plex
ing and irrigation), means o f transport and poverty.
denudational processes working from the pre-
Geology Cambrian period to the present time. The landscape
The study region is endowed with sandstones, characteristics m ostly dominated by precipitous
shales and lim estones o f lower and upper Vindhyans scarps, waterfalls (?), truncated spurs, ridges, de
which are often found in horizontal strata having tached hills with flat tops and steep scarps, valley
alternate bands o f hard and soft rocks. These forma embayments do not indicate any substantial change
tions are succeeded by scattered laterite and exten in the mechanism of subaerial processes in the past
sive alluvia, the latter being o f recent origin but history o f geom orphological evolution o f the study
restricted to the Tons and the Satna valleys o f the region, as no fossil landforms apparently different
eastern and northern lower uplands. The basal rock to the present ones are seen in the area. Thus, the
formation o f the Bhander plateau dates back to the ■ present landscapes speak o f the continuation o f past
lower Vindhyan stage when sedimentation started in processes in fashioning the landforms.
A glance over the characteristics o f the
geomorphic features o f the study region makes us
* Reproduced in abridged form from Savindra Singh and R.S.
believe that the present landscape scenery is the
Pandey, 1983 : Morphogenetic processes, landforms and
environmental planning in Bhander Plateau, India, National outcome o f the combined effects o f weathering and
Geographer, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 29.54. erosion particularly fluvial erosion. The present
r eg io n a l g e o m o r p h o l o g y
morphogenetic processes are related to the atmos

upper horizon o f soils is loose and becomes baked In
pheric conditions.
scorching sun light and the winds blow out the
The study region is characterized by sub loosened particles easily. Over the plateau proper
tropical monsoon climate having three well defined wind speed is lessened due to obstructions offered
seasons viz., hot-dry summer season from March to by thick vegetation. Sometimes occasional dust storms
middle of June, wet summer season from middle o f with high wind speed scour out the ground surface
June to October and mild winter from November to mainly of alluvial tract. The average annual rainfall
February. The region becom es prickly hot during o f the study region is about 994.11 mm (Maihar) and
dry summer months o f April, May and middle of 977.05 mm (Satna) but there is large variation in the
June (mean monthly maximum temperature between spatial and temporal distribution o f rainfall over the
40.6°C and 46.6°C and mean monthly minimum entire study region (lowest rainfall o f 37.62 mm at
temperature between 12.9°C and 24.4°C, Satna sta Maihar and 47.62 mm at Satna in 1960, where as
tion) whereas it becom es appreciably cool in the highest rainfall o f 1815.1 mm at Satna and Maihar,
months o f Decem ber and January (mean monthly 1971,2172.2 mm at Panna, 1971 and 2286.6 mm at
maximum temperature between 26°C and 32.9°C Pawai, 1971). Four months o f June, July, August and
and mean monthly minimum temperature between September record nearly 90% o f the total annual
3.5°C and 12.8°C. Satna station). This contrast be rainfall. As regards spatial distribution o f rainfall,
tween two seasons facilitates physical weathering the maximum amount of 1100-1200 mm is received
on sandstones and shales. The sudden outbreak of in the narrow Tons valley zone from Maihar to
monsoon accompanied by shower over the sun Jukehi, narrow tract o f south-western part o f
baked exposed bare rock surfaces accelerates the Maihar upland and narrow tract o f south-western
rate of mechanical weathering. There is a wide range Bhander plateau. Nearly 90% o f the annual
of temporal variation o f relative humidity during rainfall is received between 29 and 59 rainy
three seasons o f the year. Low humidity is recorded days which indicates high rainfall in ten sity
from middle o f March to the end of M ay. It decreases and consequently accelerated rate o f ru n -off
to a low value o f 9% in the month of April and goes causing bankfull stream discharge with high veloc
high in July and August (93%, Maihar Block). Low ity. This condition adds to the corrasive power o f
humidity accompanied by hot winds during the the rivers to abrade their v a lle y -sid e s and
months of March, April and May is directly related valley bottoms resulting into accelerated rate o f
to the groundwater level in the dug-wells and tubewells erosion.
of the study region. The dry wind and loss of mois W eathering - Based on Peltier's scheme (1950,
ture in the upper horizon o f soils make way for wind mean annual rainfall and temperature being 994.11
action during summer months mainly in the ploughed mm and 26.0°C respectively) the region is character
and unirrigated agricultural lands. With the onset of ized by moderate chemical weathering and mass
monsoon around middle o f June and sometimes by movement, moderate to minimum wind action, and
the end o f June relative humidity increases and maximum fluvial erosion. It falls under moderate
ranges between 60% and 90% from middle of June weathering region wherein dominant processes are
to September. The air becom es moistened and the chemical and physical weathering, mass movement
surface layer is saturated with the result aeolian and running water. Since the area is largely covered
process ceases and fluvial processes set in. with horizontal bedded sandstones and shales with
The mean wind speed ranges between 7.7 km/ little spatial variation in chemical and physical prop
hr and 13.6 km/hr from March to June. Relatively erties, the physical weathering is o f very limited
high wind speed during hot and dry months from extent. The observation o f exposed rock beds, scarp
March to the m iddle o f June is o f m uch zones, hill tops, foothill zones and certain pockets
geomorphological significance as it accelerates de over the plateau top indicates that one o f the signifi
flation process over harvested agricultural fields cant mechanism o f physical weathering is the break
mainly over Satna-Nagod lower uplands and partly ing o f rocks due to release o f pressure through
over Tons plain from Satna to Jukehi because the unloading o f superincumbent load. W herever the
vertical pressure is relieved by the removal o f over- thick alluvial deposits o f various lithological com
lying rocks there develop fractures and cracks ap positions are heated during daytime and the upper
proximately parallel to the ground surface. The parts are dried up and develop cracks which divide
impact o f cracking decreases with the depth whereas the entire affected area into several parts o f various
the frequency o f horizontal parting increases to sizes varying from rectangular shape to polygons.
wards the surface. This process is o f common occur These cracks weather away during summer months
rence over Bhander plateau particularly over the and fine particles slide down the cracks and when
ground slopesjof the river valley-sides, broken ridges they receive first rain they sw ell as much as 10 o r20
over the plateau top, hill tops and scarp zones. per cent and become moistened and sticky. These
The rock being a poor conductor o f heat cracks also known as desiccation cracks affect the
allow s only its superficial exposed part to be heated circulation o f rainwater. After a period o f drought,
for a few mm and, therefore, a thermal gradient is set the rain water penetrates the cracks in a depth o f 2 or
up between outer heated surface and lower unheated 3 m and collects at this level below which exists less
layer. This leads to differential expansion o f outer dry environment. Near the slopy ground this mecha
and inner layers o f the rock and consequent fractur nism causes earth-flow during the first phase o f
ing o f outer layer. Thinly bedded exposed sandstones rainy season.
and shales are subjected to such weathering. Wher The region is moderately affected by chem i
ever the sandstones have been removed and shales cal w eathering wherein oxidation and reduction are
have been exposed to differential expansion, lamina the most common processes. The weakening o f
o f shales are subjected to fracturing and breaking of sandstones due to oxidation resulting into rusting
rocks as is the case over som e parts o f Kushla hill and introduction o f red and yellow colour to the
where fractured and weathered shales rest over mas rocks and soils formed thereon are active over Kushla
sive sandstones. hill which is evidenced by the formation o f red soil
B ou ld er cleavin g weathering due to thermal over it. This mechanism is also observable along the
expansion is observed in the boulder-strewn valleys exposed sandstones o f scarp-zones o f the plateau
o f several rivers. The differential heating o f boulders rims. The p H value o f water, taken from the samples
m ainly during hot summer months develops cracks of dug-wells and tube-wells o f Maihar block, rang
which ultimately lead to block disintegration. Sim i ing between 7.5 to 8, indicates lesser acidity but
larly, alternate wetting and drying o f reeks lead to sufficient amount o f calcareous matter and thus
slak in g. ‘It is believed that repeated wetting and calcite sandstones are largely affected by solution
drying allow s the water m olecules to become in because initial porosity (18%) and high relative
creasingly expansive force that thrusts against the permeability allow solution to a greater depth. Since
confining w alls’ (C.D. Oilier, 1979, p. 21). Slightly the different beds o f sandstones o f upper Vindhyan
oxidised sandstones are very moderately affected by formation mainly Bhander sandstones are character
this m echanism during the early period o f rainy ized by variation in water holding ability because of
months when there are frequent dry and rainy days variations in joints, beddings and porosity, different
during late May and June. Broken pieces o f sandstones lines o f weakness are developed which make a stage
and exposed lamina o f shales are affected by this for the operation o f physical weathering. The
mechanism along the river banks and some o f the sandstones having a clay matrix are weathered by
outcrops in the study region. the process o f breakdown due to removal o f clay and
eluviation of clay.
M echanical collapse follow ing under-cutting
o f rocks by a variety o f methods like incision by the Shales consisting o f clay minerals which,
rivers at the base o f steep cliffs, water seepage, with mica and occasional other minerals, are fully
solution caving, etc., allow big blocks to fall down bedded by thin lamina and are characterized by
and disintegrate due to impact o f their fall. readily splitting attitudes (fissility) by joints and
Sun-cracks over the alluvium deposits by the cleavages are easily weathered. These have 80%
flood water o f the rivers is o f common occurrence in proosity but very poor relative permeability o f only
5. Thus, the weathering is very active at the surface
the Tons valley region. After the flood recedes, the
545
and decelerates downward but it becomes active also valley-sides and beds with the help of rock boulders
along the cracks to a relative greater depth. In humid being carried away downstream with turbulent dis
environment, the lamina are etched out with the charge of the rivers. Over the plateau top valley
impact of solvent water and more often the edges and incision is more active than valley widening because
faces weather away more readily. At places west of of two environmental factors : (i) where the valley
Katni-Maihar road the area having shaly formations sides are thickly vegetated, the abrasive work of the
has weathered away into ravines in collaboration river is restricted along the valley sides whereas the
with gullying action. The rainwater falling down the valley bottoms are deepened through the mechanism
slope of the faces o f shale mounds (outliers) to the of pot-hole drilling; (ii) where the river drains through
north of Maihar and Maihar-Amarpatan road has exposed rocky beds and the valley sides are charac
been able to weather the shales, as the fretted edges terized by imposing vertical valley walls and the
projecting outward bear the impact of chemical channel gradient is steeper, the valley deepening is
weathering. Chemical weathering in the limestone more rampant. A typical example may be cited from
quarries is active over the exposed beds. a steep and narrow gorge like valley of a tributary
The breaking of sandstones into big blocks stream of the Barua river about 2.5 km in length
through the penetration of tree roots is a major below 55 m water falls having a depth of about 80 m
process of biotic weathering in the study region. The and a width of about 15 m located about 4 km north
falling of leaves in the moderately and densely east of Panihai village.
forested zones o f the study region during autumn The turbulent streams during rainy months
season makes a thick litter over the ground which are engaged in erosive work along the rims o f the
later on changes into humus and conserves moisture plateau where they descend through the precipitous
which ultimately increases chemical weathering. In scarps. This process has resulted into the indentation
fact, the impact of vegetation on weatheirng and and embayments of the plateau rims o f high magni
erosion ic o m p le x one as dense vegetation provides tude. The main rivers and their tributaries have
protection against erosion by water and wind be penetrated the plateau from all sides except the
cause the intensity of shower is reduced due to southwestern part digging out long valleys with
interception of rainwater by the forest canopy but at wide opening towards the outer margins o f the
the same time rainwater reaches the ground as ‘aerial plateau and narrow and tapering ends towards the
stream lets’ through the branches and stems and scarp-face through which they descend. Whenever
percolates downward in the eluviation zone facilitat two parallel streams having a limited space between
ing chemical weathering. them penetrate the plateau rims, the indentation and
embayment of the plateau has resulted into the
F lu via l Process - The region is largely af
formation of projecting ridges. A narrow ridge pro
fected by the work of running water mainly during
jecting outside the plateau margin south of Naktara
rainy season from middle of June to October but the
village (near Sharda Temple) may be cited as a
fluvial processes are most active during the months
typical example.
of July and August and slow down by the end of
September. The major tributary streams like the When the rivers leave the plateau and drain
Barua and the Gurseri (of the Tons), the Gurne (of over lower undulating upland with abrupt decrease
the Ken), the Amran (of the Satna) etc. and a few in gradient they become overloaded with the debris
subsequent streams are perennial rivers because brought down from the higher plateau and scarp-
these are fed with spring and seepage water during faces and consequently the erosive capacity is mark
dry months near their source regions and valley edly reduced and the rivers become sluggish and big
sides while majority of small rivers dry out during boulders are left in the valley near the foothills. The
most part of the year. With rainstorm, the Hortonian dry rocky beds of some of the seasonal rivers from
run-off (nearly 80% of the total rainfall) is generated the foothill zone to about 6 km downstream show a
which reaches the nearest streams through the 1st marked gradation of rocky boulders wherein the size
order streams and soon the streams become bankfull of boulders decreases down stream. Further down
adding water to the main rivers which abrade their stream these rivers drain over the alluvium country
546 GEOMORPHOLOGY
deposited over sandstone and shaly basement. These lower uplands dotted with flat-topped hills with
are devoid of rocky boulders and therefore absence steep scarp-faces, indentations and embayment of
of erosional tools and marked reduction in gradient plateau rims, etc., clearly indicate the parallel retreat
makes the rivers to stop effective vertical erosion of slopes without sufficient loss in gradient thereof.
and to widen their valleys through lateral erosion Even the flat rolling surface between the detached
mainly due to gullying o f the valley-sides through hills and the plateau rims may not be taken as a result
the rills. Wherever the banks of the rivers are crowned of lateral planation rather they are the outcome of
with dense vegetation the valley widening has been back-wearing of hill sides due to parallel retreat of
restricted because vegetation has discouraged gullying slope. Thus, the co-existence of drainage net with
of the valley-sides. Absence of vegetation has been graded profile of equilibrium (an example of mature
responsible for gullying of the river sides and sur stage) and generally steep slope having free-face
rounding country. elements of scarp-faces, water falls upto 50 to 60m
The alluvium country of the Tons valley re (?), deep and narrow gorges below the falls (the
gion and the Satna-Nagod lower uplands is largely cahracteristics of youthful stage) cannot be accom
affected, besides the rivers and nalas, by splash modated in the Davisian scheme of normal cycle of
erosion. During the high intensity of rainfall in July erosion. Similar inconsistencies have been reported
and August the falling raindrops with maximum by J. Tricart and A. Cailleux (1972) from the Fouta
velocity and kinetic energy literally pelt the bare soil Djallon (in Guinea) and Adrar of Mauritania which
making the sand grains scatter and aggregate and have similar sandstone-shaly formations and wet
thus susceptible to the overland flow. This process is and dry humid sub-tropical climate. The authors,
more active in the cultivated fields and facilitates therefore, are in full agreement with Tricart and
sheet erosion. The splash erosion is even more Cailleux's views that ‘everywhere quiet reaches al
active over bare-rock shaly hills covered with fine ternate with rapids, which are the dominant charac
particles (for example, Sharda Pole) where the pelt teristics of all intertropical streams, in whatever
ing of particles by falling rain drops and resulting degree of dissection the land they drain and what
into their scattering stimulates downward migration ever length of time they have taken to form their
o f the particles. The exposed shaly beds from Jukehi courses’ (1972, p. 37).
to Amdara to the west of Maihar-Katni road has The most prominent landscape features are
developed several gullies because shales being im the numerous escarpments on the north-western,
permeable allow little infiltration of rainwater and northern and eastern margins of the study region. In
generate maximum Hortonian run-off which after general, they are characterized by steep scarp faces
assuming the form of rills have eroded away the with free-face element of slope and by lower seg
shales and, thus, have developed gullies which have ment of rectilinear slope element giving a concavity
given birth to the development of ravine topography. to the plan profile from top to bottom. The forms of
Landscape Characteristics escarpment largely depend on the local conditions,
The physiographic characteristics over the the nature and the inclination of the strata ofgeologi-
plateau top and lower uplands clearly suggest that cal formations of which they have been composed
the region is in mature stage of terrain development of. The commonest form is characterized by an
but the presence o f several waterfalls (?) and deep, under-cliff of about 30° inclination with vertical
long and narrow gorges poses a serious problem for precipice above at places where underlying shale is
the Davisian scheme of cycle o f erosion to unravel capped with massive sandstone. The boldest preci
the mystery o f geomorphic history of this area. pices have been formed when the scarp is exclu
The major river courses have graded profiles sively composed o f sandstone. Wherever two bands
over the higher plateau and lower uplands but are of sandstones are separated by shale, beaded escarp
punctuated with sudden falls when they descend ments are noticed.
through the precipitous scarps. The existence of The most outstanding feature o f these escarp
steep scarp-faces followed by rectilinear elements ments is that they are in continuous process of
and undulating rolling and near-flat surface of the parallel retreat maintaining their maximum slope
gEGlONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
547
angle. The recession o f the scarps has taken place river courses are highly irregular characterized by
and is still active under the impact of weatheirng of inclined bottom lands wherein water wanders out of
the scarp faces and constant removal of debris. the channel in a dense vegetation forming deeply
Various detached hills, exhibiting the example of entrenched narrow valleys with rocky walls and
mesa, butte, etc., projecting above the general roll rocky beds and waterfalls where rivers spill across
ing uplands, are the left-over remnants of the reces the edge of massive ledge composed of sandstones,
sion of the escarpments. Hence, the surrounding etc. Wherever major rivers descend through the
lower flat and rolling uplands, typical examples of scarps and fall into the embayments surrounding
peneplains in Davisian terminology, are not the them they drop through successive levels of floors of
outcome of lateral planation by the rivers but the the embayments at different elevations. However,
parallel retreat of scarps. Kushla hill, Shankargarh the rivers over lower uplands have dugout relatively
hill (547 m), Sinduria Pahar (545 m), Lai pahar (570 deep valleys borderd by earthen banks. Some of the
m) etc., are the examples of such mesas. Over some outliers of sandstones and shales have been abraded
of the hills, the recession of scarps has been com by the Amran river in the vicinity of Nagod where
pleted and the hills have been changed to conical these outliers stand as vertical cliffs at the valley
shape (e.g. Sharda Pole) and thus the downwasting sides wherein the basal shales have been notched out
of Davis is in progress in this case. leaving the sandstone beds projecting towards the
In general, if topographic features from the channel.
higher plateau to the outer margins upto the river The existence of numerous waterfalls rang
valleys are taken into account a zonation of three ing between 10 and 60 m makes the riddle of the
distinct topography may be recognized on three geomorphic history of the region more complex.
sides viz., north, west and east, (i) At the outer The waterfalls may be divided into two categories on
margins, there is significantly low and rolling up the basis of their locational aspect: (i) the steepest
land developed over Vindhyan basement which has and the highest waterfalls are located along the rims
been affected by shallow valleys the depth of which of the plateau generally at the heads of the embayments.
matches with the thickness of alluvium. The lower They range in height from 30 m to 60 m and are
upland is dotted with flat-topped hills like (besides generally located on the source-segments of major
referred to above) Pithaurabad hill (523 m), Surdaha rivers or on their tributaries (40 m falls on the Amran
Pahar (529 m), Dharkana Pahar (567 m), Patna Hill river, 1 km north-east of Jamunia village, 60 m-
(512 m), Bandhaura hill (504 m), Satani hill (423 m), Dudhia falls on a very small tributary of the Amran
Murwari hill (425 m) etc. These hills with sandstone river about 2 km north of Pahari village, 60 m falls
capping and alternate bands of sandstones and shales on the Kamaro river one km north o f Khama village,
below are flat-topped mesas and buttes having ver 40 m falls on the Bara Nala about 0.5 km north of**
tical steep scarps of free-face and rectilinear flanks Mohana village, 44 m falls on a tributary o f the
of 30° to 40° slope below and join the billowing Barua river about one km south-east of Pipra village,
surface found at their bases which seldom exceeds 3° etc.) and the valleys down the falls become open and
to 4° in slope, (ii) The second ring of topographic wide signifying the embayments which significantly
features incorporates numerous embayments and widen out towards lower uplands, (ii) The second
indentations (fig. 3.8) which gidles the plateau proper line of waterfalls is located further inland over the
from three sides and indicates massive breaching of higher plateau between 10 and 30 m o f height exhib
the plateau rims, (iii) The third zone includes central iting deep, narrow and long gorges below their
plateau including Maihar upland and south-western bases.
Bhander plateau. This zone is lacking in pronounced A close observation o f the waterfalls o f the
reliefs except convexo-concave low hills having first category in the field (e.g. Dudhia falls) clearly
limited flat tops. But in majority of the cases they reveals that these are neither real waterfalls as de
have round tops ranging between 500 m and 650 m picted on topographical maps o f Survey o f India nor
in height, some elongated long and narrow ridges., heads of rejuvenation or nick points. Instead, these
knolls and irregular and asymmetrical valleys. The are heads o f embayments or scarp-heads where
waterfalls down the vertical walls during rains, but the gabbro, the basalt attained a granulific texture
remain dry during rest o f the year. Some may opine and are now found in the form o f basic ganulites* (S,
that the j erics caused by the Himalayan orogeny Subbarao, 1968). Olivine dolerites were formed
daring Tertiary period might have caused relative because o f plugging o f fissures and cracks (caused
upliftment in the foreland o f the Peninsula rejuve by gabbro intrusion) by lava. T h e loccolithic intro*
nating the existing streams. Based on this argument sion o f gabbro was followed by the intermediate and
the whole o f the foreland should have been block- acid intrusions, the latter assumed a ring dyke form
uplifted and only the northern margins should have by the infilling o f the circular fractures developed by
been accentuated. But the existence o f numerous the intrusion o f gabbro into the lavas’ (S. Subba Rao,
waterfalls (?) in the inner part o f the foreland like 1968). At a later date the area received marine
Bhander plateau may be explained only when there sediments because of its submergence under sea
is local upliftment in relation to surrounding area. water and these became limestones.
But there is no evidence o f such local upliftment
Clim atic Environm ent
because the rock exposures along the detached hills
The Girnar hill area experiences monsoon
and escarpments indicate perfect parallelism. Thus,
climate characterized by dry summer, wet summer
these so called waterfalls are structural in character.
and almost dry winter seasons. Maximum tempera
The second category of waterfalls is erosional in
ture reaches 43°C in May while minimum tempera
genesis because of differential erosion of country
ture of 12°C is recorded in January. It is evident that
rocks. The water infiltrates along the joints of
sandstones and thus erodes away the materials to there is large annual and monthly mean range o f
temperature. The diurnal range of temperature dur
form moderate waterfalls.
ing hot and dry months o f April, May and June
28.8 G IRN A R H ILL REG IO N * stimulates mechanical weatheirng leading to block
Gimar hills are located in the Kathiawar pe and granular disintegration o f igneous rocks. Rain
ninsula o f Gujarate state o f India having astronomi fall is received mostly from Arabian Sea branch of
cal location o f 21 °30'N and 70° 30’E. Girnar hills are S.W. Monsoon from mid-June to mid-September.
quite different from flat-topped trap hills of Kathiawar Mean annual rainfall of Junagarh and Girnar is 860
i.e. hills having basaltic cover at the top as these hills mm and 1300 mm respectively. Fluvial processes
are rounded in shape with convexo-concave slope become most active during wet monsoon months o f
profile. The Gimar hills are spread over an area of July and August when rivers erode their valleys
about 125 km2. because of abundant runoff resulting from strong
rainstorms.
Geological Formation
The basal rocks of Girnar area are quite an Drainage Pattern
cient like the basal rocks of Peninsular India and Girnar hill, being conical hill in shape, has
these have been intruded by magma while the top given birth to centrifugal or radial drainage pattern
surface is covered with lava which was poured on the wherein consequent streams radiate from the hill
surface through fissure flow. It means that the basal tops in all direction and flow'downslope of the hill
rocks, like rest of the Peninsular India, are Dharwarian flanks. Several tributaries of consequent as subse
sedimentaries. Girnar hills represent the centre of quent streams girdle the hills and form annular
lava eruption. ‘The eruption of lava which was pattern. All o f the streams o f the area are seasonal in
mostly basalt, was followed by the laccolithic intru character. None of them is perennial.
sion o f gabbro causing the flow to assum e
Altimetric C h a ra cteristics
quaquaversal dips (dipping outward in all directions
Most o f the hills are rounded or conical in
from a centre). Due to thermal metamorphic effect of
shape. Mount Girnar with the altitude of 1117 m msl
is the highest part o f this area i.e. Kathiawar region.
* Based on S. Subba Rao, 1968 : Physical features of Gimar T h e name o f Girnar seems to have been derived
Hill* in Kathiawar, in “Selected Papers” edited by S. P. from its meaning in Gujarati language as the highest
Chattcijee. mountain’ (S. Subba Rao, 1968). This central hill is
REGIONAL g eo m o r ph o lo g y
surrounded by a ring o f circular ridge which is composed of gabbro but they could not be weathered
connected with the central hill by four radial ridges. and could maintain their existence only because o f
The area between the ridges is almost flat lava plain. the fact that they have been capped by metamor
Thecircular range is characterized by gentle hillslope phosed basalt which acts as protective caprock and
towards the outer side but precipitous steep slopes thus protects underlying gabbro from weatheimg
towards the inner side i.e. towards the central core of and erosional processes.
mount Girnar. Thus, the asymmetrical slopes of D iorite-m onozite topographic features in
circular hill ranges exhibit fine example of cuesta, clude dome shaped hills and exfoliation domes. The
which are the result of structural control (quaquaversal intrusion of diorite-monozite into basic granulite
dips) and differential erosion. The rivers have carved coverings resulted in the formation o f diorite domes
out deep gorges through active vertical erosion of covered with relatively weak country rocks (basic
Girnar hills. Significant peaks are Gorakhnath (1117 granulites) which were subsequently wathered and
m), Datatari, Ambadevi, Kalika Tonk (1004 m), eroded away with the result underlying diorite-
Datapir (847 m) etc. monozite domes were uncovered and exposed to the
Morphological ch aracteristics environmental conditions. The exposed core was
subjected to exfoliation weathering causing removal
Some unique and picturesque topographic
features have been developed due to weathering and of layer after layer and hence the core was more
smoothened and given perfect dome-shape. Subse
subaerial erosion o f igneous rocks mainly basaltic
quent erosion by fluvial processes has been respon
lava. It is significant to pointout that the morphologi
sible for the development of deep and narrow valleys
cal characteristics o f Girnar Hills and environs are
the result o f lithological and structural controls. and radial streams and radial valleys. Tt is interest
ing to find cavernous weathering o f diorite-monozite
Circular ridges to the east and south of Girnar hill
on the way to the summit o f Mount Girnar along the
composed o f basaltic lava o f Deccan traps have been
steps. The impression obtained from the nature o f
eroded to form conical hills and asymmetrical ridges
having precipitous escarpments towards the central caverns is that they might have been formed by the
removal of the intrusions of basalts which are widely
core (i.e. Mount Girnar) resembling cuestas and
found in this rock. There are, however, no indica
gentler side outward. It may be pointed out that these
tions for their presence in this part o f the intrusive
eastern basaltic ridges denote western limit of Deccan
body. Alternatively, the caverns might be suggested
lava flow. Flat and rolling lava plain has developed
to have formed because of the loosening o f grains by
between circular ridges and Mount Girnar. Unlike
chemical exfoliation which was followed by the
other areas o f Deccan lava plain, this lava plain has
enlargement of the caverns by rainwash and wind
undulating surface. ‘Terraced appearance of the lava
action as suggested by Cotton’ (S. Subba Rao, 1968).
flow is recognized towards the north-eastern side of
It may be mentioned that the Girnar hill has been
the circular range which is in the form of a ridge. The
termed as a volcanic dome by S.N. Wakhaloo (1967)
usual flat-topped hills are completely absent in the
but S. Subba Rao considered it to have been formed
area’ (S. Subba Rao, 1968). G abbro topographic
because of laccolithic intrusion of gabbro and diorite-
features comprise pitted and knobby surface, de
monbzite mass into country rock.
pressions, mounds and ridge's. Basically, gabbro,
found here, is of two types viz. (i) coarse graned M icrogranite topographic features include
gabbro, and (ii) medium grained gabbro which are ring dyke and precipitous escarpments because of
subjected to different types and rates of weathering their resistant character to erosion. ‘The weathering
because of textural variations. The differential weath of the rock is negligible as can be understood from
ering of olivine rich coarse grained gabbro has been the well known inscriptions o f Ashoka which are
responsible for the development of pi tted and knobby centuries old, but are still quite legible. Even the
surface characterized by ridges and depressions, small dykes o f microgranite in the basalt country
while medium grained gabbro has been weathered stand out as minor ridges’ (S. Subba Rao, 1968).
and eroded to form smooth weathered surface. It Dolerite topographic features com prise elon
may be mentioned that the radial ridges are also gated ridges which have formed out of dykes due to
GEOMORPHOLOGY
550 raj
months. ‘The annual range decreases southwards %
less erosion. It may be mentioned that dolerite dykes
from 5.7°C at Bombay to 5°C at Karwar, 4°C at
being comparatively resistant to weathering and
Mangalore and 3.3°C at Cochin’ (R.L.Singh, 1971). j
erosion have given birth to radiating ridges amid
Mean annual rainfall gradually increases from south
lava plain. ‘The dykes act as barriers for the move
(1000 mm at Kanyakumari) to north (2800 mm) in
ment of the groundwater, and the wells sunk along
the Konkan coastal plain. On an average, the Konkan,
the contact of the dykes with the lavas have always
Karnataka and Kerala (Malabar) coastal plains re
yielded copious supply of water’ (S. Subba Rao,
1968). Limestone features include solution fur ceive mean annual rainfall o f 2800 mm, 3100 mm
rows, localized lapies etc. The limestone beds dip and 2400 mm respectively. It is interesting to note
seaward with dip angle of 20°-25°. This dipping that in spite of increasing trend o f annual rainfall
pattern of miolite limestone strata has been respon northward there is gradual increase in the number of
sible for the development of solution furrows and wet months from north to south as there are 4 to 5
lapies through corrosion mechanism. rainy months in the Konkan coast, 7 rainy months in
the Kanara coast near Mangalore and 8 to 9 rainy
28.9 W EST C O A S T A L PLAINS* months in the Malabar coast o f Kerala. Thus, heavy
Location rainfall associated with high intensity rainstorms
The west coastal plain of India bordered by augments the fluvial processes in the coastal areas.
the Western Ghats (Sahyadris) in the east and the Chemical weatheirng o f basaltic laterites is also
Arabian Sea in the west stretches for a distance of accentuated due to wet weather condition.
1400 km between 8°15’N-20°22'N having a width
Drainage C h aracteristics
ranging between 10 km and 80 km and covers an area
The drainage system o f the west coastal plains
of 64, 284 km2. The west coastal plain includes the
consists of numerous consequent streams o f short
Konkan coast or Maharashtra coast, the Kanara or
length but are of high velocity. In fact, the length o f
Karnataka coast and the Malabar or Kerala coast
the streams has been restricted by the narrow coastal
from north to south. The Konkan coast is further
tract as most of the streams emerge from the western
divided into North Konkan and South Konkan while
slopes of the Sahayadris and run parallel to each
the Kanara coast falls in two broad categories viz.
other and debouch in the Arabian sea. Only a few
the North Kanara and the South Kanara. Similarly,
streams, which emerge to the east o f the Sahayadris
the Malabar coast is divided into North and South
(Westernghats), have become successful in cutting
Malabar coasts.
across the hills and drain westward to end in the
Clim atic Environment Arabian sea. ‘Several o f these (consequent streams)
The west coastal plain experiences tropical have tortous courses with steep gradients right upto
humid monsoon climate and receives rainfall through the sea. Their initial development seem s to have
Arabian branch of S.W. Monsoon. Mean monthly taken place as consequent streams on the western
temperature standing at 24°C to 31 °C records a range fault face of the Sahayadris ; these were later ex
of only 7°C. It may be mentioned that there is no tended over the lowlands which are geologically
significant difference between the maximum (about much younger’ (R.L. Singh, 1971), and thus these
32°C) and minimum temperature (21 °C). Daily range consequent streams are in fact extended consequent
of temperature in different parts of the 1400 km long developed on coastal sediments. The breached por
coast ranges between 10°-14°C during winter and tion of the Sahayadris, through which the streams
summer seasons and 3°C to 6°C in the wet monsoon drain westward across the ranges are called ‘ghats’
# e.g. Bhor Ghat, Thai Ghat, Pal Ghat etc.
The significant streams o f the North Konkan
Based on (1) R. L. Singh, 1971 : India: A Regional Geogra
phy , NGSI, Geography Deptt., B .H.U., Varanasi. coast are the Vaitarani, the Ullahas (130 km in
(2) K.R. Dikshit, 1976 : Geomorphic features of
lengthâfid the Amba. The Ullahas river after rising
the west coast of India, between Bombay and iii the dissected tract o f Khandala makes its course
Goa, Geographical Review of India, Vol 38 through d eep ly entrenched go rg e across the
No. 3, pp. 260-281
Westernghats through Bhor Ghat. The Savitri an<J
/
551
the Vashisthi are other significant streams to the which later on disappeared either due to submer*
south of Bombay. It may be mentioned that the gence or continental drift. Marine waves widened
Ullahas, the Savitri and the Vashisthi form ‘amphi the western slopes of the western ghats through
theatre-like basins’ in the ‘Ghat area’. The Mandwi abrasive work. These eroded slope segments re
is important stream of the Goa coast. ceived marine sediments and hence the coastal plains
were formed. The following factors may support
‘Further south, in Goa and on the north
more erosional activity by sea waves than depositional
Karnataka coast, the streams, Kalinadi, Gangavati-
Bedti, Tadri and Sharavati (or Gerosappa river), activity.
have encroached upon the Krishna-Tungbhadra drain (i) Sea waves become moê vigorous and
age (area), thus, pushing the watershed some 130 km energetic due to strong Arabian sea monsoon winds
back from the coast instead of the usual 40-55 km’ and thus surging surf currents and breakers abrade
(O.H.K.Spate, 1967). Bu the streams have carved the rocky slopes and in turn undertow currents re
out narrow valleys with steep gradients because the move the deposited materials and transport them
coastal lowland is the narrowest in this part, being seaward, (ii) Heavy monsoon rainfall generates maxi
confined to strips along the lower reaches of the mum surface runoff which accelerates erosion o f
rivers’ (R.L. Singh, 1971). coastal sediments. Though runoff also brings
The significant stream of the South Karnataka sediments obtained through erosion o f inland
coast is turbulent Netravati which has favoured the geomaterials but these sediments are seldom al
location of Mangalore port town. The important lowed to be deposited due to high velocity and high
streams draining the Malabar coastal plain include energy sea waves. Instead, deposited materials are
the Periyar with long channel length of 230 km, the removed by seawaves and hence seaward growth o f
Beypore, the Bharatpuzha and the Padma. ‘Lakes the coastal plain is retarded. The rivers being shorter
and backwaters characterize the greater part of the in length bring relatively smaller quantity o f eroded
Malabar coast. These backwaters are connected with materials from the western slopes of the Sahayadris.
man-made canals. Thus, an uniterrupted system of Secondly, being swiftly flowing streams, they trans
inland communication has been developed for a port the sediments in offshore region of the Arabian
distance o f 450 km betw een Trivandrum Sea and hence no delta formation occurs. There are
(Thiruwantpuram) and Badgara in the north’ (R.L. a few such evidences which substantiate the absence
Singh, 1971). of the marine deposits in the coastal plain. For
example, the coastal plains composed o f marine
Formation of Coastal Plains sediments are characterized by sand beaches just
The west coastal plains are supposed to have below the sea level but such sand beaches are re
been formed by erosional work of sea waves leading ported to be missing. This argument does not appear
to erosion of the Sahayadri foot-hills, sedimentation to be valid as several sand beaches do exist along the
and fluvial deposits. The west coast also indicates west coasts. The sea coasts, affected by effective
cases of submergence and emergence due to sea- erosion, are characterized by numerous small bays.
level changes and tectonic movements. The steps or The west coast to the south of Bombay is highly
stair-like slopes o f the western flanks of the western corrugated and irregular and is endowed with nu
ghats or the Sahayadri have extended even under sea merous bays. The presence o f plain remains at the
water. The eastern slopes of the Sahayadris being depth of 5 to 10m near Bombay coast as revealed by
steeper are locally called ‘g h a t s ’ while the stepped d iggin g w hich in d icates sub m ergen ce and
western slopes are locally called ‘m a h a l’. Accord transgressional phase of the Arabian sea.
ing to some scientists the west coastal plains have Landscape C h aracteristics * ;
been formed due to deposition of sediments on the ‘Physiographically, the region (west coastal
inclined steps of the westernghats. According to plain) is a distinct strip o f lowland, interspersed by
another view the western margin of the westernghats hills, rising in elevation from the sea level to 150m
is scarp of a rift valley. It is believed that in the and, at places, to more than 300m. It is composed o f
geological past an extensive rift valley was formed one or more o f the following elements o f the land-
552 GEOMORPHOLOGY
scape: sandy beach, coastal sand dunes or mud flats, transverse to the coast are drowned river valleys,
alluvial tracts along rivers or lagoons or estuary, navigable and subject to tidal influence for 40-50km
laterite platforms, erosional surfaces in the hard inland from the sea... One would conclude that the
* basement rocks or the residual hills’ (R.L. Singh, coast is subjected to submergence followed by a
1971). The Sahayadris or the westenghats having partial emergence, which while exposing part of the
altitudes ranging from 760 m to 1220 m msl make drowned land as platform of abrasion, left many
eastern border o f the west coastal plains which grade creeks and drowned valleys showing considerable
westward. The westenghats stretch in north-south encroachment of sea’ (K.R. Dikshit, 1976).
direction parallel to the coastal plains and are breached Geographically, K.R. Dikhit (1976) divided
at places by westward flowing streams. These gaps the Konkan coast into four subregions viz. (i) the
are locally called ‘ghats’ like Bhor Ghat, Thai Ghat northern part, (ii) the central sector, (iii) the lateritic
and Pal Ghat. Spatially, there is wide range of coast, and the estuarine coast or Goa coast (i). The
variation in the morphological features o f the coastal northern part of the Konkan coast (north of 18°,
plains and hence the west coastal plains are divided 30'N latitude) also called as the Bombay coast
into three physiographic regions viz. (i) the Konkan represents a marine planation surface characterized
coastal plain, (ii) the Kanara coastal plains and (iii) by near absence of marine deposits but covered with
the Malabar coastal plain. silt, extremely flat surface dotted with occasional
(1) K on k an co a st, in fact, represents
hills, numerous creeks, tidal flats, elongated hills
Maharashtra coastal plain stretching between Bom (100 to 400 m in height) etc. According to K.R.
bay and Goa for a distance of 530 km with average Dikshit the coastal plain in north Konkan (north of
width ranging between 30-50 km. According to K.R. 18°-30'N) has resulted from a combination of both
Dikshit (1976) the Konkan coastal plain may be fluvial and marine activities dominating in succes
divided into three zones on the basis of littoral forms sion (1976). According to him the coast land might
viz. (i) the northern zone north of Revandada, char have been previously reduced by fluvial erosion
acterized by modified marine planation surface, (ii) resulting in the development of valley plains and
the central zone having lateritic plateau, cliffs and hilly interfluves followed by the event of submer
interspersed with beaches, and (iii) the southern gence and marine transgression resulting in the de
part, characterized by exhumed surface, monadnocks, velopment of marine planation surface close to the
narrow coastal plain with estuaries. coast caused by marine processes. At a later stage the
Basically, the Konkan coast is divided into ‘recession of the sea, exposing part of the abrasion
two divisions on the basis of morphological charac platform and the modified river plain into a coastal
teristics i.e. (i) the northern Konkan coast repre plain ’ (K.R. Dikshit, 1976) led to the development of
senting marine planation surface, and characterized the coastal plain.
by sandy spits, muddy shallows, low coastal ranges (ii) The central sector of the Konkan coast
alternated by longitudinal valleys, basaltic lithology, (180-30’N-17°-59'N) located between the estuary of
and (ii) the southern K onkan coast, characterized the Kundalika river in the north and the Savitri river
by conspicuous absence o f marine planation sur in the south is characterized by weathered hills,
face, rocky and rugged country, regular cliffs, drowned convex coastal surface caused by erosion of hill tops
valleys, bay head beaches, lateritic surface, deltaic by subaerial erosion and recession of foot-hill zone,
coast, wide estuaries etc. red soil, rounded hills and dominant process of
As regards the sea level changes, the evi surface wash.
dences available so far, indicate submergence and (iii) The lateritic coast, extending between
partial emergence. ‘A careful examination of the Vengurla and Hamai, is characterized by lateritic
coastal forms and particularly the river estuaries, plateau in its back with average height o f 200 m msl,
suggests that it is a submergent coast that has cliffs, headlands, bay head beaches, bars, spits, aban
undergone partial recession in recent times. A very doned cliffs, modified abrasion platforms (like litto
strong evidence o f this submergence comes from the ral terraces in appearance), deep indentations by
drowned valleys. Many o f the coastal rivers flowing rivers but near absence o f flood plains or delta etc.
r e g io n a l g e o m o r p h o l o g y 553
The evolution of most of the coastal features is estuarine mudflats, marshes and valley plains. This
because of undercutting and recession of cliffs by deposition plain is very narrow and flat with average
abrasion by powerful marine waves. altitude of 30 m msl. (ii) 61-m erosion platform is
(iv) located further inland i.e. just to the east o f the flat
The estuarine or Goa coast is character
ized by the absence o f lateritic cover, discontinuous and rolling deposition plain, with average width of
exhumed surface of erosion, larger estuaries of the 25 km and characterized by dissected hills and
Talavda, Terekhol, Chapora, Mandovi, Rachol and valleys with steep valley side slopes, (iii) Belt of
Sal rivers, littoral terraces of silt cover bordering the isolated hills with height ranging between 91-305m
estuaries, steep sided hills, beaches etc. is located further inland i.e. to the east of erosion
platform. These residual hills are composed of
The Konkan coasts are characterized by shore
Archaean gneisses.
features of tidal flats, creeks (e.g. Thana creek,
Panvel creek, Karanja creek, Dharamtar creek etc.), (3) M alabar coast represents the coasta
beaches, littoral terraces, abandoned cliffs, beach plains of Kerala state and runs for a distance o f 550
rocks, bays etc. Important beaches include Gahagar, km. - 100 km and terminates at Kanyakumari in
Ratnagiri, Colva, Kalangut etc. Tamil Nadu in the south. The coast is narrow in the
north and the south but becomes wider in the middle
(2) K anara coast also known as Karnataka
portion. The coast widens to the maximum width in
coast, mostly represents the coastal plains of Karnataka
the valleys of the major rivers like the Beypore, the
state. Physiographically, the Kanara coast is divided
Ponnani, the Periyar, the Padma-Achankovil etc.
into two subregions viz. (i) the north Kanara coast
Like the Kanara coastal plain the Malabar coastal
and (ii) the south Kanara coast. In northern Karnataka
plain is also characterized by three parallel morpho
the lowland becomes so narrow that it is confined to
logically significant belts from west to east viz. (i)
small pockets along the lower courses of the streams.
the alluvial coastland characterized by alluvial de
Conical hills, composed of gneiss and about 610m
high, again reach the coast south of Karwar’ (R.L. posits, flat and rolling surface gently sloping sea
Singh, 1971). Opposite to very narrow coast in north ward, sand dunes locally known as ‘teris’, shallow
Karnataka, it (the coast) widens to 70 km in south lagoons and backwaters locally called as ‘k ayals’;
Karnataka near the port town of Mangalore located (ii) low lateritic plateaus and foothills located fur
in the Netravati valley. Karnataka coastal plain is ther inland i.e. to the east of the alluvial coastal plain
characterized by three parallel belts of morphologi characterized by two planation surfaces standing at
cal features from west to east viz. (i) Narrow belt of the height of 76 m and 183m, laterite cliffs e t c .; and
recent deposits which have been responsible for the (iii) hilly country of the low dissected and rounded
development of numerous sand dunes, lagunar and gneissic hills.
w M
CHAPTER 29 APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGY 554-563
/ Meaning and c o n c e p t ; applied g e o m o rp h o lo g y in Indian c o n te x t ;
geomorphology and regional p lan n in g ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y and hazard
management ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y and urbanization ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y and
engineering w o rk s ; g e o m o rp h o lo g y and hydro lo g y ; g eo m o rp h o lo g y
and m in e ra l e x p lo ra tio n .
29
APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGY
29.1 MEANING AND C O N C E P T In fact, ‘geomorphologists tend to consider

Each science subject has two main aspects of all geomorphological research to be “applied.” In
its study viz. (i) systematic and theoretical aspect, the sense that each advance in knowledge provides
and (ii) applied aspect. The usefulness o f any branch a clear view o f how the earth works, we must all be
o f knowledge lies in the fact that it helps in identify applied scientists’ (R.G. Craig and J.L. Craft, 1982).
ing and ameliorating the problems, faced by human ‘The application o f geom orphological techniques
society, arising out of interactions of human activi and the results o f geomorphological investigations
ties and geomorphic and environmental systems. for resource evaluation, socio-econom ic develop
From this stand point the study o f the science of ment and mitigation o f natural hazards and disasters
geomorphology or the science o f landforms is of etc. are significant aspects o f applied geomorphology
paramount significance as this science studies the which should be taken into consideration by the
genesis and development o f surface features o f the geomorphologists’ (Savindra Singh and S.S. Ojha,
earth which provide the very base for all the biota in 1996). The main theme o f applied geom orphology is
general and human being in particular. Most of the to investigate the impact and changes brought in
natural environmental systems and geomorphic/en-
problems, which the present-day society is con
vironmental processes by human econom ic activi
cerned with, are related to environmental degrada
ties, problems arising therefrom to suggest suitable
tion from local through regional to global levels
remedial measures thereof; to study the impact o f
caused by human activities related to rapacious
geomorphological processes / environmental proc
exploitation and irrational utilization o f natural re
esses on different aspects o f human society and
sources consequent upon rapidly increasing popula
human activities ; and to attend the problems o f
tion. Geomorphological knowledge may be more use resource management and monitor changes in the
ful in understanding such environmental problems geomorphic systems / environmental systems includ
and paving way for their corrections and solutions. ing both landscape characteristics and landfom proc
According to D.K.C. Jones (l 980) ‘applied esses consequent upon human economic activities.
geomorphology may be difined as the application o f H. Th. Verstappen (1983) has outlined the
geomorphic understanding to the analysis and solu following areas o f interest where geomorphic knowl
tion o f problems concerning land occupancy, re edge and techniques may be applied for understand
source exploitation, environmental management and ing and solving problems arising out o f interactions
planning.' o f man with geomorphic / environmental system -^
APPUHD g e o m o r p h o l o g y 555
( 1) Topographic and thematic mapping of seawalls, groins etc. to check cliff recession, to
natural resources. protect harbours from sedimentation by waves, to
(2) Survey of natural hazards, landslides, ava protect or to replenish sea beaches e tc .); stabilization
lanches, earthquakes, vulcanism, land subsidence, of sand dunes by plantation; channel diversion ;
flooding and droughts and natural hazard reduction. checking of soil erosion through afforestation and
reforestation etc.
(3) Rural development and planning empha
sizing land utilization, control of man-induced soil (2) ‘The resource evaluation and plannin
erosion, channel manipulation and river basin (wa aspects of applied geomorphology are concerned
tershed) management. with such matters as the role of geomorphology in
resource inventories and environmental manage
(4) Urbanization, mining and construction.
ment; soil and land evaluation, (D. Dent and A.
(5) Engineering design. Young, 1981); the production of maps for hydro-
According to R.J. Chorley et. al (1985) ‘ap logical, erosional and stability control; geomorphic
plication of geomorphology can be divided into two mapping, the mapping of land systems and terrain
categories— evaluation (C. Mitchell, 1973) concerned with the
(1) Man as a geomorphic agent, in terms of his acquiring, classification and retrieval of terrain and
inadvertent and planned effects on geomorphic proc other information for the use of civil and military
esses and forms (this aspect will be detailed out in engineers, earth scientists and planners (Chorley et.
the succeeding chapter i.e. 30). al, 1985) preparation of natural hazards maps on the
basis of mapping ; urban planning in different
(2) Geomorphology as an aid to resource geomorphic environment; construction and man
evaluation, engineering construction and planning’. agement of road network ; morpho-agricultural
(1) The unintentional effects of human eco
regionalization and land use planning etc.
nomic activities on geomorphic forms and processes Several branches of applied geomorphology
include land use changes through cleaning o f forests have been developed during the last few decades viz.
and burning of grasslands for crop cultivation ; e n v ir o n m e n ta l g e o m o r p h o lo g y , urban
‘modification of terrain by engineering work, quar geom orphology, an throp ogeom orp h ology etc.
rying, mining, excavation and dumping; subsidence which are directly related to the responses o f inter
due to water extraction, oil drilling, mining and
actions of man with certain sets of geomorphic /
drainage’ (Chorley et. al, 1985); accelerated rate of
environmental systems and remedial measures for
soil erosion consequent upon deforestation and re
tackling the problems arising out o f those responses.
lated increase in sediment load and recurrent floods
and riparian decay o f river banks; ‘increased weath ‘Urban geom orphology, a recent but more
ering rates due to pollution; accentuated mass move useful branch of applied geom orphology, is the
ments and slope failures due to engineering activi study of landforms and their related processes, ma
ties ; effects o f hydraulic geometry due to changes of terial hazards, in ways that are beneficial to planning
river load by dams or accelerated erosion ; interfer development and management o f urbanized areas,
ence with coastal debris movement; erosion and or areas where urban growth is expected’ (R.U.
deposition by coastal engineering works; perma Cook and J.C. Doornkamp, 1982). In fact, ‘urban
frost modification due to high latitude construction; geomorphology deals with the lithological and topo
graphical characteristics and geomorphic processes
and so on’ (Chorley, et. al, 1985). On the other hand,
planned effects o f man's activities include those and hydrological conditions which determine the
effects which arise out o f several corrective meas size and rate of urbanization and stability o f urban
ures to tame and modify geomorphic / environmen ized localities, the impact o f urban developm ent on
tal processes such as channel manipulation (e.g. environment and geoenvironmental problems em a
construction of embankments, straightening o f me nating therefrom’ (Shalini Singh, 1996).
an ering courses of the rivers etc. to control recur ‘E nvironm ental geom orp h ology’ deals with
rent oods); constructional measures to protect coastal the impact o f natural processes (e.g. vulcanism , ■
areas against wave erosion (e.g. construction of floods and droughts, landslides, denudation proc- ■
556 GEOMORPHOLOGY
esses etc.) on human activities and human land T h e influence, control and application of
scapes on the one hand, and the manipulative impact geomorphological characteristics on land use and
o f human activities on natural / environmental proc agricultural planning (a significant theme of ap
esses, problems arising out o f these interactions, and plied geom orphology) has been traced out by A.K.
remedial measures thereof leading to environmental Sen and S. Singh (1977: significance o f geomorphic
management and natural disaster reduction, on the factors on land use planning and development in
other hand. Bikaner, Rajasthan), B.L. BharandM .N. Jha( 1977 :
application o f geom orphology to forestry), K.S.
A n th r o p o g e m o r p h o lo g y d ea ls w ith
Bhatia and R.S. Singh (1976 : evaluation o f rainfall
anthropogenic activities as potent geomorphic proc
intensities and erosion index values for soil conser
ess which can (and is) accelerate or decelerate the
vation), K.S. Bhatia and H.P. Chaudhary (1977 :
rate o f natural geomorphic / environmental proc
runoff and erosion losses and crop yields from slopy
esses many fold which may result in severe
and eroded alluvial soils o f U.P.), H.S. Sharma
geocnvironmdntal problems (and has already caused
(1979 : physiography o f lower Chambal valley and
such problems) which become detrimental to human
its agricultural development), Anita Kar and Amalkar
society. Almost all o f the geomorphic processes/
environmental processes have been greatly affected (1981 : relevance o f geom orphology in agricultural
and modified by human activities and a few gemorphic p lan n in g), R.K. Pandey (1981 : in flu en ce o f
systems have become fragile e.g. occurrence of geomorphology on land utilization in Gagas basin,
earthquakes, landslides, floods, droughts, stability Almora district, U.P.), S. Singh (1985 : role o f
geomorphology in the m an agem en t o f lan d and
o f hillslopes and ground surface etc. have been
w ater resources in arid environment o f Jodhpur
greatly affected by man.
district, Rajasthan; 1987 : impact o f geom orphology
29.2 APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGY IN INDIAN in land use planning in the Rajasthan desert), B.L.
CONTEXT Sharma (1982: geomorphic control on agricu ltu ral
‘It is heartening to note that several taxonom y), P.C. Vats and S. Singh (1983: impact o f
geom orphologists, mainly at CAZRI (Central Arid geomorphology on land u tiliza tio n in western
Zone Research Institute), Jodhpur, have focused Rajasthan), R.K. Pandey (1988 : land use and slope
their attention towards this aspect o f geomorphology. instability in Lesser Himalaya), Savindra Singh and
The effects o f processes and extent o f erosion on N eera R astogi (1 9 9 2 ; m o r p h o -a g r ic u ltu r a l
land use in central Luni Basin (Rajasthan) were regionalization, eastern Rewa Plateau, M .P.) and
assessed by B. Ghose et. al as early as 1968. many more’ (Savindra Singh and S.S. Ojha, 1996).
T he stu d y o f rela tio n sh ip b etw een The influence o f granite weathering and its
geom orp h ology and settlem en t and geom orphic differentiates on dam fou n d ation in central India
con trols on rural settlem en ts is a significant area (D.K. Ghose, 1982) ; relevance o f geom orphology
o f applied geom orphology and such study was initi in the exploration and p lan n ing o f w ater resources
ated by R.L. Singh at B.H .U ., Varanasi during 1960s in Indian d e s e r t ; significance o f geom orphology
wherein relationships between landforms and rural on resource ap praisal and region al an d spatial
settlements in different parts o f the country were planning (N. Prasad and A. Mahto, 1 9 8 2 ); role o f
examined. Later on, the impacts o f geomorphic photo-geomorphological techniques in theintegrated
influences on rural settlements were examined by natural resources survey o f the central Luni basin
P.C. Vats et. al (1976), P.C. Vats and Surendra Singh o f Rajasthan (S. Singh, 1982) ; significance o f
(1980, in Nagaur Tahsil o f Western Rajasthan), geom orphology in sp atial p lan n in g o f an arid envi-
Surendra Singh and P.C. Vats (1979, in Jodhpur ronm ent-Jodhpur d istrict (S . S in g h , 1985) ;
district o f Rajasthan), R.K. Rai (1982, in Meghalaya), geom orphology in the appraisal o f natural resources
Savindra Singh and O.P. Singh (1976, in Palamau (S. Singh, 1995) etc. (Savindra Singh and S.S. Ojha*
upland, Bihar), Surendra Singh (1995, in arid envi 1 9 9 6 ) are s ig n ific a n t a sp e c ts o f ap p lied
ronment o f Rajasthan)’ (Savindra Singh and S.S. geom orphology which have been studied by Indian
Ojha, 1996), geom orphologists. v.
APPLIED g e o m o r p h o l o g y
Environmental geomorphology of the tra n s - and utilization o f all types o f resources whether
Y a m u n a re g io n of Allahabad district, U.P. (A. Dubey, natural or human’ (Savindra Singh, 1991). Planning
1985), environmental management of coastal dunes requires suitable planning unit in terms o f spatial
(M.K. Bandopadhyay), environmental changes in unit which poses a great problem before the planners
the upper Chandra basin of Lahul Himalaya (M.K. and decision makers. Generally, administrative units
Bandopadhyay, 1984), geomorphology and envi ranging from state (province) through districts to
ro n m e n tal management o f Ravi Basin in N.W. development blocks are selected for regional plan
Himachal H im alaya (D .K . G hose, 1982), ning and development. This approach may be con
morphogenetic processes, landforms and environ venient from administrative point o f view but this is
mental planning in Bhander plateau, M.P. (Savindra not logically sound as any administrative unit cuts
Singh and R.S. Pandey, 1983), flood hazards and across the physiographic unit/natural unit and there
environmental degradation in the Gomti Basin, U.P. fore the continuity o f natural resources is broken
(Savindra Singh, 1983), drainage system and flood which presents impediment in the exploitation and
hazards in Bharatpur (G.P. Gupta, 1982), sand move utilization of natural resources.
ment and control of aeolian hazard (Amalkar and The attention of planners was drawn towards
n C Joshi, 1995), evaluation of present-day dynamic geomorphology in the U SA in 1930s and
l . : : !)hic processes in the Indian desert for as hence drainage basin was chosen for overall man
sessing land degradation and natural hazards agement of the problems o f the entire basin cutting
(Amalkar, 1989), morphoecological variations in across administrative units. Consequently, the Ten
the Sundarban mudflats (M.K. Bandopadhyay et. al, nessee valley Authority (TVA) was com m issioned
1987), wet coastal ecosystem and its conservation in in 1933 for total watershed management including
w est B engal (M .K . Bandopadhyay, 1989), control of soil erosion and flood, proper land use and
geoenvironmental problems in subhumid tropical land management, reforestation, eradication o f deadly
environment (Savindra Singh and S.P. Agnihotri, diseases (i.e. malaria, typhoid and tuberculosis) which
1989), landforms and micro-environmental man were widespread in the basin in the beginning,
agement (E>.K. Singh, 1988), gully erosion and man navigation of the river, generation of hydroelectric-
agement (Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1996) etc. ity etc. After unprecedented success o f the TV A the
are sig n ifica n t areas o f en v iro n m e n ta l multi-purpose river projects were launched in the
geomorphology studied by Indian geomorphologists. USA and other parts of the world e.g. the Missouri
Thus, it is evident that the main areas where Valley Authority (MVA in the U SA ), the Damodar
geomorphological knowledge and techniques have Valley Authority (DVA) in India etc. In fact, a
been applied by Indian geomorphologists include drainage basin (watershed) represents an ideal
rural settlement and urbanization, land use and agri geomorphic unit characterized by direct relation
cultural planning, soil erosion and conservation, ships between basin reliefs, fluvial process and man.
management of water resources, terrain evaluation, The geoenvironmental and human problems are
land utilization, morpho-agricultural regionalization, more or less uniform throughout the basin because
resource appraisal, regional and spatial planning, of geomorphic and hydrologic uniformity. For ex
environmental management, flood hazards and man ample, several social problems and evils have taken
agement, aeolian hazards, gully eorsion and man root in the Chambal drainage basin (M.P. and U.P.)
agement etc. because of ravination and developm ent o f circuitous
29.3 GEOM O RPHO LOGY AND REG IO N A L PLAN dense network o f deep gullies and frequent severe
NING floods. Most o f the area o f the basin has becom e
Regional planning and development is top badland due to ravination and hence is unsuitable for
most priority of every developing country. ‘Plan cultivation. Thus, ‘the ravinous tracts o f the Chambal
ning is considered to be a process of development valley have not only m oulded the social behaviour o f
. leaving two main objectives e.g. (i) achieving an the local people but also o f the adjoining areas as the
overall growih of the society and (ii) removing circuitous network o f ravines provides ideal hide
socio-economic disparities through the exploitation outs and the people after com m itting crim es easily
558 GEOMORPHOLOGY
escape to these ravines which extend standing invi subsidence, upliftment ; by changes in vegetation
tation to criminals and dacoits by providing safe cover and type and hydrologic regime due to cli
shelter though with least comfort’ (Savindra Singh, matic change etc.) to short-term (e.g. volcanic
1991). The knowledge o f the mechanism o f proc eruption, earthquakes, floods, landslides, avalanches,
esses o f gully erosion and ravination may be helpful riparian decay, changes in discharge, sediment load
for gully management and improvement and recla and runoff o f a river consequent upon land use
mation o f ravinated area of the basin. changes and management etc.).
Even if the regional planning is attempted by Geomorphic knowledge helps in the identifi
selecting administrative units as planing units, the cation, prediction, and assessment o f probable ef
detailed information o f topographic details, soils, fects and management o f natural geomorphic haz
natural resources etc. may be helpful for the purpose. ards. A few characteristic features o f volcanoes and
Terrain evaluation and terrain classification, fluvial their eruptions based on close observations of past
characteristics o f the basin (channel flow, discharge, volcanic eruptions are used as warning signs of
channel morphology, runoff etc.), groundwater con impending eruptions. Regular measurement of seis
dition etc. provide useful information to the decision mic events and earth tremors by seism ic methods ;
makers and planners. regular measurement of ground surface mainly tilt
measurement by tilt meters ; constant measurement
29.4 G E O M O R P H O LO G Y AND HAZARD MAN of temperature o f crater lakes, hot springs, geysers,
A G EM EN T
fumaroles ; monitoring o f gases com ing out of cra
Those events or accidents, whether caused by ters, hot springs, geysers; monitoring o f changes in
\ natural processes or human factors, are called ex the configuration o f dormant or extinct volcanoes
trem e events which occur very rarely and agravate by lasers; measurement of local gravity and mag
natural environmental processes to cause disaster netic fields and their trends etc. help in making
for human society such as ‘sudden tectonic move predictions of possible eruptions in the areas having
ments leading to earthquake and volcanic eruption, past case histories of vulcanism. The path o f lava
continued dry conditions leading to prolonged flow known as lahar can be better predicted on the
droughts, floods, atmospheric disturbances etc. En basis of detailed analysis of topography and identi
vironm ental hazards may be defined as those ex fication of possible eruption points.
treme events either natural or man-induced, which
exceed the tolerable magnitude, make adjustment The geomorphic knowledge o f behaviour of
difficult and cause immense loss to man such as river system and its morphological characteristics
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, landslides, viz. channel geometry, channel morphology and
accelerated erosion etc. Hazards are generally taken channel pattern (see chapter 21), river metamorpho
as processes, both natural and anthropogenic whereas sis, bank morphology etc. may help in controlling
disaster is a sudden adverse or unfortunate extreme river floods through several flood control measures
event which causes great damage to human beings as which include a series of steps to tame the menacing
well as plants and animals. Disaster occurs rapidly, rivers such as (i) to delay the return o f runoff result
instantaneously and indiscriminately. It, therefore, ing from torrential rainfall to the rivers, (ii) to hasten
becomes obvious that the environmental hazards are the discharge of water (by straightening the mean
processes whereas environmental disasters are the dering channels), (iii) to divert the flow o f water
results or responses o f ehvironmental hazards’ (through diversion channels), (iv) to reduce the
(Savindra Singh, 1991). impact o f floods (through contruction o f protective
‘A geom orphic hazard can be defined as any embankments), and (v) to forewarn the occurrence
change, natural or man-induced, that may affect the o f floods. It may be mentioned that without the
geomorphic stability o f a landform to the adversity knowledge o f nature o f erosion in the upper catch
o f living things' (Chorley et. al, 1985). Geomorphic ment area and sediment load characteristics o f the
hazards range from very long-term hazards (e.g. river the construction o f levees to confine the flood
crustal instability caused by earth movements lead water within the valley may prove disaster as if the
ing to mountain building, faulting, folding, warping, rate o f erosion is very high in the upper catchment
a p p l ie d g e o m o r p h o l o g y
area, resulting in high sediment load then there geomorphic processes and palaeogeomorphology
would be more sedimentation in the valley causing based on conventional and remote sensing tech
gradual rise in the river bed. This may lead to sudden niques) and during and after urban development (the
flash flood whenever the levee is breached. study of effects of natural events on urban commu
Earthquakes are both natural as well as man- nity and the impact o f urban development on natural
induced geomorphic hazards. The geomorphic knowl environment and their remedial measures?’ (Savindra
edge of the stability o f terrain and probable impacts Singh, et. al, 1988).
of man-made structures on crustal stability such as ‘Various geomorphological problems hetherto
construction of dams and reservoirs is of paramount not understood by the planners and engineers lead to
significance in identifying weaker zones which are destruction and damage to urban settlements in varying
likely to be affected by seismic events. Similarly, the environmental realms viz. settling of foundation
geomorphic study o f the nature of hillslopes and materials in the dry lands of oil-rich states and in the
their associated lithologies enable us to know the periglacial regions; destruction o f foundations by
stability or instability of hillslope and possible slope weathering processes; damage o f highways; damage
failures through landslides of various sorts. This to buildings through inundation during floods in the
knowledge would help in identifying and mapping subtropical humid regions etc. ‘All these and many
of unstable hillslopes which may be avoided for other problems arise in part from mismanagement
human settlements and road construction. or misunderstanding o f geomorphological condi
tions’ (Cook, 1982). An urban geomorphologist is
29.5 G EO M O R P H O LO G Y AND URBANIZATION supposed to provide relevant information regarding
Geomorphic knowledge is of great signifi the geomorphological conditions (ground surface^
cance in deciding the extent of urban growth in conditions, sediment system in the river basin, m ove
geomorphologically fragile zones such as unstable ment of sand particles in the desert, weathering o f
hillslopes with weak lihtology and frequent slope underlying rocks and geomaterials, hydrology and
failures, alluvial riverine zones affected by frequent palaeochannel conditions), the nature o f geomorphic
floods, areas o f probable subsidence, coastal zones processes, mismanagement and faulty use o f terrain
marked by active cliff recession, tectonically and and many more to the urban planners, environmental
seismically sensitive areas etc. The application of managers and engineers. Very little attention is paid
geomorphic knowledge in urban development comes towards understanding the geom orphological con
under the domain of urban geom orphology. ‘Ur ditions before the development o f existing urban
ban geomorphology, a recent but more useful branch
centres mainly in the developing countries. With the
of applied geomorphology, is the study of landforms,
result ‘uncontrolled growth gives rise to squatter
and their related process, materials and hazards,
settlements or shanty towns as in many poor third
ways that are beneficial to planning, development,
and management o f urbanized areas or areas where world countries, and it commonly creates serious
urban growth is expected’ (Cooke, et. al, 1982). social and environmental problems’ (Cook, et. al,
1982) (Savindra Singh, et. al, 1988).
‘Thus, urban geomorphology (the descrip
tion is reproduced from Savindra Singh et. al, 1988) Many o f the alluvial cities located at the
deals with the lithological and topographic charac banks of the Ganga (viz. Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna
teristics and geomorphic processes and hydrological etc.) and its tributaries are facing geoenvironmental
conditions (in a city or town) which determine the problems because the city growth has taken place in
size and rate of urbanization and stability o f ground otherwise unsuitable areas viz. low lying flood plains
surface o f urbanized lo c a litie s . An urban (known as kachar). Allahabad city, located in the
geomorphologist has to play two-fold role i.e. the lap o f two sacred rivers viz. the Ganga and the
study prior to urban development (through field Yamuna, has witnessed its fast physical growth in
survey, terrain classification, identification and se the last 30 years in the outskirts except in the west in
lection of alternative suitable locations for urban the geomorphologically unsuitable lowland terrain
se ements meant for particular activities after proper • which is prone to recurrent floods, water logging,
Stu les material composition and nature o f weak foundations, house collapse etc. The city au?
tfcoritiei have miserably failed in checking the All o f the constructions made by man for the coloni
tiaphzani growth o f houses in lowlying areas even in zation of Tundra region o f North America (e.g.
the ‘k a c h a r ’ land. They do not bother for roads, railways, bridges, buildings, factories etc.)
geoenvironmental conditions o f the existing city and before the knowledge o f deceptive nature of perma
the vacant land in and around it. Thus, the city will frost have been greatly deformed. It may be pointed
continue to reel under the hazardous problems of out the active layer lying over permfrost thaws due
flood, waterlogging, village type (in Indian context) to removal of vegetation leading to collapse of
growth, defective drainage, increase in the pollut surface layer and formation o f thermokarst lakes.
ants to the drains and rivers. The regular raising of Thus, the collapse of ground surface also allows the
the Ganga and the Yamuna embankments no doubt roads and rails to collapse. The laying out o f rails for
temporarily protects the lowlying areas from floods Trans-Siberian rail line in Siberia suffered great
but in long range it also helps in siltation and rise in damages in the initial stages because o f thawing of
river bed. How long the process o f raising of em permafrost due to vegetation removal and conse
bankment will continue ? The future physical growth quent subsidence o f ground surface. Since then the
o f the city should be oriented towards importance of applied geomorphology in perma
geom orphologically sound areas o f Jhusi and frost areas has gained currency. Now greater atten
Phaphamau (Savindra Singh, et. al, 1988). tion is paid towards the study o f permafrost in
Canada, U.S.A. and Russia. The PISAS (Permafrost
29.6 G E O M O R P H O LO G Y AND EN G IN EER IN G Institute of the Siberian Academy o f Sciences at
W ORKS Yakutsk) of Russia and CARREL (Cold Region
Geomorphological techniques and knowledge Research and Engineering Laboratories, at Hano
become helpful in several engineering projects re ver, New Hampshire) o f the U SA are actively en
lated to development activities e.g. construction of gaged in the study of permafrost and periglacial
roads, dams and reservoirs (related to river valley processes. Geocryology, an independent branch o f
projects), canals, laying o f pipelines for petroleum periglaciology, has been developed to study periglacial
and potable water, withdrawal o f groundwater etc. environment and periglacial landscapes. The areas
(A) Road construction is closely related having
to permafrost, when selected for the construc
topographic features of the concerned area mainly tion of roads and laying o f rails are treated for
land stability. The construction of road requires required period o f time by removing vegetation
detailed and authentic information regarding geo cover and exposing the surface to direct insolation.
logical structure, lithological and stratigraphic char Hot-oil pipe lines cause thawing o f permafrost which
acteristics, nature o f rocks, strength o f surficial may result in environmental hazards but suitable
deposits, geomorphic history o f the concerned area engineering works may minimize the problem.
and porosity, permeability, joints, strength and
(2) The areas of carbonate rocks main
compressibility o f rocks lying under the ground
lim estones pose problems for road con struction . A
surface etc. which no doubt come from geomorphic
geomorphologist may provide relevant information
study of the area.
about subterranean waterflow, caves underneath and
(1) The presence o f perm afrost in periglacial
other landscape characteristics o f karst topography.
regions poses serious danger for road construction.
If the roads or rails are constructed in the areas
The understanding of nature, behaviour and charac
teristics of permafrost and mechanism of periglacial having hidden limestone features without prior knowl
processes is o f paramount significance for man if edge, the roads and rails collapse and are damaged
any development programme related to cultivation, due to collapse o f roofs o f lim estone caverns. Thus,
settlement, highways, mining etc. is to be extended the karstic surface having lapies, solution holes (sink
to permafrost areas because it poses greatest prob and swallow holes, uvalas, polje, doline etc,), sink
lems of construction and engineering works o f all ing creeks, blind valleys etc. is not favourable for
the other environmental processes. In fact, all as surface transport network. It is, thus, obvious that
pects of human activities in periglacial areas are the morphological maps may be useful for such
affected by permafrost and periglacial processes. engineering works.
a pp lied g eo m o r p h o lo g y 561
(3) Glaciated areas are also not favourable for reservoir through evaporation etc. Most o f these
road and rail construction because glaciated features information may be available through geomorpho
mainly depositional one such as morainic ridges logical study o f the concerned locality. The
mainly terminal m oraines, eskers, drumlins, morphometric properties of the drainage basin, analy
rochemouttonee (erosional) etc. present difficulties sis of hydraulic geometry, channel morphology and
in road construction as more additional work is hydrodynamics provide useful information about
required for the purpose o f road construction in the drainage basins which may be helpful in select
glaciated areas where till plain, being more or less ing suitable sites for the construction of dams. The
flat and rolling plain, is more suitable for road determination of hierarchical orders of the fluvially
construction. originated drainage basin provides detailed infor
(4) Road construction requires detailed knowl mation about the number o f stream segments, catch
edge of stratigraphy of the concerned area. The ment areas, water discharge etc. at each confluence
regions having buried lakes, buried palaeochannels, point. This helps in determining the volume o f
aquifers with high watertables, man-infilled depres water, discharge of water, flow velocity, sediment
sions etc. are unfavourable for road construction. load and sediment transport, sedimentation etc. at
The areas having lacustrine deposits should be specific point of a river which facilitate dam con
avoided. struction. Generally, dam is constructed at the point
across the river where (i) the river valley is very
(5) The knowledge of slope stability, safety narrow and constricted so that the length o f dam is
factor, history of slope failure, lithological charac shortened to maximum possible extent, (ii) rocks are
teristics etc. is very important for road construction
resistant and least erodible, (iii) catchment area
in mountainous areas with steep hillslopes. Since the above the proposed dam site is quite extensive so
construction of roads along hillslope requires a lot of that required volume of water (runoff) may be avail
excavation work and hence if the hillslope is fragile able, (iv) sediment load of the river is low so that the
and prone to slope failures i.e. frequent landslides, reservoir may not be silted, (v) the reservoir floor is
mud flows, earth flows etc., the construction of
of impermeable rocks so that there is minimum loss
roads further accentuates slope failure, triggers of water through seepage and percolation etc.
massmovement and presents high risk factor for
road transport. Such information may be available (C) Construction o f air strips for landing
through detailed geomorphological investigation of and takeoff of aeroplanes require high engineering
skill and thus engineers while selecting the sites for
the concerned area.
the construction of air strips (aerodrome) may be
(B) Dam construction, besides being relatedbenefitted from geomorphologists because the land
to engineering work, is also concerned with geol- scape characteristics determine the sites for air strips
ogy, geophysics, seismology and geomorphology which are generally constructed where (i) extensive
and requires the information about the geological flat terrain surface with resistant geomaterials (in
structure and stratigraphic characteristics, seismic cluding unconsolidated surficial deposits) is avail
resistivity, rock resistance, erodibilty of geomaterials, able so that safe and suitable runway may be built,
porosity and permeability o f rocks at the proposed (ii) ground surface has almost level slope, (iii) the
site of dam construction (to assess loss o f water to area is free from flood, (iv) there is absence or low
underground region through seepage and percola frequency and intensity o f fog, (v) there s maximum
tion from the base o f reservoir), safety and risk factor visibility etc. The relevant information regarding the
of hillslope and valleyside slope, nature o f trans quality and characteristics of terrain may be avail
verse section of the valley, nature of longitudinal
able from morphological map o f the area concerned.
profile of the concerned river, channel gradient,
relative hardness of rocks of the proposed site, 29.7 G E O M O R P H O LO G Y AND H Y D R O L O G Y
rainfall in the catchment area, nature and amount of
The landscape and terrain characteristics,
runoff of the catchment area above the dam, volume,
besides geology, are closely related to the occur
velocity and discharge of the river, sediment load o f
rence, availability, quality and utilization o f usable
the upper catchment, probable loss o f water from the
water for different purposes by man from different
562 GEOMORPHOLOGY
sources e.g. surface water (stream water, lake water, deposits and landform characteristics help in search
spring water), groundwater etc. Different stratigraphic ing and determining water potential of glaciated
and lithological zones present different conditions regions. Outwash plains, valleytrains, intertill de
o f surface and groundwater. There is direct relation posits etc. are supposed to contain abundant
ship between limestone terrain and surface and groundwater. True till deposits are poor in retaining
groundwater. Carbonate rocks mainly limestones groundwater because they do not form ideal aqui
are porous and permeable. This porosity and perme fers. Buried periglacial and interglacial valleys un
ability develops in two ways— (i) primary porosity der surficial ground material provide large and rich
and permeability develops with the formation of groundwater reserves. This situation o f buried
joints and cavities at the time of formation of lime periglacial valleys may be known only through
stones, and (ii) secondary porosity is caused due to geomorphological study of concerned area i.e. denu
earth movements (i.e. faulting, folding, tilting, warping dation chronology and geomorphic history of the
etc.) and solution (corrosion) mechanism. In the area concerned help in this regard. Aquifers with
initial stage o f karst cycle o f erosion there is abun sand formation contain large groundwater reserves
dance o f surface water and surface drainage due to as is the case of the Ganga plain o f North India.
enough surface runoff but with the advancement of
29.8 G EO M O R P H O LO G Y AND M IN ER A L EX
karst cycle of erosion solution process becomes
PLO RATIO N
more active resulting into the development of nu
There is a close relationship between mining
merous solution holes (e.g. sink and swallow holes)
and hence surface water disappears through these geology and geomorphic history of the concerned
area. It is well known fact that mineral deposits are
solution holes to become subterranean (underground)
closely associated with geological structure. Such
water with the result most o f surface drainage disap
structures are ascertained on the basis o f landscape
pears. This mechanism results in marked reduction
characteristics of the specific locality. Some miner
in surface water and the local people have to depend
als are associated with specific landscapes. Thus,
on karst spring water which may be useful or unsuit denudation chronology of a particular locality pro
able for human use. vides all those information related to landscape
The groundwater is contaminated due to infil evolution and climatic changes under which particu
tration of polluted water, during rainfall, through lar mineral was formed.
solution holes because the water is not properly (1) Some of the minerals are identified and
filtered through geomaterials as the holes allow located on the basis of their specific topographic
quick downward movement of polluted water mixed expressions. For example, quartz formed in veins o f
with pollutants and bacteria. Such v/ater is injurious surface rocks are found in the form o f ridges on the
for health and hdnce should not be used as potable ground surface. Similarly, lead-zinc veins are also
water. The location of such holes, which allow found in the form o f ridges. On the other hand, some
downward movement o f polluted water, can be eas minerals have negative topographic expressions (low
ily determined through the use of colour. The lands, depressions, troughs etc.).
geomorphic information o f limestone areas also (2) Weathering is also closely related to min
helps in digging o f dug wells. If the limestones have erals, because many of the minerals are weathering
enough porosity and are capped by sandstone layer, residues like some iron ore, clay mineral, caliche,
there is every possibility for rich groundwater re bauxite, manganese, nickel etc. Denudation history,
serve and the water is also naturally filtered while thus, helps in locating such residue minerals, which
passing through sand ston e beds and hence are mostly found on primary erosion surfaces. It may
groundwater is free from pollutants. Limestone ar be mentioned that minerals change their places dur
eas are not suitable for dam and reservoir construc ing youth and mature stages o f cycle o f erosion but
tion because it requires a lot of expensive engineer they become stabilized in the penultimate stage of
ing work. terrain development and remain at their places on
The geomorphic history o f glaciated land eorsion surfaces. Bauxite minerals are associated
scape, characteristics o f different types o f glacial with weathered basaltic laterite surfaces o f the
APPLIED g e o m o r p h o l o g y
patlands o f the Ranchi plateau and Palamau upland (4) Geomorphic principles help in the expl
(Bihar) e.g. Bagru pat has rich bauxite reserve. It ration of m ineral oil. Generally, mineral oil is found
may be mentioned that eluviation (downward m ove in the porous and permeable lithologies having lo w #
ment) of iron and aluminium content through perco layers of impermeable rocks. Sandstones and lime
lating rainwater through basaltic cover and illuviation stones provide ideal locations o f mineral oil because
of these materials below upper surface have formed of their high porosity and permeability while shale
strong bauxite cuirass (alcrete hard pan) on ‘pats’ below sandstones or limestones acts as impermeable
(basaltic-lateritic capped mesas and buttes). Thus, layer which does not allow downward movement o f
these pats are clearcut expressions of bauxite. Laterites
mineral oil. There are two concepts of mineral oil
also contain residues o f manganese. Many more formation viz. organic concept and inorganic con
examples may be cited. cept. According to organic theory oil is formed due
(3) to decay and decomposition o f organic matter. After
P lacer deposits are mixtures o f heavy
metals which represent aggregates o f materials de formation, mineral oil needs storage in the rocks
rived through chemical weathering and erosion of wherein mineral oil is trapped under two situations
metallic formations e.g. gold, diamond, silver etc. viz. under structural traps, and stratigraphic traps.
Nine placer deposits, which contain precious miner Sedimentary strata are folded into anticlines and
als, have been identified so far viz. aeolian placer, synclines which allow permeable and impermeable
alluvial placer, residual placer, bajada placer, beach strata to come closer so that mineral oil is well
placer, glacial placer, buried placer, ancient placer confined and preserved within upper permeable and
etc. Placer, in fact, means a superficial deposits by lower impermeable beds. Thus, folded structure o f
geomorphic agents from which precious minerals sedimentary formation is most probable condition
such as gold, silver etc. are washed. Residual placer for the occurrence of mineral oil wherein oil, when
is formed at situ due to weathering of rocks but such drilled, oozes out due to hydrostatic pressure.
placer is econom ically not significant. On the other There are m any m ore areas w h ere
hand, when weathering residues are transported geomorphological knowledge may be applied e.g.
downslope and are deposited in the form of colluvium, land use management, environmental management,
these are called colluvium placers which generally natural disaster reduction, soil erosion and sedim en
contain gold. Alluvial placers are formed due to tation, watershed management, river management,
deposition o f weathering and erosion residues by coastal zone management etc. The techniques o f
fluvial process. Such alluvial placers contain most of morphological mapping, terrain classification and
evaluation, air-photo interpretation, remote sensing
world reserve o f platinum. Besides, alluvial placers
techniques, process measurement etc. may be fruit
also contain gold, tin, diamond etc. Bajada placers
fully used in the areas which are concerned with
are generally found at the foothills in the arid and development process and overall socio-econom ic
semi-arid areas. Beach placers contain different pre growth o f so cie ty . The first part o f ap plied
cious minerals such as gold, diamond, zircon etc. It geomorphology as mentioned in the beginning o f
is, thus, apparent that the study o f depositional this chapter i.e. man as a geom orphic agent and
features o f different geomorphic features in varying inadvertent impacts o f human activities on geomorphic
environmental conditions may help in locating placer processes and forms (anthropogeom orphology) w ill
deposits which contain precious metals. be discussed in the succeeding chapter.
CHAPTER 30 : ANTHROPOGENIC GEOMORPHOLOGY 564-589
Meaning and concept; historical perspective; man's impacts on environ
mental processes; man and hydrological processes; man and weathering
and massmovement processes; man and coastal processes; man and river
process ; man and periglacial processes; man and subsurface processes ;
man and pedological processes ; man-induced soil erosion ; man and
sedimentation.
ANTHROPOGENIC GEOMORPHOLOGY
The internal or endogenetic processes originating

30.1 MEANING AND C O N C E P T
With scientific growth and technological de from within the earth fostered by diastrophic and
velopment since 1860 in general and after Second sudden forces, caused by thermal conditions o f the
World War in particular man has emerged as a interior of the earth and varying physical and chem i
significant geomorphic agent/process and is capable cal properties of the materials o f w hich the interior
of changing the earth's surface at the rate many times o f the earth has been com posed of, introduce vertical
fasterthan natural geomorphological processes. Thus, irregularities on the earth's surface and create vari
now geom orphological processes fall in two ous suites o f habitats for biotic com m unities. The
broad categories viz. (i) natural geomorphological external or exogenetic forces originating from the
or physical environmental processes, and (ii) atmosphere driven by solar energy change the face
anthropogenous geomorphological processes. Thus, o f the earth's surface through e r o sio n a l and
the study o f mode o f changes brought in physical depositional activities. The interactions between
natural systems by man through his economic activi endogenetic and exogenetic processes produce com
ties and several developmental works may be called plex sets o f physical landsapes w hich affect the
anthropogenic geom orphology and the modified biotic communities in the biospheric ecosystem .
natural processes by human activities and the mecha These physical environmental processes work through
nism through which natural geomorphological proc several routes o f feedback m echanism . The actions
esses and physical landscapes are changed and modi and responses o f these processes vary in scale (both
fied may be termed as a n th r o p o g e n o u s ge- spatial and temporal), frequency and magnitude but
om orphological processes. This aspect o f g e the environmental processes follow the principle of
omorphology comes under broader branch o f ap equifinality-that is they lead to sim ilar end-froms.
plied geomorphology wherein the main focus o f
The changes, brought in by the physical envi
study rests on man as a geomorphic agent and
ronmental processes on the earth's surface, occur in
inadvertent and planned effects o f his econom ic
such a way that equilibrium is maintained through
activities on geomorphic processes and forms
negative feedback m echanism if man does not
(landforms).
interfere in the natural state o f physical environmen
Environmental (geomorphological) processes tal processes. N ow man has em erged as a very
include those physical processes which operate on important geomorphic agent (anthropogeneous proc
the earth's surface both internally and externally. ess) and is capable o f changing the earth's surface at
ANTHROPOGENIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y 565
a much faster rate than many of the natural proc proaches throughout physical geography were swayed
esses. It is pertinent to study the role o f man in by evolutionary ideas or concepts probably due to
changing the environmental processes because these the influence of Charles Darwin’s ‘Origin o f Spe
processes affect physical landscapes and the energy cies’ (1859). The application of Davisian model o f
system, hydrological cycle, chemical element cycle cycle of erosion in the interpretation of physical
and sediment cycle which in turn maintain unity of landscape, the concept o f plant succession in the
biospheric ecosystem. evolution of plant communities, the concept o f the
development of zonal soils etc. may be quoted as a
30.2 H ISTO R IC A L P E R S P E C T IV E few examples to show the dominance of evolution
Though man began to interfere with the natu ary concept in physical geography. R.L. Sherlock
ral processes right from the beginning of sedentary realised the enormous impact o f man's activities on
life but the impact of man on the environment and its many environmental processes as denudation, sub
processes assumed greater proportion after indus sidence, sedimentation, sea coast changes, circula
trial revolution (1860). Man equipped with modern tion of water etc. His book ‘Man as a Geological
technologies and advanced scientific knowledge has Agent’ (1922) and his research paper, ‘the influence
become a very important factor in changing the
of man as an agent in geographical change’ (1923)
environmental processes. The realisation of the im
clearly demonstrate the role of man in changing and
pacts of man on environmental processes began
transforming the environmental processes. He dif
even in the beginning of the nineteenth century but
ferentiated betw een natural (g e o lo g ic a l)
G.P. Marsh's book ‘Man and Nature (1864) may be
and anthropogenic denudation and observed that
taken as the pioneer work which demonstrates the
effects of human activity upon environmental proc erosion induced by man is much more than by
esses and cautions the society against the magnitude natural processes as is evident from his remarks
of changes wrought by man. The following sentence about the densely populated country like England,
in the preface of Marsh's book (Man and Nature) ‘Man is many more times more pow erful, as an
illustrates the significance of man's role in changing agent of denudation, than all the atm ospheric
the environmental processes and physical environ denuding forces com bined’ (R.L. Sherlock, 1922,
ment - p. 333).
‘The object o f the present volume is : to indi The rapid rate of soil erosion at local, regional
cate the character and, approximately, the extent o f and global scales caught the eyes o f G.V. Jacks and
changes produced by human action in the physical R.O. Whyte (1939) who presented a picture o f soil
condition o f the globe we inhabit; to point out the erosion at world level through their book, ‘The Rape
dangers o f imprudence and the necessity o f caution of the Earth’ (1939), identified the role of man in
in all operations which, on a large scale, interfere accelerating the rate of soil erosion and suggested
with the spontaneous arrangements o f the organic the need for soil conservation and control measures
or the inorganic world; to suggest the possibility and against soil erosion. The individual approach to
the importance o f the restoration o f disturbed har emphasise the realisation of man's active role in
monies and the m aterial improvem ent o f waste and changing the environmental processes and the face
exhausted regions; and, incidentally, to illustrate
of the earth culminated into collective approach to
the doctrine, that man is a pow er o f higher order
study the man-environmental processes-relationship
than any o f the other fo rm s o f anim ated life, which,
like him, are nourished at the table o f bounteous in 1955 when an interdisciplinary international sym
nature.’ — G.P. Marsh (Man and Nature), 1864 posium on ‘Man's Role in Changing the Face o f the
Earth’ was organised at Princeton, New Jersey,
Since the publication of Marsh's ‘Man and
Nature's in 1864 and the realisation of changes in the U.S.A. The publication o f the proceeding o f the
environmental processes brought by man as aroused aforesaid symposium in a book form entitled ‘Man's
y Marsh no significant contributions could be Role in Changing the Face o f the Earth’ edited by
made in this important theme o f man-environmental W.L. Thomas in 1956 unfolded the dimension o f
processes relationship upto the first two decades of changes in various environmental processes effected
e twentieth century because the conceptual ap by man before the wider section o f scientific com
566 GEOMORPHOLOGY
munities and paved the way for in depth study of demonstrate the initiative taken to study man - envi
processes and mechanism of changes in the environ ronmental processes - relationship. The second theme
mental processes induced by man and their remedial of interest was the investigations of natural hazards/
measures. environmental .hazards. The third trend was the
The under-emphasis on the study of man's initiation of international programmes to study the
role in changing the environmental processes till influences of man on nature and natural processes
1950 was because o f lesser attention paid towards e.g. l.H.D. (International Hydrological Decade,
the measurement o f contemporary geomorphological 1965-74), M.B.P. (Man £nd Biosphere Programme,
processes and qualitative assessment of the recon 1970). The fourth trend was the realisation of envi
struction of the effects of palaeoprocesses. Increased ronmental concern which was reflected in a number
enthusiasm towards the measurement of contempo of writings e.g. ‘Silent Springs’ (R. Carson, 1962),
rary environmental processes since 1950 ushered in ‘Man and Environment’ (R. Arvill, 1967), The Envi
a new era o f realisation of significance of human ronmental Revolution (M. Nicholson, 1972) etc.
activities affecting the environmental processes. H. ‘One consequence of the 1960's may there
Wilkinson through his research paper ‘man and the fore be seen as the development of specific studies of
natural environment (1963) demonstrated the pow man's influence on particular processes and sections
erful impact of human activities (destructive, con of environment, accompanied by general conceptual
servative and creative) on natural environment. E. attention accorded to human activity. These devel
Felse (1956) emphasised the necessity of the study opments internal to geography were achieved within
o f anthropogenous geomorphological processes. In an intellectual environment which embraced grow
his research paper ‘man shapes the earth’ E.H. Brown ing concern for the effects of man in the past and
(1970) also studied the impact of human activities on concern for his future, and this provided one o f the
environmental processes. R.J. Chorley and B.A. motivating reasons for the initiation of international
Kennedy (1973, Physical Geography : A System research programmes’ (K.J. Gregory and D.E. Wall
Approach) while introducing system approach in ing, Man and Environmental Processes, 1981, p.5).
physical geography involving morphological sys This trend resulted into a number of studies, organi
tem, cascading system, process-response system and sation of several national and international symposia
control system asserted that man and his activity and conferences and publication of a number o f
operate as regulator in the control system. research papers, research monographs and books on
K.J. Gregory and D.E. Walling (1981) have the impact of man on environmental processes and
summarised the development of ideas concerning man-environment relationships e.g. Environmental
the imapcts of man on environmental processes and Problems (I.R. Manners and M.W. M ikesell, 1974),
have pointed out four major trends in this field Man's Impact on Environment (T.R. Detwyler, 1971),
during the decade 1960-70. The first theme was Environmental Geomorphology and Landscape
related to the deduction o f the rate of erosion in Conservation (in two volumes, D.R. Coates, 1972
various areas and the presentation of a comparative and 1973), Urbanisation and Environment (T.R.
picture. S. Judson (1968) estimated the current rate D etw yler and M .G . M arcus, 1 9 7 2 ), Urban
of erosion near Rome (Italy) between 100m3per km2 Geomorphology (D.R. Coates, 1976), Geography
per year and 1000 m3 per km2 per year as against and Man's Environment (A.N.Strahler and A.H.
between 20m3- 30m3 per km2 per year pior to man's Strahler, 1976), Applied Climatology (J.E. Hobbs,
influence on environmental processes. The influ 1980), E nvironm ental C hange and Tropical
ence of man on gully erosion (in S.W .U.S.A. by Geomorphology (Ian Douglas and T. Spencer, 1985),
W.M. Denevan, 1967), on fire and floods (in Bow Environmental Management (L.R. Singh, Savindra
Valley of Alberta, by J.G. Nelson and A.B. Byme, Singh, R.C. Tiwari and R.P. Srivastava, 1983), First
1966), on urban climate (the climate of London, by International Conference on Geomorphology and En
TJ, Chandler, 1965), on changes of geographic vironmental Management (Manchester, U.K., 198$)*
environment through industrialisation and urbanisa International Symposium on Geomorphology and
tion (S. Gilewska, 1964) etc. are few examples to Environmental Management (Allahabad, India, 1987)*
a n t h r o p o g e n ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y *w '
G e o m o r p h o lo g y a n d E n v ir o n m e n t (S a v in d r a S in g h fe r e n c e o n G e o m o r p h o lo g y a n d G e o e c o lo g y (1989,
and R c Tiwari, 1989), Second International Con- Frankfurt, West Germany) etc.
n a tu r a l h y d r o lo g ic a l system
inpur Storage output

]
Fig. 30.1: Natural hydrological cycle, modified after D.E. Walling, 1981.
30.3 MAN'S IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL trolled by solar energy. The efficiency o f environ
PROCESSES mental processes is determined by the potential
The external or exogenetic environmental energy of the lithospheric reliefs. Man, by affecting
processes originate from the atmosphere and are solar radiation and thus the heat energy, may affect
basically related to solar energy which affects the the processes o f precipitation and air circulation
basic elements o f atmospheric processes. Fluvial, which in turn would affect the environmental proc
8 acial, periglacial and aeolian processes are con esses. Weather modifications and clim atic change^
568 GEOMORPHOLOGY
effected by man change and transform the very variety o f ways. These modifications have both
nature o f environmental processes. positive and negative effects. The input o f precipita
tion in the hydrological cycle o f a drainage basin it
30.4 MAN AND H Y D R O L O G IC A L P R O C E S S E S modified through ‘cloud seeding’ for induced pre
The influence o f human activities, both inten cipitation (increase in input), atmospheric pollution
tional and inadvertent, on hydrological processes (both increase and decrease in precipitation input),
and hydrological cycle has been so immense that this modified atmospheric circulation (e.g. urbanisation
theme was included as one of the major focal themes induces vertical convective currents and thus in
o f the study o f the IHD (International Hydrological creases precipitation), forest clearance (decrease in
Programme) launched by UNESCO. The modifica precipitation), vegetation modification (changes in
tions of hydrological processes by human activities precipitation) etc. Additional input o f water on ground
range from local level to regional level including surface is provided through irrigation o f crops and
small-scale insignificant to large-scale catastrophic effluent disposal from urban areas. ‘Interception
effects. storage’ is modified by forest clearance (reduction
The hydrological cycle of natural drainage in interception storage) and vegetation modifica
basins has been largely modified by human activi tion. ‘Surface storage’ is modified by land clear
ties in almost all of the countries. The hydrological ance, cultivation, urbanisation, land drainage, min
cycle o f a drainage basin unaffected by man operates ing etc. while surface runoff is increased due to
in the following manner. The basic input of the basin deforestation and cultivation and is supplemented
is rainfall which is intercepted first by vegetation by additional input through channeled irrigation for
and reaches the ground as ‘aerial streamlets’ or cropland and effluent disposal from urban areas.
‘stem flow ’ and throughfall. In the absence of veg Infiltration is modified through devegetation (de
etation the rainfall reaches the ground directly. Some crease in infiltration), urbanisation (decrease), af
portion is lost to the atmosphere through evapo- forestation and reforestation (increase) and irriga
transpiration. The water available on the ground tion (increase). ‘Soil moisture storage’ is positively
forms ‘surfaces storage’ o f which a sizeable portion affected by irrigation, planting o f grasses and plants,
m oves down the slope as surface runoff, some por artificial recharge, seepage from water supply sys
tion is evaporated, some portion remains on the tems, soakpits, cesspools etc. while it is negatively
ground surface while some portion infiltrates down affected by land clearance through deforestation,
ward into the soil to from ‘soil moisture storage’ of burning of grasslands, urbanisation etc. ‘Groundwater
which some portion is lost through evaporation and storage’ is modified through extraction of groundwater
plant transpiration, some portion reappears as seep for domestic use and irrigational purposes while
age and springs via throughflow and interflow while ‘channel storage’ is m odified through flood plain
som e portion p erco la tes dow nw ard to form development, channel modification (shortening or
‘groundwater storage’ o f which some portion reaches lengthening of channels), river regulation, construc
the channel through base flow , some portion m oves tion o f dams and reservoirs etc. The impacts o f man's
upward as capillary rise to reach ‘soil m oisture activities on different com ponents o f basin hydro-
storage’ and some portion is routed further down logical cycle may ‘include increased flood hazard
ward through deep transfer. ‘The channel storage’ and other changes in river regime, reduced availabil
receives water from surface storage through surface
ity o f groundwater, deterioration o f water quality
runoff, from soil moisture storage through interflow
and widespread eutrophication o f water bodies and
and throughflow and from groundwater storage
through base flow. Thus, the initial input o f precipi river systems in response to increased nutrient load
tation finds exit through two paths o f output - (i) ing’ (K.J. Gregory and D.E. W alling, 1981).
through evapotranspiration from all types o f storages In the forested area (either natural or man
as referred to above and (ii) through channel runoff made) falling rain drops are itnercepted by the forest
from channel storage. canopy and major portion o f rainfall reaches the
Man affects and m odifies the internal proc ground surface through ‘aerial streamlets’ and
esses o f hydrological regime o f drainage basins in a ‘stemflow’ and thus a sizeable portion o f rainwater
ANTHROPOGENIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y 569
infiltrates into the ground surface and surface runoff interlinked components of the basin hydrological
Is decreased. This process minimises channel flow cycle, also modify the quality of water in terms of
to assume flood stage on the one hand and increases physical and chemical properties. These modifica
recharge of groundwater on the other hand. On the tions may not always be necessarily pollutional
contrary, cleared land (devcgetated) receives the though water pollution does occur from the used
rain drops with full kinetic energy directly and thus water (domestic, urban and industrial effluents) which
the loose bare ground surface is heavily pelted by reaches the channels. Changes in stream flow qual
falling rain drops which result in the compaction of ity have been widely reported through the studies of
loose materials and thus surface runoff is increased vegetation removal and soil disturbance (through
but inflitration is markedly rcduced. This process vegetation removal, strip mining etc.). The mineral
leads to increase in channel flow causing floods on and nutrient cycles, sediment load and budget o f
one hand while reduced infiltration results in poor streams are largely modified due to devegetation,
recharge which reduces the replenishment of excavation (mining) and building activities (con
groundwater storage on the other hand. struction of dams and reservoirs). These aspects
Urbanisation modifies hydrologic character would be discussed in the succeeding sections.
Salinisation is a perpetual problem in the areas o f
istics of drainage basins in two ways - (i) increasing
canal irrigation mainly in the semi-arid zones. The
urbanisation results in the increase of pucca (ma
findings of the study of NES (National Eutrophication
sonry) structure through the construction of build
Survey, U.S.A.) regarding the measurement o f rela
ings, courtyards, pavements, roads, streets etc. and
tionships between stream nutrient loadings and wa
thus there is marked increase in impervious ground
surface which reduces infiltration and increases over tershed land use in 473 small basins to the east o f
land flow in the form of surface runoff which reaches Mississippi river (selected from different areas hav
the nearby stream and increases flood peaks during ing different land uses e.g. forest, mostly forest,
rainstorms. Conversely, reduction in infiltration re mixed, mostly urban, mostly agriculture and agri
sults in marked decrease in recharge of groundwater culture) revealed a vast difference in the total mean
storage and consequently decrease in base flow concentration of phosphorous (0.15 mg per litre o f
contribution to nearby streams causes minimum water in the agriculture-dominated watersheds and
discharge during dry season of the year. Thus, the 0.014 mg per litre of water in the forest-dominated
range of Hood stage and minimum discharge during basins) and nitrogen (4.17 mg and 0.85 mg per litre
low stage (low water level) is accentuated, (ii) Sur of water for agriculture-dominated and forest-dom i
face runoff reaches the streams directly through nated basins respectively) which is because o f the
storm drains and sewers very quickly and thus the use of fertilizers in the agricultural watersheds.
runoff travel-time is reduced and consequently the
30.5 MAN AND W EA TH ER IN G AND M A SSM O VE-
lag-time between rainstorms and peak discharge is MENT P R O C E S S E S
shortened which results in flash floods in the rivers.
Weathering refers to disintegration and de
The effects of land drainage (artificial field composition of rocks and regoliths in situ. Weather
drains to remove surface water from the areas of ing is a natural process and is accomplished through
intensive farm ing, co m m ercial forests and various combinations of insolation, water, frost, air,
waterlogging in the areas of impervious soils) on pressure, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, plants
hydrological characteristics of drainage basins as and animals. Man being a biological agent acceler
reported from various studies in different parts of the
ates and decelerates the natural rate of weathering.
world have been related to increase in floods be
Mining activities for extraction of minerals, blasting
cause clearance of surface water through land drain
of hills and ridges for dam constructions and mineral
age lowers down the water table, reduces
extraction, quarrying for industrial (limestone for
evapotranspiration and increases mean annual sur
face runoff. cement) and building materials etc. result in such a
fast rate of disintegration of geomaterials that this
Man's activities besides modifying the vol-
may be accomplished by natural weathering proc
ume of water (quantity) passing through different
esses in thousands to m illions of years. Man acceler-
<570
ales the rate o f weathering on hillslopes by modify works are not properly planned, there resub slope
ing the ground surface through deforestation. failures and hazardous earthflows and landslides mt
Vegetations mainly trees with high density provide caused. Example may be cited from Nainita! (U.P.
stability to hillslope profiles as the root networks India) town which is located on hillslopes surround
provide mechanical reinforcement to regolith on ing Naina Lake. The construction o f buildings and
hillslope and increases cohesion o f geomaterials. roads is gradually increasing upslope. The litholog i^
Deforestation on hillslopes reduces the mechanical consist o f shales and dolomites. The encroachment
reinforcem ent and coh esion o f unconslidated o f buildings and roads at the cost o f natural vegeta
geomaterials and thus increase slope instability which tion has decreased the safety factor which may result
causes slope failures and mass movement o f materi in severe landslide any time. It may be mentioned
als down the slope in the form o f landslides, slump that a very massive landslide occurred in the north
ing and debris fall and slides. Man-induced land western side o f the lake in 1884 and a sizeable part
slides due to deforestation have become common of Niana Lake was filled with debris. This infilled
features in the foothills o f the Himalayas. part of the lake is now used as helipad. It is necessary
Human activities causing mud flow and to measure slope angles, to study lithologies, safety
earthflow fall mainly into two categories e.g. (i) factor, groundwater conditions, nature o f soil and
accumulation o f waste soil and rock fragments regolith before the construction o f roads traversing
arising out o f mining activities into huge piles results the slopes and houses and other establishments so
in spontaneous lateral earth flow engulfing sur that hazardous consequences may be avoided.
rounding areas and (ii) removal o f support by under 30.6 MAN AND C O A S T A L P R O C E S S E S
mining o f natural masses o f soil, regolith and rock
Sea coastal areas are affected by natural ma
(A.N. Strahler and A.H. Strahler, 1976, p. 190). The
rine processes mainly by sea waves and tidal cur
constructional activities like dams, canals etc. and
rents. These waves and currents, o f various types,
construction at the base o f hillslope leads to removal
erode the coastal lands and create several erosional
o f support to slope and causes massmovement. Con
landforms (e.g. sea cliffs, rocky slopes, indented and
struction o f roads along and across hills and ridges
crenulated coast lines, coves and caves etc.) and in
composed o f weak lithologies (e.g. shales) causes
turn these waves also deposit materials o f various
frequent earth flows. Such examples are observable
sizes to form beaches and bars. Majority o f the
along the Rewa scarps just to the south o f the Ganga
coastal features are formed by natural marine proc
plain and Kaimur hills (southern margin o f the Rewa
esses but man's activities have m odified the coastal
plateau) which are composed of quartzitic sandstones
processes and have accelerated or decelerated ero
above and shales below. The roads have been con
sional and or depositional works o f m aim e waves at
structed in shale lithology. The steep walls o f shales
certain localities mainly at the sites o f harbours and
along the road-side very often collapse and minor to
recreation.
major earthflow occurs at many places every year
and causes road blocks. Such phenomena are very The direct modifications o f coastal processes
common features in the Himalayas. by man include (i) disruption o f wave motion and
weakening o f energy o f coast-bound waves by in
The encroachment o f urban settlements on jecting air bubble curtains, (ii) attempts to deflector
hillslopes affect slope processes and massmovement resist the effects o f sea w aves and currents by con
o f rockWaste. It is significant to point out that safety structing sea walls, groynes (groins), breakwaters
factor on the higher sides o f hillslope is almost close (masonry walls to break sea w aves), (iii) trapping or
to unity. Any effort through man's activities may import o f sediments to replenish sea b ea ch es and (iv)
destabilise the equilibrium condition and cause slope plantation o f trees to stabilise beaches and coastal
failure and massmovement. For example, construc dunes. Man's attempts to reduce or stop coastal
tion o f roads, buildings, laying out o f waterpipes and erosion and therefore to check retrogradatien oa the
power cables, construction o f sewers etc. on higher one hand and to promote deposition to encourage
sides o f hillslopes for human purposes decrease the progradation on the other hand have not beat
resisting force o f slope materials. If the aforesaid
ANTHROPOGENIC g e o m o r p h o l o g y
of coastal processes, both erosional and depositional.

These direct attempts of man to manipulate and
modify coastal processes for specific purposes (to
halt erosion at harbours, to build beaches, to replen
ish already depleted beaches, to open inlets to en
courage sea transport etc.) bring in changes in
nearshore topography, mechanism of wave and cur
rent actions and coastal erosion, nature and pattern
of sediment movement and deposition on the adja
cent part of the coast where structural works have
been initiated.
Protective structures in the form of masonry
or concrete sea walls are built to protect the coastal
land from wave and current erosion in those areas
which have cliffed-coast but the immediate hinterlands
are either urbanised or industrialised and are in
danger of being eroded by the recession of cliff due
to wave attack or the coastal areas are significant
resort centres, or there are sites of harbours which
are endangered by wave erosion. The construction
of sea walls (fig. 30.2) to stop the recession of cliffs walls.
at the sites of recreation produces adverse effects on
areas with the result there is continuous accretion o f
beaches. In such cases beaches are depleted because
mud on the seaward side of sea walls. Examples o f
(i) the supply of sands and shingles from the cliff
such measure may be cited from the shore lines o f
erosion is stopped due to protection provided by
Netherland, Germany and Denmark.
extended sea walls parallel to the coast and (ii)
waves after striking powerfully against the walls Efforts are made to shelter the harbours and
scour the beaches and remove the materials. In order the estuaries of river mouths being used as harobur
to stop beach scouring and its depletion a series of from strong wave action and drifting o f sand and
groynes (these may be of huge rock masses, or of shingle into the harbours through the construction o f
concrete or of wooden logs) are placed at close breakwaters which are extended from the coast to
intervals at right angles to the seawalls or shore lines wards the sea. This human action results in the
to reduce the loss of sand and shingle. In such cases accumulation of sand shingle and formation of beaches
the destruction o f those parts of beaches which have on the updrift side of breakwaters whereas beach
closely spaced groynes may be retarded but the depletion occurs on the downdrift side o f b reak w a
waves are deflected by these groynes and thus resort ters because of marked reduction o f transport o f
to scouring in those parts of the beaches where sediments downdrift. The modification o f coastal
groynes are not inserted. The example of depletion processes mainly of longshore drift transporting
of beaches through human actions to stabilise the sediments at Newhaven harbour located on the mouth
eroding cliffs through the construction of sea walls of Sussex Ouse river (southern coast o f England) is
may be cited from Bournemouth (south coast of a typical example o f man's manipulation o f coastal
England), north-eastern shores of Port Phillip Bay processes and positive and negative results arising
(Australia) and many more. therefrom. Breakwaters have been built to prevent
the drifting of sand and shingles transported by the
Another use of sea walls as dykes is to en
south-westerly waves into the entrance o f the har
close tidal marshlands and mudflats as a measure of
bour. The result is that the river mouth, which was
land reclamation. Such device does not encourage previously very often deflected by strong w aves
scouring by the storm waves which are deflected by (before 1731), has been stabilised, shingle has acCu-
sea walls and their effects are reduced by inter tidal
side o f the breakwater), beach on the eastern side o f o f beaches on down drift side due to breakwaters
the river mouth at Seaford has been depleted and sand has to be pumped out from accumulated sand
cliff erosion at Seaford Head has been accelerated. on updrift side o f breakwaters under the harbour
This after-effect o f protective measures o f Newha- entrance so that the eroding beaches may be replen
ven harobour demanded protection o f coastline and ished. Some times offshore breakwaters are also
beaches from accelerated cliff erosion (induced by constructed (e.g. Santa Monica, California, USA) to
human activities) on long stretches o f coastline east modify the waves reaching the coast.
o f the Sussesx Ouse estuary. Third type o f breakw aters is enclosing one
to convert a bay into a harbour. This device changes
the pattern o f waves in terms of their energy and
angle at which they strike the coast. The waves are
refracted by enclosing breakwaters and these re
fracted waves erode the beaches with increased
D e pl e t i on of
beach energy. Creation o f Portland harbour on the south
eastern coast o f Australia by enclosing the bay
through the construction o f breakwaters has resulted
into severe beach erosion at Dutton Way located to
the north of the harbour.
Formation of Dredging of ports and harbours to improve
new b e a c h
navigation channels modifies the pattern and veloc
ity of waves and currents. The materials derived
from dredging are generally dumped at many alter
native locations e.g. offshore locations, shallow ar
eas adjacent to the harobur, onshore shallow areas
(to reclaim land), beaches (to enrich them) etc.
These dumped materials are reworked and dispersed
by waves in a variety o f ways. The dumping o f
dredged materials offshore creates new mounds which
modify the direction, strength, velocity and overall
Fig. 30.3 : Construction o f groins perpendicular to sea pattern of sea waves. Some times sea floor is dredged
coast. to obtain materials to reclaim marshy coastal lands
or to replenish eroding beaches. This activity deep
Consequently, additional masonry and con
ens the sea floor which in turn generates long waves
crete sea walls have to be built along the vulnerable
which erode the coastal land at relatively faster rate
coast and groynes have to be inserted at right angle than the normal waves.
to the coast line. Outher examples o f updrift accu
Man's activities also affect sedim entological
mulation o f sediments and downdrift erosion of
characteristics o f coastal environment. (1) There is
cliffs and beaches due to construction o f break
additional supply o f waste materials com ing out of
waters include South Lake Worth Inlet (Florida quarrying in the coastal zones. These materials are
coast, U .S.A .), harbour in Lagos (Nigerian Coast), reworked and dispersed by sea w aves and thus these
Durban harbour (south African coast), Madras har materials are deposited in certain localities and new
bour (India, drifting o f sand by northward longshore beaches are formed (example-progradation o f a beach
drift has been prevented and sand has accumulated ridge plain on the east coast o f Jutland, Denmark,
to the south o f harbour-break waters whereas beach due to dumping o f waste materials com ing out from
has been eroded to the north o f breakwaters), Santa chalk quarry). (2) Artificial replenishment o f eroded
Barbara (Californian coast, U .S .A .), Tweed River beaches due to alteration o f sediment supply caused
mouth on the east coast o f Australia, Salina Cruz by construction o f breakwaters. (3) Quarrying of
(Mexican coast) etc. In order to offset the depletion beaches to obtain building materials leads to erosion
a n t h r o p o g e n ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y
als brought by the rivers. This process has resulted

into rapid rate of siltation of bays and inlets at the
mouths of rivers along the Mediterranean coasts due
to extensive removal of vegetation (for increasing
the cropland) and resultant accelerated rate o f soil
erosion and supply of enormous quantity of sediments.
(5) Construction o f dams and reservoirs on
major rivers (which drain into the seas) reverses the
process of growth of beaches and deltas because the
dams trap the sediments and force them to settle
down in the reservoirs and therefore supply o f flu
vial sediments through the river mouths is markedly
reduced. This results in rapid rate o f erosion o f
beaches and deltas which causes retrogradation. It
has been reported that the Nile delta is suffering
severe wave erosion and the shore line is receding at
the rate of 40m per year since the completion o f
Aswan High Dam in 1970.
(6) Marked removal of vegetation from stabi
lised coastal dunes through intentional clearance for
economic use o f the land, burning, grazing etc.
accelerate wind erosion of coastal dunes and the
eroded fine materials blown by the onshore wind are
heaped inland. This process destabilises coastal dunes
(example, south-eastern Australian coast). (7) Con
versely, destabilised coastal dunes can be stabilised
by planting trees, shrubs and grasses (example, Landes
o f coastal land because of depletion of beach and region of S.W. France, Culbin area on Scottish coast
direct exposure of coastal land to severe wave attack etc.). (8) Reclamation o f tidal marshes and mudflats
(example, quarrying of beaches for sand and gravel through expanding earth fills from urban and indus
on Black Sea Coast o f the former USSR resulted into trial seaboard areas provides additional space for
severe wave erosion o f Sochi coast which prompted industrial installations, construction o f buildings,
roads and airfields on the one hand and poses prob
to reverse the procedure by dumping o f sand gravel
lems o f weak foundations o f buildings, highways
to restore the beach and save the coast from continu
and air strips and destroys esturaine environment
ous wave erosion). The other examples o f beach resulting into loss o f marine food resources on the
nourishment through accumulation o f sands and other hand.
gravels by man include the beaches at Atlantic city
(New Jersey, U.S.A.), Palm Beach (Florida, U.S.A.)* 30.7 MAN AND RIVER PROCESS
West Haven (Connecticut, USA), Harrison County River is the most significant fluvial geomorphic
(M ississippi, U S A ), Californian coast (U S A ), process which shapes the surface o f the earth at
global scale. The erosional and depositional works
Mentone (Shores o f Port Philip Bay, Australia) etc.
o f the rivers produce a variety o f landforms on the
(4) Devegetation and extensive cultivation, in
earth's surface on the one hand and they (rivers)
the immediate hinterlands o f the catchments o f those undergo their own transformation through the proc
rivers which drain the coast, result in progradation of esses o f river piracy, lengthening o f channels through
coastal lands, phenomenal growth in beaches and meandering, shortening o f channels through the
574 GEOMORPHOLOGY
intersection o f meander necks, braiding o f channels water supply for domestic use and for lift irrigation
due to aggradation and related branching o f chan canals; disposal o f used water from urban and indus
nels, drainage integration, changes in courses, changes trial areas into the rivers at specific outfall points;
o f channel geom etry and channel dynamics etc. construction o f road and rail bridges across the rivers
under natural conditions without any anthropogenic etc. The construction o f dams on major rivers o f the
manipulation on the other hand. Under natural con world has multiplied many folds since the start o f the
ditions rivers are beneficial as well as disastrous for 20th century and thus more than 13 per cent of the
human society. The negative effects o f rivers under total runoff o f the world has been regulated by
natural conditions without being interfered by man reservoirs. The storage reservoirs constructed be
include recurrent floods, changes in their courses, hind the dams trap sediments and thus discharge
riparian erosion etc. which adversely affect human pattern and sediment load o f the rivers downstream
society (e.g. agriculture, transport network, settle are markedly modified. The study o f effects o f small
ments etc.). If the N ile became gift to Egypt and the structures on peak flow conducted by C.M. Moore
Ganga becam e econom ic backbone o f north India on (1969) has shown that peak discharge downstream
the one hand, the Hwang Ho (now Y ellow river) from the reservoir may be reduced by 98 per cent to
river becam e sorrow for China, the Tennessee be 50 per cent depending upon the level o f water in the
cam e hell for S.E .U .S.A ., the Damodar became reservoirs. The trapping and settling down o f bed
m enace for W est Bengal (India) on the other hand. load and suspended sediments in the reservoirs re
Man, equipped with technological skill has attempted sult in marked reduction in the sediment load o f the
to m etam orphose river channels in two ways - (i) to channel downstream and this process encourages
train the rivers to get rid o ff their disastrous roles and downstream erosion of river valley.
(ii) to develop the rivers as natural resource for Withdrawal of water from rivers and pouring
developm ental processes. of water through pumping into canals (lift canals) in
The m odifications o f channel processes by India during post-monsoon period o f lean discharge
man may be grouped into two categories viz. (i) for irrigational purposes further reduces normal dis
direct or intentional m odifications for useful pur charge of rivers which causes siltation o f river beds
poses and (ii) indirect or inadvertent modifications and reduces water retaining capacity o f the valley
which cause adverse effects for human society. resulting into increase in the dimension o f floods.
Direct m odifications o f channel processes include Construction of bridges m odifies the direction o f
flood control measures, channel improvements, dams channel flow and increases flow velocity which
and reservoir construction, stream channelization encourages downstream erosion. The construction
(straightening, widening, and deepening o f chan of a road bridge 500 m downstream from the old rail
nels), bank manipulation through channel control bridge on the Gomti river near Kaithi village (Varanasi
structures (revetment-blanket revetment o f rocks, district, India) straightened the course o f the Gomti
concrete or other materials; pervious revetment o f river which resulted into the shifting o f the conflu
open fence and baskets; solid fence and groynes of ence o f the said river with the Ganga river in 1980 by
solid structures at right angles to channel flow , 2 km upstream from the old confluence because o f
training structures - timber pile dikes, rock dikes,rock accelerated erosion through meander loop which
- filled pile dikes, artificial earthen levees; closure o f was hardly one km away from the Ganga bank
secondary channels etc.), and irrigation diversions (Savindra Singh, 1983).
(canals). The second type o f direct m odification o f
(i) D irect m od ification s o f channels at spe
channels called as reach m od ification involves a
cific points or locations o f the river concerned, sizeable span o f channel. The highly sinuous chan
called as p o in t m od ification s, include the construc nels are straightened by cutting o ff meander loops so
tion o f dams and reservoirs for the purpose o f water that the channel reach may be shortened in length
supply for dom estic use, for supply o f water for and the velocity o f water is increased to allow quick
irrigating the crops through canals, for the genera disposal o f water during floods downstream through
tion o f hydroelectricity; pumping o f water for local increased frequency o f peak discharge. The lower
a n t h r o p o g e n ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y 575
Mississippi river near Greenville (Mississippi, USA) more catchment area (3,269,000 km2) than the Ganga
has been shortened in its length from 530 km to 185 catchment (955,000 km2) carries much smaller amount
km between 1933 and 1936 to reduce flood crests. of sediment load (850 million tonnes/year). ‘Thus
Similarly, the Missouri river has been shortened in the high rate of sediment load of the Ganga reflects
its length by 52 km between Sioux city and its the deforestation of the source areas of the Ganga
confluence with the Mississippi in 1960 for flood system (the Himalayas and the northern foreland of
control and navigation improvement. It may be Indian Peninsula) which has accelerated the rate of
pointed out that meandering is a natural process of erosion of surficial materials’ (Savindra Singh and
alluvial rivers and it is very difficult to prevent the Alok Dubey, 1989).
rivers from developing meander bends by artificial Human activities responsible for the
cutoff of individual natural bends. If old meanders aggradation and siltation of river valley due to in
are cut off and the channel is straightened, the river creased sediment supply include accelerated soil
develops new meanders. The dredging of channels erosion consequent upon extensive and intensive
either for navigation purposes or for obtaining sands cultivation, deforestation, natural and deliberate
and gravels as building materials increases the amount forest fires, mining operations, urbanisation and
of sediment for transport downstream. The regula highway construction etc., all of which not only
tion of river to halt riparian (bank) erosion decreases increase sediment supply to cause channel aggradation
the supply of sediment downstream which results in but also increase suspended load of the channels
downstream scouring. which travels downstream and is deposited in lakes,
The other devices to regulate river channels reservoirs and estuaries and thus adversely affects
include the construction of a series of large flood the aquatic life.
control or flood-storage reservoirs on a particular
30.8 MAN AND PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES
river, widening and deepening of channels for pre
venting seasonal overbank flooding, construction of Periglacial areas are those which Eire in per
dykes, embankments etc. on river banks to protect manently frozen condition but there is no permanent
the cities and towns from overbank flooding, provi- ice cover on the ground surface. The mean annual
- sion of flood-diversion systems etc. temperature ranges between-15°C and 1°C and mean
annual precipitation is between 120 mm and 1400mm
(ii) Indirect modifications of channel proc
(mainly in solid form). The most striking feature o f
esses include the changes of general surface charac periglacial areas is the ‘perm afrost’ (permanently
teristics of the entire catchment area or part thereof
frozen ground) and the ‘active layer’ which is the
through deforestation. The bare ground surface caused
uppermost layer of the periglacial area. The ‘active
due to deforestation is eroded at faster rate on the one
layer’ is characterised by diurnal freeze (during
hand and generates more surface runoff on the other
night) and thaw (during day time) cycle during the
hand. This process increases both stream discharge
intervening periods of summer and winter seasons.
and sediment load which changes the channel re
It is completely frozen during winter and is thawed
gime in terms o f river metamorphosis which in
during late summer. The depth of ‘active layer’
cludes changes of channel geometry, channel planform
ranges from a few centimetres to 3 metres. All the
and sediment transport periglacial processes viz. congelifraction or frost
The Yellow river of China transports the weathering, congelifluction or solifluction, frost
highest amount of average annual silt load of 1640 heave, nivation and of course fluvial processes is
million tonnes from intensively cultivated upland related to thermal conditions. ‘Permafrost’ lying
surfaces of wind deposited loess in Shensi and Shansi below the active layer represents the permanently
provinces whereas the Ganga river carries the sec frozen ground upto varying depths. About one fifth
ond highest amount of sediment load of 1450 of the surface area of the globe is covered by perma
million tonnes per year derived from the deforested frost (including both continuous and discontinuous
steep mountain slopes of the Himalayas and from types). The largest areas o f permafrost are in Sibe
intensively cultivated alluvial plains. Conversely, rian part of Russia, Alaska (U SA ) and northern
t e Mississippi river occupying roughly three times Canada.
m
The understanding of naturo, behaviour and' degradation of permafrost through thermokarst or

characteristics o f permafrost and mechanism of frost heaving largely depends on (i) the nature of
periglacial processes is o f paramount significance geomaterials, whether unconsolidated or consoli
tbr man it any development programme related to dated, (ii) content of ice present in the permafrost
cultivation, settlement, highways, mining etc. is to (iii) nature and density of vegetation on the ground
be extended to permafrost areas because it poses surface, (iv) insulating properties of surface vegeta
greatest problems o f construction and engineering tion and (v) duration of sunlight and quantity of
works ot all the other environmental processes. In insolation during summer days. The activities of
tact, all aspects ot human activities in the periglacial man destabilise thermal conditions of permafrosts
areas are aftected by permafrost and periglacial and render them hazardous for human society in the
processes. All o f the constructions made by man for following manner-
the colonisation of the tundra region of North America (1) Removal of surface vegetation either
(roads, railways, bridges, buildings, factories etc.) through direct felling of trees or constructional pur
betore the knowledge of deceptive nature of perma poses allows sun's rays to reach the ground surface
frost have been greatly deformed. The laying out of directly and thus ground temperature is increased. It
mils for the Trans-Siberian rail line in Siberia also may be pointed out that the surface vegetation acts as
suffered great damages in the initial stages because insulator to solar rays and protects the ground sur
o f thawing o f permafrost due to vegetation removal face from direct solar rays. Temperature thus in
and consequent subsidence of ground surface. Now creased due to removal of surface vegetation causes
greater attention is paid towards the study of perma thawing of ice in the permafrost which causes sub
frost in Canada, USA and Russia. The PISAS (Per sidence of ground surface and changes the ground
mafrost Institute of the Siberian Academy of Sci surface into undulating surface dotted with tiny
ences at Yakutsk) o f the former USSR and CARREL mounds and small depressions. Such changes of
(Cold Region Research and Engineering Laborato ground surface have been recorded in Fairbanks
ries, at Hanover, New Hampshire) of the USA are region of Alaska where extensive clearance o f sur
actively engaged in the study of permafrost and face vegetation for cultivation in the decade 1920-30
periglacial processes. led to formation of undulating surface characterised
Two specific periglacial processes need spe by numerous mounds of 3 to 15m diameter and of
cial mention because these affect human activities 2.4m height. The increase of temperature by 14°C
most. These are thermokarst and frost heave. upto the depth of 40cm has been reported from
Therm okarst is both p rocess and landform . Yenesei region of Siberia. This increase of tempera
Thermokarst refers to collapse, sinking and subsid ture has been related to deforestation and cultiva
ence o f ground surface caused by disturbance in the tion.
thermal equilibrium o f permafrost (due to increase (2) Excavation activities for obtaining mate
in temperature). The process is most active in the
rials for construction purposes (e.g. for the construc
areas o f unconsolidated frozen materials. The effect
tion of roads, airstrips of air ports) or for laying down
o f thermokarst in consolidated frozen parent rock is
water pipelines, cables or oil pipelines etc. disturb
negligible. Frost heave refers to bulging of ground
the thermal equilibrium of permafrost and cause the
surface due to ice seggregation. Thus, if thermokarst
ice lenses to melt which allows the ground surface to
causes subsidence o f ground surface due to thawing
o f frozen moisture and creates several sinks and subside.
cauldron subsidence o f varying dimensions, frost (3) Regular driving o f vehicles over the thawed
heave renders the ground surface uneven. permafrost surface during summer season destroys
There are several natural and anthropogenic surface vegetation and causes trenching in the soft
factors which upset thermal equilibrium o f perma and wet ground surface. Such trenchings, if caused
frost which in turn either causes thawing o f frozen on sloppy ground, develop into gullies because these
ground moisture and induces thermokarst or encour tr e n c h e d lannelise the snow-melt and surface run
ages ice seggregation to foster frost heaving. The off.
a n th ro po gen ic g eo m o r ph o lo g y 577
(4) Forest fire, either natural or deliberate, after-effects
in o f these changes are so complicated and
permafrost regions changes the ground thermal re are so polygenic that it is very difficult to predict
gime through vegetation destruction. Increased tem them well in advance. Since these changes are con
perature due to fire and consequent removal o f fined to underground environment and their causes
vegetation deepens the thickness o f active layer and are so complicated that their prevention and control
thus the thermokarst process starts. Increase in the are very difficult.
depth o f active layer by 45 cm has been reported Man changes subsurface conditions by putting
from Siberian Taiga o f Russia due to forest fire in additional load on ground surface through the con
1953. structions o f dams and reservoirs, highw ays and
It may be pointed out that terrain disturbance bridges, canals, injection o f water underground,
caused by man through burrow or excavation pits buildings, irrigation etc. and by reducing load and
(for extraction o f construction materials from the pressure underground through water withdrawal,
ground), m ovem ent o f vehicles, road-cuts etc. thins drilling o f mineral oil and natural gas, underground
out the ‘active layer’ whereas deforestation, cultiva mining, mining o f solid materials etc. It m ay be
tion, construction o f roads, rails, buildings and drain pointed out that any change in subsurface environ
age changes thicken the ‘active layer’. In either case ment occurs only when the impact o f human activi
the thermal equilibrium o f permafrost is disturbed ties exceeds the resisting force o f the geom aterials.
which induces thawing o f frozen moisture o f perma The introduction o f ad d ition al artificial
frost, release o f excess ice and ultimately ground superincumbent load through the construction o f b ig
surface undergoes the process o f subsidence. dams and impounding o f huge volum e o f water in
Degradation o f permafrost in the periglacial big reservoirs causes disequilibrium o f already
areas either caused by human activities or natural isostatically adjusted rocks b elow the reservoirs or
processes poses severe problems o f engineering further augments the already fragile structure due to
works and hydrological regime. Suitable geotechnical faults and fractures underneath. This process cau ses
measures and advanced engineering devices are earthquakes o f varying intensity w hich in flict dam
needed for any su ccessful constructional works to be age to human life and property. M any m ajor seism ic
extended in the more remote northern regions o f events have been correlated with dam s and reser
permafrost in A laska (U SA ), Canada and Siberia voirs all over the world e.g. earthquake o f 1931 in
(R ussia) but these d evices are so costly and com pli Grece due to Marathon D am constructed in 1929,
cated that the net results are lim ited but the fragile start o f earth tremors since 1936 around H oover
permafrost environm ents are more rapidly degraded. Dam (U SA ) due to creation o f M ead L ake in 1935;
Koyna earthquake o f 1967 (India) due to K oyna
30.9 MAN AND S U B S U R F A C E P R O C E S S E S reservoir constructed in 1962; other exam p les o f
Subsurface environm ent is largely affected significant earthquakes caused by dam s and reser
by human activities and the consequences are rather voirs are o f M onteynard and G randvale in France,
more hazardous and disastrous to human society M angla in Pakistan, Kariba in Z am bia, M anic in
than any other m odification o f environm ental proc Canada, Hendrick V erw oers in South A frica, N urek
esses by man. The im pacts o f human activities on in former U SSR , Kurobe in Japan, H sin fen gk ian g in
subsurface conditions are increasing day by day China etc. U nderground disturbance due to hydro
witheverincreasing population. The changes o f sub static pressure o f water in the reservoirs also cau sed
surface environm ent m ostly include changes in sub landslides and earthflow alon g the natural and arti
surface materials e.g. expansion or contraction, lo o s ficial w alls o f the reservoirs. It m ay be p oin ted out
ening or com paction, fracturing and displacem ent, that the intensity o f earthquakes has b een p o sitiv ely
upward or downward m ovem ent, decrease or in correlated w ith the le v els o f water in the reservoirs.
crease o f stresses, deform ation o f subsurface m ate Subsurface equilibrium is also disturbed at
rials etc. The im pacts o f these changes are so d ecep some places due to pumping of used and waste water
tive and slow ly cum ulative that these are not realised through injection wells into the ground. At some
and detected before real dam ages are done. The places water is injected into aquifers to remove
578
either salt water intrusion or to ch eck contam ination underground. I f such situation is associated with
o f groundwater through in flo w o f saline water in lim eston e or d olom ite lith o lo g ies, man - induced
coastal areas. A nother w ay o f injecting water under sink h oles d ev elo p on the ground surface which
ground is to pump water into m ineral oil strata to a llo w s the surface water to disappear through these
increase hydrostatic pressure so that oil m ay be sink h o les and cau ses surface co lla p se and depletion
pu sh ed upw ard and p rod u ction o f o il m ay be o f surface water resources. D ew atering o f under
augum ented. In all such ca ses subsurface eq u ilib ground m ines a lso result in drying out o f springs due
rium is disturbed and seism ic activities set in. to low ering o f water table. The exam ple o f dewatering
Y et another w ay o f increasing superincumbent o f gold m in es in the Far W est Rand M ining District
near Johannesburg (U nion o f South A frica) tells the
load o f ground surface is the supply o f water through
irrigation in the agricultural farms. W hen irrigation im pact o f dew atering o f deep m in es on ground
waters are spread over lo o se and dry so ils in the arid surface and ultim ately on hum an so ciety . A score o f
and sem i-arid regions, the lo o se and dry m aterials sink holes w ere d evelop ed in the said areas (1 9 6 2 -
are w etted and com pacted under the process o f 1966). The largest sink h o le w as 125m in diam eter
hydrocompaction. The result o f such hydrocompaction and 50m in depth. S om e tim es deep coal m in es are
is su bsid en ce o f general surface upto 1-2 m etres, left over w ithout fill in them and n ew m in es are
w hich ca u ses dam age to irrigation drains, canals, started near the old ones. In such ca ses the o ld .
casin g o f w ells, roads, water and oil pipe lines, unfilled m ines are filled with rain w ater and there is
buildings etc. The overload exerted by buildings in intrusion o f water through the intervening w a lls into
the areas o f recent in filled m aterials causes land the active m ines. The p rocess, so m etim es, is so
subsidence and resultant great dam ages to buildings, sudden that all the workers are subm erged and drowned
roads and pip elin es. Ill-d esign ed construction o f in the active m ines. C hasnala tragedy (Bihar, India)
house in the perm afrost areas causes thawing o f very w ell illustrates the fo lly o f hum an activity as
frozen m oisture w hich encourages subsidence o f water from the old left-o v er C hasnala coal m in e
land surface and buildings. gushed into the adjacent active m in e and all the
workers in the m in e lo st their liv es.
Certain human activities reduce the load o f
subsurface environm ent by w ithdrawing fluids (w a Underground m ining a lso lea d s to d iversion
ter and petroleum ) and solid m aterials (m inerals and o f underground flo w , disruption o f w ater flo w re
gim es, release o f harmful g a ses, rockbursts, out
rocks). Extraction o f groundwater through pum psets
bursts o f geom aterials, su b sid en ce cracks on the
and tube w ells at a m uch faster rate than the recharge
ground surface, ground surface disruptions etc. L o
o f groundw ater through annual infiltration o f pre
calised but m ore pow erful hum an a ctiv ities su ch as
cipitation results in low erin g o f water table w hich
use o f dynam ites to blast rocks for h igh w ay c o n
ca u ses d ep letion o f groundwater resources on the
struction, clearance for dam sites and o f cou rse the
o n e hand and the em pty cavity con seq u en t upon
m ost pow erful but disastrous nuclear ex p lo sio n s
‘groundw ater m in in g ’ and low erin g o f w ater table
cau se surface deform ation and m ore p ow erfu l earth
a llo w the ground surface to co lla p se on the other
quakes. Surface transform ation in p eriglacial areas
hand. It m ay be pointed out that su b sid en ce o f
brings hazardous e ffe c ts for hum an so ciety (see
ground surface due to ‘groundw ater m in in g ’ m ostly
p revious su b -sectio n ).
occurs in th ose areas w here the subsurface m aterials
are lo o se and u n con solid ated . T he extraction o f 30;10 MAN AND P E D O L O G IC A L P R O C E S S E S
m ineral o il and natural g a s from c o n so lid a te d S o il is very im portant natural resource be
lith o lo g ies ca u ses cracks, fractures, faults and sub ca u se it p ro v id es all sorts o f fo o d to m an as w ell as
sid en ce at local scale. T h e m in in g o f so lid m aterials it p rovid es b a ses o f life to terrestrial and aquatic
like coal, gold , copper, lim eston es etc. through under flora and fauna in o n e w ay or the other. T he physical
ground m ining cau ses co lla p se o f overlyin g surface. p ro cesses op erating in d ifferen t so il h orizons o f a
S o m e tim es the underground m in in g reaches d efin ite so il p ro file d eterm in e the gen eral properties
the w ater table and w ater fin d s its w ay into the m in e, o f so ils. S o il la rg ely in flu en ce s hum an activities
so w ater is pum ped out to ex ten d the m in in g further w h ich in turn a lso a ffect la b ile s o il characteristics
a n th r o po g en ic o b o m o r ph o lo o y 379
(those characteristics which are susceptible to exter horizon of dark brown colour whereas ploughed
nal changes occasioned by man). Thus, the study of chalk soils contain low humus content of only 2-3
intenfelationships between soil profile processes per cent of organic carbon because tjie humus con
and human activities is of paramount significance tent is distributed in all the horizons of soil profile
for better land use management. The formation of due to ploughing. Conversely, calcium carbonate
soil is a very slow natural process as the develop content in unploughed chalk soils in natural condi
ment of one inch thick soil requires one thousand tion may be as low as 15-20 per cent but it may
years but man can degrade, destroy and change the increase to 68-80 per cent after ploughing because
soils within very short period through his various ploughing helps in bringing the chalk to the upper
economic activities. The use of soils is must because horizons from the subsoil (S. Trudgill, 1981).
these are fundamental to the survival of human S. Trudgill has spelt out two procedures to
beings but the mechanisms of various soil profile estimate the rate of soil profile formation viz. (i)
processes and their responses to external changes dating of buried soil horizons with the help of pollen
brought by man must not only be realised but must analysis on the basis of pollen preserved in the soils
be also studied properly so that a particular soil is and 14 dating and (ii) deductions of the rate of soil
utilised in right manner. development from historical evidences from a known
The apparent direct impact of man on soil is starting point (by enclosing uncultivated land). Two
total loss of all horizons of soil profile due to accel specific studies in two different localities of U.K.
erated erosion consequent upon removal of surface reveal the rate of soil development in terms o f
vegetation mainly of slopy ground. The indirect changes in minerals and organic matter. The studies
human impacts include changes of soil properties of of soil organic profiles by K. Crabtree and E.M.
different soil horizons of soil profiles through vari Maltby (1975 and 1976) on Exmoor land (U.K.)
ous economic activities. It is, therefore, necessary at from 1833 to 1974 have revealed marked increase in
the very outset to study the characteristics of differ organic matter from 20 grams per m2 per year while
ent horizons of soil profiles of different kinds of soils the study of soils of Romney Marsh reclaimed from
in various climatic and vegetation zones. At the sea at various times (started in the 9th century) by
second level, there should be micro-level study of R.D. Green (1968) has identified decalcification as
various responses of soil components and soil pro the main process of soil development. The results o f
file processes to inputs applied by man to the soils these studies denote that the organic matter in the
and various responses of farm techniques and land soil changes at much faster rate than certain minerals
use practices to soil profile processes. At the third in response to changes in external conditions intro
level, there should be comprehensive planning for duced by human activities.
better soil conservation and management. Agricultural practices and farm techniques
A record o f past history of interactions of man are supposed to affect soil profile processes and soil
with soils may be very helpful in understanding the properties. The introduction of modern technology
ways the soil characteristics have changed overtime. involving heavy and huge farm machines results in
Similarly, the historical study of soil profile evolu the alteration of soil structure in certain conditions
tion enables us to ascertain (i) the process of devel (wet silt soils) through compaction. Overgrazing o f
opment of man-induced properties in the present pasture with big animals (cow herds, pigs etc.)
soils, (ii) the rate o f operation of various soil forming deteriorates the structure of wet soils. Increase in the
processes and helps to predict the changes in soil amount of organic matter responds positively to the
forming processes in future. It may be pointed out stability of soil aggregates. The content o f organic
that ploughing of soil for agricultural purposes acts matter in the soils is very important on two counts
as a process of redistribution and homogenisation of viz. (i) organic matter absorbs the soil pollutants
constituent elements of soils in different soil hori added by man to the soil and thus renders soil
zons of soil profile. S. Trudgill (1981, p. 194) has pollutants less harmful and (ii) organic matter present
reported that ‘unploughed chalk soils contain high in the soils allows growth of organisms living in the
unrns content of 8-14 per cent organic carbon in ‘A ’ soils which may decompose certain categories o f
580
GEOMORPHOLOGY
so il pollutants. T he sig n ifica n t so il pollutants added and degrade so il profiles.
by m an are p esticid e s (to kill in sects harmful to
T he use o f ch em ical fertilizers to enrich soils
cro p s) and h erb icid es (to destroy the w ild grow th o f for increased food production is rapidly increasing
undesirable plants in the crop field s). T he p esticid es in response to increasing food dem and to feed the
and h erb icid es u sed by m an fall into tw o categories teem ing m illio n s. E co n o m ica lly and so cially the use
e.g . (i) th ose w h ich are d eco m p o sed by so il organ o f chem ical fertilizers is desirab le but these should
ism s and thus are absorbed in the so il p rofiles and (ii) be used w ith proper care based on understanding o f
th o se w h ich are not d eco m p o sed but remain persist soil properties and their ability to assim ilate these
en t w ith high con centration. The last category o f fertilizers. For exam p le, nitrates are very important
p esticid es and h erb icid es is harm ful to so ils as these for plant growth but sin ce nitrogen is so lu b le and is
pollutants alter the so il chem istry. The decom p osed ea sily leached dow nw ard the am ount to be applied to
h erb icid es and p esticid es partly reach the food chains the soils should be d ecided in accordance w ith the
and are partly drained to water bod ies like rivers and structure o f soils. E x cess use o f nitrogen in loose,
lak es by h yd rological p rocesses. coarse grained and w ell drained so ils lik e sandy
B e sid e s p esticid es and herbicides, there are soils, results in greater lo ss o f nitrogen b ecau se it
pollutants o f h eavy m etals like zinc, copper, lead, being quickly d isso lv ed m o v es aw ay w ith w ater
m ercury, cadm ium , chrom ium etc. w hich are added m ovem ent. C onversely, phosphates are absorbed in
to so il profile from natural (g eo lo g ica l form ations) the soils and are concentrated in the so ils and m ay
not be available to plants. A cid ic so ils w ith iron,
and man - m ade source (ore m ining and direct
alum inium or m anganese contents en cou rage the
application o f certain m inerals to the field crops like
fixin g o f phosphates, w hereas alkaline so ils d iscou r
zin c). T h ese so lid matters are seldom decom posed
age solution o f calcium phosphate. A ll th ese result in
by soil organism s and are relatively insoluble in the
concentration o f phosphate in the upper horizon o f
so ils. C onsequently, they do not reach water bodies
soil profile but this concentration seld o m ad versely
in solution but their persistence and concentration in
affects the productivity o f so ils but the leach in g o f
the so il p rofiles change the soil properties by co n
nitrates and their m ovem en t to stream s and lak es
tam inating them.
encourages unwanted plant grow th w h ich ad versely
The p resence or absence o f acidic and alka affects the aquatic organism s.
line elem ents in the so il profiles affects d eco m p o si
Changes in plant co v er in term s o f ch a n g es o f
tion o f solid substances added by man to the soils.
plant sp ecies also alter the ch em ica l properties o f
H eavy m etals are generally decom p osed by acid
soils profiles. It may be pointed out that the ad verse
contents o f so ils and thus these d isso lv ed solid
effects o f human activities on soil profile p rocesses
materials are changed in solution form and are partly
and soil characteristics do not n ecessarily m ean to
consum ed by plants through root o sm o sis and reach
underm ine the value o f so ils as fundam ental re
the food chains and are partly rem oved by hydro-
source to human so ciety . W hat is d esirab le to make
logical processes and find their w ay to water bodies
soil resources m ore useful to hum an so ciety is to
like streams and lakes w hereas alkaline so il profiles
understand the processes o f so il form ation, the m echa
are not capable o f d isso lv in g solid m etals. The
nism o f operation o f so il form in g p rocesses, the
sulphur contents reaching the soil profiles through
m echanism o f operation o f so il p rofile p rocesses, the
fallout o f aerosol em itted by factories acidify the
properties o f so ils, the nature and rate o f various
soils and thus help in d ecom p osin g solid m etals. It
resp on ses o f so il ch aracteristics and soil profile
may be pointed out hat m inim um am ount o f certain
p ro cesses to external inputs added by man to the
elem ents like copper, zin c, sulphur etc. is necessary
so ils so that better so il m an agem en t strategies may
for plant growth and so long as the am ount o f these
be ev o lv e d to get m axim u m b en efits from soils
elem ents is within perm issible threshold values these
w ithout degrading them .
seldom becom e pollutants but increased am ount
m ay becom e injurious to soil profiles and c o n s e 30.11 M AN-INDUCED S O IL E R O S IO N
quently to plant growth but the presence o f n ickel, Man has recently b eco m e the m ost important
lead, mercury, chrom ium , cadm ium etc. is not d esir factor o f accelerated so il ero sio n b ecau se his multi
able as these elem ents are, w ithout doubt, pollutants facet activ ities ch an ge and m o d ify alm ost all o f the
a n t h r o p o g e n ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y 581 |
natural f a c to r s (as lis te d a n d d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ) w h ic h a g ric u ltu ra l p u r p o s e s , by q u a r r y i n g a n d m in in g , b y
control soil lo ss a n d soil e ro s io n . T h e h u m a n a c ti v i c o n s tr u c ti n g r o a d s , b y d i g g in g c a n a ls a n d d r a in a g e
ties le a d in g to a c c e l e r a te d rate o f soil e r o s io n m a y be d itc h e s etc. T h e c o n s tr u c tio n a l w o r k s in u r b a n a re a s
g ro u p e d u n d e r th r e e c a te g o r i e s viz. (i) land u s e a c c e le r a te soil e r o s io n a n d in c r e a s e s e d im e n t s u p p ly
changes in c l u d e r e m o v a l o f f o r e s t a n d g r a s s l a n d to th e n e a r b y r iv e r s b u t th is is l im ite d to th e p e rio d o f
c o v e rs f o r v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s viz. f o r in c r e a s e in c o n s tr u c tio n o n ly . S oil e ro s io n s to p s a fte r the c o n
a g ric u ltu ra l la n d , fo r m e e t i n g o u t e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g s tr u c tio n is o v e r.
d e m a n d o f s p a c e f o r i n d u s tr ia l e x p a n s i o n a n d u r (iii) T h e p h y s ic a l a n d c h e m i c a l p r o p e r tie s o f
b a n iz a tio n , f o r th e e x p a n s i o n o f m in i n g , f o r c o n s o ils a re c h a n g e d by d e v e g e t a ti o n , p l o u g h in g , i n
s tr u c tio n a l p u r p o s e s s u c h as r o a d s , rails, d a m s a n d c r e a s e d use o f m a c h i n e s , a p p li c a t i o n o f f e r tiliz e rs
re s e r v o ir s e t c . ; (ii) farm practice changes s u c h as etc. D e v e g e ta tio n c h a n g e s th e c o n t e n t o f o r g a n i c
g r e a te r use o f f a r m m a c h i n e s le a d i n g to g r e a te r m a tte r in the so ils a n d m o is t u r e a n d t h e r m a l c o n d i
im p a c t o f w h e e l e d t r a f f i c o n th e la n d ( u se o f tra c to rs , tio n s o f th e soils. P l o u g h in g m e t h o d s a ls o la r g e ly
h a rv e s to rs , c o m b i n e s e tc .) , f r e q u e n t c h a n g e s in n a
a ffe c t the m a g n i tu d e o f soil e r o s i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , in
tu re o f f a r m i n g s u c h a s s h if t f r o m f ie ld c r o p s to
the ‘kachhar lands’ ( v a l l e y - s id e s h a v i n g r ic h a ll u v ia l
o r c h a r d f a r m i n g o r c h a n g e f r o m f ie ld c r o p s to o r
so ils b e in g r e n e w e d e v e r y y e a r b e c a u s e o f r e c u r r e n t
c h a r d f a r m i n g o r c h a n g e f r o m f ie ld c r o p s to c a ttle
f lo o d s in th e I n d ia n a llu v ia l r iv e r s ) a re g e n e r a l l y
r a n c h i n g e tc . a n d (iii) management measures in
p l o u g h e d tr a n s v e r s e to the c h a n n e l s in o r d e r to g e t
c lu d e b o t h c r o p m a n a g e m e n t a n d la n d m a n a g e m e n t .
rid o f f e x c e s s iv e m o is t u r e (th e f a r m e r s h a v e little
E v e r - i n c r e a s i n g a p p li c a t i o n o f f a r m m a c h i n e a n d
tim e fo r s o w i n g ‘rab i c r o p s ’ - w i n t e r c r o p s in I n d i a
c h e m i c a l f e r t il iz e r s h a s la r g e ly m o d if ie d th e p h y s i
s u c h as w h e a t, b a rle y , g r a m , p e a s , m u s t a r d oil s e e d s
cal a n d c h e m i c a l c h a r a c te r is t ic s o f soils.
etc. b e c a u s e o f late w i t h d r a w a l o f f lo o d w a t e r ) . T h e
M a n i n d u c e s a n d a c c e l e r a te s soil e ro s io n by
c ro p s are n o t irr ig a te d a t all. W it h th e r e s u l t th e
m o d i f y i n g th e n a tu r a l f a c to rs o f soil e ro s io n th ro u g h
p lo u g h e d f u r r o w s b e c o m e d r y a n d p r o v i d e r e a d y
his a c ti v it ie s in a v a rie ty o f w a y s as g iv e n b e lo w -
p a th s for s u rfa c e r u n o f f d u r i n g n e x t m o n s o o n . T h u s ,
(i) C l i m a t i c f a c t o r is m o d if ie d by the r e m o v a l the c h a n n e lle d f lo w o f o v e r l a n d f l o w e r o d e s t h e
o f f o r e s t a n d g r a s s l a n d c o v e r s . E x t e n s i v e c le a r a n c e lo o se soil m a te r ia ls e a s ily a n d t r a n s p o r t s t h e m t o th e
o f v e g e t a t i o n i n c l u d i n g b o th fo re s ts a n d g ra s s e s
r iv e r c h a n n e l s o o n . T h e d e v e g e t a t i o n o n t h e l o w e r
e x p o s e s th e g r o u n d s u r f a c e to th e d ire c t im p a c t o f
s e g m e n ts o f h i ll s lo p e a n d c u l t i v a t i o n o f c u t - o v e r -
r a i n d r o p s . In th e a b s e n c e o f v e g e ta ti o n c o v e r th e re is
land a c c e le r a te s th e ra te o f so il e r o s i o n b e c a u s e o f
n o i n t e r c e p t i o n o f ra in f a ll a n d th u s f a llin g rain d r o p s
e x p o s u r e o f th e g r o u n d s u r f a c e to th e d i r e c t i m p a c t
w ith h i g h i n te n s it y a n d k in e tic e n e r g y s t r i k e the
o f r a i n d r o p s , f a u lty p l o u g h i n g o f th e l a n d a n d s l o p e
g ro u n d su rfa c e o f loose and u n c o n so lid a te d m ateri
fac to r. F r e q u e n t u s e o f h e a v y m a c h i n e s r e s u l t s in th e
als. C o n s e q u e n t l y , th e soil s u r f a c e is p e lt e d h e a v ily
c o h e s i o n a n d c o m p a c t i o n o f s o il s u r f a c e w h i c h r e
by r a i n d r o p s , soil p a r t i c l e s a re t h r o w n u p in the a ir
d u c e s i n filtra tio n o f r a i n w a t e r a n d m a r k e d l y i n
an d t h e y a r e w a s h e d o u t a f t e r t h e i r r e tu r n to the
c r e a s e s s u r f a c e r u n o f f w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y c a u s e s s o il
su rfa c e by s u r f a c e r u n o f f . T h u s , r a i n d r o p e r o s i o n o r
ero sio n th ro u g h sh e e tw a s h o r ra in w a sh .
rain s p la s h e r o s i o n is g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d w h i c h r e s u lts
in rap id a n d h e a v y l o s s o f s o ils . T h e f in e p a r t i c l e s (iv) E x ten siv e grazin g by sh eep , goats and
th ro w n up in th e a ir by t h e i m p a c t o f r a i n d r o p s cattle also in creases so il ero sio n . B e sid e s, the so il
strik in g th e s u r f a c e r e s e t tl e o n th e s u r f a c e a n d se al properties are greatly m o d ified through tram pling
the o p e n p o r e s p a c e s w i t h in th e s o ils . T h i s p r o c e s s by grazing anim als.
results in th e crusting of soil surface m a r k e d l y r e d u c e s It m ay be p oin ted ou t that natural p r o c e sse s o f
the in filtra tio n c a p a c i t y o f th e soi Is a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y g e o lo g ic a l ero sio n w hether o f co n so lid a ted m ateri
in cre ase s s u r f a c e r u n o f f a n d o v e r l a n d f l o w w h i c h als such as rocks or u n co n so lid a ted lo o s e m aterials
fu rth er e r o d e s th e s o ils at i n c r e a s e d r a te a n d t r a n s such as s o ils are so gradual but s lo w that th ese d o n ot
ports the e r o d e d m a te r ia ls .
ham per the p ro cess o f so il form ation but the m an-
(ii) Man m od ifies topography by construct- induced a ccelerated so il ero sio n is s o rapid and
>ng terraces or contour bunds on h illy slo p e s for im m en se that it disturbs the p ro cess o f s o il fo rm a tio n
582 GEOMORPHi
and thus there is enorm ous lo ss o f this precious rates o f so il erosion b eca u se o f the com p lexity o f the -
natural resource. factors w hich control so il erosion . For exam ple, it
has been estim ated that the average rate o f soil
Regional Pattern of Soil Erosion erosion on agricultural land in the U .S .A . is about30
It has already been pointed out that human ton n es per hectare per year but strip m ining often
activities such as replacem ent o f natural forest and g iv e s rise to a trem endous in crease in erosion active
grassland covers by agricultural lands, fellin g o f ity . In a m in in g district in southern K entucky, United
trees for com m ercial purpose, agricultural practices States, an annual sed im en t y ie ld o f m ore than 10,000
m ainly ploughing, large-scale grazing o f vegetation ton n es per square k ilom etre w a s recorded while
cover by sheep, goats and cattle, construction w orks undisturbed w atersh ed s in the sa m e area yielded
such as construction o f roads, dam s, reservoirs and on ly about 10 ton n es per square k ilom etre per year’
buildings etc. have no doubt accelerated the rate o f (N ature and R eso u rces, U N E S C O , V o l. 19, N o. 2,
normal process o f soil erosion very co m m o n ly known 1983). It has been reported that so il erosion during
as g e o lo g ic a l e r o s io n but it b eco m es d ifficu lt to the constructional sta g es in the urban areas increases
ascertain the am ount o f so il erosion ca u sed by hu 2 0 ,0 0 0 to 4 0 ,0 0 0 tim es m ore than the norm al rate o f
man activities and norm al p ro cesses o f so il erosion so il erosion in the undisturbed natural areas. T he rate
separately. ‘It is not know n in any detail h ow m uch o f so il erosion o f 3 4 ,0 0 0 ton n es per square kilom etre
the present rate o f total so il erosion in the w orld can per year has been reported from C entral C hina. A
be attributed to natural p ro cesses and h o w m uch is study by Savindra S in gh and S .P . A gn ih otri (1 9 8 7 )
the result o f m an's in flu en ce. N ev erh teless, som e has show n that the rate o f so il lo s s by rill and gully
scien tists have estim ated that m an is resp on sib le for erosion in the in tervenin g zo n es b etw een the G anga
m ore than 50 per cen t o f total erosion . E ven if this plain and the northern foreland o f P en in su lar India is
average figure is rather a rough estim ate, it is evident 2.3 5 m illion cu b ic m etres per year in Jaw a B lo c k o f
that in so m e en viron m en ts m an-induced erosion is
M .P.
d efin ite ly p red om in a n t’ (N ature and R esou rces,
S o il erosion cau sed by agricultural p ractices
U N E S C O , V o l. 19, N o . 2, 1 983) such as m on soon
and ex ten siv e d eforestation , clea ra n ce o f grasslan d
region s, tropical arid and sem i-arid region s, M ed i
covers and overgrazin g has assu m ed alarm in g pro
terranean region s and ev en tem perate grasslands and
portion in tropical, subtropical and sem iarid (sa
forests w here e x te n siv e forest and grassland clear
vanna) region s. E x ten siv e d efo resta tion in the tropi
a n ce for agricultural and co m m ercia l purposes has
cal evergreen rainforests has im m e n se ly d am aged
au gm en ted the rate o f norm al so il ero sio n by several
the p h ysical and ch em ic a l p rop erties o f s o ils and has
tim es.
accelerated so il ero sio n by m an y fo ld s. A cco rd in g to
It is estim ated that the w orld rivers carry the report o f the study o f ru n o ff and ero sio n under
about 4 0 ,0 0 0 cu b ic k ilo m etres o f w ater as surface various co v ers o f v eg eta tio n (v iz . fo rest or ungrazed
ru n o ff from the con tin en ts to the o cea n s each year. th icket, crop and barren s o il) in fiv e lo c a tio n s o f
A b ou t 15 to 2 0 m illio n ton n es o f erod ed s o ils are U pper V o lta (O u a g a d o u g o u ), S e n e g a l (S e fa ), Ivory
carried by the w orld rivers and are d ep o sited in the coast (B ou ak e and A bidjan) and T anzania (M pw apw a)
seas and the o cea n s ea ch year. B e s id e s , 4 b illio n in tropical region o f A frica (a s reported by A . G oudie,
tonnes o f fin e m aterials are carried by the w orld 1 9 8 4 ) the m ean annual ru n o ff is 0 .9 p erce n t, 17.4 per
rivers as su sp en d ed so lu b le m aterials. B a sed on this cen t and 40.1 per cen t o f th e total m ean annual
inform ation it is calcu la ted that ea ch cu b ic m etre o f rainfall for fo rest or un grazed th ick et c o v e r , agricul
w ater from the con tin en ts reach in g the sea s and the tural fie ld s and barren s o il r e sp e c tiv e ly . It is appar
o cean s via rivers carries w ith it about 5 0 0 gram s o f en t from the a b o v e record ed data that m ean annual
sed im en ts every year w h ich are d eriv ed m ain ly ru n o ff in crea ses c o n sid era b ly from fo rest co v er to
through so il erosion . T h e rate o f so il ero sio n (both barren so il. T h e rate o f so il ero sio n a lso in creases in
natural so il ero sio n and m a n -in d u ced accelera ted the sa m e d irectio n but at m u ch faster rate. T h e study
so il ero sio n ) varies co n sid era b ly from on e clim a tic s h o w s that the a v era g e rate o f s o il ero sio n in the
region to the other c lim a tic reg io n . E v en in a sin g le fo rest or u n grazed th ick et c o v e r , agricultural field s
clim atic region there is c o n sid era b le variation in the and barren s o ils in th e a fo resa id fiv e lo c a tio n s o f
ANTHROPOGENIC geo m orph olo g y 583
tropical A fric a n c o u n tr ie s is 0 .0 9 ,2 8 .8 a n d 69.1

fo u r s ta te m e n ts th a t th e rate o f soil loss a n d s e d im e n t
tonnes p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r res p e c tiv e ly . T h u s , it is yield fro m c u ltiv a te d c ro p fields is 1000 tim e s g re a te r
apparent that the rates o f soil e ro s io n in c r e a s e fro m than the rate f ro m fo re s te d a re a s. T h i s c le a rly d e m
m inim um rate o f 0 .0 9 to n n e p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r in o n s tra te s the d i m e n s io n o f im p a c t o f h u m a n a c tiv i
th*e forested c o v e r to 3 2 0 tim e s u n d e r c ro p c o v e rs ties u p o n soil loss a n d s e d im e n t y ield .
and 768 tim es u n d e r bare soil c o n d itio n s . T h e s e T h e s tu d ie s o f soil e ro s io n u n d e r v a rio u s la n d
figures c le a rly d e m o n s t r a t e the d o m in a n t role o f u se s in e a ste rn E n g l a n d (R .P.C . M o r g a n , 1 9 7 3 -7 5 )
man in a c c e le ra tin g the rate o f soil e ro s io n th ro u g h a lso in d ic a te m u c h d i f f e r e n c e in th e ra te s o f soil
his various a c tiv itie s m a in ly d e f o r e s ta tio n a n d a g r i e ro s io n u n d e r d i f f e r e n t la n d use c a te g o r ie s . F o r
cultural p ractice. e x a m p le , the rates o f soil loss o v e r t o p slo p e , m id s lo p e
T h e a re a s o f d e f o r e s te d m o u n ta in s lo p e s w ith a n d lo w e r s lo p e s e g m e n t s o f b a re soil c o v e r a re 7 . 10 ,
steep g ra d ie n ts a n d s e m i- a r id s a v a n n a la n d s o f E a s t 17.69 a n d 15.02 to n s p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r r e s p e c
A frica are th e re g io n s o f m o s t s e v e r e soil e ro s io n tively. O n the o t h e r h a n d , a n n u a l ra te o t soil l o s s is
caused, by v a rie d la n d use p r a c tic e s s u c h as (i) a lm o s t n e g lig ib le in the a re a s o f g r a s s l a n d c o v e r s
e x te n s iv e d e f o r e s ta tio n , (ii) o v e rg r a z in g , (iii) o v e r ( ra n g in g b e tw e e n 0 .1 7 to 0.68 ton p e r h e c t a r e p e r
c u ltiv a tio n , (iv) e x c e s s iv e c o lle c tio n o f f ir e w o o d y e a r) a n d f o re s t c o v e r s ( a n n u a l e r o s i o n ra te r a n g i n g
an d (v) e x c e s s i v e b u r n in g o f g ra s s la n d , w o o d la n d b e tw e e n 0 .0 0 8 to 0.012 ton p e r h e c ta r e p e r y e a r ) .
a n d fo re st. T h e te m p e r a t e g ra s s la n d s h a v e a lso been E x te n s iv e d e f o r e s ta tio n a n d o v e r g r a z i n g h a v e
c o n v e r t e d in to e x te n s iv e a g ric u ltu ra l r e g io n s and led to s e v e re soil lo ss in th e m o n s o o n l a n d s o f A s i a
th u s are p r o n e to e x c e s s iv e soil loss. T h e p r o b le m s o f in g e n e ra l a n d I n d ia in p a rtic u la r. T h e rill a n d g u l l y
a c c e le r a te d soil e ro s io n h a v e b e e n re p o rte d fro m e ro s io n is m o s t s e v e r e f o r m o f soil e r o s i o n in I n d i a .
d iffe re n t g ra s s la n d b io m e s o f the tem p e ra te grasslands It is estim ated that more than 3 7 ,0 0 ,0 0 0 hectares o f
o f the w o rld viz. s te p p e s o f the f o r m e r U .S .S .R ., agricultural lands have been rendered w a stela n d s in
p r a ir ie s o f C a n a d a a n d the U .S .A ., p a m p a s o f S o u th India due to intense rill and gu lly ero sion . T h ou gh
A m e r i c a , V e ld o f S o u th A fric a a n d D o w n s o f A u s deforestation (the percentage o f forest c o v er to that
tralia. T h e s tu d ie s o f soil e ro s io n a n d s e d im e n t yield o f the total geographical area has d ecreased from 3 0
u n d e r v a r i o u s lan d u se s in the n o rth e rn M is s iss ip p i, per cent to about 12 per cent) and co n seq u en t so il
the U .S .A ., (as r e p o r te d by A .N . S tra h le r a n d A .H . erosion has b ecom e a serious problem all o v e r the
S tra h le r, 19 7 6 ) d e n o te the fac t th a t the s u rf a c e r u n o f f country right from the nude and d en u ded h ills o f the
d e c r e a s e s c o n s id e r a b l y f ro m c u ltiv a te d c ro p fields North-Eastern Hill region in the east to bare A ra v a llis
( 4 0 c m p e r y e a r ) th ro u g h g r a z e d p a s tu r e s (38 c m p e r in the w est and from ex te n siv e ly d ev eg eta ted and
y e a r), a b a n d o n e d fie ld s (18 c m p e r y e a r), d e p le te d sick H im alayas in the noth to N ilg ir is and T a m il
h a r d w o o d (1 3 c m p e r y e a r) to p in e p la n ta tio n (o n ly Nadu plains in the south and from W estern G h ats in
2.5 c m p e r y e a r) . It is e v i d e n t fro m the a b o v e in fo r
the w est to Eastern G hats and co a sta l p la in s in the
m atio n th a t i n c r e a s i n g v e g e ta tio n c o v e r f r o m s h ru b s
east, but soil erosion through rill and g u lly ero sio n
to fo re s ts in c r e a s e s in filtra tio n o f r a i n w a t e r c o n s i d
has assum ed alarm ing d im en sio n in the states o f
e ra b ly a n d th u s s u r f a c e r u n o f f is r e d u c e d m a r k e d ly .
Uttar Pradesh (1 2 ,3 0 ,0 0 0 h ectares), M ad h ya Pradesh
T h is tre n d o f i n c r e a s i n g s u r f a c e r u n o f f f ro m f o re s t
c o v e r to c u lt iv a t e d c r o p fie ld s is a ls o c lo s e l y r e
(6 ,8 3 ,0 0 0 hectares), R ajasthan ( 4 ,5 2 ,0 0 0 h ecta res),
fle c te d in th e in c r e a s i n g ra te o f soil lo ss a n d s e d i Gujarat (4 ,0 0 ,0 0 0 h ectares), M aharashtra (2 0 ,0 0 0
m en t y ield in th e s a m e d i r e c ti o n a s a v e r a g e a n n u a l hectares), Punjab (1 ,2 0 ,0 0 0 hectares), Bihar (6 ,0 0 ,0 0 0
soil loss a n d s e d im e n t y ie ld i n c r e a s e s f r o m the hectares), T am il N adu (6 0 ,0 0 0 h ecta res) and W est
m in im u m v a lu e o f 0 .0 5 m e tr ic ton p e r h e c t a r e f o r B engal (1 ,0 4 ,0 0 0 h ectares) w h ere large areas h a v e
pin e p la n ta tio n s th ro u g h d e p l e t e d h a r d w o o d s ( 0.2 been en g u lfed by rill and g u lly e ro sio n .
m etric ton p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r), a b a n d o n e d fie ld s
E x ten siv e d eto resta tio n and terraced c u ltiv a
( 0 3 m etric ton p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r), g r a z e d p a s tu r e s
tion o v er U .P . H im a la y a s h a v e a cce lera te d th e rate
(36 m etric to n s p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r to v e ry h ig h
o f so il ero sio n . T h e stu d ies sh o w that 2 4 .9 9 m illio n
v a lu e o f 5 0 0 m e tric to n s p e r h e c ta re p e r y e a r ) fo r the
ton n es o f top s o ils are ero d ed e v er y year fro m th e
c u ltiv a te d c r o p fields. It a p p e a r s fro m th e a b o v e
m iddle and S iw a lik ran ges o f the H im a la y a s o f U ttar
584 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Pradesh, Thus, the mean annual rate o f soil loss from cant problem ex cep t so m e catastrophic events but
the U .P. H im alayas is 8 .34 hectare m etres per 100 accelerated erosion caused by human activities causes
square kilom etres (8 .3 4 ha m /10 0 km 2/year). It m eans several environm ental problem s w hich adversely
that 0 .8 3 4 m m thick soil cover is eroded every year affect the plant and anim al liv es e.g . siltation o f river
from the catchm ent area o f about 2 1 ,4 0 0 km2 o f the bed and their consequent rise, shifting in river courses,
Ganga in the U .P. H im alayas. In all 179.72 m illion increase in the frequency and m agnitude o f floods,
tonnes o f top so ils are eroded every year from Uttar reservoir sed im entation, fillin g o f lakes and their
Pradesh and are d isposed o ff by the Ganga river at degradation etc.
Varanasi. Total am ount o f average annual silt car ‘S e d im e n t y ie ld is a tech n ical term for the
ried aw ay from Uttar Pradesh to Bihar by the Ganga quantity o f sed im en t rem oved by overland flow
System is about 2 3 ,4 5 6 hectare m etres or 3 2 8 .3 8 4 from a unit area o f ground su rface in a given unit
m illion tonnes and average annual runoff o f the tim e’ (A .N . Strahler and A .H . Strahler, 1976) and
Ganga System betw een Uttar Pradesh and Bihar is this is usually ex p ressed in tons per acre or metric
about 21,328 thousand hectare m etres or 213 .2 8 tons per hectare. In other w ords, sed im en t yield
thousand m illion cubic m etres. The average annual refers to the total am ount o f sed im en ts rem oved
silt-load factor o f the G anga catchm ent area in Uttar from a unit area (per square m etre, per square m ile/
Pradesh (6 7 4 ,5 3 5 km 2) is about 3 .4 7 6 h a m /1 0 0 km 2/ kilom etre, per acre/hectare etc.) per unit tim e (usu
year or 0 .3 4 7 6 m m per year. It m eans that every year ally per year). S e d im e n t lo a d o f a river refers to the
about 0 .3 4 7 6 m m o f top so il o f Uttar Pradesh is total am ount o f sed im en ts o f various siz e s earned
eroded and carried aw ay to the State o f Bihar by the aw ay by a river as s u s p e n d e d and b e d lo a d w herein
Ganga river system . suspended load refers to the am ount o f fin e sedim ents
such as clay, silt and fin e sands w h ich are carried by
30.12 MAN AND SEDIM EN TATION
the river in su spension o f f the bottom . T he b e d lo a d
1. S e d im e n ta tio n P r o c e s s e s and G lo b a l com prised o f sand, gravel, p eb b les and c o b b le s is
Semidentation Problem s carried by the river w ater c lo se to the ch an n el floor.
The sedim entation p rocess refers to the d ep o It may be pointed out that hum an a ctiv ities m ain ly
sition o f sed im en ts carried by running water in land use changes (such as d efo resta tio n ), urb an iza
d ifferent suitable p laces like rivers, lakes and seas. tion, constructional w orks (such as con stru ction o f
In fact, the p rocess o f sedim entation is a com prehen roads, dam s and reserv o irs), farm in g p ra ctices,
siv e natural geom orp h o lo g ica l process w hich oper overgrazing etc. h ave accelerated the rate o f so il
ates through the chain o f erosion o f geom aterials erosion at alarm ing rate w h ich has b een resp o n sib le
(so ils, u n con solid ated surficial m aterials and parent
for supply o f en orm ou s quantity o f sed im en ts to the
rock), transportation o f these eroded m aterials called
w orld rivers. T he in creased sed im en t load o f the
as sed im en ts and d ep o sitio n o f th ese m aterials
m ajor rivers o f the w orld has ca u sed sev era l serious
(sed im en ts) in different parts o f the river basins,
en vironm ental p rob lem s and thus sed im en tation in
lakes and seas. It is, thus, apparent that the basic
the d ifferent seg m en ts o f the riveFS, la k e s, seas and
source o f the supply o f sed im en ts is erosion o f lo o se
and unconsolidated surficial m aterials as w ell as can als has a ssu m ed g lo b a l d im en sio n .
parent ro ck s. T h e n orm al rate o f e r o s io n o f It m ay b e stated that the m ajor river b asin s o f
geom aterials by natural p ro cesses w ith ou t b ein g the w orld m ain ly in the h u m id trop ical and subtropi
interfered by man's a ctiv ities is ca lled geological or cal reg io n s and sem i-a rid en v iro n m en t h ave becom e
natural erosion. ‘S lo w rem oval o f so il is part o f the e c o lo g ic a lly im b a la n ced b eca u se o f sedim entation
natural g eo lo g ica l p rocess o f denudation and is both p rob lem s due to a ccelera ted s o il ero sio n caused by
inevitable and u n iversal’ (A .N . Strahler and A .H . an th rop ogen ic factors. T h e a v era g e annual water
Strahler, 1976). On the other hand accelerated ero ru n o ff o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 k m 3 from the co n tin en ts to the
sion refers to the increased rate o f erosion ca u sed by o cea n s through rivers transports about 1 5 ,0 0 0 m il
various land u se ch an g es effecte d by m an. E rosion lion to 2 0 ,0 0 0 m illio n to n n es o f so lid m aterials per
and sedim entation under natural co n d itio n s are part year to the o c e a n s b e sid e s 4 ,0 0 0 m illio n tonnes o f
o f denudation system and d o not ca u se any s ig n ifi so lu b le m aterial in su sp en sio n (A k e Sundborg, 1983,
ANTHROPOGENIC g eo m o r p h o lo g y
in Nature and R esources, V ol. 14, N o.2). O ne o f the load 1,450 m illion tonnes/year) and the Y ellow
highest rates o f soil erosion is reported from the (catchm ent area 7 5 2 ,0 0 0 km2, m ean annual wate^
Y ellow basin o f China wherein mean annual rate o f discharge 1,379 m 3/sec and mean annual sedim ent
soil erosion per square kilom etre per year is 3 4 ,0 0 0 load 1,640 m illion tonnes/year) w hich clearly show s
tonnes m eaning thereby the loss o f 34 kg o f soil from more dom inance o f vegetation in the A m azon catch
every square metre o f the river basin per year (re m ent than the aforesaid tw o basins (G anga basin o f
ported by A ke Sundborg 1983, based on the study o f India and Y ello w basin o f China). The total G anga
S. Gong and G. X ion g, 1980). Savindra Singh and catchm ent representing a bit m ore than one-third o f
S.P. Agnihotri (1 9 8 7 ) have reported that m ean an the M ississippi catchm ent o f the U .S .A . (3 ,2 6 9 ,0 0 0
nual rate o f soil erosion is 55.7 m 3per hectare o f land km 2) and only 1.27 tim es m ore than the Y ello w
in the Tons riverine environm ent in Teothar tahsil o f catchm ent o f China contributes about 5 tim es m ore
Madhya Pradesh, India. ‘Various studies on soil sedim ents than M ississip p i (annual sedim ent load
erosion and sedim entation problem s in different being 300 m illion tonnes) and about 2 0 0 m illion
parts o f the world indicate that the com m on factors tonnes less than the Y ello w river. T he sed im en t load
for severe soil erosion are high intensity rains, per square kilom etre per year o f the G anga, the
seasonality o f annual rainfall, lo o se and highly erod- Y ello w , the M ississip p i and the A m azon is 1,5 0 0
ible soils, high reliefs, deforestation, faulty land use tonnes, 2 ,4 8 0 tonnes, 91 tonnes and 139 tonnes
practices, construction works e tc .’ (Savindra Singh respectively. Thus, the high rate o f sed im en t load o f
and A. D ubey, 1989). the Ganga reflects the im pact o f deforestation o f the
source areas o f the catchm ents o f the G anga S y stem
‘T he A m azon basin with highest catchm ent
(the Him alayas and the foreland o f Indian P en in
area (6 ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 km2) and highest mean annual water
sula) w hich has accelerated the rate o f erosion o f
discharge (1 7 2 ,0 0 0 m 3/sec-cu m ecs) carries less an
nual sedim ent load (8 5 0 m illion tonnes/year) than surficial m aterials’ (Savindra S in gh and A . D u b ey ,
the relatively sm aller basin like the Ganga (catch 1987, p. 154). Table 30.1 presents the data o f se d i
ment area 9 5 5 ,0 0 0 km 2, mean annual water dis ment load together with total catch m en t area, and
charge 11,800 m 3/sec and mean annual sedim ent mean water discharge o f m ajor rivers o f the w orld.
Table 30.1 : Catchment Areas, Water Discharge and Sediment Loads of Some Selected Rivers of the World
River Country Catchment Mean water Annual sed im en t S ed im en t load
area (km 2) discharge load (m illion (ton n es per sq.
(m 3/sec) tonnes/year) km per year)
Y ellow China 7 5 2 ,0 0 0 1370 1640 2480
Ganga India and Bangladesh 9 5 5 ,0 0 0 11,800 1450 15 0 0
Amazon Brazil 6 ,1 0 0 ,0 0 0 172,000 850 139
Brahmaputra India & Bangladesh 6 6 6 ,0 0 0 12,200 730 1100
Yangtze C hina 1 ,8 0 7 ,0 0 0 2 9 ,2 0 0 480 280
Indus Pakistan 9 6 9 ,0 0 0 5 ,5 0 0 435 450
M ississippi U .S .A . 3 ,2 6 9 ,0 0 0 2 4 ,3 0 0 300 91
Irrawaddy Burm a 4 3 0 ,0 0 0 13,500 300 700
Red river S o cia list R epublic 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 3 ,9 0 0 130 1100
o f V iet N am
Parana A rgentina 2 ,3 0 5 ,0 0 0 90 38
Congo Zaire 4 ,0 1 4 ,0 0 0 3 9 ,6 0 0 72 18
Pearl China 3 5 5 ,0 0 0 8,000 70 260 :J
Danube Rom ania 81 6 ,0 0 0 6 .2 0 0 65 ^ 80 3
N iger N igeria 1,081,000 4 ,9 0 0 21 19 ‘
Ob river U SSSR 2 ,4 3 0 ,0 0 0 12,200 15 6 tj
Po river Italy 5 4 ,3 0 0 1,550 15 280
vm
D on river U SSR 3 7 8 ,8 0 0 830 4 .2 ii
Rhine N etherlands 160,000 2.200 2.8 17
W isla Poland 193,000 900 1.4 7
S ource : A k e Sundborg, Nature and R esources, 1983, V ol. 14, N o. 2
It appears from table 30.1 that the rivers o f The average sedim ent loads o f major tribu
tropical, subtropical and Mediterranean regions carry tary streams o f the G anga river at different sites in
larger am ount o f sed im en t loads than the rivers o f the the state o f Uttar Pradesh reveal the com parative rate
other b iom es b ecau se o f tw o basic factors viz. (i) o f erosion o f the H im alayas, the V indhyan uplands
large-scale deforestation and (ii) enorm ous volum e (foreland o f Indian Peninsula) and the G anga plains
o f w ater b ecau se o f heavy rainfall in the catchm ent o f alluvial soils. The Y amuna river, the m ost sign ifi
areas. T he Y e llo w , the G anga, the A m azon, the cant tributary o f the Ganga in Uttar Pradesh brings
Brahmaputra, the Y angtze, the Indus, the Irrawaddy,
annually about 9 ,1 2 7 ha m (hectare m etre) o f sed i
the R ed, the Po rivers etc. tell the story o f ever-
ment at Allahabad, the site o f the co n flu en ce o f the
in creasin g sed im en t loads because o f accelerated
G anga-Yam una w heres the m ean annual runoff, silt
rate o f so il erosion con seq u en t upon rapid rate o f
content by volum e o f water and silt load factor are
rem oval o f vegetal co v er in their catchm ents. The
7.7 m illion ha m, 0 .1 1 9 6 p ercen t and 2 .4 9 3 ha m /1 0 0
average annual sed im en t load per square kilom etre
km 2/year respectively. The average annual silt load
for th ese river basins ranges betw een 139 tonnes and
o f the Y am una at D elh i site is only 1511 ha m and the
2 4 8 0 ton n es w hereas the average annual sedim ent
load o f the rivers o f co ld er clim ates ranges betw een average silt load factor is as high as 8 .6 3 4 ha m /1 0 0
6 tonnes per square k ilom etre per year to 17 tonnes/ km 2/year. It m eans that the silt load factor in the
km 2/year. It m ean s that the problem o f sedim enta upper reaches o f the Y am una (at D elh i site) is higher
tion o f the river b asins is m ore alarm ing in the by 6.141 ha m /1 0 0 km 2/year than the silt load factor
tropical, subtropical and M editerranean countries at its con flu en ce (A llahabad) w ith the G anga. T hus,
than th ose o f the tem perate and polar clim ates. the higher silt load factor o f the Y am una in its upper
reaches than its lo w er reaches reveals h igh er rate of
2. Regional Sedim entation Problem s erosion o f the H im alayas. It m ay be pointed out that
It is evident from table 30.1 that the Ganga the catchm ent area o f the Y amuna increases 21 times
river carries the second largest amount of sediment from D elh i (1 7 ,5 0 0 km2) to Allahabad (3 6 6 ,0 0 km2)
load o f 1450 million tonnes/year and annual rate of w hereas the silt load factor is reduced by 3.5 times.
sediment load per square kilometre is also the sec T h is is b ecau se o f the fact that major tributaries of
ond highest (1500 tonnes/km2/year) in the world. the Yamuna co m e from the northern part of Indian
This huge amount o f sediments is contributed by the Peninsula and thus marked reduction in the silt load
network of tributary rivers of the Ganga system factor in downstream course of the Yamuna is be
through the erosion of three physiographic regions cause of slow rate of erosion of relatively resistant
of India viz. (i) the Himalayas, (ii) the Ganga plains rocks of the Vindhyan Uplands (northern part of
and (iii) the foreland of Indian Peninsula. The sedi Indian Peninsula) by the left-bank tributaries of the
ment load characteristics of the Ganga system in
Yamuna (the Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken etc.). The
Uttar Pradesh o f India illustrate the nature of accel
so u rce ca tch m en ts of the Yamuna, the Ganga, the |
erated rate o f erosion consequent upon deforestation
R a m g a n g a and the G haghra (all are the tributaries of
in the source catchment areas of the tributary rivers
the Ganga) bring 7 0 4 ha m, 1913 ha m, 4 0 9 ha m and
of the Ganga mainly in the Himalayas.
a n th ro po g en ic g eo m o r p h o lo g y 587
6140 ha m sedim ents each year from the H im alayas system and transported to the state o f Bihar, the
to the plains respectively. TTie sedim ent load factors Him alayas, the V indhyan uplands (foreland o f In
o f these rivers at the foot-hill zon es o f the H im alayas dian Peninsula) and the alluvial plains (G anga
are 6.132 ha m /100 kmVyear, 8.33 ha m /1 0 0 km2/ plains) contribute 9 ,1 6 6 ha m (1 2 8 .3 2 m illion tonnes),
year, 13.025 ha m /100 km 2/year and 13.599 ha m/ 8,423 ha m (1 1 7 .8 3 m illion tonnes) and 5 ,867 h a m
100 km2/year respectively w heresas the correspond (82.13 m illion tonnes) respectively. Thus, the Him a
ing catchment areas o f these rivers in the H im alayas layas, the Vindhyan uplands, and the alluvial plains
are 11,422 km2, 2 2 ,9 2 6 km 2, 3 ,1 3 4 km2 and 46,145 contribute 39 per cent, 3 6 per cent and 2 5 per cen t o f
km2 respectively. the total annual sedim ent load o f the G anga system
in Uttar Pradesh. The different terrain com ponents
Out o f total annual sedim ent load o f 2 3 ,4 5 6 ha o f Uttar Pradesh are eroded at an average rate o f
m (328.28 m illion tonnes) carried by the Ganga 0.347 mm per year.
Table 30.2 : Silt and Runoff Data at different sites on Ganga river in the State of Uttar Pradesh, India
Silt observation Distance from Average annual Average annual Average silt load Average % o f
sites the source (km) runoff (thousand silt load (million factor (h a m /100 silt content by
million m3) tonnes) km2/year) volum e o f run

o ff
R ishikesh 250 27.78 24.99 8.34 0 .0 6 4
Kanpur 760 33.43 53.28 0 .1 0 9

Varanasi 1115 116.99 179.72 2.48 0 .1 1 6
Border o f Uttar 1370 213.28 328.38 3.48 0 .1 1 0

Pradesh and Bihar
Table 3 0 .2 reveals the increasing trend o f metres. The average silt load factor is 3 .4 7 6 ha m l
sedim ent load, ru n off and decreasing trend o f silt 100 km2/year and average per cent silt con ten t by
load factor w ith increasing distances from the source volum e o f runoff is 0 .1 1 . T he top so il is erod ed aw ay
at different h yd rological centres located along the at the rate 0 .3 4 7 6 m m per year. T he upper catch m en t
Ganga river. It is apparent from table 3 0 .2 that o f the G anga system in the H im alayas con trib u tes
average silt-load factor near the m ountainous area at 128.32 m illion tonnes o f silt load o f the entire G an ga
R ishikesh h yd rological centre is quite high (8 .3 4 ha system in the state o f Uttar Pradesh. T h e Y am u n a
m per 100 km 2 per year) in com parison to the through its tributaries lik e the C ham bal, the B etw a ,
hydrological sites in plain areas near V aranasi (2.48 the Ken etc. brings 117.83 m illion tonnes o f sed im en ts
h a m /100k m 2/year)an d at the border o f Uttar Pradesh each year from the foreland o f Indian P en in su la
and Bihar (3 .4 8 ha m /1 0 0 km 2/year). T his trend o f m ainly from the w orld fam ou s C ham bal ravinou s
silt load factor reveals the fact that the rate o f soil tracts w here rill and g u lly ero sio n h as resu lted in the
erosion (soil lo ss) is quite h igh in the upper reaches form ation o f d en se netw ork o f g u llie s ranging in
o f the catchm ent o f the G anga river (0 .8 3 4 m m per depths from 5 m etres to 8 0 m etres. On the other
year) in com parison to plain areas. hand, 8 2 .1 3 m illio n ton n es o f to p -so ils are erod ed
The G anga system com p rised o f sig n ifica n t each year from the a llu vial p lain s o f the state o f U ttar
tributaries lik e the Y am una, the R am ganga, the Pradesh and are brought to the G an ga through its
Gomti, the Ghaghra etc. and co v erin g a total catch tributaries (S avin d ra S in g h and A . D u b ey , 1 9 8 9 ).
ment area o f 6 7 4 ,5 3 5 km 2 (ou t o f total catch m en t ‘T h e h igh rate o f flu v ia l ero sio n in the H im a
area o f 9 5 5 ,0 0 0 km 2) in the state o f Uttar Pradesh layas is b eca u se oif reck less fe llin g o f tress for th e la st
carries an annual sed im en t load o f 3 2 8 .3 8 4 m illio n 100 years or so. H u g e am ou n t o f sed im en ts u n lo a d ed
tonnes and ru n off o f 2 1 3 .2 8 thousand m illio n cu b ic by the H im alayan rivers in the p la in s c a u s e s silta tio n
• GEOMORPHOLOGY
o f the river beds, ch an ges in the river courses, control the hazardous problem o f soil erosion and
braiding o f the channels and increase in the fre increasing rate o f siltation o f river beds in Uttar
quency and d im en sion o f flo o d s’ (Savindra Singh Pradesh’ (Savindra Singh and A . D ube, 1989).
and A . D ubey, 1989). The study conducted by A. The D am odar river is another exam ple of
D u b ey (1 9 8 5 ) has show n that the bed o f the Ganga carrying enorm ous am ount o f sedim ents derived
river at A llahabad has risen by 1 .8 9 m betw een 1971 from the accelerated rate o f soil erosion o f the forest-
to 1978 w h ile the study o f S .S . Ojha (1 9 8 7 ) has cleared land o f eastern Bihar and western West
revealed that the bed o f the G anga at Allahabad has B engal.
risen by 4 .1 0 m during the last 80 years. ‘A lm ost
com p lete deforestation in the catchm ents o f the 3. Sedimentation and man
C ham bal, the B etw a, the Ken (tributaries o f the A ccelerated soil erosion is the m ost important
Y am una) and the T ons (tributary o f the G anga) has source o f sedim ent loads o f the rivers. Natural proc
resulted into accelerated rate o f soil lo ss through rill esses o f erosion, transportation o f eroded materials
and g u lly erosion . The Cham bal gu llies range in by the rivers and their d eposition in suitable areas of
depths from a few m etres to 8 0 m w hereas the depth the river basins are o f com m on occurrence and
o f g u llies in the T ons riverine area (bordering the norm ally these do not initiate any m ajor environ
G anga plain) varies from 5 m to 30 m ’ (Savindra m ental problem but the ever-in creasin g activities o f
S in gh and S.P. A gnihotri, 1987). ‘The m ost vulner ‘econom ic’ and ‘technological m an’ such as culti
able areas for accelerated so il erosion are the inter vation with greater use o f agricultural im plem ents,
v en in g zon es o f the foreland o f Indian Peninsula and forestry, grazing, constructional w orks (such as con
the Y am una-G anga plain and he foot-h ill zones o f struction o f roads, dam s, reservoirs etc.), m ining,
the H im alayas. M arkedly reduced discharge o f w a urbanization, accelerated rate o f tech n ical d ev elo p
ter in the m ajor rivers due to diversion o f water ment etc. accelerate the rate o f natural or g eo lo g ica l
through canals and lift irrigation sch em es during erosion and thus man has b eco m e the m ost im portant
lean flo w p eriod (O ctober to June) is responsible for source o f sedim ent supply to the rivers. Tt is not
sig n ifica n t siltation in the river b ed s’ (Savindra known in any detail how m uch o f the present rate o f
S in gh and A . D u b ey, 1989). total erosion in the w orld can be attributed to natural
‘T he transfer o f en ergy and geom aterials processes and h ow m uch is the result o f man's
in fluence. N ev erth eless, so m e scien tists have e sti
through the m icro -p ed o g en ic erosional p rocesses
m ated that man is resp on sib le for m ore than 5 0 per
fu n ction in g in and through the catch m en t area o f the
cent o f the total e ro sio n ’ (A k e Sundborg, 19 8 3 ). The
G anga river sy stem in the form o f kinetic energy o f
hum an activ ities in flu en ce the ch an n el aggradation
the river w ater and entrained so il particles resp ec
(d ep osition o f sed im en ts in the river v a lle y ) in the
tively b etw een Uttar Pradesh and B ihar creates havoc
fo llo w in g m anner -
in the agricultural p rod u ctivity as w ell as per hectare
yield o f crops due to ero sio n o f large am ount o f (1 ) T he sed im en t load o f the rivers is en
fertile so ils from Uttar Pradesh. T he problem o f soil m o u sly in creased b eca u se o f p h en o m en al increase
erosion b ecau se o f m icr o -p e d o g e n ic erosion al proc in so il ero sio n m ain ly through rill and gu lly erosion
esses and in creasin g problem o f d e fic ie n c y o f soil cau sed by d efo resta tio n , o v erg ra zin g , faulty fann
fertility due to w a sh in g aw ay o f the fertile top layer ing p ractices, forest fires etc. H u g e am ount o f sand,
o f so ils is gradually in creasin g in Uttar Pradesh. T his silt, gra v els, p eb b les and c o b b le s is carried aw ay by
problem is a lso b ein g aggravated due to in creasin g the rivers as su sp en d ed lo a d and b ed load . A s the
interference o f m an as a g eo m o rp h ic agen t in the am ount o f sed im en t in crea ses, the rivers becom e
g e o c y c le system o f g eo m o rp h ic en v iro n m en t (su ch o v erloa d ed and ad d ition al sed im en ts are deposited
as d eforestation , overgrazin g, faulty land u se prac as san dy c o llu v ia and a llu v ia in d ifferen t parts o f the
tices etc.). A fforestation, d ev elo p m en t o f n ew grasses river v a lle y s. D e p o sitio n o f sed im en ts in the beds
to increase the shear strength and a g g reg a te-sta b ility ( val ley floor o f the rivers) c a u ses ch an n el aggradation
o f s o ils /s c ie n t if ic m eth od o f farm m an agem en t, w h ich resu lts in gradual rise in the river b ed s. R ise in
farmer's aw aren ess p rogram m es etc. can c h e c k and the river b ed s c a u se s sev era l serio u s environm ental
a n t h r o p o g e n ic g e o m o r p h o l o g y
problem s. R e c k le ss fe llin g o f trees renders h ills and annual sedim ent yield o f more than 10,000 tonnes/
ridges nude. T h e e x p o se d bare rocks o f su ch nude km2 was recorded w hile undisturbed watersheds in
hills and rid g es are su b jected to sev ere d isin tegra the same area yielded only about 10 tonnes/km2/
tion and d eco m p o sitio n by m ech a n ica l and ch em ica l year* (Ake Sundborg, 19 8 3 ). Coal m ining sttpplW
weathering p rocesses. C onseq u en tly, w eathered rocks enormous quantity o f coarse sedim ents and causes
are ea sily erod ed a w a y and are co n v erted in to coarse large-scale aggradation o f channels. Strip m ining o f
sands and g ra v els. W h en su ch co a rse sands and coal in the Dam odar V alley (India) releases huge
gravels are d ep o sited in h u g e am ou n t in the v a lley s quantity o f coarse sed im en ts every year. This addi
and riverine z o n e s g o o d fertile agricultural so ils are tional am ount o f sed im en ts increases the s c d tm c tA
buried under h eap s o f en o rm o u s quantity o f coarse load o f the Damodar and causes fillin g o f reservoirs
sands and thus agricultural p rod u ctivity is co n sid er o fth e D am odar V alley Authority (D .V .A J. ‘Through
ably reduced but the d ep o sitio n o f fin e a llu viu m in out the A pplachian co a l fie ld s, channel aggradation
the riverine z o n e s a lso in crea ses agricultural pro is w idespread b eca u se o f the h u g e supplies o f coarse
ductivity b e c a u se o f th e en rich m en t o f so ils. sed im en ts from m in e w a stes. Strip m ining has
M ajor en g in e e r in g w ork s su ch as con stru c en orm ou sly in creased the aggradation o f valley bot
tion o f d am s, m a n -m a d e reservoirs or lak es behind tom s b eca u se o f the vast su rfa ces o f broken rock
the d am s, artificial le v e e s and em b an k m ents etc. availab le to entrainm ent by r u n o f f (A .N . Strahler
a lso a ffe c t th e transportation and d ep o sitio n o f and A .H . Strahler, 1976).
sed im en ts. A ccelera ted rate o f so il erosion in the (3 ) Increasing urbanization and constructi
so u rce ca tch m en t areas co n seq u en t upon d eforesta o f roads m ain ly in the h illy areas contribute enor
tion , o v ergrazin g and fau lty cu ltivation m eth od s m ou s quantity o f very co a rse sedim ents w hich in
relea se en o rm o u s quantity o f sed im en ts into the crease the sed im en t load o f the riv ers and cause
rivers and th ese sed im en ts settle d ow n in the reser channel aggradation. T h e p eriod o f construction o f
voirs behind the dam s. R eservoir sedim entation causes b u ild in gs in the urban and in d ustrial areas augm ents
several p ro b lem s to e n g in eerin g w orks e.g . fillin g o f the supply o f sed im en ts to t h e n e a r b y rivers and
reservoirs, d a m a g e to turbines, d ecrease in sed im en t cau ses channel aggradation but th is is not a perennial
lo a d in the d ow n stream sectio n o f the channel and source o f sed im en t su p p ly. In fa ct, ‘m ining, urbani
h en ce sco u rin g o f v a lle y s etc. zation and h ig h w a y con stru ctio n not only cause
(2 ) M in in g op eration s su pp ly h u ge am ountdrastic
of in crease in b ed lo a d , w hich cause channel
sed im en ts to th e rivers and thus in creased sed im en t aggradation c lo s e to the so u rce but also increase the
load c a u ses aggrad ation o f ch an n els o f the rivers in su sp en d ed lo a d o f the sa m e stream s. Suspended load
m an y p la ce s. ‘Strip m in in g often g iv e s rise to a travels d ow n stream and is eventually dep osited in
trem en d ou s in cr ea se in ero sio n a ctivity. In a m in in g lak es, reservoirs and estuaries far from the source
district in sou th ern K en tu ck y , U n ited S tates, an areas’ (A .N . Strahler and A .H . Strahler, 1976).
CHAPTER 31 : CLIMATE CHANGE AND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY 590-629
In dicators o f clim a tic chan ges; ca u ses and th eories o f c lim a tic c h a n g e s ;
quaternary clim a tic ch a n g es and landform s.
REFERENCES 631-639
INDEX 641-652
-r . 1 ■
- - / 1
i ■■ ■
: tfT: t ’-•
31
CLIMATE CHANGE AND QUATERNARY
GEOMORPHOLOGY
T h e r e la tio n sh ip s b etw een clim a te and p roxy data for the rec o n stru ctio n o f palaeo-
geom orphic processes have already been demostrated geomorphology.
in chapter 4 entitled ‘C lim atic G eom orphology and
31.1 MEANING AND C O N C E P T
M orp h ogen etic R eg io n s’ o f this book. Since the
Variability, in both tim e and space, is an
nature o f geom orphic processes is determined by
inherent feature o f clim ate, as the atm osphere is
tw o m ain attributes o f clim ate viz. precipitation and
always in the state o f turmoil and instability leading
tem perature and hence with changes in clim atic
to variations in weather and clim atic conditions. T he
co n d itio n s o f a region the nature and type o f
clim atic change, thus, is defined as variations and
geom orphic p rocesses including processes o f weath
shifts in weather conditions over space and tim e o f
e rin g , m a s s w a s tin g and m a sstr a n slo c a tio n o f
different scales and m agnitude resulting into change
rock w astes, also changes. Thus spatial and temporal
o f clim atic type for exam ple, from warm and m oist
ch an ges in clim ate and hence geom orphic processes
clim ate to warm and dry clim ate, from warm and
a lso introduce spatial variations in landform s and
m oist clim ate to co o l and m oist clim ate (as happened
several p h ases o f different clim ates in a region
during Carboniferous period in India) etc. Infact,
in trod u ce co m p lex ity in the landscape m osaics. It is,
clim atic change refers to drastic or secular changes
thus, im p erative to study the nature, indicators and
in heat balance o f the earth-atm osphere system ,
c a u se s o f clim a te ch an ges w hich occurred in the past
m oisture, clou d in ess and precipitation caused by
g e o lo g ic a l h istory o f the earth. T hough m ost o f the
either external factors such as variations in orbital
p rin ts o f o ld er lan d scap es have been erased by
characteristics o f the earth, solar variability (flu c
s u c c e e d in g p h a s e s o f d e n u d a tio n by v a ry in g
tuations in radiation from the photosphere o f the
g e o m o r p h ic p r o c e s s e s cau sed by clim atic changes
sun), tectonic p ro cesses (m ainly plate te c to n ic s and
and m o st o f th e la n d sca p es have b eco m e exam p les
d isp la cem en t o f co n tin en ts and o cean basins),
b f ‘p a lim p sests topography, but certain relicts o f
vulcanicity, ch an ges in atm ospheric com p osition in
p r e v io u s la n d fo rm s h a v e been preserved as fossil
terms o f concentration o f atm ospheric aerosols and
la n d fo r m s w h ic h p r o v id e s ig n ific a n t c lu e s and
CLIMATE CHANGE A N D QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY
carbon dioxide contents etc. or by internal factors are periods o f greater than normal clim atic instabil
such as exchanges o f energy between the atmos ity’ (.J. E. H obbs, 1980).
phere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and cryosphere (ice
The human society with present-day weather
covered surfaces o f both lithosphere and hydro
conditions is seized with the problems o f possible
sphere) or by both, at local, regional and global
climatic changes in near future. The m ost significant
le v e ls . The clim o ch ro n o lo g y (h isto r y of global environmental problem faced by the world
palaeoclim ates) reveals the fact that clim ates have community is global environmental changes (GEC)
changed in the geolo g ica l past and hence it is opined leading to probable clim atic changes consequent
that ‘the w orld’s clim ates have changed in the past, upon global warming resulting from a host o f causal
are changing now , and there is every reason to factors, namely ozone depletion, increase in the
expect that they w ill change in future’ (J .E . H o b b s, em ission o f green house gases at alarming rate,1
1980). If the change is law o f nature, the change in deforestation etc. The probable net result o f global
clim ates is a reality because the clim ate o f a region warming would be clim atic changes at local, re
is not fixed and static rather it goes on changing. gional, and global levels. The international com m u
Som e tim es, the changes a re c y c lic and rh y th m ic , nities are scared o f catastrophic adverse effects o f
such change is called clim a tic cycle. It m ay be future climatic changes on different spheres o f man
m entioned that James Hutton (a Scottish geologist) and nature, e.g. deglaciation and sea level ch anges,
w hile propounding the concept of uniformitarianism, submergence o f island nations and major coastal
postulated the concept o f cyclic nature of earth’s lowlands, atmospheric dynam ics including evap o
history. The e x a m p l e o f o c c u rr e n c e s o f ice ages ration and precipitation, global radiation balance,
during (1) p r e - C a m b r i a n p e rio d (8 5 0 -6 0 0 m illion photosynthesis and ecological productivity, plant
years before present, m b p = m illion years before and animal com m unities, human health and many
present), (2) Ordovician period (4 5 0 -4 3 0 m bp), (3) more. It may be summarized that clim atic change is
Carboniferous— P e r m ia n p e rio d s (3 0 0 m bp), and a reality, it has changed in the past, it is changing at
(4) P leistocen e period (2-3 m b p ) v a lidates the con the present, and it w ill change in future. The change
cept o f cyclic nature of climatic changes. o f climate may be slow and gradual, rapid and
The clim atic changes are supposed to be quick catastrophic, periodic, sem i-periodic or non-peri
and rapid rather than slow and gradual but this may odic, short-term or long-term , may be at local, re
not be alw ays true as clim atech an ges both gradually gional and global scales, it may be due to natural
and rapidly, partly and drastically. For exam ple, the factors or anthropogenic factors. It is, thus, n eces
clim atic change, w hich occurred during Jurassic sary to discuss various aspects o f clim atic changes,
period leading to m ass extinction o f dinasaurs due to namely scales o f clim atic changes (both spatial and
sudden onset o f cold clim ate, was rapid and instan temporal scales), indicators o f clim atic changes
taneous. In fact, the rate o f cl imatf c changes depends (i.e. evidences o f clim atic ch an ges), reconstruction
on the nature o f causal factors. The rapid Jurassic o f p alaecolim ates (clim o ch ro n o lo g y ), cau ses o f
climatic change is related to sudden co llisio n o f the clim atic ch an ges, theories o f clim atic ch an ges,
and effects o f clim atic changes on both nature and
earth and a giant m eteors and consequent release o f
biological com m unities including human b ein gs.
enormous amount o f dusts in the atm osphere. One
cannot infer the nature o f long-period clim ate on the 31.2 SCALE DIMENSION
basis o f present-day clim atic conditions. It is also an The clim atic variations and changes are v ie w ed
observed fact that the ‘cool periods o f earth history in terms o f temporal and spatial sca les d ep en d in g on
GEOMORPHOIOGY
the purpose o f studies. The temporal scales o f cli sands o f years. Short-term clim atic changes are
m atic changes range from a very m icro-scale in volv either inter-annual or they may persist for many
in g 10-day period to m acro-tem poral scale in v o lv years and are generally caused by anthropogenic
ing thousands to m illion s o f years. ‘The variability factors. On the other hand, long-term climatic changes
m ay be periodic (A ), quasi-periodic (B ), or non persist for thousands to m illions o f years and are
periodic (C ), or alternatively it may show a progres exceed in gly slow . T h ese are alw ays caused by natu
siv e trend’ (B a rry and C h o rley, 2002). It may be ral factors. Only long-term clim ate changes are
m en tion ed that spatial and temporal scales o f c li geom orphologically sign ificant because these can
m atic ch an ges are correlated e.g. as the temporal introduce changes in landscape m osaics o f a region.
sca le o f ch an ge b eco m es shorter, the area also be
3 1 .3 INDICATORS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES
co m es sm aller. In other w ords, the changes may be
The evid en ces o f clim atic changes in the past,
m ore p ercep tib le and pronounced in localized area
w h ic h are u tiliz e d in th e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f
during short period o f recorded clim atic data, but if
climochronology (history o f palaeoclim ates) are called
w e co n sid er clim atic data at regional lev el involving
indicators o f past clim atic changes. T he riddle o f
large cou n tries or continents, and at global level, the reconstruction o f palaeoclim ates is a fascinating
lo ca l le v e l ch an ges are overshadow ed. Thus, the puzzle, the solution o f w hich basically depends on
clim a tic ch an ges m ay be view ed in terms o f three proxy data (w hich include alternative sources o f data
tem poral sca les, nam ely (i) m acro-tem poral scale as substitutes for real data) and lo g ica l deductions by
(m illio n s o f years), (ii) m eso-tem poral scale (thou the investigators. It may be m entioned that recorded
sands o f y ears), and (iii) m icro-tem poral scale (hun data o f weather and clim ate are available on ly sin ce
industrial revolution, m ore p recisely for the last 100
dreds o f years). T h ese three tem poral scales corre
years or so, and hence proxy data for recorded data
sp on d to g lo b a l, region al, and local spatial scales. At
are the only indicators to decipher the pages o f past
region al and lo ca l spatial sca les the clim atic vari
clim atic history and changes on the basis o f H uttonian
a b ility can be lo o k ed upon at even shorter temporal
theory o f uniform itiarianism (postulated by S cottish
s c a le s w h ich m ay range from very m icro-tem poral
geo lo g ist, Jam es Hutton in the year 1785). T h is
sc a le to in cr ea sin g tim e span e.g. ( 1 ) 1 0 days tim e
theory w as based on tw o con cep ts o f H utton, n am ely
s c a le , (e ) 1 0 -1 0 0 d ays tim e sca le, (3) 1 0 0 -1 0 0 0 days
(i) ‘present is key to the past’ , and (ii) ‘no vestige o f a
tim e s c a le , (4 ) 1 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 days tim e sca le etc. It
beginning, no prospect of an e n d / T he prin ciple o f
m a y be rem em b ered that such ch an ges may be
uniform itarianism states that 'th e sa m e p h y s ic a l
d ete c te d o n ly i f the instrum ented data are very accu
p r o c e s s e s a n d la w s th a t o p e r a te to d a y , o p e ra te d
rate and regular. T h e clim a te ch an ges w hich o c
th r o u g h o u t g e o lo g ic a l tim e, a lth o u g h n o t n e c e ssa r
curred in th e p ast, sa y b efore the industrial revolu
ily a lw a y s w ith th e s a m e in te n s ity a s n o w ' (Hutton
tio n , ca n n o t be v ie w e d in such a m icro-tem poral
postulated sam e in ten sity o f p ro cesses throughout
s c a le s .
g e o lo g ic a l tim e).
G e n e ra lly , clim a tic ch a n g es are con sid ered at
T he in d icators (c lu e s) o f p a la eoclim ates may
tw o le v e ls e .g . (1 ) short-term changes, and (2 ) long
be classified on the basis o f basic sources as fo llo w s :
term ch an ges. S h ort-term clim a tic ch a n g es in v o lv e
th e co n sid e r a tio n o f c h a n g es in the en ergy balan ce o f (1) B iological In d icators
th e earth -a tm o sp h ere sy stem lea d in g to p eriodic (A ) Floral indicators

v' . ;• *) t i-i sMM
c h a n g e s in w ea th er and clim a te. T h is tem poral sca le (i) fo ssil rem ains o f plants S.
in v o lv e s tim e sp an ra n g in g from fe w years to thou- (ii) fo s siliz e d p o lle n s
CLIMATE CHANCE >\ND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY
(iii) oxygen isotopes (B) Geomorphological processes

(iv) tree ring growth (6) H istorical R ecords
(dendrochronology)) (i) flood records
(B) Faunal indicators (evidences) (ii) drought records
(i) fossilized anim al rem ains (iii) migration o f man and animals
(ii) distrib u tio n and dispersals o f ani 1. Biological Indicators
m als
The fossilized organic remains o f plants and
(2) G eological In d icators animals (i.e. organic residues) provide significant
(A) Terrigeneous ancient deposits evidences and proxy data for contemporary clim atic
(i) la c u s trin e deposits conditions mainly temperatures and moisture. It
may be mentioned that the nature and types o f
(v arv e s)
organisms and their habitats are determined by a
(ii) e v a p o rite d eposits
climatic type. After their deaths the plants and ani
(iii) s e d im e n ta ry deposits (coals)
mals are preserved in the forms o f fossilized organic
(B ) Marine deposits remains in the contemporary and subsequent g eo
(i) sea flo o r deposits logical formations. The analysis o f such organic
(C) Pedogenic indicators fossils through the application o f proper techniques
(3) C ry o g en ic In dicators (e.g. carbon dating, oxygen isotope analysis, pollen

analysis, dendrochronology etc.) reveals important
(A ) Glaciation
clues to decipher contemporary past clim ates. The
(i) ice ages
biological indicators fall under two broad categories
(ii) g laciers and glaciation e.g. (I) plant (floral) indicators, and (2) animal
(iii) ice sheets and ice cores indicators (faunal indicators).
(B) Periglacial evidences
(1) Plant (floral) Indicators
(4) T ecton ic In dicators Presently, there is very close correspondence
(A ) Plate tectonics between the distribution o f clim ate types and v e g
(i) p o le w a n d e rin g and continental drift etation ty p es. B a sed on the p r in c ip le of
uniformitarianism, as stated above, and the concept
(ii) p a la e o m a g n e tism and sea flo o r
o f ‘present is key to the past’ it may be opined that
s p re a d in g
similar relationships and conditions m ight have pre
(B ) Sea level changes vailed throughout geological history o f the earth.
(5) G eo m o rp h o lo g ica l In d ica to rs Thus, on the basis o f fossilized plant remains, the
(A) Morphological features vegetation type is inferred and such inferred infor
mation (proxy data) provide clue to determ ine the
(i) e rra tic s
nature o f clim ate. For exam ple, the existen ce o f
(ii) sa n d d u n e s coals having remains o f tropical forests, in the north
(iii) river terraces w est Europe and Great Britain remind us hot and '
(iv) d u ric ru s ts • humid clim ate o f these areas during Jurassic period.
(v) pediments The plant physiology gives sufficient inform ation
(iv) tors about clim atic conditions. For exam ple, the fo ssil
594 G EOMORPHOLOGY
rem ains o f plants having long roots, thick barks, The remains o f vegetation in the thick coal •
w axy leaves, thorns, little leaves etc. indicate warm seam s o f Carboniferous period worldover are re
and dry clim ate (warm desert clim ate), w hile plants lated to horsetails and club m osses which develop in
having drip leaves are indicators o f warm and very marsh and swam p environm ent. The fossil remains
m oist conditions (tropical rainforest clim ate). N ow o f trees in Carboniferous coal seam s do not indicate
question arises, w hy plant p h ysiology indicates a annual ring growth w hich reveal the fact that such
particular clim ate? The answer is sim ple, the physi trees thrived in warm and m oist clim ate with no
o lo g ica l characteristics o f plants are indicative o f appreciable seasonal contrasts.
their adaptation to particular type o f clim atic condi
Pollen Analysis
tions. A few m ore exam ples may be cited. The
The pollen analysis in volves the inference o f
vegetation com m unity having sclerophyllous char
clim atic conditions on the basis o f dating o f fossil
acteristics (s tiff and hard leaves and stem s with thick
ized pollen grains preserved in the inorganic sediments
barks) can withstand extrem e aridity o f summer
layers. It may be m entioned that pollen grains of
season. T he plant remains o f such sclerophyllous flow ering plants are very durable organic substances
vegetation indicate dry sum m er and w et winter cli which are duly preserved by the nature. The pollen
mate (M editerranean type o f clim ate). The cryophyte grains are distributed by wind in w ide areas having
vegetations are w ell adapted to severe cold condi similar type o f vegetation. The scien ce o f palynology,
tions as they d evelop such unique features which which is the study o f pollen grains and spores o f
en ab le them to withstand extrem e cold conditions. plants, helps in identifying the types o f vegetation on
Thus, the fo ssil rem ains o f cryophyte plants indicate the basis o f pollen grains, and the vegetation types
cold clim atic con d ition s (tundra clim ate). give clues for deciphering the clim ate in w hich that
Wind
= = >
Pollen Climate
Modern plants
W arm and
Oak, beech,
moist
spruce
Pine, spruce
Mostly pine
Core through
lake deposits
Fig. 3 U : Presentation o f simplified method of pollen analysisfor the reconstruction ofpalaeoclimates. After J.E. Oliver
and J.J. Hindore, 2003.
CLIMATE CH A N G E AND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY
vegetation type m ight have developed. The pollen

plant species and hence this technique fails to give
analysis in v o lv es the identification o f layered se desirable result.
quence o f p ollen grains in the terrigenous sedim ents,
(ii) The winds can carry the pollen grains and
the dating o f p ollen grains o f each layer, determ ina
deposit them in distant places away from the area o f
tion o f vegetation type o f each layer and finally the
the vegetation o f which the pollens have been blown
determ ination o f clim atic condition o f each vegeta away.
tion type (fig. 3 1 .1 ). Fig. 31.1 depicts the pollen
(iii) Not all the pollens o f vegetation o f a
analysis technique w herein the fo ssilized pollen
region are are deposited, rather they are deposited
grains preserved in lacustrine deposits o f lower,
selectively and randomly, and hence they may not be
m iddle and upper layers denote dom inance o f pine in
taken as representatives o f particular vegetation
the low er layer, p revalen ce o f pine and spruce in the
type.
m iddle layer, and oak, b eech and spruce sp ecies o f
trees in the upper layer under the modern plant (iv) The distribution o f vegetation has been
tempered and m odified by human actions, both ad
co v ers. On th e b a s is of th e p r in c ip le of
vertent and inadvertent and hence pollen analysis
uniform itarianism , the low er and m iddle layers hav
would not be useful for the reconstruction o f
ing p o llen grains o f pine and spruce indicate cool
clim ates o f recent past mainly since the neolithic
clim a te w h ile the upper layer containing pollen
times.
grains o f oak, b eech and spruce trees reveals the
p revalen ce o f warm and m oist clim ate. (v) ‘A vegetation cover only attains maturity
after fairly a lengthy period o f tim e, and it is quite
It m ay be rem em bered that pollens o f flow ers
feasible that the vegetation established through p o l
o f plants are b low n aw ay by w inds, they settle down
len analysis represents successional stage that is not
on land su rface as w ell as water surfaces o f lakes,
totally representative o f the prevailing clim ate’ (Oliver
p on ds etc. T h e p ollen s deposited on land surfaces
and Hidore, 2003).
m ay d eca y after lap se o f tim e but pollen grains
fa llin g on w ater surfaces sink down and are depos Dendrochronology
ited in the layers o f sed im en ts. The p ollens so fo ssil D endrochronology is the scien ce that deals
ized in d ifferen t sedim entary layers are identified with ‘the study o f the annual rings o f trees in deter
and their p lan t sp e c ie s are determ ined. The identifi mining the dates and chronological orders o f past
cation o f p lan t sp e c ie s on the basis o f their pollen clim atic even ts’. The ring growth o f the trunk and
grains th en h e lp s in d eterm in in g the clim a tic stem o f a tree provides significant clues for detecting
con d ition s on the b asis o f present relationship b e seasonal rhythms o f clim ate during the life tim e o f
tw een plant ty p es and associated clim atic con d i the concerned tree. The thickness and spacing, and
colour o f growth rings indicate the clim atic condi
tions.
tions and rate o f annual growth o f trees. The w idely
In sp ite o f w id e u se o f p ollen analysis tech
spaced thick growth rings denote warm and m oist
nique in determ inin g vegetation types and a sso c i
clim ate with su fficien t rainfall to support luxurious
ated clim atic co n d itio n s this m ethod suffers from the
and quick growth o f trees, w hile narrow and clo sely
follow ing sh ortcom in gs.
spaced tree growth rings denote arid clim ate and
(i) In the c a se o f m ix ed vegetation area having
poor grow th o f trees. The colours o f growth rings
several plant sp ecies, the p o llen grains are m ixed
also denote seasonal w eather conditions. ‘The abrupt
and in such circu m stan ces it b eco m es d ifficu lt to
change from light to dark-coloured rings (grow th
separate p o llen grains o f d om inant and co-d om in an t
rings) delineates the annual increments o f growth’ they are tilted when ice com es clo se to the trees
( O liver and H idore, 2003). It may be m entioned that Thus, erect trees and resultant concentric and sym
the study and interpretation o f different aspects o f metrical growth rings are indicative o f withdrawal
tree rings such as, the size (thick or narrow), number, or retreat o f glaciers w hile asym m etrical rings reveal
colour shades, symm etry or asymmetry etc. provide advancing glaciers. It may be m entioned that tilting
information about clim atic and environm ental vari o f trees and resultant asym m etrical growth rings
ations sustained by the concerned tree during its life may not be alw ays due to glacial advancement,
tim e and hence the clim atic events which happened rather it may also be due to landslides, gusty winds,
in the recent past, say 3 0 0 0 -4 0 0 0 years before present strong storms etc.
m ay be r e c o n s tr u c te d on the b a sis of
dendrochronological characteristics.
(2) Faunal Indicators
Identification and analysis o f fo ssiliz ed in
The study o f tree ring growth, known as
vertebrate animal rem ains em bedded in the sed i
dendrochronology, was initiated by A. E. D ouglas
mentary form ations provides sign ifican t clu es about
and his team at the U niversity o f Arizona, U SA .
the clim atic conditions that existed during the period
A fter the analysis o f growth rings o f trees in the
o f their survivals. In this respect the p h ysio lo g ica l
southw estern U S A he found clo se relationship be
characteristics o f fo ssils o f invertebrate anim als
tw een annual am ount o f rainfall and growth rings in
(without backbones) and their chem istry are o f vital
the adverse clim atic conditions o f the S. W. United
significance w herein tw o techniques are u sed to
States. T he scien tists have becom e successful in
determ ine their age, nam ely (1) radiocarbon dating
reconstructing the clim atic conditions and environ
(C-14 analysis), and (2) isotope analysis.
m ental ch an ges for the last 3 0 0 0 years on the basis o f
The analysis o f fo ssils o f b on es o f in verte
analysis o f grow th rings o f livin g trees, and for the
brate anim als helps in determ ining the lith o lo g ica l
last 5 0 0 0 years on the basis o f fo ssils o f dead trees.
su ccession s o f sedim entary form ation s con tain in g
T he scien tists at Laboratory o f Tree R ing Research,
anim al fo s sils and th ereafter the s e q u e n c e s o f
U n iversity o f A rizona, U S A , have also derived lo g i
palaeoclim ates are reconstructed on the b asis o f
cal and fruitful in ferences about the relationship
dating o f anim al fo ssils and sedim entary layers. It
b etw een w eather elem en ts (e.g. temperature, air
may be rem em bered that anim al fo s s ils are m o stly
pressure, and atm ospheric circulation patterns) and
preserved in the bottom s o f o cea n s, lak es and rivers
w idths and sp a cin g o f tree rings. Such relationships
w hich provided them suitable habitats for their d e
h ave a lso been used to dem onstrate clim atic fluctua
velop m en t and su rvival. Each sp e c ie s o f tiny crea
tions w h ich took p la ce during the life tim e o f trees.
ture (e.g. foram inifera) su rv iv es in certain tem pera
D en d ro ch ro n o lo g y also helps in reconstruct ture and m oisture co n d itio n . A fter death su ch crea
in g the ad van ces and retreats o f glaciers in the recent tures are em b ed d ed in the mud* layers o f water
past on the b asis o f sh apes o f tree grow th rings like b od ies. T he m ass deaths o f certain sp e c ie s o f m icro
con cen tric (sy m m etrica l) grow th rings or a sy m o rgan ism s take p la ce w hen the tem perature and
m etrical rings. It m ay be rem em bered that grow th m oisture co n d itio n s ch a n g e and b e c o m e u n favour
rings b e c o m e con cen tric and sym m etrical as lon g as able to them . N e w sp e c ie s o f o rg a n ism s d e v e lo p in
the trees rem ain p erfectly erect (p erp en d icu lar to the accordan ce w ith n ew tem perature and m oistu re
ground su rfa ce) but b eco m e a sym m etrical w hen the regim e. T h is p ro cess co n tin u es and fo s s ils o f an i
trees are tilted . It is argued that trees are erect w hen m als are d ep o sited in the s u c c e s s iv e layers o f bottom
the g la cia l ic e is aw ay from the p o sitio n o f trees but sed im en tary layers o f sea s, la k es and rivers. A fter
CLIMATE CHANGE AND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY 597
determining the lithological successions, the animal number o f oxygen isotopes contained in the shells o f
fossils in each layer are identified and their dates are dead animals the prevailing temperature at the time
determined on the basis o f carbon-14 analysis. On o f the existence o f particular animal is determined.
the basis o f the principle o t ‘uniformitarianism' (the For this purpose again the cores o f mud layers from
comparison o f anim als o f a particular geological the floors o f oceans, lakes and river valleys are taken
period as determined on the basis o f C -14 analysis, out, oxygen isotopes o f shells o f each mud layer are
with identical anim als at present provides the cli determined, temperature condition for each mud
matic conditions in which they lived on the ground layer is inferred and finally temperatures prevailing
that same physical processes and laws which operate at the time o f deposition o f animal skeletons and
today operated throughout geological periods) the mud layers are used to ascertain clim atic changes.
climatic conditions o f that particular period is in Tw o important research projects, nam ely
ferred. CLIMAP (Climate, Longrange Investigation, Map
The radiocarbon dating method or carbon-14 ping and Prediction) and COHMAP (C ooperative
analysis requires obtaining o f cores o f mud layers Holocene Mapping Project), were concerned with
containing animal and plant fo ssils from the floors o f the study o f clim atic changes which m ight have
oceans, lakes, and river valleys and the dating o f the occurred in the recent past on the basis o f carbon- 14
fossils is accom plished through the analysis o f car
analysis and isotope analysis o f skeletons o f organ
b on -14 and carb on -12 contained in the skeletons o f
isms embedded in the mud layers at the floors o f the
the fo ssilized animals. It may be mentioned that
skeletons o f dead animals ‘contain both ordinary oceans. The CLIMAP studies concentrated on the
carbon and minute trace o f isotope carbon-14. The reconstruction o f palaeoclim ates o f about 1,00 0 ,0 0 0
proportion o f carb on -14 to carbon-12 remains fixed years before present, w hile COHM AP project stud
w hile the organism is alive. After it dies the carbon- ied the palaeoclim ates o f the past 10,000 years
14 begins to decay; by know ing the ratio o f carbon- only.
12 to carbon-14, one can determ ine the age o f the The occurrence o f large numbers o f anim al
sh ell’ (O liver and H idore, 2003). fossils in close proximity o f a region denotes the fact
The isotope analysis of the chemistry o f sk el that they might have been "killed during a cata
strophic disasters e.g. advancing ice sheets and freez
etons o f fo ssiliz ed anim als also helps in determining
ing, severe droughts, m eteoric co llisio n w ith the
palaeoclim ates on the basis o f temperature and m ois
earth (as is supposed to have happened during C re
ture con d ition s w hich are inferred from the body
taceous period killing dinasaurs enm ass) etc. On the
chemistry o f dead anim als. O xygen has three non
basis o f such evidences one can infer the clim atic
radioactive iso to p es e.g. O 17, 0 18 and O 16 out o f
and environm ental conditions at the tim e o f co n
which the first tw o iso to p es are not very com m on but
cerned catastrophic disaster.
the last one is com m on and normal isotope. After the
evaporation o f water, these isotop es crystallize at 2. Geological Indicators
different rates in the sh ells i.e. O 18 isotop e settles G e o lo g ic a l in d ic a to r s ( e v id e n c e s ) of
down more rapidly than the O 16 isotope because the palaeoclim ates include lithological characteristics
latter is lighter than the form er isotope (O 18). It may o f m ainly sedim entary d eposits such as lacustrine
be mentioned that the rate o f crystallization o f o x y deposits (varves), evaporites, lim eston es and coal
gen isotope is controlled by temperature. T he number seam s, marine d eposits (sea floor d ep o sits), s o il
° f settling O 18 isotop e decreases w ith increase in the profiles etc. Varves are the alternate seq u en ces o f
temperature o f ocean water. T hus, on the basis o f layers o f fin e silts and c la y s dep osited at the flo o rs o f
598 .
GEOMORPHOLOGY
lak es and large p on ds in such an area w hich is areas o f D eccan plateau (e.g . M ahabaleshwar and
ch aracterized by alternate freezin g and thaw ing dur Panchgani plateaus o f Maharashtra). The presence
in g w in ter and su m m er sea so n s resp ectively. Thus, o f lateritic crusts in certain parts o f Europe (e.g. U K
the lith o lo g ica l seq u en ces o f lacustrine d ep osits in and G erm any) clearly dem onstrates the fact that
the aforesaid con d itio n d en ote periglacial clim ate. these are not the result o f the present temperate
T h e a n a ly sis o f annual layers o f silt and clay pro clim ate. ‘Such crusts are often interpreted as o f
v id e s an idea o f season al ch an ges in clim ate. It may Tertiary age, or as having been under continuous
be m en tion ed that w hen the surface freezes during form ation sin ce the end o f fhe M eso zo ic. Exposures
iw in ter sea so n , very fin e suspended clay particles are o f silcretes and calcretes sim ilarly are often related
d ep o sited in the lak es and ponds but during sum m er to past rather than present clim atic co n d ition s’ (D.R.
se a so n , w hen frozen surface thaw s (m elts;, silts with Stoddart, 1969).
m elt w ater are d ep osited in the lakes and ponds. Pedogenic criteria used to decipher past cli
S u ch typ e o f annual banded alternate layers o f clay m ates, include the analysis o f p a la eo so ls and fo ssils
and s ilt d en o te p eriglacial clim ate. o f plants and anim als therein. T he alluvial soils
E vaporite d ep o sits, represented by salt d ep os buried in older flood plains g iv e indication o f m oist
its, o ccu r w hen clim a te is characterized by high clim ate and the dom inance o f fluvial p rocesses. The
tem perature and aridity w herein evaporation e x older lo e ssic soils indicate dry clim ate and the d om i
c e e d s precip itation . In such circum stances water is nance o f aeolian p rocess. E ven the m aterials in
evap orated and salt con ten ts are left behind. It may volved in the deposition o f lo ess also g iv e clu es for
be m en tion ed that this happens only* when water on clim atic conditions. The ex ten siv e lo ess d ep osits o f
land is sa lin e and thus salt is in solution form. So, the China having areal coverage o f 7 7 4 ,0 0 0 km 2 and
m a ssiv e salt rocks d ep osited on land surfaces, such thickness o f 90 m to 30 0 m co n sist o f m aterials
as in S o u th -W est U S A , G erm any, Central A sia, blow n from the deserts o f central A sia w h ile the
N orth -W est India (m ain ly Rajasthan and Gujarat), European loess is exam ple o f glacial lo ess. The
d en o te hot and arid clim a tic environm ent. A m erican loess, exten sively found in Illin ois, Iow a,
Nebraska etc. is partly glacial and partly desert lo ess.
Lim estones (Ca‘C 0 3) con tain in g calcium car The daterm ination o f p alaeoclim ates on the basis o f
b on ates are d ep osited in tropical warm ocean ic w a fo ssil rem ains in the so ils is accom p lished through
ter and h en ce the occu rren ce o f lim eston es in the radiocarbon dating and isotop e an alysis, w hich have
reg io n s h avin g co ld cl im ates den otes the fact that the already been explained in the previous subsection on
co n cern ed region w as under tropica) warm clim ate floral and faunal indicators.
at the tim e o f lim esto n e d ep osition .
3. Cryogenic Indicators
D uricrusts are indurated hardened surfaces o f
C ryogen ic indicators are related to the proxy
d ifferen t kinds such as laterites, silcretes, calcretes, data from the ev id en ces o f glaciation , glaciers and
alcretes, ferricretes etc. d ep en d in g on the dom in an ce icesh eets. T he scien ce d ealing w ith glaciation and
o f con stitu en t m inerals. N o rm ally, lateritic crusts g laciers is know n as glaciology. T he p rocesses o f
are su p p osed to have been form ed in hot and hum id glaciation and d eglaciation provide sign ificant proxy
clim a te o f tropical and subtropical areas and there data for clim atic ch a n g es and flu c tu a tio n . T he pe
fore th ese are in d ica tiv e o f hot and hum id clim ate. riod o f w idespread glaciation ot larger areas o f the
L a te r itic c r u s ts are p r e d o m in a n tly fo u n d in g lo b e is ca lled great ice age w hich com p rises several
C hotanagpur high lands (Patlands o f R anchi and g la cia l and interglacial periods. T h e glacial period
Palam au plateaus o f Jharkhand), and over m any d en otes on set o f cold clim ate and advance o f ice
CLIMATE C H A N G E A N D Q U A TERN A RY GEOM ORPHOLOGY
m
sheets w h ile interglacial periods indicate relatively ice sheets heralds increase in temperature and subse
warmer periods w hen ic e sheets retreat. The g e o lo quent ablation o f glaciers dem onstrates onset o f
gists, g la c io lo g ists and clim a to lo g ists have identi warmer cl imate. The glaciologists have demonstrated
fied a few great ice ages (e.g . pre- Cambrian ice age, the retreat o f A lpine glaciers and resultant shrinking
Carboniferous ice age, and P leisto cen e ice age) in their length and width about 3 0 0 0 B.C . (i.e. about
when ma jor portions o f the g lo b e w ere glaciated and 50 0 0 ybp, years before present), follow ed by re
covered with thick ic e sheets w hich are definite advance o f glaciers about 500 B.C. (i.e. 2 5 0 0 ybp)
indicators o f m ajor clim a tic changes. and again retreat o f g la ciers. The A lp in e and
C r e d it goes to E u rop ean sch ool of Scandinavian glaciers registered resurgence in the
geom orp h ologists and g la c io lo g ists for identifica 17th and 19th centuries w hile they again started to
tion and recogn ition o f ice ages. L o u is A g a ssiz retreat in the 20th century. A ll these indicate c li
(1 8 0 7 -1 8 7 3 A .D .) is giv en credit for an early start in matic fluctuations characterized by co o lin g (ad
this precarious field and for the recognition and vance o f glaciers) and warming (retreat o f glaciers)
id en tification o f the presen ce o f ice age during periods during the past 5 0 0 0 years in European
P leisto cen e period as he presented his ideas in the continent.

year 1840. A host o f g eo scien tists, nam ely Jean de Ice sheets and ice cores are m ost sig n ifica n t
Charpentier, John Playfair (1 8 1 5 ), V en etz o f S w it cryogenic indicators o f p alaeoclim ates. It m ay be
zerland (1 8 2 1 , 1829), Esm ark o f Norw ay (1824), remembered that the ice sheets are form ed by the
Bernhardi o f G erm any (1 8 3 2 ) etc., studied different deposition o f several layers o f ice. The accum ulated
asp ects o f P leisto cen e ice age. The Scottish g eo lo snow from the annual snow fall is com p ressed and is
g ist Jam es G e ik ie postulated the concept o f ‘great changed to ice w herein the air bubbles and atm os
ice a g e ’ in 1894 w hich is com prised o f several pheric dusts are trapped. Thus, every year a layer o f
g la cial p eriod s w hich are separated by warm inter ice is deposited upon underlying ice layer. It is
gla cial p eriod s. A . P enck and Bruckner identified evident that the great ice caps o f G reenland and
four g la cia l periods during P leisto cen e ice age e.g. Antarctica are com prised o f num erous ice layers
G unz. M in d el, R iss, and Wurm w hich w ere sepa wherein the then clim atic con d ition s have b een pre
rated by three warm interglacial periods. Sim ilarly, served. Thus, the study o f each ic e layer p rovid es
fou rglacial periods (e.g. N e b ra ska n , K ansan, Illin o in , am ple evid en ce o f the weather and clim atic co n d i
and W is c o n s in ) and three interglacial periods (e.g. tions at the tim e o f its form ation. The d rillin g into ice
A fto n ia n , Y a rm o u th , and S a n g m a n ) w ere identified caps is undertaken to obtain ice cores for an alysis.
during P le isto c e n e glaciation o f North A m erica. The fo llo w in g properties o f ice layers derived from
M ost o f G on d w analan d w as glaciated during Car the ice cores provide proxy data for tem perature,
boniferous ice age. . precipitation, com p osition o f atm osphere, storm i

ness, volcun ic even ts, atm ospheric p ollu tion etc.
The sh apes o f glaciated va lley s, glacial drifts,
erratics (glacial boulders), striations etc. provide (i) thickness~of annual ice layers
important clu es for clim atic ch an ges. precipitation
T he glaciers and ice layers provide ev id en ces (ii) ch em ical a n alysis o f annual ice layers
for temperature and precipitation con d ition s during —» tem perature
different phases o f ice ages. A d van cin g glaciers and (iii) air bubbles trapped in the annual ic e
ice sh eets indicate cold phase and low erin g o f tem layers atm osp h eric
perature m uch b elow freezin g point, w h ile retreat o f co m p o sitio n
600
G EOMORPHQUXJ Y
(iv) dust contents trapped in the annual ice literally means around the ice or peripheral to the
layer —» atm ospheric cir margins o f the glaciers but now this term is used for
culation both ‘periglacial landscape’ and ‘periglacial climate’.
and storm iness Periglacial areas are those which are in permanently
(v) acid content in the annual ice layer v ol frozen condition but without permanent ice cover on
canic events the ground surface. The periglacial clim ate is char
acterized by mean annual temperature ranging be
A fe w studies o f ice cores from Greenland ice
tween -1 ° C and -1 5 ° C and mean annual precipita
sh eets (n am ely, Greenland Ice Sheet Project 1 and 2,
tion o f 120 mm to 1400 mm (m ostly in solid form).
GISP-1 and 2) and Antarctica ice sheets have re
M any parts o f Europe and South-W est U S A pres
vealed seq u en ces o f clim atic variations for the last
ently do not have periglacial clim ate but have relict
1 1 0 ,0 0 0 years and 160,000 years respectively. The
periglacial features which dem onstrate that such
an alysis o f ice cores to obtain clim atic records is
areas were under periglacial clim ate in the past.
based on isotopes o f oxygen (tw o very com m on
iso to p es are 160 and lsO) w herein the ratio o f 160 to 4. Tectonic Indicators ^
lsO p rovid es inform ation about the existing envi The tectonic m ovem ents involving plate m o v e
ronm ental tem peratures at the tim e o f the formation ments, pole wandering, continental drifts, orogenesis,
o f annual ic e layers. T he isotop e analysis o f ice cores palaeom agnetism , topographic features etc. and
also reveals relationship betw een global warming seafloor spreading and sea level changes are sig n ifi
and concentration o f greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon cant indicators o f palaeoclimatic changes. A. W egener,
d io x id e, m ethane etc.), and level o f atm ospheric a German m eteorologist, was prim arily concerned
p o llu tion cau sed by anthropogenic sources since the with the problem o f past clim atic changes. It m ay be
period o f industrial revolution. B esid es, the con cen pointed out that there are am ple ev id en ces, as d is
tration o f rad ioactive elem en ts in the atm osphere cussed above, which indicate w idespread clim atic
and their fallou t em itted during nuclear plant disas changes throughout the past history o f the earth.
ters (for exam p le, C hernobyl nuclear disaster) and Infact, the continental drift theory o f W egener ‘grew
testin g s o f atom ic d ev ic es, can be m easured through out o f the need o f explaining the .major variations o f
the a n a ly sis o f annual ice layers. The ice core analy clim ate in the past’ . T he clim atic changes w hich
sis a lso reveals inform ation about the le v els o f sul have taken place on the glob e may be exp lain ed in
phate con ten t in the air em itted from the volcanic tw o w ays as fo llo w s :
eruption. W ith the im provem ents in the tech n o lo (1) If the continents rem ained at their places
g ie s o f ob tain in g ic e cores, stud ies are carried out to throughout g eo lo g ica l history o f the earth, the c li
reconstruct the atm ospheric con d ition s m ainly tem m atic zon es m ight have shifted from on e region to
perature variations and clim a tic fluctuations for the another region and thus a particular region might
past 2 0 0 years or so on the b asis o f the an alysis o f ice have exp erien ced varying clim a tic con d ition s from
cores d erived from m ountain ice sh eets in the tropi tim e to tim e.
cal and subtropical areas. (2) If the cljm atic zo n es rem ained stationary,
T he evidences o f periglacial features and d e the landm asses m ight have been displaced and drifted.
p o sits found in such areas w hich at present do not W agener opted for the secon d alternative and
h a v e p e r ig la c ia l e n v ir o n m e n t, in d ic a te ea rlier p ostulated the co n cep t o f ‘continental drift’ or ‘dis
periglacial clim ate o f th ose areas. T h e term periglacial p lacem en t h y p o th e sis’ to exp lain the global clim atic
CLIMATE CHANGE AND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY
changes on the b asis o f a number o f geographical, each clim atic type produces its own characteristic
geological, palaeontological etc. evidences. The plate assemblage o f landforms and set o f geomorphological
tectonic theory as an outcom e o f post-Second World processes which shape them on the basis o f the
War ad van cem en t (m a in ly in the 1 9 6 0 s ) in follow ing themes :
geo tecto n ics, the evidences o f palaeom agnetism and (1) Landforms differ significantly in different
seafloor spreading have validated the concept o f climatic regions.
polewandering (shifting o f the positions o f the poles)
(2) Spatial variations o f landforms in differ
which help in the reconstruction o f clim ochronology
ent clim atic regions are because o f spatial variations
mainly global clim atic changes during Carbonifer
in clim atic parameters (e.g. temperature, hum idity,
ous and P leistocen e Ice A g es and widespread
precipitation etc.) and their influences on weather
glaciation.
ing processes, erosion dynam ics and surface runoff.
It has been demonstrated that plate m ove
(3) Quaternary clim atic changes cou ld not
ments during C enozoic era displaced major conti
obscure relationships betw een landform s and c li
nental blocks in the m iddle and high latitudes in the
mates.
northern hem isphere and thus such northward dis
In other words, there are certain d iagn ostic
placed continental m asses were subjected to the
landform s w hich clearly d em on strate c lim a te -
dom inance o f cold clim ate resulting into widespread
landforms relationships.
glaciation (such as major parts o f North America and
Eurasia) during P leisto cen e period (know n as Thus, on the basis o f diagnostic landform s,
P leistocen e Ice A ge and Pleistocene glaciation). On the inference o f clim atic conditions at the tim e o f the
the other hand, mountain ranges o f Tertiary period, formation o f such landform, is drawn w hich h elp s in
formed due to collision o f convergent plates and the reconstruction o f palaeoclim ates.
consequent subduction o f heavier plate and lateral The clim atogenetic or clim atically con trolled
com pression, and high plateaus, became effective landforms are identified and differentiated in tw o
barriers in controlling the global atmospheric circu ways, e.g. (i) general observation and acq u ain tan ce
lation and generating a few new clim atic types such o f w hole landscape o f each clim atic region , and (ii)
as m on soon clim ate o f South A sia (due to relief identification o f typical or d istin ctive lan d form s
barriers o f the H im alayas and Tibetan plateau). The which represent the controls o f particular clim a te.
investigations regarding the im pacts o f tectonic The typical landform s are, in fact, m ain to o ls o f
m ovem ents on clim atic conditions have revealed clim atic geom orp h ologists w hich h elp them in d e
strong relationship betw een horizontal plate m ove term ining clim ate-landform s relation sh ip s in d iffer
ments leading to seafloor spreading along divergent ent clim atic regions. Such d istin ctiv e lan d form s are
plate boundaries and o ro g en esis along the conver designated as d iagn ostic landform s w h ic h in clu d e
gent plate boundaries, vertical m ovem ent (tectonism ) duricrusts, in selb ergs, p ed im en ts, tors, glaciated
leading to upliftm ent and su bsid en ce and clim ate va lley s, glacial boulders or erratics, sand d u n es
change. The changes in global pattern in plate m o etc.
tions cause changes in clim ates at global scale.
D uricrusts are indurated hardened su rfaces o f
5. Geomorphological Indicators different kinds such as laterites, silcretes, calcretes,
T he g e o m o r p h o lo g ic a l p rocesses and alcretes, I'erricretes etc. and are n orm ally su p p o sed to
^ndforms resulting therefrom have been directly have been form ed in hot and h um id c lim a te o f
related to particular clim atic type on the co n cep t that tropical and subtropical areas and h e n c e th ey are
607 -
GEOMORPHOLOGY
in d ica tiv e o f warm and m oist clim ate. T he presence blocks) on the sid e s ’ (S a v in d ra S in g h , 1977). Tors
o f lateritic crusts in certain parts o f Europe (e.g. have been considered o f periglacial origin by J.
U .K ., G erm any etc.) clearly dem onstrates the fact Palm er and R. A . N e ilso n ( 19 6 2 ), o f flu vial origin by
that th ese are not the result o f present clim ate. ‘Such D. L. L in to n (1 9 5 5 ), w hereas L C . K ing has opined
crusts are often interpreted as o f Tertiary age, or as that tors are the result o f universal processes o f
h avin g been under con tin u ou s form ation sin ce the pediplanation in different clim a tic conditions. In
end o f the M e so z o ic . E xposures o f silcretes and fact, the presence o f tors right from the Dartmoor o f
calcretes are often related to past rather than present England through N icargua to India has com plicated
clim a tic co n d itio n s’ (D. R. S to d d a r t, 1969). the problem o f the origin o f tors rather than solving
Inselbergs representing steep sided residual it.
h ills are consid ered to be the representative landforms It may be conclud ed that the aforesaid diag
o f hot and arid and sem i-arid clim ates. It is argued nostic landform s are older than P leisto cen e clim atic
that in selb ergs are structurally controlled rather than changes, so they are d efin itely not related to present
c lim a tic a lly con tro lled and m ost o f the present clim ates where they are found. It m ay be p ointed out
in selb ergs w ere form ed before Quaternary period, that clim atic relation o f landform s at least in glacial,
‘h en ce present clim a tes are not necessarily those in periglacial and warm desert clim a tes is undoubtedly
w hich in selb ergs w ere form ed ’ (Stoddart, 1969). It confirm ed. S o, such landform s m ay p rovide definite
m ay be p o ssib le that inselbergs m ight have been clues to reconstruct past clim ates.
form ed w hen the clim ate w as warm and arid or sem i-
It is an e s ta b lis h e d fa ct that d iffe r e n t
arid w h ich m igh t have changed after their formation.
geom orphological p rocesses work in different c li
Pedim ents, characterized by low -an gle rock- matic regions because the geom orp h ic p rocesses
cut su rfaces surrounding m ountains, are also con sid originate from the atm osphere and their nature (type,
ered to be the representative landform s o f warm arid e.g. whether fluvial, or glacial, or p eriglacial or
and sem i-arid clim ates. Pedim ents are also found in aeolian etc.) depends on the com b in ation s o f tem
a variety o f clim a tic con d ition s e.g. tropical w et and perature and precipitation. T hus, the nature o f
dry clim ate, subtropical and tem perate clim ates. A geom orphological processes in the past g e o lo g ic a l
few g eom orp h ologists argue that pedim ents are struc history o f the earth helps in d eciphering the clim atic
turally and tecto n ica lly controlled rather than c li conditions in w hich a particular p rocess w as pre
m atically con trolled . L.C. K ing has opined that the dom inant.
p ro cess o f ped ip lan ation and pedim entation is uni The p resen ce o f glacial boulders or erratics in
versal and occu rs in all environm ental con d ition s. In a region presently having other than glacial clim ate,
fact, ‘m any arid zon e pedim ents are clearly polycyclic, m ay it be warm tropical or tem perate clim ate, re
developed during the com p lex sequence of P leistocene m inds us the fact that the region w as glaciated at the
pluvials (period o f prolonged rainfall) and interpluvials tim e o f form ation and d ep osition o f th ese erratics.
S im ilarly, the p resen ce o f frost-riven cliffs, tors,
: M any appear to be b ein g d estroyed under present
aitiplanation terraces, patterned grounds (having
clim atic c o n d itio n s, rather than b ein g fo rm ed ’ (D .R .
sto n e rin g s, p o ly g o n s , g a rla n d s, strip es e tc .),
S to d d a r t, 1969). therm okarst lakes, nivation h o llo w s, involutions,
Tors, ‘o n eo fth em o stc o n tr o v ercia l landform s, p in g o s , c o n g e lif lu c t a t e la n d fo r m s, b lo c k fie ld s
are p ile s o f broken and e x p o sed m a sses o f hard rocks (b lo ck m eers), b ou ld erfield s etc. tells us the dom i
particularly gran ites h avin g a crow n o f ro ck -b lo ck s nance o f p eriglacial p ro cesses under p eriglacial c li
o f d ifferen t s iz e s on the tops and clitters (trains o f m ate at the tim e o f the developm en t o f such landforms.
CLIMATE C H A N G E A N D QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY > ; .1
The presence o f glacial boulders and erratics in the 6. S ea Level Fluctuations
coal seams o f Talcher o f Orissa (India) o f Gondwana Fluctuations in sea levels are considered sig
period clearly indicates an earlier cold and glacial nificant indicators o f past clim atic changes. Sea
climate in India having presently warm m onsoon level changes are o f two types, namely positive
climate. change marked by rise in sea level above datum line,
Fig. 31.2 : Fluctuations in sea level during last 150,000 years Jpased on raised coral terraces and core oxygen 18 isotope
data from deep sea deposits. Source : after: K.K. Turekian, 1996, in Oliver and Hidore, 2003.
and negative change d enoting fall in sea level below leading to retreat o f glaciers and ice sh eets (rise in
datum line. C h an ges in sea lev el are effected by (i) sea lev els). The seq u en ces o f rise and fall in se a
tectonic m o v em en ts, and (ii) clim atic changes. The lev els during P leisto cen e Ice A g e h ave rev ea led
tectonic m o v em en ts ca u se rise in sea lev el when several phases o f glacial p eriods (G u n z, M in d el,
R iss and W urm in E urope, and N eb raskan , K ansan,
there is upward m ov em en t o f sea floor (ocean bot
Illinoin and W isco n sin g la cia l p eriod s in N orth
tom s) or d ow n w arping o f coastal areas w hereas fall
A m e r ic a and in t e r g la c ia l p e r io d s ( r e la t iv e ly
in sea lev el is cau sed by d ow nw arping leading to
warm p eriods) separating tw o g la c ia l (c o ld ) p eriods.
su b sid en ce o f sea flo o r or upw arping o f coastal
Figures 15.2 and 15.3 d en o te flu ctu ation s o f sea
lands. It m ay be m en tion ed that tecto n ica lly induced
le v el (rise and fa ll) w ith referen ce to presen t sea
changes in sea le v e ls are v ety slo w . T he clim a tica lly
le v e l (i.e . p r e s e n t d a tu m li n e at o m e te r )
induced ch an ges in sea le v e ls are rapid and are
about 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 ybp and 2 0 ,0 0 0 y b p (years b efo re
effected by glacial a g e and ad van cem en t o f glaciers
present).
wk! ic e sh eets (fall in sea le v e ls ) and d eg la cia tio n
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Thousands of years ago
fig J J J : Fluctuations in sea level with reference to present sea level (present datum line at o meter). Source : after
Fairbridge, in H.J. Critchfield, 2002.
7. fndicators of Historical R ecords century A .D . denote in creasin g trend o f fr e q u e n c ie s
The recorded events during the existen ce o f o f freezing o f the T ham es river per 10 0 years e .g . the
human sp ecies provide valuable data for recon Tham es w as frozen o n ly o n ce or tw ic e per 1 0 0 years
structing the palaeoclim atic history (palaeochimo- from 8 0 0 to 1500 years ago, 4 tim es d u rin g 16th
chronology) for the past 6 0 0 0 years. It may be m en century, 8 tim es during H th cen tu ry, and 6 tim es
tioned that the recorded past events are related m ostly during 18th century. T h is d en o tes c o o lin g o f U .K .
to extrem e events o f weather con d ition s rather than and environs from 8 0 0 to 1 8 0 0 years b efo re present
regular weather conditions. Such extrem e weather (Y B P ). T he recorded data from Icela n d from 9 0 0 to
events include freezing o f rivers and lakes, unprec 1900 Y B P also d em on strate c o o lin g o f N orth A tlan
edented flood s and droughts leading to fam ines, tic O cean b etw een 9 0 0 and 1 9 0 0 Y B P . T h e records
mass exodus o f human m igration deserting their o f high flo o d s in the N ile V a lle y sin c e 6 4 0 A .D .
settlem ents etc. A few exam p les w ill be su fficien t to reveal in crease in rainfall in the so u rce r e g io n s o f the
demonstrate the sign ifican ce o f such indicators o f N ile river. T h e record s o f d rou gh ts in th e south
clim atic changes. The records o f tem peratures o f the w estern arid and sem ia rid U n ited S ta tes o f A ia e fic a
Thames (U .K .) from 9th century A .D . to 18th and S a h el reg io n o r S u b -S ah ara r e g io n d en o tea i^ ile
CLIMATE CHANGE A N D QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY
deficiency in normal rainfall and resultant extreme The significant causes and related theories o f
aridity. climatic changes rftay be stated as follows:
31.4 C A U S E S AND T H E O R IE S O F CLIM ATIC (1) Solar irradiance (variation in solar radia
CHANGES tion),
A s m e n tio n e d e a rlie r c lim a tic c h a n g e s are (2) S u n sp o t cycles,
effected by c h a n g e s in a tm o s p h e ric c irculation and
(3) A stro n o m ica l th eories (ec c e n tric ity o f
interactions a m o n g fiv e c o m p o n e n ts o f the earth-
e a rth ’s orbit, o b liq u ity o f the ecliptic, p r e c e s s io n o f
atm osphere system , n a m e ly atm osphere, hydrosphere,
the e q uinoxes, ea rth -su n re la tio n s h ip ) etc.,
lithosphere, b io s p h e r e , an d c ry o s p h e re (frozen s u r
(4) A tm o sp h e ric dusf h y p o th e s is (m a in ly v o l
face o f th e e a rth ) w h e r e in the a m o u n t o f received
canic eruptions a n d dusts thereof),
so la r e n e rg y , a n d th e p r o c e s s o f d istrib u tio n , redis
trib u tio n , a n d a b s o rp tio n o f so la r rad ia n t energy at (5) C arbon d io x id e h y p o th e s is ,
the e a rth s u r f a c e a re im p o r ta n t c o n s id e ra tio n s o f the ( 6) C ontin en ta l drift an d p o le w a n d e r in g ,

sta te o f c li m a t e o f an a re a in sp e cific tim e period. (7) T e c to n ic and to p o g ra p h ic c o n tr o l t h e o r y ,
T h e c a u s e s fo r s u c h in te ra c tio n s lea d in g to clim atic
( 8) O c e a n ic v a riation h y p o th e s is ,
c h a n g e s a re r e la te d to ( 1 ) outside sources, say e x tra
(9) E x tra terrestrial b o d ie s c o llis io n t h e o r y ,
te r r e s t r i a l sources, a n d ( 2 ) inside sources, say eath-
a t m o s p h e r e s y s te m o r te rre s tria l sources and
(10) A n th r o p o g e n ic s o u rc e s ( c h a n g e s in t h e
T h e c a u s e s a n d th e o rie s o f c lim a tic changes
e a rth ’s surface and a tm o s p h e ric c o m p o s i ti o n ) . .
a re v i e w e d in te rm s o f p e rio d icity o f clim atic changes
w h ic h a re g e n e ra lly o f tw o types, na m e ly ( 1 ) s h o rt Solar Irradiance Theory
te r m clim atic changes, and ( 2 ) long-term climatic S olar ra d ia tiv e f o rc in g is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a
changes. S i n c e th e n a tu r e a n d p a tte rn s o f clim atic sig n ific a n t fac to r o f c lim a tic c h a n g e s . I t is im portant
c h a n g e s v a ry t e m p o r a lly and h e n c e the c a u se s o f to note that th e re are f lu c t u a t io n s in the en ergy
s u c h c h a n g e s a re a lso o f v a rie d nature. T h is is w hy rad ia te d f ro m the s u n ’s o u te r s u r f a c e (p h otosphere).
no s in g le t h e o r y c a n e x p la in all ty p es a nd pa tte rn s o f It m a y a lso be m e n t io n e d th a t th e a m o u n t o f solar
c li m a t ic c h a n g e s a n d th u s w e h a v e a h o s t o f ca u se s e n e rg y re c e iv e d a t th e e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e d e t e r m i n e s the
a n d t h e o r i e s o f c lim a tic c h a n g e s . n a ture a n d p a tte rn o f e n e rg y e x c h a n g e s a n d atm os
S i n c e th e I n d u s tr ia l R e v o lu tio n ( 1 8 6 0 A .D .) p h e ric c ir c u la tio n s w h ic h in tu rn d e t e r m i n e tem pera
th e m a n ’s i n c r e a s e d e c o n o m i c a c tiv itie s a n d the tures a n d p re c ip ita tio n . T h e a m o u n t o f solar radiant

a p p lic a tio n o f a d v a n c e t e c h n o lo g ie s are in tro d u c in g e n e rg y r e c e iv e d at the e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e is also su bject
s ig n if ic a n t m o d if ic a ti o n s a n d c h a n g e s in c lim a tic to c h a n g e s d u e to (i) c h a n g e s in t h e co m p o sitio n o f
c o n d itio n s . T h is h a s led to the e m e r g e n c e o f a new the a tm o s p h e r e in t e r m s o f its transparency to in

d im e n s io n in c lim a tic c h a n g e s an d an a d d itio n a l c o m i n g s h o r t w a v e s o la r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiation
so u rc e th e re o f. T h u s , the s o u rc e s o f c lim a tic w a v e s , (2) c h a n g e s in t h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e s b etw een
c h a n g e s m a y b e g r o u p e d in the fo llo w in g 3 b road th e su n a n d th e e a r th , (3) t h e a m o u n t o f the en ergy
ca te g o rie s : ra d ia te d f ro m t h e e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e , ( 4 ) ch a n g es in the
(1) O u ts id e o r e x tr a -te rr e s tr ia l s o u r c e s s u r f a c e c o v e r s o f th e e a r t h ’ s s u r f a c e etc. T h e varia

tio n s in s o la r i r r a d i a n c e a r e v ie w e d as (i) lo n g -term
( 2 ) In s id e o r terrestria l s o u rc e s
c h a n g e , and (ii) a s short-term or p erio d ic ch a n g e (i.e .
(3) A n t h r o p o g e n i c s o u rc e s
sunspots c y c le s ).
It is a com m on b elief that increase in solar the internal consum ption o f solar energy is remark
radiation for longer duration w ill cause warm ing o f ably reduced. C onsequently, the solar radiation in*
the atm osphere leading to onset o f warm clim ate and creases, w hich results in the increase o f temperature
m elting o f ice sheets and glaciers. It may be m en o f the earth’s surface, term ination o f glacial period
tioned that regular m easurem ent o f temperatures o f and beginning o f interglacial period.
the su n ’s surface started at the Kitt Peak National
Sim pson Theory
Observatory in A rizona, U S A , from 1975. It is
Contrary to the general v ie w o f the w anning
b elieved that even 0.1 per cent decrease in the
o f the earth’s surface and its atm osphere during the
average annual solar radiation for a decade in co n
period o f increased solar radiation, Sir G eorge
tinuation m ay introduce measurable clim atic changes
Sim pson presented an entirely different concept
in terms o f ch an ges in temperature and precipitation.
related to variations in solar radiation and clim atic
The recorded data o f su n ’s surface temperature re
changes in 1938 A .D . A ccord in g to S im p son during
vealed a drop o f temperature by 11°C in January,
the period o f m oderate increase in solar irradiance,
1977. I f the solar radiation drops by even one to two
the m iddle and high latitudes w ill exp erien cre exten
per cent, the temperature at the earth’s surface in the
sion in glaciers and their advances w h ile d ecrease in
m id d le and high latitudes may com e dow n and may
sol ar radiation and resultant decrease in air temperatue
ca u se clim atic changes sim ilar to Little Ice A ge
would cause m elting o f ice sheets and glaciers and
w hich occurred from 1450 to 1880 A .D . The year
their retreat, resulting into on set o f interglacial p e
1816 w as know n as the year without summer in the
riod. Sim pson propounded the co n cep t o f c y c lic
U S A . T he com puter m odel has further revealed that
pattern o f increase and decrease in solar radiation.
the drop in solar radiation by 2-3 per cent for 50 years
A ccording to him the atm ospheric tem perature in
in continuation m ay cau se regeneration o f glaciation
creases with increase in solar radiation. T h e in crease
and m ay reactivate older glaciers, and if the solar
in atmospheric temperature causes increase in ev a p o
radiation d ecreases by 5 per cent or more, the earth
ration and cloud in ess, strong m eridional air circu la
m ay ex p erien ce n ew ice age and w idespread glacia tion and increased precipitation in higher latitudes.
tion. The precipitation in higher latitudes is in the form o f
T he exp an sion and contraction o f the core o f snow fall w hich a llo w s m ore accum ulation o f ic e and
the sun has been accepted by a few scien tists as basic extension o f ice sheets and glaciers. T he greater
ca u se o f ch a n g es in the am ount o f energy radiated clou d in ess during sum m er season prohibits m eltin g
from the ou ter surface o f the sun. A ccord in g to E,J. o f accum ulated sn ow and ice rather protects the ice
O pik the co re o f the sun expands after lon g intervals. cover. On the other hand, during the phase o f d e
T h e sun co n su m e s a portion o f its energy to expand crease in solar radiation, the atm ospheric tem pera
its outer su rface to c o p e w ith the exp an sion of its ture decreases, m eridional air circu lation i& w eak
core. In su ch circu m sta n ce the radiant solar energy ened, evaporation and precipitation rem arkably de
d ecreases b eca u se o f con su m p tion o f substantial creases in high latitudes, m eltin g o f ic e sh eets cau ses
portion o f solar en ergy by the sun itself. T he d e their retreat. ‘T hus, paradoxically a low erin g o f
crease in solar radiation results in low erin g o f atm os m ean atm ospheric tem perature m ight cau se a reces
p heric tem perature o f the earth and con seq u en tly sion o f ice sh eets, w hereas tem perature increase
dool p h ase o f clim a te is introduced, w hich ca u ses ice w ould lead to their advance. A lth ou gh the Sim pson
&ge, C o n v e rsely , w h en the core o f the sun contracts, theory appears not to fit recent instrum ental evi
CLIMATE CHANGE A N D QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY 607
dence, it is a warning against oversim plified expla Atm ospheric Dust Hypothesis
nations o f com plex processes’ (H.J. Critchfield, The atmospheric solid particulate matters in
2002). clude dust particles, salt particles, pollen, sm oke and

soot, volcanic dusts and ashes etc. M ost o f the solid
Sunspot Theory particles are kept in suspension in the atmosphere. It
" The sunspot activity has been related to vari
is an established fact that these solid particulate
ations in solar irradiance. The increased sunspot
matters (SPM ) present in the atmosphere reduce the
activity (increase in the number o f sunspots) causes
amount o f solar radiant energy reaching the earth s
warming o f the earth’s surface and its atmosphere surface by scattering, reflection and absorption o f
whereas decreased sunspot activity (decrease in the incom ing shortwave electrom agnetic solar radia
number o f sunspots) causes lowering o f atmospheric tion. About 23 per cent o f incom ing solar radiation
temperature. Sunspots are darker and cooler areas in is scattered by dust particles and haze, o f w hich 6 per
the photosphere o f the sun. The increased sunspot cent energy is sent back to the space w h ile 17 per
activity m eans increase in the number o f sunspots cent energy reaches the earth’s surface as d iffu se day
w hile decreased sunspot activity is related to de light, o f course much later. The scattering o f in com
crease in the number o f sunspots. The study of ing solar radiation w aves by dust particles w hen the
sunspot activity for the last 200 years has revealed diameter o f such particles is longer than the w a v e
cyclic pattern o f increase and decrease in sunspot lengths of incom ing solar radiation w aves, is called
activity. On an average, 11 years cycle has been diffuse reflection which sends som e portion o f in
accepted where as the period o f one cycle may be as com ing solar energy back to space w h ile so m e
short as 8-9 years and as long as 16 years. Certain portion remains in the low er atm osphere.
subcycles o f sunspot activity at longer period have It is also an established fact that sudden in
also been postulated e.g. 35 years cycle, 80 years crease in dust particles caused by v io len t p ow erfu l
cy cle etc. It has been estimated that the output o f volcanic eruptions reduces the tem perature o f the
ultraviolet radiation from the sun’s surface at the earth’s surface at its lower atm osphere rem arkably
time ofm axim um sunspot activity (maximum number and introduces fluctuations in w eather and clim atic
o f sunspots) is 20 tim es more than during the period conditions atleast at shorter tem poral scale. It m ay
o f m inim um sunspot activity. The prolonged period be remembered that the stratospheric tem perature
o f minimum sunspot activity, called as Maunder increases at the tim e o f greater vo lcan ic activity
Minimum, is supposed to introduce cooling o f the because m ost o f the scattered, reflected and ab
earth’s surface and its atm osphere, whereas the sorbed energy remain there, but the tem perature o f
prolonged period o f m axim um sunspot activity may the low er troposphere and the earth’s surface drops
cause warm ing. It may be m entioned that perfect significantly, and it is the temperature o f the low er
atmosphere that controls weather and clim ate at the
correlation betw een sunspot activity and atm os
earth’s surface. This corollary may be substantiated
pheric temperature has not been substantiated. It
with a few exam ples o f volcanic eruptions and result
may be that periodic fluctuations in sunspot cy cles
ant cooling o f the earth’s surface and its atm osphere.
may introduce som e sort o f weather changes at
shorter temporal scale. ‘Repeated studies trying to (1) There w as annihilating violen t e x p lo s
correlate rainfall with the fluctuation in sunspot eruption o f a volcano on 27 A ugust, 1883 in Krakatoa
cycles have not yet produced statistically significant island located in the Sunda Strait b etw een Java and
results’ (O liver and H idore, 2 0 0 3 ). Sumatra in the East Indies. T h e pow erfu l v o lc a n ic
blast was 9T N T equivalent o f about 100 m illion tons 1982 in M exico, M t. St. H elens eruption o f 1980
(U S A ) a few earlier ex p lo siv e eruptions such as
(2 10 n pounds). Nearly 20 cubicTcilometers (som e
M ount C osequina eruption o f 1835 in N icaragua
sources put it 53 cubic kilom eters) o f fragmental
show no such correlation. It may be m entioned that
materials, ashes and dusts were thrown in the air
the im pact o f volcanic eruptions ih low ering the
upto 32 kilom eters in the atmosphere (upto m iddle
temperature depends on a variety o f factors, num ely
o f stratosphere), which were lateron distributed, due
the penetration o f the stratosphere by ejected v o l
to their fall, on an area o f 7 0 0 ,0 0 0 square kilom eters.
canic dusts and gases, the volu m e o f sulphur d io x
The fine dusts were ejected upto 32 kilom eters in the
ide, the amount o f dusts etc. If the eruption is very
atmosphere w hich produced global decrease in solar
ex p losive and pow erful, the volu m e o f ejected su l
radiation received at the earth’s surface by 10-20 per
cent, there w as total darkness in the sky because the phur d ioxide is very large, and the am ounts o f dusts
dusts and ashes blotted out the sun for several days, are very high, defin itely these m aterials w ill reach
the effect o f total darkness was observed upto the the stratosphere and w ill reduce the tem perature at
distance o f 150 kilom eters from the center o f erup the earth’s surface and its atm osphere. T he ejected
tion. The ejection o f fine dusts and ashes in the sulphur dioxide gas after com b in in g w ith atm os
stratosphere and their circulation and drifting around pheric water vapour form s tiny droplets o f sulpluric
the earth by upper air atm ospheric circulation pro acids. T hese tiny sulphuric acid droplets rem ain in
duced brilliant red sunsets for several years. The the atmosphere for longer period and reflect sizea b le
reduced solar radiation received on the earth’s sur portion o f incom ing solar radiation and thus the
face and resultant drop in temperature m atches with amou-nt o f solar radiation received at the earth’ s
cold years from 1884 to 1886. surface is remarkably reduced resulting into the
low ering o f earth’s surface tem perature.
(2) The violent eruption o f Mt. A som a in
1783 in Japan is correlated with severe cold years o f R ecently, tw o indices related to v o lca n ic erup
1 7 8 4 ,1 7 8 5 and 1786. The exceptionally cold year o f tion and its im pact on clim ate ch an ge, n am ely (1 )
1816 A .D ., known as a year without summer in the Volcanic Explosive Index (V EI) and (2) D ust V eil
clim atic history o f the world, follow ed the fam ous Index (D V I), have been prepared. It is argued that
ex p lo siv e eruption o f Mt. Tamboro in Dutch East high VEI w ould indicate pow erful and e ffe c tiv e
Indes in the year 1815. The volum e o f dusts ejected penetration o f the stratosphere by v o lca n ic d u sts and
from the violen t eruption o f this volcano was so gases and thereby w ould cau se lo w erin g o f tem p era
enorm ous that thick dust veil covered the sun result ture. Sim ilarly, high D V I w ou ld be in d ica tiv e o f
ing into com p lete darkness for 3 days in continua reduction in solar radiation receiv ed at the earth’ s
tion, w hich extended upto a distance o f 500 ki lometers surface and con seq u en t drop in tem perature. It m ay
from the cen ter o f eruption. be m entioned that resident period o f v o lc a n ic dusts
(3) T he e x p lo siv e eruption o f M t. Katmaiand
in gases is very im portant factor for g la cia l c li
1912 in A la sk a (U S A ) ejected about 21 cubic mate. If the resident period o f v o lc a n ic m aterials is
kilom eters o f volcan ic m aterials and dusts in the for longer duration i.e. if the v o lc a n ic m aterials
atm osphere resulting into 20 per cent reduction in remain in the atm osphere for lo n g er p eriod , the
the am ount o f solar radiation received at the earth’s resultant lo w erin g o f tem perature m ay initiate g la
su rface.,A bout 2 percent drop in solar radiation was cial period. On the other hand, short-term resident
noted at the M auna L oa O bservatory in H aw aii at the period w ould ca u se on ly lo ca l e ffe c ts on w eather
tim e o f the eruption o f M t A g u n g in B ali in the year and clim ate.
1963.
Carbon Dioxide Theory
Contrary to the general b e lie f o f correlation It is im portant to note that it is the receip t o f
b etw een m ajor v o lca n ic eruptions and low erin g o f solar energy at the earth’s su rface and absorption o f
tem peratures, the em pirical stud ies o f a fe w recent in co m in g solar radiation and o u tg o in g terrestrial
vo lcan ic eru p tion s su ch as El C hichon eruption o f radiation by the atm osph ere w h ich has sign ifican t
CLIMATE CHANGE A N D QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY 609
control on weather and climate, and the amount o f terrestrial radiation mainly infrared radiation (back
energy received at the earth’s surface depends on (1) to the earth’s surface) and thus help in keeping the
changes in the com position o f the atmosphere, (2) earth's surface warmer.
changes in the transparency o f the atmosphere, (3) The most significant greenhouse gas is car
modification o f energy in the transit (i.e. flow ing bon dioxide which is released to the atmosphere by
through the atmosphere) etc. The changes in the burning o f fossil fuels (coal, mineral oil and natural
gaseous com position o f the atmosphere are effected gas) for different purposes in various w ays, burning
by both natural and anthropogenic sources. The o f firewoods etc. Deforestation also helps in increas
increase o f relative proportion o f greenhouse gases ing the concentration o f carbon dioxide in the
(e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides etc.) atmosphere. The pre-industrial level of atm ospheric
in general and carbon dioxide in particular causes content o f carbon dioxide was fixed at 2 8 0 -2 9 0
global warming and initiates warm clim ate while ppmv (part per m illion by volum e) or 0 .0 28 per cent
decrease in their relative percentage causes global to 0.029 per cent (the base year o f the beginning o f
cooling and helps in initiating cold climate if other industrial revoltuion in 1860A .D .) It is also im por
factors remain constant. Thus, the carbon dioxide tant to note that there are certain natural p rocesses
theory states that increase and decrease in tempera and sources which regulate the atm ospheric c o n cen
tures o f the earth’s surface and its atmosphere is tration o f carbon dioxide, namely vegetation covers
effected by increase and decrease o f its (CO?) rela and oceans are major sinks( absorbers and users) o f
tive percentage in the gaseous com position o f the atmospheric carbon dioxide. D eforestation and burn
atmosphere respectively. ing o f forests for shilfting cultivation remarkably
It may be remembered that the increase o f reduces the use o f carbon dioxide by vegetation
earth’s temperature by absorbing outgoing terres covers and hence helps in increasing the concentra
trial infrared radiation by certain gases (mainly tion o f carbon dioxide in the atm osphere.
carbon d ioxid e) is called greenhouse phase of the The atmospheric content o f carbon d io x id e
atm osphere whereas icehouse phase refers to lower increased from the pre-industrial level o f 2 8 0 -2 9 0
ing o f earth’s temperature leading to beginning o f ppmv to 350-360 ppmv during 1998, registering an
glacial period. The greenhouse effect means ‘pro overall increase by 25 per cent from the pre-indus
gressive warm ing-up o f the earth’s surface due to trial level. It is believed that the rate o f increase o f
the blanketing effect o f man-m ade carbon dioxide in atmospheric carbon dioxide through anthropogenic
the atm osphere’ (Oxford D ictionary). ‘In a green sources will be accelerated due to uncheked indus
house, v isib le sunlight passes through the glass and trial d ev elo p m en t and in crea sin g u rb an ization
heats up the soil warm ing the plants. The warm soils worldover.
emit radiation in longer w avelengths particularly in
D ifferent m odels have been d evelop ed to
the infrared band. B ecau se the glass is opaque to
reveal the relationships betw een the increase in the
these w avelengths (lon g w avelengths o f infrared
concentration o f atm ospheric carbon d io xid e through
radiation w aves), it absorbs and reflects (reradiates
anthropogenic sources and clim ate ch an ges but the
back to the so ils) the infrared (radiation)’ (D .B .
predictions o f these m odels are very m uch con fu sin g
Botkin and E .A . K eller, 1982). This m echanism
and contradictory. ‘If there is uncertainty in the
keeps the greenhouse warmer than the outside en v i
prediction o f carbon d ioxid e trends, then the p redic
ronment. In nut shell it may be sum m arized that a
tions o f the resulting clim atic effects are even m ore
greenhouse is a body w hich allow s the shortwave
uncertain’ (J. E. H obbs, 1980).
incoming solar radiation to com e in but does not
allow the lon gw ave ou tgoin g terrestrial infrared (1) Schneider Model (1 950): S.H . Schneide
radiation to escape. Carbon d ioxid e and water va w hile review in g the results o f various clim atic m od
pour act as greenhouse in that these allow visible els dealing w ith the predictions in the ch an ge o f
sunlight to reach the surface o f the earth byt absorb thermal con d ition s o f the atm osphere and the earth’s
and reflect back (reradiate) the lon gw ave outgoing surface resulting from the increased con ten t o f at-
geo m orphology
m ospheric carbon d io x id e concluded that the tem global level have been estim ated on the basis o f
perature cou ld rise upto 1.5C -3.0°C if the concentra increase in the concentration o f greenhouse gases in
tion o f atm ospheric carbon d ioxid e could be doubled the atm osphere in future.
from 3 0 0 ppm v lev el to 6 0 0 ppmv. He further pre
It has been estim ated that the overall increase
dicts that increased temperature w ould cause in
in surface temperature over the past one hundred
crease in evaporation and clou d in ess w hich would years (upto 2 0 0 0 A .D .) has been about 0.5°C to
reduce in com in g solar radiation (because o f in^ 0.7°C . A ccording to another view the average air
creased alb ed o i.e. m ore cloud s w ould reflect more temperature in the northern hem isphere increased by
solar radiation back to sp ace). Thus, the reduced 0.4°C betw een 1880 and 1940 because o f rapid rate
solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface would o f com bustion o f fo ssil fu els during that long period
counteract the w arm ing o f the earth’s surface. It is but the temperature dropped after 1950 inspite o f
o b v io u s that such feed b ack m echanism s negate the continued rapid rate o f com bustion o f fo ssil fuels
im pact o f green h ou se effect o f increased atm os due to fast industrial d evelop m en t after 1960. The
pheric carbon d ioxid e and the w hole process o f the air temperature in the southern hem isphere showed
heating or coolin g o f the low er atmosphere and the rising trend w hich registered an overall increase o f
earth’s surface b ecom es highly complicated. Another 0.6°C betw een 1940 and 1960. It is evident that
m odel en visages coolin g o f the earth’s surface due to though there is m axim um consum ption o f fossil
enorm ous increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide. fuels in the northern hem isphere and consequent
(2 ) G eneral Circulation M odel (GCM) : The increase in the concentration o f atm ospheric carbon
gen eral circu lation m odel by S. M anabe and R.T. dioxide but the air temperature dropped whereas
W eth erald (1 9 7 5 ) predicts that if present amount there is m inim um consum ption o f fo ssil fu els in the
(1 9 7 5 le v e l) o f carbon d io x id e o f the atm osphere is southern hem isphere but air tem perature increased. -
d o u b led , the tem perature o f the earth’s surface w ill It does not mean that there is no direct im p act o f
in crease by 2.9°C and there w ill be 7 per cent increasing carbon d ioxid e on air tem perature rather
in crease in the activity o f hydrological c y cle but som e other factors m ight have dom inated o v er the
there w ill not be any feed b ack and thus there w ill not factor o f greenhouse effect. It is op ined that large
be eith er in crease or d ecrease in the am ount o f amount o f volcanic dusts thrown into the atm os
c lo u d in e ss as predicted by S. H. Shneider. In other phere through the eruptions o f H eck la (Iceland) in
w ord s, the in crease in surface tem perature caused by 1947, Mt. Spurr (A laska, U S A ) in 1953, A gu n g
in crea se in the atm osph eric carbon d io x id e w ill not (B ali) in 1963, M ount Taal (P h ilip p in se) in 1 9 6 5 ,
be n egated by feed b ack m ech an ism and hen ce in M ayon and Fernandina in 1968 etc. m ight h ave
creased g reen h o u se e ffe c t w ould certainly introduce reduced air tem perature in the northern h em isphere
clim a te ch a n g e (w arm in g o f the earth’s surface and betw een 1940 and 1970.
its lo w er atm osp h ere). Inspite o f contrasting o p in io n s about th e im
(3 ) A tm ospheric-O ceanic G eneral Circulation pact o f in creasin g concentration o f atm ospheric car
M odel (A O G C M ): A s per the report o f the In tergov bon d io x id e due to green h ou se e ffe c t on air tem pera
ernm ental P an el on C lim a te C han ge (IPC C , 2 0 0 1 ) if ture it m ay be c o n c lu siv e ly o p in ed that there is
the concen tration o f atm osph eric C 0 2 in creases to d efin ite p o sitiv e e ffe c t o f in creased g reen h ou se e f
5 4 0 -9 7 0 p p m v by the end o f the 2 1 st century, the fe c t d u e to in cr ea se d c o n cen tra tio n o f carbon
average surface air tem perature at glob al le v e l w ould d io x id e in th e a tm o sp h e r e . T h e in c r e a s e in
register an in crease b etw een 1°C to 5.8°C . T his temperature introduces several changes in clim atic
in crease in average air tem perature has been e sti conditions at local, regional, and global lev e ls as fallows:
m ated in relation to average air tem perature during (1 ) A cco rd in g to A .B . P ittock (1 9 7 2 )
1 9 9 0 -2 0 0 0 A .D . ch an ge in g lo b a l m ean tem perature by a fe w d egrees
T h e trends o f p robable future clim a tic ch a n g e c e lc io u s cau sed by g reen h o u se e ffe c t w ou ld greatly
du$ to in crea se in average su rface air tem perature at ch a n g e clim a te. ■-* &
CLIMATE CH ANG E A N D QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY
611
(2) Increased temperature due to increased w hile scattering o f continents away from the poles
greenhouse effect would cause decrease in precipi causes deglaciation o f the land areas which are
tation and soil moisture content. places at greater distances from the poles, as ‘the
(3) In case o f global warming oceans would primary requirement for the formation o f great ice
be required to absorb more and more carbondioxide, caps is the polar location o f continents’ (J.E. Oliver
this w ill raise normal level o f acidity o f the oceans, and J.J. Hidore, 2003).
which w ould decrease biological activity in the A lot o f convincing evidences are available
oceans and oceanic plant cover, which ultimately for two great icc ages e.g. Permo-Carboniferous ice
would alter the albedo o f ocean surface. age, and Pleistocene ice age. It is believed that about
(4) It m ay be p ossible that the carbon dioxide 350-250 m illion years B.P. (before present) i.e.
concentration in the atm osphere may increase to during Carboniferous-Permian periods all the land
such an extent that the total atmospheric pressure masses were united in one landmass which has been
would increase. Such increase in atmospheric pres named as Pangaea II. M ost o f the land areas o f
sure w ould broaden the absorption bands and i ncrease Gondwanaland (comprising present South A m erica,
the opacity o f the atmosphere to the outgoing terres Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica ) clustered
trial radiation w hich would in turn increase the sur around south pole which was located near the present
face temperature to such an extent that all the atmos position o f Durban in Natal (South A frica). Thus, the
pheric processes may com e to grinding halt. south pole was located almost in the m iddle o f
Pangaea. Consequently, ice sheets might have spread
(5) R ecently, atmospheric black clouds (ABC),
out from south pole at the time o f glaciation and
as a result o f concentration o f pollutants in the
Brazil, southern South America upto Falkland, south
atm osphere due to burning o f fossil fuels, have been
ern Africa, peninsular India, Australia, A ntarctica
related to unprecedented snow fall in Dubai, heavy
etc., which were closer to south pole, m ight have
sn ow fall in the low er altitudinal areas o f Jammu and
been covered with thick ice sheets. At m uch later
Kashm ir, H im achal Pradesh and Uttaranchal Hima
date, these land m asses might have parted aw ay due
layas (India) etc. during D ecem ber (2004) and Janu
to disruption o f Pangaea and consequent m ovem en t
ary (2005)*
to present locations because o f plate m ovem ents,
Continental Drift and Polewandering and finally might have experienced deglaciation and
T he plate tectonic theory, based on the ev i termination o f Perm o-Carboniferous ice age.
dences o f p alaeom agn etism and seafloor spreading, The P leistocene glaciation o f northern land
the result o f p o s t-1950 advancem ent in geophysical areas o f the northern hem isphere is supposed to have
researches w orldover, has validated the concept o f occurrred around one m illion years B .P . due to
continental drift. It has now been proved that differ closer location o f North A m erican and Eurasian
ent plates are in constant m otion and hence the landm asses to north pole. The Pangaea began to
continents and ocean basins change their relative break during early Jurassic about 180 m illion years
locations. The p late*6cton ics have tw o major im pli B.P. and the disruption was com pleted by 7 0 -1 0 0
cations, nam ely ch an ges in relative positions o f the m illion years B.P. C onsequently, the northern part
continents (and ocea n , basins) due to continental o f North A m erica upto present N ebraska in the south
displacem ent (drift), and origin o f m ountains of (in U S A ), Greenland, Iceland, Europe and Siberia
varying heights due to con vergen ce o f destructive were covered with ice sheets during P leistocen e
plate boundaries (th e effects o f the later on clim ate period (about one m illion years B .P .). A s m entioned
will be d iscussed under the next heading). It is in the preceding section the P leistocen e Ice A ge
believed that the relative locations o f continents in com prised o f four glacial periods separated by four
relation to the p oles have paramount control on interglacial periods o f warmer clim ate. It may be
climatic changes. The clustering o f continental m asses m entioned that interglacial periods within a com pre
around the p ole cau ses glaciation o f major land areas hensive ice age cannot be explained on the basis o f
612 GEOMORPHOLOGY
continenta] drift and p late tecton ics. It m ay also be els, as ‘in general 2 to 4 km o f late C enozoic surface
remembered that glaciers o f the R ock ies, A lps, H im a uplift in Tibet and the Him alayan m ountains, and at
layas etc. were more ex ten siv e than their present least one kilom eter uplift across a broad area o f the
position. T h e g laciatio n o f high m ountains, w hich western North A m erica, including the Sierra N e
w ere far aw ay from the location o f p o le also cannot vada, B asin and R ange province, Colorado Pleateau
be ex p la in ed on the b asis o f plate tecton ics and R ocky M ountains, and the western Great Plains,
con tin en tal drift. su ccessfu lly produced changes in the m odel cli
m ates that are com parable to, although less extreme
Tecto n ism and Topographic Controls
than, the inferred actual clim ate changes o f the late
It is a c o m m o n ly agreed fact that topographic C en ozoic Era’ (A .L . B loom , 2002).
factor (r e lie f) p lays an im portant role in shaping
Vertical tectonic m ovem ents leading to ori
w eath er and clim a te at regional and global lev els.
gin o f m ountains and their further uplift results in
H ig h m ou n tain s control tem perature and upper air
high reliefs w hich augm ent erosional and weather
circu lation patterns. T h is is w hy efforts have been
ing processes w hich in turn affect atm ospheric car
m ad e to correlate ice a g es w ith active tectonism and
bon dioxide. It has already been stated earlier that
m ou n tain b u ild in g, ‘as w ith increasing height o f
decreased content o f atm ospheric carbon d ioxid e
la n d m a sses. the p oten tial for ice form ation is greatly
cools the earth’s surface and its low er atm osphere to
in cr ea se d ’ (O liv er and H idore, 2 0 0 3 ). T he advocates
such an extent that glacial clim ate is induced. T he
o f tecto n ic theory o f ice ages and glaciation have
weathering o f rocks has been correlated w ith c li
tried to dem onstrate clo se relationship between Permo-
matic coolin g. In other words, chem ical w eathering
C a rb on iferou s ice age and P leisto cen e ice age and
requires dissolution o f atm ospheric carbon d ioxid e.
g la c ia tio n w ith la rg e-sca le vertical tectonic m o v e
The increased rate o f chem ical w eathering results in
m en ts and o r o g e n e sis (m ountain building) as these
decrease in the concentration o f atm ospheric carbon
tw o great p eriod s o f ic e a g e and w idespread g lacia
dioxide and resultant reduction in greenh ou se effect,
tion p reced ed la r g e-sc a le m ountain building a ctivi
with the result co olin g o f the earth’s surface and its
ties. In oth er w ord s, the C aledonian m ountain build
low er atm osphere induces glaciation. .
in g w as fo llo w e d by Perm o-C arboniferous ice age
and late C e n o z o ic m ountain bu ild in g, leading to the Astronomical Theories
fo rm ation o f A lp in e-H im a la y a n m ountain chains, The astrom ical theories are related to three
N orth A m erican cord illera, upliftm ent o f Tebatan variables, nam ely (1) earth’s orbital eccentricity, (2)
p la teau , w estern N orth A m erica including Great obliquity (tilt) o f the earth’s rotational axis relative to
P la in s e tc, w as fo llo w e d by P lio cen e-P leisto ce n e ice the plane o f earth’s orbit, and (3) precession of
a g e w h en m ajor parts o f N orth A m erica and Eurasia equinoxes, w hich determ ine the am ount o f solar
w ere g la c ia ted . R udim an and K utzbach (1 9 8 9 ) have radiation received at the earth's surface and its
also d em on strated such relation ships through co m tem poral variations. T he earth’s orbital eccentricity
puter m o d els w herein they used the m od els with no
refers to a ratio betw een the ellip tical orbit o f the
m o u n ta in s’, ‘h a lf m o u n ta in s’, and ‘full m ountains
earth around the sun and a true circle. It may be
to p red ict th e patterns o f general atm ospheric circu
rem em bered that the earth rev o lv es around the sun in
lation and their im p act on producing co o l clim a te to
an ellip tical orbit, thus, the eccen tricity o f the earth’s
introduce g la cia tio n . T he com p u ter m od els based on
orbit is derived by com paring the orbital elliptical
‘h a lf m ou n tain s’ and ‘full m o u n ta in s’ during late
C e n o z o ic period pred icted co ld er clim a te over North path o f the earth to theoretical circular path.
A m erica, N orth -W estern Europe, and northern A sia (1 ) T he eccentricity o f the earth’s elliptic
d uring P lio c e n e -P le is to c e n e p eriod s and lik ely ice orbit sim p ly m eans d eviation ot its ellip tical orbital
a g e and g la c ia t io n . T h e a ctu a l o c c u r r e n c e o f path from true circular path. T he present p osition o f
P le is to c e n e ice a g e after late C en o zo ic m ountain earth’s orbital path has been sh ow n to be closer to
b u ild in g v a lid a tes the p red iction o f com puter m od
CLIM A TE C H A N G E A N D Q UATERNARY GEOM ORPHOLOGY
613
circular path. W hen the earth’s orbit is nearest to a
puter m odels, and manual calculation by Milutin
circle, the earth’s eccen tricity b ecom es alm ost zero.
M ilankovitch that there have been angular varia
It has been dem onstrated through m easurem ent for
tions in the earth’s obliquity in the past and such
the past m illio n years on the basis o f inferred data
variations, though small (maximum value o f 1.5°),
that variations in the earth’s eccentricity take place
are sufficient enough to induce changes in the c li
in c y c lic m anner. T he variations in eccentricity matic conditions and its world distribution. The
during the past 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 years have changed be change o f the earth’s obliquity from the minimum
tw een a m inim um valu e o f 0.001 to m axim um value angle value o f 22° to the maximum value o f 24° 2 7 ’
o f 0 .0 5 4 . It takes about 9 5 ,0 0 0 years for the earth’s takes about 4 1 ,0 0 0 years. Thus, the com plete change
eccentricity to attain its m axim um value o f 0.054. in the earth’s obliquity occurs in cyclic manner and
T h is is c a lle d 9 5 ,0 0 0 y ea rs c y c le or M ilutin one cycle is com pleted in a period o f 4 1 ,0 0 0 years.
Milankovitch cycle (after the nam e o f Serbian scien There is direct relationship betw een the amount o f
tist M . M ila n k o v itch ). T he tem poral variations in the angular variation o f the earth’s obliquity and sea
earth’s eccen tricity in flu en ce the am ount o f solar sonal contrasts i.e. difference o f temperature in
radiation to b e receiv ed by the earth’s surface and summer and winter seasons. The sm aller the changes
also d eterm ine the tem poral variations in solstices in the inclination o f the earth’s rotational axis (ob liq
and e q u in o x e s. It has been estim ated that the m axi uity), the smaller is the change o f temperature b e
m um variation in the earth’s eccentricity (0.054) tween summer and winter seasons and vice versa. It
‘results in a m axim um variation o f the incom ing may be m entioned that warmer winters induce m ore
annual radiation o f on ly 0 .2 per cent o f the total over snow fall and accumulation o f ice due to increased
a c y c le o f about 9 5 ,0 0 0 y ea rs’ (Berger, 1988, quoted evaporation and resultant condensation, w h ile co o l
in A .L . B lo o m , 2 0 0 2 ). summers taboo m elting o f ice sheets. Thus, it is
(2 ) apparent that if the temperature difference b etw een
The obliquity o f the earth’s rotational axis
or tilt o f the earth’s rotational axis ‘refers to the angle summer and winter seasons is m inim ised and if such
o f the axis ( o f the earth’s rotation) in relation to the condition persists for longer duration, the clim ate
would be cold enough to induce glacial period.
p lane in w h ich the earth rev o lv es around the sun’
(O liv er and H idore, 2 0 0 3 ). The obliquity or tilt o f the (3) Precession of equinoxes : The dictionary
earth’s rotational axis varies tem porally between (W ebster) m eaning o f precession denotes ‘slo w ,
22° and 2 4 ° 27'. T he net angular variation is 1.5° conical m otion o f the earth’s axis o f rotation, caused
w hich o s c illa te s around m ean obliquity value o f by the gravitational attraction o f the sun and the
23.1 °. T h e presen t a n g le o f the earth’s rotational axis m oon, and to a sm aller extent, o f the planets, on the
is 66.5® gi v in g an ob liq u ity o f 23.5® i.e. the tilt angle equatorial bluge o f the earth,' w hile the p recession
o f the earth ’s rotational axis w ith respect to the plane o f equinoxes ‘refers to earlier occurrences o f the
o f its orbital path is 2 3 .5 d egree. The sign ifican ce o f equinoxes in each su ccessiv e sidereal year b ecau se
the ob liq u ity factor lies in the fact that it controls the o f the slow retrograde m otion o f the equinoctial
latitudinal d istribution o f solar radiant energy and points along the eclip tic, caused by the precession o f
the in ten sity and duration of different seasons. It the earth’s axis o f rotation’ (W ebster D ictionary). In
may be m en tion ed that if the ob liq u ity angle is ze io more sim ple words, the precession o f eq u in oxes
(i.e. if the rotational axis o f the earth is perpendicular may be defined as the tim e o f a year or say the days
o f the year on w hich the earth’s position is nearest
to its plane o f orbital circle) the length of day, and
to the sun (perihelion) or farthest to the sun (aphe
night w ould be o f equal duration throughout the
lion) due to varying m otions ot the earth. Thus, the
year, there w ou ld be no season ality i.e. the sam e
p recession o f eq u in oxes denotes ‘the regular change
season w ou ld prevail throughout the year, and the
in tim e when the earth is at given distance from the
horizontal distribution o f clim atic zo n es w ould be
su n .’ ‘Climatic precession is a com p lex variable with
static but su ch situation is not p o ssib le b ecau se no
principal periods o f 2 3 ,0 0 0 and 19,000 years. The
such ev id en ces cou ld be found in the clim a tic history
clim atic precessjonal parameter refers to the tim e ot
o f the earth. It has been dem onstrated through corn-
614
geom orphology
year w hen the earth is at perihelion, or clo set to the (ii) The change in the eccentricity o f the
sun, w h ich is n ow in early January (m ore precisely earth’s orbit from m inim um value o f 0.001 to maxi
3 January). C lim atic precession controls the differ mum value o f 0 .0 5 4 takes place in a cy cle o f 95,000
en ce in the length o f the seasons and has an opposite years. Such variation causes variations in the dis
e ffect on each h em isp h ere’ (A .L . B loom , 2 0 0 2 ). In tance o f the earth from the sun which in turn affects
other w ords, at the tim e o f perihelion position o f the the amount o f insolation and temperature distribu
earth during northern hem ispheric winter, the w in tion on the earth’s surface.
ters in the northern hem isphere b ecom e much longer (iii) The precession o f equinoxes in terms o f
and 7 per cent m ore warm er w hile in the southern the perihelion position o f the earth with respect to
h em isphere the sum m ers b ecom e much longer and 7 the sun is com pleted in about on e-h alf cycle o f
per cent le ss warm. 11,000 years duration. It is believed that ‘in about
P resently, the earth’s perihelion position with one-half cycle or 11,000 years from now , the north
respect to its d istan ce from the sun is in the northern ern hem isphere winter season w ill be cooler, and
h em isp h eric w inter. T he astronom ical calculation more than 23 days longer than the summer season,
d en otes that this p osition w ill be reversed after about because the northern hem isphere winter w ill occur
10,000 years from present i.e. the perihelion position w hile the earth m oves more slow ly from the sun’
o f the earth w ill change to northern hemisphere sum (Berger, 1978, quoted by A.L. B loom , 2 0 0 2 ). The
mer season, with the result winter season will be more above view is based on the calculation o f past events
extrem e and cold due to receipt o f less amount o f solar that about 10,500 years before present the northern
radiant energy. The scientists have made successful hemisphere winter was at the time when the earth was
attempts in com puting the dates o f occurrences o f farthest (aphelion position o f the earth) from the sun.
perihelion and aphelion positions in the past and have According to M ilankovitch orbital theory cool
tried to reconstruct palaeoclim ates on this basis. summers and relatively warmer w inters in the latitu
M ilutin M ilankovitch, a Serbian scientist, dinal zone o f 50° to 70° in the northern hem isphere
m anually calculated the dates o f occurrences o f are prerequisite conditions to induce cold phase o f
p erihelion and aphelion positions o f the earth for the the clim ate leading to continental glaciation because
past thousands o f years (6 0 0 ,0 0 0 years) and pre cool summers prevent m elting o f annual accum ula
sented a m athem atical m odel based on the aforesaid tion o f snow w hile relatively warmer winters induce
three astronom ical variables (e.g. eccentricity o f the more evaporation and condensation leading to more
earth’s ellip tical orbit, obliquity including o f the snow fall and accum ulation o f ice sheets.
earth’s rotational axis, and precession o f equinoxes) It may be concluded that the eccentricity o f
to exp lain the advancem ent (expansion) and retreat 1 the earth’s orbit affects the receipt o f insolation at
(con traction ) o f ice sheets during P leistocen e Ice the earth’s surface w hile the obliquity o f the earth’s
A g e . H is m odel or theory is popularly known as rotational axis and precession o f eq u in oxes deter
‘M ilankovitch T heory’ or ‘orbital variation theory.’ m ine the horizontal (latitudinal) distribution o f tem
T h e e a r th ’ s o rb ita l v a r ia tio n s are k n ow n as perature over the earth’s surface and length and
‘M ila n k o v itch c y c le s ’. T h e s a lie n t fea tu res o f intensity o f sum m er and winter seasons in terms o f
M ilan k ovitch theory are stated as fo llo w s : temperature. A ll such changes and variations induce
(i) T he ch an ge o f obliquity angle o f climthe atic changes.
earth’s rotational axis from 2 2 .1 ° to 2 4° 27' (say It has been argued by the critics o f Milankovitch
2 4 .5 °) is com p leted in a c y c le o f 4 1 ,0 0 0 years. Such orbital theory o f clim atic changes that ‘the ampli
variations in the inclination o f the earth’s rotational tude o f the fluctuations o f solar energy inferred by
a x is a ffe c t the am ount o f radiant solar energy M ilankovitch theory are inadequate to produce the
to be received at the earth surface, temperature docum ented clim atic changes o f ice a g es’ (A.L-
d istrib u tion , gen eral atm ospheric circulation and B lo o m , 2 0 0 2 ). T he advocates o f this theory are o f the
opinions that the aforesaid three astronom ical vari
sea so n s.
V I *
CLIMATE C H A N G E A N D Q U A TERN A RY G EO M ORPHOLOGY

615
ables, known as M ilankovitch orbital variables, have 3 1 .5 QUATERNARY CLIMATE CHANG ES
operated throughout past g eo lo g ica l periods and The Quaternary epoch o f C en o zoic era started
may be effectiv e in explaining clim atic fluctuations about one m illion years before present and continues
at least during ice ages w ith m inor corrections and at present. This epoch com p rises P leistocen e and
im provem ents. They argue that ‘other tectonic, at H o lo c e n e ( p o s t - g la c ia l p e r io d ) p e r io d s . T h e
m ospheric, oceanographic, and b iological changes P leistocen e w itn essed m ost pronounced clim atic
o f the late C en o zo ic Era, a lso created an environ changes for w hich m uch authentic data derived
ment in w hich the relatively w eak orbital parameters through different techniques such as p ollen an alysis,
could be exp ressed as m ajor clim ate ch a n g es’ (A .L. isotope analysis, carbon dating, potassium -argan
B loom ) and m ay act as clim atic pacemaker. dating etc. are available and the seq u en ces o f ev en ts
ATLAN TIC
OCEAN
Fig’ 31.4 : Glaciation of North America during Pleistocene Ice Age; C-Cordillarean ice sheet, K-Keewatin ice sheet, arid
L-Lab rador ice sheet.
are w ell docum ented. Major parts o f North Am erica Table 31.1: Pleistocene Glaciation of North Austrian
and E urope w ere ex ten siv ely glaciated during G lacial an d D u ra tio n ~ —
P leistocen e ice age which com prised o f four glacial In terg la cia l (y ea rs b efore p resen t)
and four interglacial periods.
P erio d s_______
The P leistocen e glaciation o f North Am erica
l . Nebraskan 3 0 0 .0 0 0 -2 6 0 ,0 0 0
(Fig. 31.4) w itnessed four periods o f coolin g and
1. Aftonian 2 6 0 .0 0 0 -2 0 5 ,0 0 0
resultant form ation o f glaciers and ice sheets and
(inter glacial)
their equatorward advancem ent. The glacial periods
2. Kansan 2 0 5 .0 0 0 - 167,000
have been identified and named as Nebraskan
2. Yarmouth 1 6 7 .0 0 0 -1 3 5 ,0 0 0
(3 0 0 ,0 0 0 -2 6 0 ,0 0 0 Y B P ), Kansan (2 0 5 ,0 0 0 -1 6 7 ,0 0 0
(inter glacial)
Y B P ), 111inoin ( 1 3 5 ,0 0 0 - 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 Y B P ) and
3. Illinoin 1 3 5 .0 0 0 -1 0 0 ,0 0 0
W isccon sin (7 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 Y B P). T hese four gla
3. Sangamon 1 0 0 .0 0 0 -7 0 ,0 0 0
cial periods w ere separated by warmer periods,
(inter glacial)
called as interglacial periods, nam ely A ftonian inter
4. W isconcin 7 0 .0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0
glacial period betw een Nebraskan and Kansan g la
4. H olocene 10.000
cial periods (2 6 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 5 ,0 0 0 Y BP), Yarmouth
(inter glacial)
interglacial period betw een Kansan and Illinoin gla
cial periods (167,0 0 0 -1 3 5 ,0 0 0 YBP), Sangamon inter Europe was glaciated during P leisto cen e ice
glacial period betw een Illinoin and W isconcin gla age (fig. 3 1.5) by the advancing ic e sheets from three
cial p eriod s (1 0 0 ,0 0 0 -7 0 ,0 0 0 Y B P ) and recent major sources o f snow field s (i.e. caps), nam ely
H o lo cen e interglacial period. The ice sheets ad Scotland, Scandinavia, and the A lp s. T he ad vancing
vanced from 3 major sources (ice caps) e.g. (1) ice sheets from Scotland and Scandinavia covered
Labrador ice sheet; (2 ) H udson Bay or K eewatin ice Great Britain, Scandinavian countries, D enm ark,
sh eets, and (3) Cordillarean or R ocky ice sheets. B elgium , Luxem berg, N etherlands, G erm any w h ile
T w o ic e sh eets o f Labrador ice caps and Keewatin Switzerland, Austria, Italy, France, southern G er
many etc. were glaciated by ice sheets advancing
ice cap s after their initial southward advance com
northward from the ice caps o f the A lp s. L ik e glacial
bined togeth er and b ecam e m uch wider and exten
and interglacial periods in N orth A m erica, four
siv e ice sh eets w hich m oved as far south as upto the
glacial periods have also been id en tified and nam ed
p ro v in ce o f N ebraska. T he com b in ed ice sh eets w ere
in Europe, e.g . G unz, M ind el, R iss and W urm
called as L aurentide ice sh eet. T he St. L aw rence
glacial periods w herein tw o glacial periods w ere
V a lley and central low lan d w ere co m p letely c o v
separated by warm er interglacial period. T h e tropi
ered by L aurentide ice sh eet. Its eastw ard m ovem en t
cal and subtropical region s o f the g lo b e rem ained
covered the A p p alach ia n s. B e sid e s, A lask a, western
warm.
Canada, W ash in gton . Idaho, M ontana etc. w ere also
T he last but m ost recent early W iscon cin
co v ered by thick ice sh eets m easuring 1000 m eters
glacial period started about 7 0 ,0 0 0 Y B P but main
to 1500 m eters in th ick n ess. T he w ithdraw al or
retreat o f ic e sh eets during interglacial p eriods left W isco n cin g la cia l period in North A m erica is sup
behind num erou s term inal m orain es. S everal lakes p osed to have started about 3 0 ,0 0 0 Y B P (years
m ain ly the G reat L ak es (co m p risin g Superior, M ich i before present) and retreated about 1 2 ,0 0 0 Y B P . The
gan , H uron, E rie and O ntario) are the le g a cy o f then tem perature w as about 4°C le ss than the present
P le is to c e n c e Ice A g e and co n seq u en t g la cia tio n . tem perature.
Fig. 31.5 : Pleistocene glaciation o f Europe.
3 1 .6 CLIMATE IN THE POST-GLACIAL PERIOD soon cam e to an end as the ice sh eets m elted and
finally withdrew. The period ranging from 18,000 to
The final retreat and withdrawal o f recent ice
5,500 Y B P is considered as a period of deglaciation
sheets started about 18,000 YBP and continued upto
denoting rapid changes in clim a te and rise in tem
10-12,000 YBP when m ost o f the ice covers w ere
perature.
withdrawn from the USA. On the other hand, the
It may be mentioned that the Pleistocene Ice
margins o f retreating ice sheets in Scandinavia and
Age caused lowering of sea level at least by 100
Scotland (Europe) started to expand and advance
meters about 18,000 YBP and the deglaciation dur
about 10,20© Y BP and thus there was reappearance
ing Holocene period resulted in the recovery o f sea
of short period glacial phase involving limited areal
extent. This little short-period glacial phase is known level to its present level about 5000-6000 YBP (fig.
as Younger D ryas but this temporary glacial phase 15.3). As mentioned above after Younger Dryas the
m ^ geom o rphology :
’ " '
warming o f previously glaciated areas resulted in was 2.5°C (4 .5 °F ) ab ove that o f the present.
com plete withdrawal o f ice sheets from North America This tim e has been described as the Climatic
and Europe by 5,50 0 YBP. Greenland and Antarc Optimum a term originally applied to Scandinavia
tica still remained under thick ice sheets. ‘All ev i when temperatures were warm enough to favour
d en ce p o in ts to th is b ein g a tim e w hen the more varied flora and fauna’ (Oliver and Hidore,
mean atm ospheric temperature o f the mid-latitudes 2003).
Fig. 31.6 : Trend o f changes in surface temperature for the past 18,000 years. The temperature change is from present
average global temperature. After J.E. Oliver and J.J. Hidore, 2003.
3 1 .7 CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE RECENT PAST ing o f several lakes in the western U SA . The clim ate
(C h ristian Era) in the northern hem isphere becam e further harsh
T he proxy data from geological and biologi during 6 00-700 A .D . when clim ate becam e warmer
cal so u rces and indicators, instrumental records, and drier. The increased aridity resulted in m elting
historical records, docum entation etc. provide am o f valley glaciers in the A lps o f Europe and opening
p le authentic inform ation to reconstruct yearly cli o f frozen passes allow ing free m ovem ent o f p eople
m atic fluctuations sin ce 1st century A .D . The records across the A lpine m ountains. It may be m entioned
sh o w that the temperature and precipitation condi that these passes are again in frozen condition at
tions o f European continent and M editerranean re present tim e due to reestablishm ent o f valley gla
g io n s w ere sim ilar to presentday clim atic conditions ciers. The m oist condition returned again in the 9th
in the 1st century o f Christian era. T h ese areas century A .D .
exp erien ced further m ore hum id conditions charac The period from 950 to 1250 A .D . Le. 300
terized by in creased precipitation and am eleorating year period is ca lled as Phase of Little Climatic
tem perature upto m id 4th century A .D . (i.e. by 350 Optimum in the clim atic history o f the earth when
A .D .). E urope and N orth A m erica exp erien ced dry clim ate b ecam e warm and relatively dry as average
p h a se resu ltin g in to sem i-d rou gh t con d ition in the temperature increased by 1° to 2°C from the present-
5th century A .D . T he in creased aridity cau sed dry day global average temperature. T h e clim ate o f
CLlM ATECHANGE AND Q U A TERN A R Y GEOMORPHOLOGY
Greenland and Iceland becam e mild and attracted o f clim ate in Iceland. Extrem e cold condition led to
the V ikings from Iceland to settle in Greenland. It human deaths due to severe fam ines. It may b e
may be m entioned that V ikings migrated from Eu m entioned that glacial period (i.e. Little Ice A ge)
rope to settle in Iceland in the 9th century A .D . from 1450 to 1880 A .D . was not alw ays character
because o f favourable conditions characterized by ized by continuous extrem e cold condition and ad
warmer clim ate. The clim atic conditions in southern vancing glaciers rather it was punctuated by several
Greenland allow ed the grow th o f stunted vegetation, cold and warm intervals. It is b elieved that each cold
pasture and agriculture to support new ly settled period continued at least for 30 years in each century
human population. (betw een 15th and 19th centuries) and tw o cold
The period from 1250 A .D . to 1450 A .D . was periods were separated by relatively warm period.
characterized by the reversal o f m ild clim ate o f 10th The coldest period culm inated in the year 1816 w hen
to 13th centuries A .D . as referred to above as tem major parts o f northern Europe and the U S A did not
perature began to drop causing accum ulation o f experience summer season. The year 1816 is know n
more ice over G reenland, drifting o f ice sheets and as ‘the year without a sum m er’ in the clim atic history,
numerous iceb ergs in the North A tlantic Ocean. The when the glaciers became most active after P leistocen e
drifting iceb ergs disrupted human physical con n ec Ice A ge, thereafter clim ate began to im prove due to
rise in temperature and by the end o f 19th century the
tion o f G reenland w ith Iceland and Europe. The 13th
ice age was terminated.
century saw very storm y weather in the Atlantic
O cean and the north Sea w h ile extrem e arid condi The records o f global tem peratures sin ce In
tion leading to severe drought prevailed in the w est dustrial R evolution (1 8 6 0 ) denote slo w but irregaular
ern U S A . trend o f rise o f temperature i.e. ranging b etw een
0.3°C and 0.6°. Follow ing R.G. Barry and R.J. C horley
T he trend o f w orsening clim atic conditions in
(2002) the phases o f rise in tem peratures after I8 6 0
the m id d le and high latitudes o f the northern hem i
have been identified as follow s:
sphere con tin u ed and the clim ate becam e further
harsh for another period o f around 4 0 0 years (i.e. (i) H ighly irregular trend o f rise in tem perature
from 14 5 0 A .D . to 1880 A .D .) as the temperature fell ranging betw een 0 .2°C to 0 .4 °C b etw een
b elo w free zin g p oin t g iv in g birth to another glacial 1 8 60-1920 A .D .
period k n ow n in the clim a tic history of the earth as (ii) C onsistent trend o f rise o f tem perature o f
Little Ice A ge. T h e clim a te o f G reenland becam e so mean value o f 0.4°C b etw een 1921 and 1945.
cold that the earlier settled p eo p le perished and their (iii) O scillating trend o f rise o f tem perature b e
settlem ents and other infrastructures w ere buried tw een 1946 and 1975 A .D . around 0 .4 °C .
T he northern h em isp h ere w a s w arm ed w h ile
under thick c o v e r o f ic e sh eets. T he A lp in e glaciers
the tem perature in the southern h em isp h ere
becam e m ore a ctiv e, all the glacial v a lley s w ere
rem ained m ore or le ss con stant i.e. neither
covered w ith thick ic e sh eets, the ad van cin g g la ciers
increase nor d ecrease.
engulfed several v illa g e s at the fo o t-h ills o f the A lp s
(iv ) O verall w arm ing trend co n tin u ed b etw een
m ountain ch ain s, several lak es and rivers w ere
1976 and 1989 A .D . w hen tem perature reg
frozen, w h ich are p resen tly unfrozen etc. for ex a m
istered an upward rise by 0 .2 °C .
ple, the T h am es river o f E n glan d w as frozen 4 tim es
(v ) T h e glob al rise o f tem perature reached its
in the 16th century, 8 tim es in the 17th cen tu ry, and
peak in the last d eca d e o f 20th pentury (i.e .
6 tim es in the 18th century. T h e h istorical records 1990s). S ix out o f sev en w arn k s t years, oty
and Icelan d ic sa g a s very m u ch in d icate the severity record occurred s in c e 1 9 8 0 /7
It m ay be summarised that overall increase in 31.8 QUATERNARY CLIMATIC CHANGE AND
the surface air temperature in the 20th century has LANDFORMS
been about 0.5°C to 0.7°C against an average rate o f The Quaternary clim ate changes Have been
increase o f 0.3°C per 1000 years at global level. described in section 31.5 o f this chapter. The most
A ccording to another v iew the average air tempera significant clim ate phase o f this period was o n se to f
ture in the northern hem isphere increased by 0.4°C ice phase during Pleistocene Ice age when m ost o f
betw een 1880 and 1940 because o f rapid rate o f North Am erica and Europe was extensively glad*
com bustion o f fo ssil fu els during this period but the ated. Four phases o f advancing ice sheets have been'
temperature dropped after 1940 inspite o f continued identified in North A m erica and Europe as the former
rapid rate o f com bustion o f fossil fuels due to fast was characterized by four cold phases o f Kansan,
industrial grow th but soon after 1940 air tempera Nebraskan, Illinoin and W isconsin ice sh eets (table
ture in the southern hem isphere show ed rising trend 31.1) where as Europe was glaciated by four advanc
w hich registered an overall increase o f 0.6°C be ing ice sheets o f Gunz, M indel, R iss, and Wurm. It
tw een 1940 and 1960. is estimated that about 20 percent o f the earth’s
surface was under thick ice cover during P leistocen e
A nother source has indicated an increase in
period which started about 1,000,000 years before
air tem perature by 1.5°C upto 1995 w hile other
present (ybp) and continued upto 9 9 0 ,0 0 0 ybp, thus
sou rces have show n general air temperature rise
the final withdrawal o f last ice sheet (W iscon sin )
ranging betw een 0.3°C and 0.6°C . It may be men
was com pleted about 10,000 ybp. T he P leisto cen e
tion ed that a rise o f 2°C temperature from the normal
glaciation caused significant low ering o f sea level
tem perature w as recorded in the Indian Ocean
due to locking o f im m ense volum e o f ocean ic water
d u r in g 1 9 9 7 -9 8 w h ic h cau sed c a ta s tr o p h ic
over the land areas in the form o f ice sheets m easur
coral bleaching lead in g to 70 per cent death o f
ing 1000 m to 1500 m in thickness. It is estim ated
corals in the A ndm an N icobar and Lakshw adeep
that P leistocene ice age caused low ering o f sea level
in lan d s. at least by 100 m about 18,000 ybp and the deglaciation
V ariou s m od els have been d evelop ed to pre during H olocen e period resulted in the recovery o f
d ict g lo b a l rise in air temperature. S.H . Schneider sea level to its present level about 5 ,0 0 0 -6 ,0 0 0 ybp
(1 9 5 0 ) p o in te d out that the temperature could rise (figs. 3 1 .2 ,3 1 .3 ).
upto 1.5°C to 3°C if the concentration o f atm os 1 It may be m entioned that the advancing ice
p h eric carb on d io x id e co u ld be doubled from the 3 0 0 sheets during four glacial periods (w ith in Great
ppm (by v o lu m e ) le v el to 6 0 0 ppm . T he General P leisto cen e Ice A g e) and withdrawal o f ic e sh eets
C ircu lation M o d el (G C M ) d ev elo p ed by S. M anabe during relatively warm interglacial periods resulted
and R .T . W etherald (1 9 7 5 ) predicts that if the present into erosional and d ep osition al activities respec
am ount o f carbon d io x id e (1 9 7 5 le v e l) o f the atm os tively w hich have been resp on sib le for the form ation
p h ere is d ou b led , the tem perature o f the earth’s o f num erous n ew landform s, m o d ifica tio n s and
su rface w ou ld in crease by 2.9°C . ch an ges in the shape and d im en sion o f pre-exhisting

landform s, su b sid en ce and em erg en ce o f land areas
A cco rd in g to the report o f Intergovernm ental
etc. E ven m arine liv e s, m ainly coral reefs, w ere a ls o
Panel o f C lim a te C h an g e (2 0 0 1 ) if the concentration
affected by sea le v e l flu ctu ation s during lateQ uater*
o f a tm o sp h eric C O 2 in creases to 5 4 0 -9 7 0 ppm v by
nary period. In fact, directly and indirectly P leistoeen #
th e en d o f 2 1 s t cen tu ry, the g lo b a l tem perature m ay
g laciation has g iv e n n ew shape and final font*
rise by 1 .4 -5 .8 °C .
CLIMATE C H A N G E A N D Q U A T E R N A R Y GEOM ORPHOLOGY
m o s t o f the landscapes o f the earth’s surface. This is

why, ‘no proper interp retation of present day top og deglaciation phase resulted in the m eetin g ancf cxwp-
raphy can b e m ade u nless the in flu en ces o f g eo lo g ic
and clim atic ch an ges during P leisto cen e period are ery o f the depressed areas, consequently th e dfc~-
properly stu d ied .’ T h ough the direct im pact o f
P leistocene glaciation w as con fin ed to about 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 previous le v els o f elevation , n ew ly form ed se a (dur-
square kilom eters o f area but its effects w ere w orld ing P leistocen e glaciation) started reced in g and thus
wide. the present-day drainage system w as evolved ; T h e
existen ce o f fo ssil rem ains on h igh erh eigh ts presents
Fluctuations in s e a level
fruitful proxy data to validate su b sid en ce an& up
The fluctuations in sea le v els due to glacial heavals o f land areas during late Quaternary period.
phase (fall in sea le v e ls ) and d eglaciation or intergla Such fo ssils have been found at the h eigh t o f 6 0 m in
cial p hase (rise in sea le v e l) have already been the coastal areas o f M aine P rovin ce o f N e w England;
d iscu ssed in sectio n 3 1 .3 (6 ) o f this chapter. The fall at the elevation o f 150m in the northern parts o f
and su b seq u en t rise in sea le v e ls controlled the Champlain Lake and at the elevation o f 180m o f the
form ation o f coral reefs in the tecton ically stable coasts o f the Jam es Bay.
tropical o cea n s. T he ‘glacial control theory* o f the
Num erous ev id en ces o f su b sid en ce o f lan d
form ation o f coral reefs propound by R .A . D aly is
areas due to the w eight o f ice sh eets and u p h ea v a ls
prim arily based on sea le v el fluctuations during the
due to deglaciation and m eltin g o f ic e sh eets d u ring
Q uaternary clim atic ch an ges.
P leistocen e period have been fou n d from northern
S u b sid e n c e and R ise of Land Area Europe. F enno-Scandia w as th ick ly co v ered w ith
ice sheets w hich caused la rg e-sca le su b sid e n c e o f
T h e en orm ou s w eigh t exterted by the covers
land surface. T he d eglaciation resu lted in to s lo w
o f th ick ic e sh eets, m easuring 1,000 m to 1,500 m in
recovery o f land surface by regain in g its p rev io u s
th ick n ess, cau sed su b sid en ce o f land areas. The
recovery o f sea le v e l (rise in sea le v el) due to height under isostatic readjustm ent. It is b e lie v e d
d eglaciation and w ithdraw al o f ice sheets during that the central part o f the Fenno-SG andia is still
interglacial p eriod resulted in the uplift o f the land in rising under the process o f iso sta tic adjustm ent. T h e
order to m aintain iso sta tic adjustm ent. It may be evolution o f the B a ltic S ea cou ld b e p o s sib le d u e to
m e n tio n e d th a t th e s u b s id e n c e and r e c o v e r y subsidence and upheavals during d ifferen t p h a ses o f
(re-elev a tio n ) w ere slo w and gradual p rocesses. The P leisto cen e Ice A ge.
g eo lo g ists h a v e d isco v ered several ca ses o f subsid
Effects on P resen t Topography
en ce and rise in land areas in the glaciated region s o f
T he ev id en ces o f topographic characteristics
the U S A . For ex a m p le, the area near Lake Superior
in North A m erica and N . E urope d em on strate th e
w as d ep ressed by 4 5 0 m d u e to the w eig h t o t thick
facts that the present topography g o t its fin al sh ap e
ice sheets but w as again re-elevated after deglaciation
to regain its p reviou s lev el under isostatic readjust during the different p h ases o f P le isto c e n e glaciation
ment. It sh ould be rem bered that the process o f and d eglaciation . T h e u p liftm en t o f land ca u sed by
subsidence and upheaval during g la cia l and intergla isostatic adjustm ent d ue to m eltin g o f P le isto c e n e
cial periods w as ex c e e d in g ly slo w . T he su b sid en ce ice sh eets rejuvenated num erous stream s w h ich en
o f land in the eastern parts o f the Great L akes due to trenched deep gorges in the g la cia ted reg io n s e .g . on
ice sh eet co v er resulted into the L ake O ntario v ia St. Q u eb ec Plateau o f Canada. W ave cu t m arine benches
w ere form ed in the coastal lands w hich still carry
m arine fo s s ils o f P leisto cen e ice age. Subm arine form ed in the glaciated areas. T h e significant im
canyons and e x te n siv e coral reefs w ere form ed due to prints o f P leisto cen e glaciation are seen in the form-
lo w erin g o f sea le v els, during glacial phase and o f thousands o f glacial lakes o f varying shapes and
th ese w ere su b seq u en tly subm erged under sea water d im ensions. The m ost characteristic feature o f such
d u e to rise in sea lev el due to d eglaciation . The glacial lake is that they are found in clusters having
a d v a n cem en t and retreat o f continental ice sheets hundreds o f lakes in each cluster. Finland presents
resulted in to the form ation o f num erous long and fi ne exam p le o f such clustered glacial lakes w hich are
paral lei m orainic ridges due to deposition o f moraines. so interconnected that the drainage pattern has be
N u m ero u s e x a m p le s o f su ch m orainic ridges are still com e indeterminate pattern. T h is is w hy Finland is
fou n d in sev era l lo c a lities o f Canada, U S A , Ger called as ‘garden of lakes.’ T he Vattern and Vannern
m any , P o la n d , S w e d e n etc. T he su ccessiv e phases o f lakes o f Sw eden, B altic Sea, the Great L ak es o f
a d v a n cem en ts (during g la cia l phase) and retreat Canada and U S A etc. cou ld be ev o lv ed due to
(d u rin g in terg la cia l p eriod) o f continental ice sheets several p h ases o f d isp ersal and retreat o f ic e
resu lted in th e d ep o sitio n o f m oraines in such a way sheets during Pleistocene glaciation, t h e mountainous
that n u m erou s parallel term inal m orainic ridges were valleys w ere m odified by glacial erosion and w ere
fo rm ed . S m a ll glacial lakes w ere form ed due to given the shape o f U -shaped v a lley s, h ills w ere
d a m m in g o f m eltw ater at the back slo p es o f terminal subdued in height and w ere rounded, num erous
m o ra in ic rid ges. T h e Prippet M arsh located at the cirques, hanging v a lley s, arets etc. w ere form ed . T h e
b ou ndary o f P oland and R u ssia is the result o f fiord coasts o f N orw ay and S w ed en w ere form ed due
P le is to c e n e g la c ia tio n . B e sid e s m orainic ridges, to P leisto cen e glaciation .
' ■*' ' '£•V'■!-'-y* jag'-l'-
Fig. 31.7: Thefirst stage of the evolution of Great Lakes. There was a shallow basin in the place ofpresetftGreat Lake& ;
C U M A T E C H A N G E A N D Q U A TE R N A R Y GEOM ORPHOLOGY
Stages of the Evolution of Great La k e s sheets crossed over this water d iv id e and reached as
T he G reat L akes o f North A m erica, com pris far south as N ebraska o f the U S A . T he m eltw ater o f
ing L. Superior, L. M ichigan, L. Huron, L. Ontario frontal parts o f the ice sheets had the outlet tow ards
and L. E rie are the m ost sig n ifica n t leg a cy o f south and used to flo w through O h io-M ississipp i
P leistocen e Ice A g e. It is b elieved that before the system s. A t a m uch later date the su ccessiv e phases
evolution o f present Great Lakes there existed a o f the withdrawal (retreat) o f ice sheets g a v e birth to
shallow broad basin co n sistin g o f num erous river the present Great Lake*. W ith the final w ithdrawal
valleys and h avin g its drainage tow ards the A tlantic o f ice sheets the blocked outlet o f the St. L aw rence
Ocean. T he basin w as surrounded by highlands on river w as opened. It may be rem em bered that in the
all sid es. T h e A tlan tic-b ou n d drainage o f this basin beginning the sh allow basin had its ou tlet tow ards
was b lock ed d u e to accu m u lation o f im m en se v o l the A tlantic O cean, the n ew ly form ed G reat lak es
um e o f ic e brought by the southw ard advancing ice should have been w ashed out in the A tlan tic w ith the
sheets co m in g ou t o f Labrador and K eew atin ice opening o f St. L aw rence outlet but it cou ld not
caps. T here e x iste d an old w atershed to the south o f happen because the land around the ou tlet o f the St.
the a foresaid basin w h ich separated the valley o f old L aw rence began to rise, with the result the w ater o f
St. L aw ren ce from the M ississip p i system . The ice the Great Lakes w as locked in already form ed
Duluth
Lake
Chicago
Lake
Maumee
Ice Sheet
Lake
Fig. 3].8 : The stage o f the evolution of Duluth. Chicago and Maumee Lakes.
depressions. It may be mentioned that the process o f
rtie ©volution o f the Great Lakes was slow and to melt and hence registered slow but gradual retreat.
gradual and hence was com pleted in seven stages. The melt water began to collect between the termi
nal morainic ridges (to the south) and retreating ice
First S tage: There was a central lowland in the
sheets (in the north) and began take the shape of a
form of a shallow basin in the place o f present Great
lake. The shifting o f ice sheets to the north o f old
Lakes. There existed an old water divide between the
water divide due to its northward retreat uncovered
St. Law rence and the M ississippi system. The ice the land and the meltwater was locked in between the
sh eets exten d ed o ver the water d ivid e. The water water divide and retreating ice sheets which gave
c o m in g out o f the frontal m argins o f the ice birth to an extensive water body or basin. The level
sh eets had its o u tlet tow ards central low land o f water o f the basin became equal to the levels o f
through the M ississip p i system . The areas o f the depressions o f water divide and cols and the water
p resen t G reat L ak es w ere under thick cover o f crossed over the divide and used to flow in the form
ic e sh e e ts (fig . 3 1 .7 ). o f small streams which drained into the M ississippi
system, (fig. 31.8).
Fig. 31.9: The stage of the evolution of Whittlesey Lake.

Fig. 31.10 : The Stage o f the evolution o f warren Lake.
Third s ta g e : Further northward shifting o f ice St. Croix river (fig . 3 1 .8 ). S im ilarly the w aters o f
sh eets due to m eltin g uncovered the on ce ice-co v - C hicago Lake and M aum ee L ake w ere drained into
ered southern parts o f the tributary va lley s o f the the M ississip p i system via Illin o is river and W ab ash
p reexh istin g St. L aw ren ce v a lley and a sh allow river resp ectively. W ith the northward retreat o f ic e
basin w as form ed . T he retreating ice sh eets d ev el sheets these lakes w ere gradually w id en ed and e x
oped a fe w lo b e s in their southern margin w hich tended in d im en sion . T he m eltw ater fo u n d its w ay to
gave birth to D u lu th L ak e (fig . 3 1 .8 ) to the south o f the St. L aw ren ce and Su sq u eh an na rivers in the
present M ich igan L ak e, C h ic a g e o L ake to the south eastern part.
o f present L ak e C h ica g o , and M a u m ee L ake to the Saginaw lake was formed in a lobe after
south o f present L ak e Erie. T h e drainage o f th ese complete withdrawal of ice sheets from the southern
new ly form ed lak es w as southw ard and the w ater o f part of present Michigan (fig. 31.9). The Saginalake
these lakes drained in the M ississip p i sy stem . D uluth was drained into lake Chicago through Grand river,
Lake w as co n n ected to the M ississip p i river through Maumee lake was connected with Sagina l a b y a
4
Fig. 31.11 : The stage o f Lundy Lake and Iroquis Lake formation.
n ew o u tlet. C o n seq u en tly , the ou tlet o f M aum ee u nification o f L ake Sagina and L ake W hittlessey
la k e to W ab ash river w as abandoned. T hus, the and an ex ten siv e lake w as form ed w hich w as named
w aters o f M au m ee, S agin a and C hicago lakes drained as W arren L ake (fig . 3 1 .1 0 ). T he eastw ard extension
in to the M iss is s ip p i sy ste m via Illin o is river. A t a o f W arren L ake sw a llo w ed F inger Lake. Still the
m u ch later date the north-eastw ard ex ten sio n o f outlet o f W arren L ake w as tow ards M ississip p i
M a u m ee la k e d u e to co n tin u ed w ithdraw al o f ice system through its tributaries. T h is phase o f lake
sh eets g a v e birth to a n ew lake w h ich w as nam ed as d ev elo p m en t is c a lled as ‘L a k e W a r r e n S ta g e ’ (fig.
L ak e W h ittle sse y w h ich w as co n n ected w ith Lake 3 1 .1 0 ).
S agin a. T h is p h a se o f lak e d ev elo p m en t w as ca lled
Fourth S ta g e : Further northward retreat o f ice
as ‘W h itte sse y lak e s ta g e ’ (fig . 3 1 .9 ). A t the sam e
sh eets g a v e birth to a n ew lake nam ed as Lundy lake.
tim e F in g er L a k e w as form ed i n N e w Y ork state, the
In fact, L undy lak e w as e v o lv e d due to u n ification o f
w ater o f w h ich fle w through S u sq u eh an n a river for
S agi naw lak e, southern part o f Huron lak e and entire
s o m e tim e. S o m e p o rtio n s o f p resen t L ake Erie and
(p resen t) Erie lake. T h e o u tlet o f Lundy lake was
L a k e O n tario w ere u n co v ered d u e to co n tin u ed
d irected tow ards the A tla n tic O cean via M ohaw k
tiorthw ard retreat o f ic e sh e e ts, w h ich ca u sed the
CLIMATE CHANGE AND QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY # 627
Fig. 31.12 : The stage o f the evolution o f Algonikan Lake.
gap and Hudson river (known as Hudson-M ohawak Algonikan Lake. The exhum ation o f the area be
gap). Duluth lake was gradually extended upto nearly tween Georgia Bay and Iroquis lake (present Ontario
half o f the present Superior lake. Duluth and Chi Lake) due to withdrawal o f ice sheets enabled the
cago lakes still maintained their outlets into M issis waters o f Alganikan lake to drain into Irquis lak e via
sippi system . Further norward retreat o f ice sheets (fig. 31.11). Trent river.
uncovered m ost parts o f the present Ontario lake and
Lake Erie also drained into Iroquis lak e, from
gave birth to a new lake named as Iroquis lake (fig.
where the water o f entfte lake systejn reached the
31.11).
Atlantic Ocean through M ohaw ak gap and H udson
Fifth Stage : The continued retreat o f ice river. The withdrawal o f ic e sh eets u n covered the
sheets resulted into their com p lete withdrawal from escarpm ents betw een present Erie and Ontario lakes.
the present position o f Great Lakes. The com bined Thus, the water o f Erie lake w h ile p assin g through
waters o f Superior, M ichigan and Huron lakes gave this escarpm ent m ade w aterfalls before jo in in g O n
birth to an exten sive lake w hich w as named as tario lake. This w as the b eginning o f the form ation o f
Fig. 31.13 : The stage of the development of Champlain Sea and Ottawa Outlet.
N ia gra F a lls. It m ay be m en tion ed that still the lake reached Ontario lake through N iagra fa lls and
p resen t St. L a w ren ce o u tlet w as buried under thick the com b in ed w aters o f th ese tw o lak es also b egan to
ic e co v er. drain into C ham plain sea (fig . 3 1 .1 3 ).
Sixth stage : T h e St. L a w ren ce v a lley w as Seventh Stage : T h e ice sh eets w ere c o m
u n covered d u e to m eltin g o f ic e sh eets. C o n se- p letely w ithdraw n from the present p o sitio n o f Great
\
q u en tly, sea w ater ex ten d ed upto entire St. L a w L ak es in the p en u ltim ate stage o f la k e d evelop m en t.
ren ce v a lle y and H u d so n -M o h w k gap in the form o f T h e north-eastern parts o f N orth A m erica began to
C ham p lain S ea . B y th is tim e, the O ttaw a o u tlet w as rise under iso s ta tic rec o v ery d u e to re le a se o f
o p en ed , w ith th e resu lt the Waters o f Superior, M ic h i su p erin co m b en t load co n seq u en t upon m eltin g o f
g a n and H uron la k es b egan to drain in to C ham p lain thick ic e sh eets. T h is resu lted in the regression o f sea
s e a v ia O tta w a o u tlet. S im ila rly , the w ater o f Erie from St. L a w ren ce and H u d so n -C h a m p lain lo w
St. Claira
1— > 1 Old Outlet 1 = H P re se n t Outlet
Fig. 31.14 : The final shape o f present Great Lakes.
land. T he O ttaw a o u tlet w as abandoned. T he present into Erie lake through St. C lair river. T h e E rie lak e
Great L ak es a ssu m ed their shapes as each lake
w as con nected to Ontario lake through N ia g ra fa lls
shrunk in d im e n sio n (fig . 3 1 .1 4 ). The com bined
(fig. 3 1 .1 3 ).
water o f Superior, M ich igan and Huron lakes drained

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CHAPTER 1 : NATURE OF GEOMORPHOLOGY 1-23

D e fin itio n and sc o p e o f g e o m o rp h o lo g y ; e v o lu tio n o f

L a c k o f c o m m o n ly a c c ep tab le theo ry ; s ig n ific a n c e a n d g o a ls o f

CHAPTER 6 : CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 114-131

CHAPTER 7 : TH EO RY O F ISO STA SY 132-139

CHAPTER 22 : FLUVIAL GEOM ORPHOLOGY 413-434

geomorphology has initiated geomorphological re­ The Calcutta Centre of geomorphology is

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l to it in his famous book ‘p rin cip les o f g eo lo g y ’. It

exam ple of exposed grantic-gneissic batholithic

Fig. 2.4 : Development ofrectangular topographicfea­

Scoria and ash cones when subjected to fluvial

Fig. 2.5 : Development o f hexagonal landforms on

faultline s carp is formed due to renewed downward

Fig. 2.7: Development o f landforms over folded structure.

hard and soft rocks and sometimes there are alter­

depressions etc. on the earth’s surface. On the other Mechanism of Processes

operates in two ways e.g. (i) vertical erosion leading

by backwash on the wave-cut platforms, a profile of Procaaa-Raaponaa (Landform*)

through g e o lo g ic a l tim e s h av e g re a te r them, there are numerous relic (fossil) landforms

(1969), L. Wilson (1969, 1973),J. Tricart and A.

Fig. 1 1 : Graphical presentation of geographical cycle presented by W.M Davis.

Fig. 3.2 : Graphic presentation o f Penck's model o f landform development.

reliefs or altitudes o f summit divides start decreas­ EVALUATION OF PENCK'S MODEL

Fig. 3.5 : Graphic presentation o f Davis' geographical cycle (by others).

Fig. 3 .8 : Bhander Plateau, M.P., India (after Savindra Singh, 1974).

D iagnostic landforms ; geomorphological processes and climatic con­

It may be concluded that the aforesaid repre­

Mean Annual Rainfall Cinches)

Mean A n n u a l R a i n f a l l ^ i nc he s ) variables which influence processes and landform s

cientdue to desiccation. Clay particles, in such case

Table 4.1 : Peltier’s Morphogenetic Regions_____________ ___________________________________________

1. Glacial 0-20 glacial erosion, nivation, wind action;

4. M aritime 35-70 50-75 strong m a ss m o v e m e n t, m o d e ra te to strong

M o rph og enetic K oppen O ther nam es G eo m orph ic M o rp h o lo g ic a l

1. Glacial EF subglacial m ax im um frost weath- alpi ne topography, abrasion

5.1SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE is commonly believed that the outer thinner part o f

and 3.3 km per second respectively in the upper part

It appears from the foregoing discussion that

6.1 INTRODUCTION w ould be ‘land h em isp h ere’ w h ile th e southern

Fig. 6.6 : Different positions o f Poles and Equator.

Fig. 6.8:Diagramatic presentation o f different types o f plate margins.

(3) Conservative Plate M argins arc also

Fig. 6.10 : P attern o f therm al convective currents and pla te movements.

thus Labrador sea was formed. This newly form ed

plate. Nubian and Somali plates arc separated by

7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 D IS C O V E R Y O F T H E C O N C E P T

have to assum e that for the 8848 m height o f the

Fig. 7.3 : Explanation o f the concept o f Prat ton isostasy.

Bowie has opined that though Pratt does not

Fig. 7.6 : Illustration o f the concept o f Bowie on isostasy.

practice because such condition would be easily

com pensation’ (o f 10-mile thickness). Thus, we

must be slow flow age o f relatively heavier materials

8.1 INTRODUCTION am m onium , table 8.1) co n stitu te 99 p e r c e n t o f the

W hole Earth Earth's C rust

1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks

never seen because they are buried deep w ithin the

M any o f such batholithic dom es have now been

2. Extrusive Igneous rocks

Fig. 8.5 : The resultant feature on dyke after erosion

Table 2 : Mineral Composition of Granites

Minerals Feldspar Quartz Mica Hornblende Iron others

geomorphology has initiated geomorphological re The Calcutta Centre of geomorphology is

Fig. 2.4 : Development ofrectangular topographicfea

hard and soft rocks and sometimes there are alter

reliefs or altitudes o f summit divides start decreas EVALUATION OF PENCK'S MODEL

D iagnostic landforms ; geomorphological processes and climatic con

It may be concluded that the aforesaid repre

Table 4.1 : Peltier’s Morphogenetic Regions_ _______________________________

(9) T h e connecting plane betw een two con

Y o u th fu l S ta g e — C onseq u en t stream s o rig i o f the a n ticlin es (d ip s lo p e s ) . L a teral con seq u en ts

3. h o m o c lin a l rid g e s. T h e e n tire d o m e is e ro d e d down

1 1 .2 PLATE MARGINS o p p o site d ire c tio n s (fig . 6 .8 ). D iv e rg e n t p la te m ar

m a rg in s o f N o rth and S o u th A m eric as and th u s the A siatic p la te c a u s e s e a rth q u a k e s o f th e m id -co n ti

Under w ater (perpetual w aterlogging). M ic r o f a u n a l alo n g co astal zo n es o b ta in th e se w eath e red m ateri

Presence o f trans No No M inor in M oderate M inor M in o r to M ajor