1.

1 Introduction
Thermodynamics is a science that deals with all aspects of energy conversion, energy
exchange and energy saving. It is also concerned with the basics of the study of materials,
chemical reactions and plasma. Because of its wide application in many fields,
thermodynamics has long been identified as an essential part of engineering curricula in
technical institutions the world over. Basic thermodynamics is characterized by a few
fundamental definitions and concepts and because of its fundamental nature, it is considered
an essential prerequisite for the study of all thermal engineering subjects. In applied
thermodynamics, the basics of thermodynamics are applied to the design and analysis of
various engineering devices involving energy interactions. Study of thermodynamics,
therefore, is of profound importance and an inextricable part of engineering education.
This book deals with the necessary fundamental aspects of thermodynamics.

1.1.1 Thermodynamics
Definition: Thermodynamics is the science of the interactions among systems and the
consequent changes experienced by the interacting systems. Thermodynamic interactions
occur by exchange of Heat and / or Work which are, as it will be made clear in due course,
energy in transition. Under the influence of heat and / or work the interacting systems
undergo changes in their properties. Thus, thermodynamics is the science of the study of
heat and work interactions and their effects on the properties of the interacting systems. In
short, it can be said that thermodynamics is the science of energy interactions.

1.1.2 Scope of Thermodynamics

Like any other science, thermodynamics also derive its strength from experimental
observations. These observations are formulated into the zeroth, first, second and third law
of thermodynamics. In the chapters that follows, these laws are not only explained in detail
but are also applied to analyse several happenings in energy transfer and conversion
devices of practical importance. A study of the properties of various kinds of substances
used in energy conversion devices forms an important part of a course in thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is concerned only with the states of systems before and after a certain
interaction and is insensitive to intermediate ones. Also, thermodynamics has no intrinsic
timescale. Suppose an interaction occurs between two systems, the changes in properties of
the two systems at the end of the interaction depends only on the magnitudes and directions
of the interaction and not on their rates of occurrence. For example, if one unit of heat ( or
work ) is transferred to a system the resulting changes in properties are proportional to this
unit of heat ( or work ) and not to its rate of being transferred. Irrespective of whether one
unit of heat ( or work ) is transferred in one second, one minute or one hour, the changes in
properties experienced by the interacting systems remain the same.

1.1.3 Microscopic and Macroscopic Thermodynamics

As discussed earlier, thermodynamics deals with behaviour of matter under external
influences. Matter comprises myriads of particles which are its atoms or molecules. These
particles are in random motion and collide continuously. The condition of matter at any
instant is thus governed by that of the constituent particles. The behaviour of matter can thus
be analysed through a study of the conditions of its atoms or molecules. This approach is
adapted in microscopic thermodynamics. Microscopic treatment is cumbersome and tedious
is it has to take into account the conditions of innumerable particles of the system. However,
in statistical thermodynamics this problem is less severe, is it considered a statistical group
of particles behaving identically. In macroscopic thermodynamics, which is the subject
matter of this book, the studies can final to gross or time-averaged behaviour of a large
number of particles which are observable or measurable at the macroscopic level.
Macroscopic thermodynamics can only be applied to a continuum. A continuum is a system
whose size is more than the mean free path of the molecules. In other words, the system
can be treated as a continuum if it were to contain a large number of particles to make the
statistical averages meaningful. It is generally agreeable to consider a system as a
continuum if its size were to be greater than either 10 times the mean free path or 10 times
the mean molecular path.

1.1.4 Engineering Thermodynamics

Engineering thermodynamics is the science that deals with design and analysis of practical
energy conversion devices such as power plants that develop shaft power from heat,
refrigerators, heat pumps, air conditioners, heat exchangers, nozzles, diffusers etc. It also
studies the properties of various substances used in these devices.

1.2 System and Control Volume

1.2.1 System
A system is an identifiable collection of matter on which attention is focused during
thermodynamic analysis of a problem. It is recognized as the material enclosed in a
boundary called the system boundary which can either be real or imaginary. Everything
outside the system boundary, with which the system interacts is called the surroundings.
During any event, the system boundary can change in size, shape and orientation with
respect to a stationary observer but material cannot cross the system boundary in either or
or both directions. Heat and / or work interactions between a system and its surroundings
can occur across the system boundary.

1.2.2 Control Volume

A control volume is a zone in space on which attention is focused during the analysis of a
problem. It is identified as the volume inside a real boundary called the control surface.
Everything outside the control surface with which the control volume interacts is called the
surroundings. During a certain happening the size, shape and orientation of the control
surface cannot change. But, material can cross the control surface in either or both
directions. Heat and / or work interactions between a control volume and its surroundings
can occur across the control surface.
In some books on the subject a system is also referred to as a ‘closed system'. This is
probably a misnomer as the definition ‘system' already emphasizes that a system is one
which is indeed closed with respect to material transfer across its boundary. Similarly,
control volume is also referred to as an ‘open system'. When the definition of a system
clearly describes it as closed with regard to material transfer, it cannot be prefixed with
‘open' to give any meaningful alternative.
Schematic representations of system, system boundary, control volume, control
surface and surroundings are given in Figures 1.1a and b.
A few common examples of system are (i) a lead acid battery, (ii) the weight on a
pressure cooker, (iii) a refrigerator when its door is closed, (iv) a coil spring in an automobile,
(v) an electric bulb, (vi) the piston in an reciprocating engine, (vii) air in a football in play, (viii)
a satellite orbiting earth, (ix) a gas enclosed in a piston-cylinder device during compression
and expansion processes, (x) steam undergoing a cycle in a steam power plant, (xi) a
refrigerant in either a refrigerator or a heat pump and (xii) air undergoing a cycle in a closed-
cycle gas turbine power plant.

( Note: Before any thermodynamics analysis is taken up it is essential that eiither a system
or a control volume is first identified and the analysis confined strictly to either of them. )

A few examples of control volume are (i) turbines, (ii) compressors, (iii) heat exchangers,
(iv) nozzles, (v) diffusers, (vi) open-cycle gas turbine power plant, (vii) internal combustion
engine, (viii) a window air conditioner, (ix) a pressure cooker, (x) a domestic water pump
lifting water from a sump to an overhead tank, (xi) ceiling fan, (xii) a boiler in a steam power
plant.

1.3 Dimensions and Units

Dimensions are physical quantities. Mass [M], length [L], time [t] and temperature [T] are the
fundamental dimensions. The symbols used for these quantities, given within brackets,
denote the corresponding dimension. The dimensions listed above are not exhaustive but
are only representative.
Unit are arbitrarily selected magnitudes of the dimensions. For example, millimetre
(mm), centimetre (cm), metre (m), kilometre (km) and so on are units of length. Similarly,
milligram (mg), gram (g), kilogram (kg) and so on are units of mass; second (s), minute
(min), hour (h) are units of time and kelvin (K) is the unit of temperature. The SI system
recognises kg, m, s and K as the fundamental units of mass, length, time and temperature,
respectively.

1.3.1 Primary Dimensions

A small group of dimensions with the help of which the dimensions of all other physical
quantities can be specified are called primary dimensions. In the SI System of units the
primary group of dimensions consist of mass, length, time and temperature.

1.3.2 Derived Dimensions

There are a number of other dimensions which can be derived in terms of these primary
dimensions. These are called derived dimensions. A few examples of derived dimension are
force [F], velocity [L/t], acceleration [L/t²], density [M/L³], pressure [F/L²], work [FL], power
FL
[FL/t] and specific heat [ ]. To obtain consistent units for all derived dimensions it is
MT
essential to insert into the dimensional equations the respective fundamental units of [M], [L],
[t] and [T].

1.3.3 Foce
The relation among [F], [M], [L] and [t] is very important. The four are related by Newton’s
law.
F = ma,
where m is the mass and a is the acceleration and the corresponding dimensional relation is
[F] = [ML/t2].
The unit of force is obtained in terms of the fundamental units selected for the primary
dimensions, [M], [L] and [t]. Therefore, as [F] = [ML/t2], the unit of force is kg m/s2. In SI
system this unit is called a newton (N). Thus, 1 N = 1 kg m/s2. A force of 1 newton when
acting on a body of 1 kg mass makes it move with an acceleration of one m/s2. Given in
Table 1.1 are a few physical quantities, their dimensions and fundamental units.

Example 1.1
Find the velocity of a body, in m/s, which travels a distance of 80 km in 2 hours.

Table 1.1 Fundamental dimensions, a few derived and their basic units
Quantity Dimension Basic unit
Mass [M] kg
Length [L] m
Time [t] s
Temperature [T] K
Force [F] = [ML/t2] kg m/s2 = N (Newton)
Velocity [L/t] m/s
2
Acceleration [L/t ] m/s2
3
Density [M/L ] kg / m3
2
Pressure [F/L ] N / m2 = Pa (Pascal)
Work [FL] Nm = J (Joule)
Power [FL/t] Nm / s = W (watt)
Specific Heat FL J/kg K
[ ¿
MT

 Data :
Distance travelled = 80 km = 80 * 1000 = 8 * 104 m, Time of travel = 2h = 2 * 3600 =
7200 s (here, 1000 is the factor that converts km to m and 3600 is the factor that
converts h to s).
 Solution :
When fundamental units are used for the primary dimension the unit of the derived
dimension, velocity, will automatically be in its fundamental unit of m / s2.
distance travelled 8∗10 4
Velocity = = = 11.1 m / s2.
time 7200

1.4 Thermodynamic Properties

Thermodynamic properties are observable, measurable or calculable characteristics of a
system. Some of the commonly encountered properties, with their symbols within
parentheses, are pressure (p), volume (V), temperature (t or T), density (ρ), energy (E),
enthalpy (H), entropy (S), and specific heats (cp, cv). Such properties are classified into two
categories, intensive and extensive.

1.4.1 Intensive Properties

Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system. A few
examples are pressure, temperature and density.
1.4.2 Extensive Properties
Extensive properties are those that are dependent on the mass of a system. Some examples
are mass, volume, energy, enthalpy and entropy.

1.4.3 Specific Properties

Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass. Their values are obtained when
the corresponding extensive properties are divided by the mass of the system. Examples of
these are specific volume (v), specific energy (e), specific enthalpy (h) and specific entropy
(s). While extensive properties are denoted by capital letters, the corresponding specific
properties are denoted by the same letters in the lower case. In general, if ‘Z’ is any
extensive property of s system of mass ‘m’, the corresponding specific property ‘z’ is given
Z
by, z = . Specific properties can also be considered as intensive properties.
m

1.4.4 Pressure
For a student of engineering, understanding the concept of pressure is very important and
hence an attempt is made here to explain this property in detail. The pressure exerted by a
fluid at rest at a given point is the same in all directions and is defined as the normal
component of the force exerted per unit area. Thus, the unit of pressure is N/m2, which is
also called a pascal (Pa). The pressure of a fluid is measured by a pressure gauge, the most
common among which is either a manometer or a Bourdon pressure gauge. Generally,
pressure gauges measure the pressure of a system to which they are connected with
respect to the local atmosphere pressure (patm). In other words, they read the extent to which
pressure is either greater than or less than the atmospheric pressure.

1.4.4.1 Absolute Pressure

The pressure of a system