Cross Cultural Understanding A Handbook

CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING:
A HANDBOOK TO UNDERSTAND
OTHERS’ CULTURES
Umi Pujiyanti & Fatkhunaimah Rhina Zuliani
CV. Hidayah
Yogyakarta
CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING :
A HANDBOOK TO UNDERSTAND OTHERS’ CULTURES
Penulis
Umi Pujiyanti & Fatkhunaimah Rhina Zuliani
Copyright@2014, Umi Pujiyanti & Fatkhunaimah Rhina Zuliani
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Cetakan pertama, 2014
Dimensi buku A5, 21 x 15
ix, 166 halaman
Softcover
ISBN 978-602-1230-55-8
ii | Cross Cultural Understanding

Foreword
In teaching English as second language or foreign

language, students are usually confronted with so many ideas of
strange cultural items. This condition somehow also influences
their motivations, their willingness and their interest in studying
the language. We consider this condition as a drawback we
should omit. As teachers, then, we compose this book as a means
to help students understand western cultures.
This book consists of eleven chapters. Chapter I discusses
the relation between Language and Culture which is then
followed by General American Values for the Chapter II.
Stereotypes comes at Chapter III where we can find discussion
about certain ‗label‘ given to certain people from certain country.
Chapter IV shares Intercultural Communication and Non-Verbal
Communication is for Chapter V. Culture Shock as the initial
feelings we find when touching other cultures‘ environment. It is
continued by Cultural Conflict as Chapter VI. Male and Female
Relationship, Table Manner and Hotel Tour are the rest of the
Chapters.
Regards,
Umi Pujiyanti dan Fatkhunaimah Rhina
Cross Cultural Understanding | iii

TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER I LANGUAGE AND CULTURE .................. 1

A. Culture .......................................................................... 1
1. Definition of Culture ................................................ 1
2. Cultural Universal .................................................... 5
3. Types of Culture ....................................................... 7
4. Cultural Patterns of Behavior ................................... 7
B. Language ...................................................................... 8
C. The Relationship Between Language and Culture ......... 9
EXERCISES ....................................................................... 10
CHAPTER II GENERAL AMERICAN VALUES ........... 13

A. Freedom ........................................................................ 13
B. Individualism ................................................................ 14
C. Punctuality .................................................................... 14
D. Volunteerism ................................................................. 15
E. Equality ........................................................................ 16
F. Informality .................................................................... 17
G. Idealizing what is practical ........................................... 17
H. Mobility ........................................................................ 18
I. Progress......................................................................... 18
EXERCISES ....................................................................... 19
iv | Cross Cultural Understanding

CHAPTER III STEREOTYPE .......................................... 21
A. Kinds of Stereotypes ..................................................... 26
1. Nationality stereotypes ............................................. 26
2. Racial stereotypes ..................................................... 31
3. Political stereotypes .................................................. 32
4. Gender stereotypes ................................................... 32
B. Stereotypes in Media ..................................................... 33
C. Positive and Negative Side of Stereotype ....................... 35
D. Dealing with Stereotypes ............................................... 36
1. Between Individuals. ............................................... 36
2. In the Media ............................................................. 38
3. In Education............................................................. 39
EXERCISES ....................................................................... 41
CHAPTER IV INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION ........................................................ 43
A. Barriers to Intercultural Communication ........................ 48
1. Attitude ................................................................... 48
2. Perception ............................................................... 50
3. Stereotype ............................................................... 50
4. Interpretation .......................................................... 51
5. Culture Shock ......................................................... 53
6. Non-Verbal Behavior .............................................. 53
B. Cultural Learning ........................................................... 55
C. Dealing with Difference .................................................. 56
Cross Cultural Understanding | v

D. Improving Intercultural Communication ........................ 57
1. Break the Assumptions ............................................ 58
2. Empathise ............................................................... 58
3. Involve .................................................................... 59
4. Discourage Herd Mentality ..................................... 59
5. Avoid Insensitive Behavior...................................... 59
EXERCISES ....................................................................... 61
CHAPTER V NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION...... 65

A. Body Language (Kinesics) .............................................. 65
1. Body movement (gesture) ........................................ 66
2. Body Position .......................................................... 71
3. Facial Expressions ................................................... 71
4. Dress ....................................................................... 88
B. Eye Contact (Oculistics) ............................................... 89
C. Touch (Haptics) ........................................................... 91
D. Body Distance/Space (Proxemics) .............................. 93
E. Paralangue .................................................................. 96
F. Turn - taking ............................................................... 97
EXERCISES ....................................................................... 98
CHAPTER VI CULTURE SHOCK .................................. 103

A. Cause of shock culture ................................................. 104
B. The symptoms of shock culture .................................... 105
vi | Cross Cultural Understanding

C. The Stages of Shock Culture ........................................ 106
D. Coping shock culture.................................................... 108
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 109
CHAPTER VII CULTURAL CONFLICT ....................... 111

A. The Cause of Cultural Conflict ..................................... 112
B. Dealing with Cultural Conflict ..................................... 113
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 114
CHAPTER VIII MALE AND

FEMALE RELATIONSHIP .............................................. 117
A. Stereotype about American Men and Women .............. 117
B. Women and Gender Discrimination ............................ 118
C. Women Liberation ....................................................... 119
1. Women working and househusband ........................ 120
2. Single parent ........................................................... 121
D. Sexual Revolution .......................................................... 122
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 123
CHAPTER IX TABLE MANNER .................................... 125

A. Etiquettes ...................................................................... 128
1. Starting to eat ........................................................... 128
2. Napkin ..................................................................... 129
3. Fork ......................................................................... 129
Cross Cultural Understanding | vii

B. World Table Manner ..................................................... 133
1. United kingdom ...................................................... 133
2. India ........................................................................ 133
3. China ...................................................................... 135
4. South Korea ............................................................ 136
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 138
CHAPTER X HOTEL TOUR ........................................... 139

GLOSSARIES .................................................................... 149
REFERENCES .................................................................. 165
viii | Cross Cultural Understanding

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 : the Iceberg Analogy of Culture ....................... 3

Figure 3.1 : Levels of uniqueness ...................................... 22
Figure 3.2 : How attitudes and belief are distributed .......... 24
Figure 3.3 : Racial stereotypes ........................................... 31
Figure 3.4 : Gender stereotypes ......................................... 33
Figure 4.1 : Communication model .................................. 43
Figure 4.2 : Phases of cultural learning ............................. 55
Figure 5.1 : space pattern .................................................. 93
Figure 6.1 : The Stages of Shock Culture
and Cultural Adjustment ................................ 106
Figure 10.1 : Dining setting ................................................. 128
Figure 10.2 : Fork handling ................................................. 130
Figure 10.3 : Continental fork signal ................................... 131
Figure 10.4 : American fork signal ...................................... 132
Cross Cultural Understanding | ix

CHAPTER I
CULTURE AND LANGUAGE
Many people who go abroad encounter features in their host

culture that they may find disturbing. Reaction to these alien
aspects of the new culture can dampen the entire experience in
the country, resulting in various kinds of negative reactions.
Learning another culture, developing relationships with people
you meet, communicating efficiently, and adapting to the
environment is a complex task of cross-cultural understanding.
Cross-cultural understanding is concerned with understanding
people from different cultural backgrounds/culture of the people
so we can construct our attitudes and world view, more tolerable
and generous toward strange ways that may be shown by other
citizen of another country. If a person from an alien culture
misinterprets a complex pattern of culture, then cross cultural
misunderstanding arise.
A. Culture
1. Definition of Culture
Culture comes from Latin cultura, means cultivation.
British anthropologist Edward Tylor first gave the
definition of culture which is widely quoted: ―Culture is
that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs,
Cross Cultural Understanding | 1

arts, morals, law, custom and any other capacities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society‖.
Newmark describes culture as a way of life of a
certain society which is expressed by certain language.
Clifford Geertz stated that culture is a symbolic meaning
system. It is semiotic system in which symbols function to
communicate meaning from one mind to another.
Cultural symbols encode a connection between a
signifying form and a signaled meaning. Culture might
also be defined as ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools
which characterize a given group of people in a period of
time
Culture as described by Larson and Smalley is ―blue
print‖. It guides the behavior of people in a community
and is developed in family life and helps us to know what
we can do as individuals and what our responsibilities as a
member of a group.
From the standpoint of contemporary cultural
anthropologists, culture is characterized by the following
four basic features:
1) Culture is a kind of social inheritance instead of
biological heritage;
2) Culture is shared by the whole community, not
belonging to any particular individual;
2 | Cross Cultural Understanding

3) Culture is a symbolic meaning system in which
language is one of the most important ones;
4) Culture is a unified system, the integral parts of which
are closely related to one another.
In general, culture can be divided into three
categories:
- Material culture as the product of human

manufacture
- Social culture as the people‘s form of social

organization
- Ideological culture including people‘s belief and

values.
Culture itself is like an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg is
the smallest part. Most of the iceberg is submerged.
(Figure 1.1: the Iceberg Analogy of Culture)

The same is true for a culture. That which we can
easily see, the external part of a culture including
behavior, clothing, food, is the smallest part. Meanwhile
the internal part, including beliefs, values, norms, and
attitude, is beneath the water level of awareness. It is
inside people‘s heads.
In every society there is a set of cultural beliefs which
in large measure defines the implicit culture of that
society and set if off from another society. The belief
system of a society includes all the cognition namely
ideas, knowledge, superstitions, myths, and legend,
shared by most members of society.
Cultural norms are rules of standard behavior accepted
by members of society. Norms are divided into folkways
and mores. Norms are called folkways when conformity
to them is not considered vital to the welfare of the group
and when the means of enforcing conformity is not very
clearly defined. In American folkways specifies that on
formal occasion, a man should wears a tie. The
punishment of this conformity is that he may be flowned
upon,or talked about.
Mores are norms which specify behavior of vital
importance to the society and which embody its basic
moral values. The example of a more is that a man must
provide for his wife and children. When he fails to do so

can be a cause for a legal action. The mores are actively
enforced by the members of the society either through
legal action or through social sanction. Sanction is a
penalty, or some coercive measure, intended to ensure
compliance.
Value is a collection of guiding principles; what one
deems to be correct and desirable in life. Cultures have
values that are largely shared by their members, which
identify what should be judged as good or evil. Values
tend to influence attitudes and behavior. For example,
American values human equality. (Further discussion
about American values will be in the next chapter).
2. Cultural Universal
Cultural universals are elements common to all
human cultures, regardless of historical moment,
geography, or cultural origin. There is a tension in cultural
anthropology and cultural sociology between the claim
that culture is a universal (the fact that all human societies
have culture), and that it is also particular (culture takes a
tremendous variety of forms around the world).
Koentjoroningrat (1990) categorizes cultural universal
into seven, namely:
1. Language
2. Knowledge system

3. Social organizations
4. Life tool system
5. Livelihood system
6. Religion system
7. Art
The idea of cultural universals itself runs contrary to
cultural relativism. Cultural relativism is the idea that all
norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural
context, and should not be used in the study or
description of another culture. The way to deal with our
own assumptions is not to pretend that they don't exist
but rather to acknowledge them, and then use the
awareness that we are not neutral to inform our
conclusions.
Cultural relativism is, in part, a response to Western
ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at
the world primarily from the perspective of one's own
culture. judging another culture solely by the values and
standards of one's own culture. Ethnocentrism may take
obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one
people's arts are the most beautiful, values the most
virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful.

3. Types of Culture
The word ―culture‖ doesn‘t mean just national
culture, but the whole range of different types of culture.
These include:
1. Corporate culture (for example, the culture of Apple,
Microsoft)
2. Professional culture (for example, the culture of
doctors, lawyers)
3. Gender (different cultures of men and women)
4. Age ( the different cultures of young, middle-aged, and
old-people)
5. Religious culture (for example, Catholicism, Islam,
Budha)
6. Regional culture (for example, Western, Eastern)
7. Class culture (for example, working class, middle class,
upper class)
4. Cultural Patterns of Behavior

Cultures have widely characteristics, but such patterns
for living according to some anthropologists have
universal characteristics. George Peter Murdock in
Tomasow (1986) mentions seven cultural patterns of
behavior, namely:
1. They originate in the human mind.
2. They facilitate human and environmental interactions.

3. They satisfy human basic needs.
4. They are cumulative and adjust to changes in external
and internal conditions.
5. They tend to form a consistent structure.
6. They are learned and shared by all members of the
society.
7. They are transmitted to new generations.
B. Language
According to Sapir (1921), ―language is a purely human
and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions
and desire by means of voluntarily produced symbols.‖
Language is a part of culture and a part of human behavior. It
is often held that the function of language is to express thought
and to communicate information. Language also fulfills many
other tasks such as greeting people, conducting religious
service, etc.
Language and culture are intertwined because language is
an outcome or result of a culture as a whole and also a vehicle
by which the other aspects of culture are shaped and
communicate.
Three major functions of language are:
1. Language is the primary vehicle of communication;

2. Language reflects both the personality of the individual and
the culture of his history. In turn, it helps shape both
personality and culture;
3. Language makes possible the growth and transmission of
culture, the continuity of societies, and the effective
functioning and control of social group.
C. The Relationship Between Language and Culture

It is obvious that language plays a paramount role in
developing, elaborating and transmitting culture and
language, enabling us to store meanings and experience to
facilitate communication.
The function of language is so important in
communication that it is even exaggerated by some scholars.
The most famous one is the hypothesis concerning the
relationship between language and culture, which Nida and
Taber (1982) regards as misconceptions constituting serious
difficulties for cross-cultural understanding.
Each culture has its own peculiarities and throws special
influence on the language system. For example, referring to
the same common domestic animal ―dog‖. A great deal of
cross-cultural misunderstanding occurs when the ―meanings‖
of words in two languages are assumed to be the same, but
actually reflect different cultural patterns. Some are
humorous as when a Turkish visitor to the U.S. refused to

eat a ―hot dog‖ because it was against his beliefs to eat dog
meat.
We can summarize the relationship between culture and
language as the following:
- language is a key component of culture. It is the

primary medium for transmitting much of culture.
Without language, culture would not be possible.
- Children learning their native language are learning

their own culture; learning a second language also
involves learning a second culture to varying degrees.
- Language is influenced and shaped by culture. It

reflects culture.
- Cultural differences are the most serious areas causing

misunderstanding, unpleasantness and even conflict
in cross-cultural communication.
EXERCISES
1. What is culture according to:
a. Larson & Smalley
b. Condon
c. Edward Taylor

2. What is meant by:
a. Norms
b. Values
c. beliefs
3. What is cross cultural understanding?
4. How can cross cultural misunderstanding arise?
5. Mention the cultural patterns of behavior!
6. Mention types of culture!
7. What is:
a. Cultural relativism
b. Cultural universals
c. Ethnocentrism
8. What is language?
9. Language and culture are intertwined. Explain!
10. Give an example on how language can cause cross cultural
misunderstanding!

CHAPTER II
GENERAL AMERICAN VALUES
To understand the political, economic, social and even

personal behavior of any group of people, we must first know the
dominant values of their culture which are passed down from one
generation to another through learning.
American culture has been enriched by the values and
belief systems of virtually every part of the world. Consequently,
it is impossible to be comprehensive. Nevertheless, a few selected
values are at the core of the American value system.
A. Freedom
Americans commonly regard their society as the freest
and best in the world. Americans‘ understanding of freedom is
shaped by the Founding Fathers‘ belief that all people are
equal and that the role of the government is to protect each
person‘s basic ―inalienable‖ rights. The U.S. Constitution‘s
Bill of Rights assures individual rights, including provisions
for freedom of speech, press and religion. No one single
church dominates or controls in the US, there is a religious
diversity.

B. Individualism
Americans‘ notion of freedom focuses on the individual,
and individualism has strong philosophical roots in America.
Thomas Jefferson believed that a free individual‘s identity
should be held sacred and that his or her dignity and integrity
should not be violated.
Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance but
also as economic self-sufficiency, has been a central theme in
American history. Frontiers heroes who braved the wilderness
alone, farmers whose success depended on their ability to
confront the hardships of land and resourcefulness, the
celebration of the small businessman who became a financial
success on his own; individual proprietorship in business is
still extolled as the ideal.
C. Punctuality
Punctuality is the characteristic of being able to complete
a required task or fulfill an obligation before or at a previously
designated time. "Punctual" is often used synonymously with
"on time." It is a common misconception that punctual can
also, when talking about grammar, mean "to be accurate."
According to each culture, there is often an understanding
about what is considered an acceptable degree of punctuality.
Usually, a small amount of lateness is acceptable; this is
commonly about ten or fifteen minutes in Western cultures,

but this is not the case in such instances as doctor's
appointments or school lessons. In some cultures, such as
Japanese society, or in the military there basically is no
allowance.
Some cultures have an unspoken understanding that
actual deadlines are different from stated deadlines; for
example, it may be understood in a particular culture that
people will turn up an hour later than advertised. In this case,
since everyone understands that a 9 am meeting will actually
start around 10 am, no one is inconvenienced when everyone
turns up at 10 am.
In cultures which value punctuality, being late is
tantamount to showing disrespect for other's time and may be
considered insulting. In such cases, punctuality may be
enforced by social penalties, for example by excluding low-
status latecomers from meetings entirely. Such considerations
can lead on to considering the value of punctuality in
econometrics and to considering the effects of non-punctuality
on others in queueing theory.
D. Volunteerism
Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity,
and is intended to promote good or improve human quality of
life, which in return produces a feeling of self-worth and
respect, but no financial gain. Volunteering is also famous for

skill development, socialization and fun. It is also intended to
make contacts for possible employment or for a variety of
other reasons.
Volunteers are highly motivated people, workers who
organize themselves and others to solve a particular
community problem or meet an immediate social need, rather
then waiting for someone else – usually the govt- to do it. The
willingness to participate in such groups is so widespread that
six out of ten Americans are members of a volunteer
organization. Volunteerism reflects Americans‘ optimistic
pride in their ability to work out practical solutions
themselves. Americans like to form associations of different
kind . Many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas
they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue.
Others serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a
natural disaster.
E. Equality
The Declaration of Independence states that "all men are
created equal". In many ways people believe this; we can see
equality in such common practices as "waiting in line". When
we go to the bank, to the post office, or to immigration, we
will be asked to take a number and wait. Regardless of how
important or trivial our need is, we will be treated like
everyone else; first come, first served.

We can also see equality in the classroom. All students
are the same in the eyes of professors, and many professors
view students (particularly graduate students) as their equals.
Professors may ask students to call them by their first names.
F. Informality
Although equality is ignored in some parts of life, it is
followed closely in others. For example, people treat one
another very informally, even in the presence of great
differences in age or social status. This is not a "lack of
respect," this is the custom in the United States.
Informality is right understood as idealism in practice, or
democracy in action, the right of the individual balanced by
his responsibilities, in the basic unit is the family.
The American visiting Indonesia on the other hand might
be surprised to see that in Indonesia, the parent-children
relationship is rather formal, where children have to respect
their parents, parents still have the authority, and there is no
‗equality‘ at home.
G. Idealizing what is practical

Many historians believe that most of the beliefs and
values which are characteristically American emerged within
the context of the frontier experience. Survival in the
wilderness was best achieved to robust individualists. Survival

experiences also explain the American tendency to idealize
whatever is practical. In America what works is what counts.
Inventiveness was necessary for survival. This ―can-do‖ spirit
is something Americans are proud of today. They like to think
they are natural-born do-it-yourselfers.
H. Mobility
As a nation of immigrants, Americans have shared from
the beginning the assumption that the practical solution to a
problem is to move elsewhere and make a fresh start. Mobility
in America is not a sign of aimlessness but optimism. Moving
about from place to place is such a common and accepted
practice that most Americans take it for granted that they may
live in four or fife cities during their lifetime. Americans hate
to feel that buying a house might immobilize them forever.
I. Progress
It is associated with the idea of freedom is the ideal of
progress. The nation‘s progress has been measured by the
taming of the frontier and industrial expansion. The desire to
progress by making use of opportunities is important to
Americans. In this immigrant society, progress is personally
measured as family progress over generations. Many
Americans can boast that with each succeeding generation
since their first ancestors arrived, the family‘s status has

improved. The classic American family saga is all about
progress. The great-grandparents work hard and suffer
poverty and alienation so that they can provide a good
education for their children. The second generation, motivated
by the same vision of the future and willingness to work hard
and make sacrifices, pass these values to their children. The
attainment of the vision of one‘s grandparents is part of the
AmericannDream.
EXERCISE 1
Read this following conversation. Chintya Phelly, an
African exchange student, is visiting a radio station in
Minneapolis. Analyze and discuss the American values
implied in the conversation.
Erica : Welcome to America Chintya. How‘s it going?
I‘m Erica Kay.
Chintya : How do you do, madam Erica. Thank you for
showing me your station. Im studying radio
broadcasting at the University of Minnesota. I
look forward to meet your staff.
Erica : Just call me Erica…
(A man enters a room)
Erica : Hi Fred! How‘s it going! Glad you‘re back from
vacation. We missed you here.

Fred : Hi Erica. How are you doing girl?
(He slaps Erica’s open palm with his palm)
Erica : Bad boy! You‘ve been late for 15 minutes in your
first day!
Fred : Terribly sorry for that. I had a very bad jet lag.
Erica : oh Fred…meet Chintya…she‘s from Senegal.
Fred : What‘s happening girl?
Chintya : I‘m visiting your station, Sir.
EXERCISE 2:
Discuss a Western movie you’ve watched before and find
the American values, belief, and norms on it!

CHAPTER III
STEREOTYPE
A stereotype is generalizations of people groups based on

past experiences, which are deep-rooted in the psyche of the
people. In another definition, it is said that stereotype is a fixed
idea or image that many people have a particular type of person,
thing, or event, but sometimes it is not true in reality. Cultural
stereotypes mean applying both evidence and our existing beliefs
about the members of that cultural group.
Stereotypes are called idiosyncratic, if only an individual
uses them, or they are social, or collective if they are widely shared
by a group of people. In everyday use, the concept of the
stereotype is used in various contexts: usually the word stereotype
is used to refer to members of some kind of collective: firemen
are courageous, blondes are less intelligent, Italians are noisy, and
so forth.
The term stereotype itself, as allegedly used for the first
time by Walter Lippman in 1922, is used today to mean a readily
available image of a given social group, usually based on rough,
often negative generalizations. Although stereotypes can be
positive as well as negative, they are, in everyday usage, most
often understood as irrationally based negative attitudes about
certain social groups and their members. The concept of the
'stereotype' itself was borrowed from old raised printing

technology, where copies of a composed type were made by using
papier mache as molds for new printing plates, identical to the
original, and used to produce the same image over and over
again.
In intercultural communication, in particular, it is vital to
distinguish between what is part of a person‘s cultural
background and what is part of their personality.
In Figure 4.1, Hofstede uses the model of the pyramid to
illustrate three levels of uniqueness in human mental
programming. Every person is in some way like other people,
some, or none.
Personality
Culture
Human nature
Figure 3.1: Levels of uniqueness

We do and think some things because we are humans: for
instance, we want to sleep, eat, and survive. These are universal
and inherited characteristics. We also do and think some things
because of our culture, this might determine. For instance: when
we eat and sleep, and how far we try to survive. These are
characteristics which are specific to a particular group of people,
and are learnt. We also do and think some things because of our
individual personality. These characteristic are specific to us as
individuals, and are both inherited and learnt. When trying to
understand the behavior of a person it is important to consider all
of these three levels.
Within a culture there will be a range of attitudes, beliefs,
values, and behavior. It is possible to generalize about culture, but
care should be taken in applying those generalizations to
individual. When we meet an individual, we cant tell where they
are on the range. (see Figure 3.2)

No. of people
most people
some individuals some individuals
Figure 3.2. How attitudes and belief are distributed
When a person makes inferences about a new person or

about some social event, they use their existing knowledge to
reduce the uncertainty in the situation. The less one knows about
the object, the more one uses stereotypical generalizations. In an
intercultural setting, one of the goals of the participant is getting
to know the attitudes and personality of the communication
partner. Often, stereotypes are understood to be detrimental to
intercultural communication and the elimination of stereotypes
was believed to be a prerequisite for any successful intercultural
exchange.

Many people see stereotypes as rigid generalities that
members of society impose on others with whom they are
unfamiliar or do not understand. The less we know about the
other, the more we hang on stereotypes. If the stereotype is well-
grounded and justifiable it may help to orient oneself in a certain
situation, but if it is unjust and loaded with negative emotions, it
will harm the interaction without question. A number of
phenomena make the interpretation of cultural/national
stereotypes enigmatic: cultural stereotypes are at the same time
enduring and changing, strong and insignificant.
Cultural/national stereotypes are both descriptive and
prescriptive in nature: they are perceivers' shared beliefs about the
characteristics of the target group and at the same time they also
function as social expectations. In initial interactions and in
solitary intercultural contacts people's national or cultural
stereotypes may be used as a source of expectation about the
other party, and as a reference applied to the judgement of the
other party's behavior.
Some of the constituents of a stereotype may be very old and
remain the same for centuries, while some of the labels given to a
country or cultural group may change within a short period of
time. Also, the salience of the constituents of cultural stereotype
may change in time and context. Some particular features may be
enacted with different intensities in different contexts, yet in
another context these features may have no relevance at all.

A. Kinds of Stereotypes
1. Nationality stereotypes
Generalizations about cultures or nationalities can
be a source of pride, anger or simply bad jokes. Some
people say that in all stereotype there is some basis in
reality, as they don‘t develop in vacuum. Nationality
stereotype is a system of culture-specific beliefs
connected with the nationality of a person. This system
includes beliefs concerning those properties of human
beings that may vary across nations, such as appearance,
language, food, habits, psychological traits, attitudes,
values etc.‖
Here are some national stereotypes famous in the
world:
- American : arrogant; assertive; open-minded;

materialistic; ambitious; progressive; efficient;
straight-forward; alert; practical; US-centered world
view; egoistic; anxious; fast food eaters.
- Arabs : intelligent; modest; insecure; anxious;

impulsive; ―billionaires, bombers and belly dancers―,
men wear beards and are womanizers; have
subservient and repressed women who wear burka or
headscarf; ―play & pray‖ attitude; love celebrations
and ceremonies; tea and shisha are important.

- Argentinians : disagreeable; megalomaniac; warm
and friendly people; can be vain & arrogant; beautiful
women; cultured society; lazy.
- Australians : nature lovers; surf all day – drink all

night; open-minded; free spirited; men are useless
dads; uncultured; sports lovers; meat eaters.
- Belgians : make good beer; poor personal hygiene;

dishonest in money matters; make bad lovers; distrust
of authority; tax evaders; eat only french & fries.
- Brazilians : impulsive; incestuous; megalomaniac;

most women are super-models, most men are gay or
machos; always late; soccer lover; active; inventive
and constructive people; always trying to outwit
government and regulations; impossibly favor-
oriented; family- and community-oriented.
- British (UK) : lousy food; bad teeth and hygiene;

rude; thin; smoke cigar or pipe; heavy drinkers; swear
all day long; artistic; deep thinkers; intelligent and
articulate; boastful; anti-American; ride bikes.
- Chinese : stingy and noisy spitters; fast-learners;

open-minded; ambitious; progressive; efficient;
materialistic; do kung fu and other material arts; great
at mathematics; terrible drivers; arrogant; assertive;

wear glasses; cheap labor; drink green tea; business-
oriented; money rules the world.
- French – good lovers; best cuisine in the world;

chaotic; irresponsible; introverted; selfish; cultured;
social ―players‖; do not like to work – prefer to strike;
always surrender in war; don‘t speak English; rude to
tourists; anti-American; don‘t use soap; don‘t respect
religious freedom.
- Germans : mechanical; organized; boring; no sense of

humor; drink beer all day; have never been late for
anything in their lives, pedophiliac.
- Greek : are big and overweight; lazy; can‘t drive;

disorganized; live the easy life; corrupt; impossible
planners; cultured, inefficient; have beautiful women,
as long they are young – men are mainly homosexual
or sexual predators.
- Indians : unconventional; adaptive; open-minded;

agreeable; manipulative; hardworking; politically
inactive; studious; intelligent; productive; inoffensive;
poor personal hygiene; meditation lover, spiritual,
generally poor; snake charmers; legendary
bureaucrats; huge families.
- Indonesians : extroverted; warm and friendly people;

lazy; religious; family-oriented; supportive; rarely on

time; corrupt; superstitious; slow; inferior; polite;
lacking discipline; use feeling not logic; do not follow
rules; hypocritical; tolerant; low profile; unwilling to
confront or give ‗bad news‘; silent in meetings.
- Italians : Gigolos; live with their Mamas; possessive;

passionate; pizza/pasta freaks; manipulative;
dishonest; fashion-addicted; Casanovas; mafia or
gang members.
- Israelis : arrogant; religious; strong family relations;

well-traveled; noisy; rude; ruin things if not satisfied;
argue over the price of anything; party all night;
fancy and fashionable women.
- Jamaicans : lazy; grass-smokers; reggae and rasta

maniacs; loud; boisterous and aggressive; strong sense
of self and their culture; innovative musician; live in
trees; walk barefoot and live generally very primitive;
all Jamaican men are uncircumcised; all they care are
weed, beach, women and rum.
- Japanese : disciplined; organized; technology-lover;

extroverted; competent; short; workaholics;
perverted; raw-fish eaters; suicidal.
- South Korean : ‗kimchi‘ is the only food; open-

minded; ambitious; progressive; efficient;
materialistic; arrogant; assertive; plastic-surgery

lovers; Jae-ju is the most famous place; serial-drama
makers.
- Malaysians : manipulative; survive by cronyism and

nepotism; introverted; arrogant; have speed traps
everywhere; ultra-religious, but sell porn everywhere;
boring; have great varieties of food; embrace multi-
culturalism; every long-term visitor is expected to
convert to Islam; have mistresses; women traditional
but with modern thinking.
- Mexicans : heavy tequila drinkers; impulsive; wear

huge sombreros; religious; family-oriented; great food
(enchiladas, tortillas, burritos) and cheap cost-of-
living; human traffickers into the US
- Nigerians : good in sport; violent; neurotic; open-

minded; modest; manipulative; corrupt; love money.
- Pakistani : hardworking; politically inactive;

studious; intelligent; productive; inoffensive; low-
paid; do dirty jobs; militaristic; religious; hate Indians.
- Russians : aggressive; rude; open-minded; organized

crime (the Russian Mafia) is everywhere.
- Singaporeans : adaptive; super-efficient; rich; selfish;

money-oriented; hard-working; clean; stylish;
organized; disciplined; tolerant; introverted; career-

and certificate-oriented; multi-cultural; fashionable;
against chewing gum and smoking.
2. Racial stereotypes
There are examples of racial stereotypes too. For
instance, the Asians are stereotyped to be good at
mathematics; the blacks are stereotyped to be good at
athletics and dancing. These can be regarded as positive
stereotypes. Other stereotype like "All Muslims are
terrorists" is a negative stereotype, and many more.
Figure 3.3: Racial stereotypes

3. Political stereotypes
There are also examples of political stereotypes.
These stereotypes have been deep rooted in the mindset
of the general public, because of the general
interpretation of the policies of a political party. Political
stereotypes include: All democrats are liberals, All
Republicans are racists, Religion-based party are
hypocrite, All Democrats are Stupid, and All
Republicans are against the "working man".
4. Gender stereotypes
The depiction of men in media strongly suggests
that they are strong, adventurous and active paving way
for them to be stereotyped in that manner. On the other
hand, the depiction of women suggests that they are
good at performing household chores and taking care of
their appearances and they are eventually stereotyped by
these traits. Examples of gender stereotypes are ‗Men are
masculine‖, ―Women are good cooks‖, ―Men are strong,
adventurous and brave‖, ―Women are in charge of the
house and Men are in charge of finances‖ etc.

Figure 3.4: Gender stereotypes
B. Stereotypes in Media
Many films, advertisements and television programs show
men engaged in physically demanding pursuits such as sport,
rock-climbing, and beach surfing or canoeing. They also
show young boys playing with action toys such as trucks,
robots and super-hero figures. On the other hand, the same
media shows young girls putting on make-up, brushing their
hair and generally worrying about their overall appearance.

Some other advertisements show mothers serving meals to
their families. The depiction of women in such roles suggests
that they are good at performing household chores and
taking care of their appearances and they are eventually
stereotyped by these traits.
In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable
characters or situations. Related to this, Violet H. Harada
(James, 1996) conducted a research about stereotypes and
biases in recent Asian American fiction for adolescents.
Several generalizations emerged from this study. The
prevailing image of Asians American as a member of a
model minority appeared in over half of the fiction. To a
lesser extent, Asian American characters were described as
Asian in physical but strived to be American on the inside.
Inaccurate or restricted mention of cultural details also
occurred. References to Japanese culture were limited to
discussion on Ikebana-the art of flower arrangement-, and
Zen. The only aspect of culture shared by the Chinese was
references to eating rice and drinking tea.
Fictions in particular, can be a powerful and natural
vehicle providing a thoughtful reflection of the values and
beliefs of a culture. All writers must accept the challenge and
responsibility of a weaving authentic details and accurate
cultural information into quality works for the readers.

C. Positive and Negative Side of Stereotype
Stereotypes are useful for the human brain because they
operate as a heuristic or a cognitive mechanism to quickly
gather, process, and synthesize information. As social
animals, we seek to gather information about those around
us. However, there is too much information to process in its
entirety. Therefore, we have heuristics to make the process
more efficient. In applying a stereotype, one is able to
quickly "know" something about an individual. For example,
if the only thing you know about s girl is that she belongs to
a band, you are able to guess that she likes music. People use
stereotypes as shortcuts to make sense of their social
contexts; this makes the task of understanding one's world
less cognitively demanding.
Other positive sides of stereotypes are:
• People rely on stereotypes everyday to help them function
in society.
• To allow people to quickly process new information
about an event or person.
• To organize people‘s past experiences.
• To meaningfully assess differences between individuals
and groups.
• To make predictions about other people‘s behavior.
Given the social and cognitive necessities of heuristics,
the problem with stereotyping is not the existence of the

cognitive function. The problem lies in the assumption that
all people of a group—a group with which they might not
even identify—are the same. For example, it is a common
stereotype that people who wear glasses are smart. Certainly,
there are some glasses-wearing, intelligent people. But it is
poor logic to think that everyone who sports glasses is
intelligent. Stereotyping can lead to prejudice, or negative
perceived judgements about a group of people. The
application of prejudice to a given individual can cause
personal and social damage.
Other negative sides of stereotypes are :
• Oversimplified generalization
• Breeding ground for errant generalizations.
• Serve as a major source of disinformation about others.
• May easily conceal or feed into prejudice, racism, sexism,
and other forms of bigotry.
D. Dealing with Stereotypes

The key to reversing negative stereotypes is to contradict
them, in direct interactions between people, in the media,
and through education.
1. Between Individuals.
Once people get to know a person from "the other
side," they often will determine that the other is not

nearly as bad as they originally had assumed. More
often, however, people really are much more reasonable
than their stereotypes would suggest. In that case, getting
to know people personally helps to break down negative
images. This is especially true when people determine
that they actually have things in common with people
from the other side. Such things can range from enjoying
the same music, hobbies, or sports, to having the same
worries about children or aging parents.
Even when people learn that they share fear or
sadness, they can begin to understand each other more.
When they come to understand that the other is afraid of
being hurt, or losing a loved one in war, just as they are,
that brings people together. Such shared emotions make
people seem human, while stereotypes typically
"dehumanize" people. Likewise, shared emotions make
empathy possible, which opens the door to new forms of
interaction and trust building, at least among the
individuals involved.
Depending on the context and other interactions, the
image of the group as a whole may become more positive
as well. (At other times, people rationalize that their one
new acquaintance is "not like the others.") But even
learning that one person can deviate from the stereotype
is a start. The challenge then is to expand such

transformative experiences beyond the individuals
involved to larger groups, communities, and eventually
whole societies.
Developing such mutual understanding is the goal of
many intervention efforts in war-torn areas, and in places
rocked by social unrest. Dialogue groups and problem-
solving workshops are two common ways of doing this.
So are joint projects such as war-reconstruction efforts,
children's programs, recreational programs, medical
programs -- any kind of program that brings individuals
from opposing groups together in a cooperative venture.
Although they have additional goals beyond the breaking
of stereotypes, working together cooperatively can do
much to break down negative images people hold of the
"enemy."
2. In the Media
The media also plays an important role in both
perpetuating and in breaking down stereotypes. If they
characterize particular groups of people in certain ways,
their viewers (or readers) are likely to do the same. So if a
movie -- or the motion picture industry in general --
characterizes a group of people negatively, they are likely
to be perpetuating negative stereotypes and making
conflicts worse. If they emphasize the positive aspects of

groups that contradict prevalent stereotypes, they can
have a significant role in building mutual understanding.
3. In Education
Educational institutions and teaching materials also
have the opportunity to affect stereotypes, and hence
influence inter-group relations. Efforts to teach about
different cultures, and the history of different racial or
ethnic groups can help build inter-group understanding if
it is done in an effective and sympathetic way.
Educational system (teachers, schools, textbooks)
needs to also try to paint a fair and accurate picture of the
conflict and the different people involved, being aware
that different sides of a conflict will view what is
happening very differently. Through stories, discussions,
and exercises, teachers can help students (of all ages and
levels) understand the complexity of the conflicts that
surround them, and develop age- and situation-
appropriate responses to the current conflicts in their
homes, communities, and nations. To the extent that
classrooms contain students from both sides of the
conflict, teachers can help students learn to understand
and appreciate each other better, while protecting the
safety (physical and emotional) of those on both sides. If
the classroom only contains one group, reaching such

intergroup understandings is harder, but still worth the
effort through books and articles, discussions, TV and
movies, and when available, online exercices.
In addition, we can deal with stereotype by:
• Presenting more balanced pictures of minority life
in media.
• By reporting forms of human right abuses
• By portraiting all groups fairly
• Keep on talking and communicating fairly with
each other (otherwise these problems are going to
get much worse).
Generalization and categories are necessary, but
when they are too rigid they can be a barrier to the
effective interpretation of a situation. However,
eliminating stereotypes is not possible, or, if it were done,
it would be detrimental to human cognition. Stereotypes,
as such, are cognitive schemata, typical of the human
cognitive system, which assigns a set of characteristics to
all members of a given social group, and serves as a
reference when assigning significance to observations and
experiences in social interactions. They are mental
structures, which simplify the complex stimuli from one's
environment and facilitate their comprehension. There is
nothing wrong with stereotypes if they are embedded in
reality and promote the understanding of social and

historical processes. Western, multi-ethnic, pluralistic
civilization celebrates diversity and the uniqueness and
distinctiveness of its components. Stereotypes merely
acknowledge this variety.
EXERCISE 1:
What do you think is happening here?
Debbie : You’re more than just brother and sister, aren’t you?
Maria : Yes, we’re twins. I was born first, my brother came few
minutes later. My mom says it’s because I’m a girl, and girls
should go first.
Mario : I let her go first. Italian boys are always polite.
Debbie : Ok..now I have a riddle for you both to solve.
Mario : I love riddles!
Debbie : A boy and his father were badly injured in an accident. The
child needed an immediate operation. He was wheeled into
the operating room. The surgeon entered and said, “ Sorry, I
cant operate this child. He is my son”. So, who is the
surgeon?
Maria : How can that be? Didn’t you say that the father also badly
injured?
Debbie : Yes. Badly injured.
Mario : Maybe the surgeon was his step father.
Debbie : Nice try, but that’s not it.
Mario : Well, I give up.

Debbie : What are you both assuming that is keeping you from solving
this riddle?
Discuss it!
1. What are the examples of stereotype in the dialogue?
2. What is Mario and Maria assuming related to the story?
3. What is the answer of the riddle?
EXERCISE 2:
In a group of 4, choose a novel or a movie. Enlist and explain
the samples of stereotype in it. It can be gender, race,
nationality, and other kinds of stereotypes!

CHAPTER IV
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Communication has always been an important need of all

societies. Since the time of our cave-dweller ancestors, people
have been communicating in different ways. Neanderthals drew
pictures on cave walls, American Indians communicated using
drumbeat and smoke. In wars, soldiers used doves to
communicate top secrets. Letters and the telephone were the next
step in communication. Finally, in the present century most of
communication process is done through the Internet.
Communication can be defined as the exchange of
meaning. This involves the sending and receiving of information
between a sender and a receiver. This happens not only through
the use of words, but also through non verbal factors, such as
gestures and facial expression. The message received can be very
different from the message was sent. The common model for
communication is shown in figure below :
Noise
C C
O O
N Source-> Encoding-> Message-> Channel -> Receiver -> Decoding -> Receiver Response N
T T
E E
X X
T T
Feedback
Figure 4. 1: Communication model

1. Source: The source is the person with an idea he or she
desires to communicate.
2. Encoding. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans
are not able to share thoughts directly. Your
communication is in the form of a symbol representing
the idea you desire to communicate. Encoding is the
process of putting an idea into a symbol. The symbols
into which you encode your thoughts vary. You can
encode your thoughts into words, and you can also
encode thoughts into nonspoken symbols.
3. Message. The term message identifies the encoded
thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the message is
the resulting object.
4. Channel. The term channel is used technically to refer to
the means by which the encoded message is transmitted.
Today it is called media.
5. Noise. The term noise technically refers to anything that
distorts the message the source encodes. Noise can be of
many forms:
- External noise can be the sights, sounds, and other
stimuli that draw your attention away from the
message.
- Internal noise refers to your thoughts and feelings
that can interfere with the message.

- Semantic noise refers to how alternative meanings
of the source‘s symbols can be distracting
7. Receiver. The receiver is the person who attends to the
message. Receivers may be intentional; that is, they may
be the people the source desired to communicate with, or
they may be any person who comes upon and attends to
the message.
8. Decoding. Decoding is the opposite process of encoding
and just as much an active process. The receiver is
actively involved in the communication process by
assigning meaning to the symbols received.
9. Receiver response. It refers to anything the receiver does
after attended to and decoded the message. That response
can range from doing nothing to taking action or actions
that may or may not be the action desired by the source.
10. Feedback: It refers to that portion of the receiver response
of which the source has knowledge and to which the
source attends and assigns meaning.
11. Context. Generally context can be defined as the
environment in which the communication takes place and
which helps define the communication. If you know the
physical context, you can predict with a high degree of
accuracy much of the communication.

Intercultural communication, sometimes used synonymously
with cross-cultural communication, is a form of communication
that aims to share information across different cultures and social
groups. It is used to describe the wide range of communication
processes and problems that naturally appear within an
organization made up of individuals from different religious,
social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.. In this sense it seeks
to understand how people from different countries and cultures
act, communicate and perceive the world around them. Many
people argue that culture determines how individuals encode
messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and
the way messages are interpreted. As a separate notion, it studies
situations where people from different cultural backgrounds
interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication
focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of
different groups of people. It also involves understanding the
different cultures, languages and customs of people from other
countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social
sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics,
psychology and communication studies. Intercultural
communication is also referred to as the base for international
businesses.
Generally, in communication, we seek to reduce uncertainty.
Communication with strangers involves relatively greater degrees
of uncertainty, due to the difficulty in predicting a stranger's

responses. We experience uncertainty with regard to the
stranger's attitudes, feelings and beliefs. We are also uncertain of
how to explain the stranger's behavior. Motivation to reduce this
uncertainty is more acute when we expect to have further
interactions with the stranger, or when they are a potential source
of benefit.
We may reduce our uncertainty and increase the accuracy of
our predictions by gaining more information about the stranger.
The increased uncertainty in interactions with strangers is
accompanied by higher levels of anxiety, as we anticipate a wider
array of possible negative outcomes. We may worry about
damage to our self-esteem from feeling confused and out of
control. We may fear the possibility of being incompetent, or
being exploited. We may worry about being perceived negatively
by the stranger. And we may worry that interacting with a
stranger will bring disapproval from members of our own group.
Generally these anxieties can be reduced by paying more
conscious attention to the communication process, and by
gathering more information on the stranger. The authors add a
further caution. Generally, individuals tend to explain their own
behavior by reference to the situation. Observers tend to attribute
an individual's behavior to elements of that individual's character.
When interacting with strangers we are especially likely to
attribute their behavior to their character, and then to view their
character as typical of their culture (or race, etc.). That is, we are

especially likely to interpret a stranger's behavior in light of our
stereotypes about what "those kind of people" are like.
The problems in intercultural communication usually come
from problems in message transmission. In communication
between people of the same culture, the person who receives the
message interprets it based on values, beliefs, and expectations for
behavior similar to those of the person who sent the message.
When this happens, the way the message is interpreted by the
receiver is likely to be fairly similar to what the speaker intended.
However, when the receiver of the message is a person from a
different culture, the receiver uses information from his or her
culture to interpret the message. The message that the receiver
interprets may be very different from what the speaker intended.
A. Barriers to Intercultural Communication

1. Attitude
Sample cases :
a. Globalization means that there is now one business
culture everywhere in the world.
b. If they want to do business with me, then they‘ll have
to adapt to my culture.
c. ―When in Indonesia, do as the Indonesians do‖
d. It‘s impossible to generalize cultures- there are many
differences.

e. Today I work with Indonesians, tomorrow I‘ll meet
my American partners. I cant possibly learn all I need
to know about all the cultures I have to deal with.
f. What I need when I go aboard is a list of dos and
don‘ts.
g. Intercultural training just confirms stereotype.
Comments:
a. People do share certain beliefs and values, especially
business people. However, it is misleading to believe
that they are always stronger than other types of
cultures. One of the examples : Western franchise
brands, such as KFC , which tries to standardize its
products has to adapt to local taste. The pressure of
globalization can also lead to the strengthening of
local identity. The idea that people from different
cultures can be fused together is at the heart of the
concept of the ―melting pot‖.
b. It is an ethnocentric approach and is unlikely to
success in business or other relationships.
c. This is commonly used phrase, and is useful in that it
stresses the importance of considering the culture of
the host. In practice, culture is so deeply rooted that it
is not possible to change one‘s original culture and
take on a new one.

d. Care should be taken with generalizations, but at
times they are necessary, and they can be useful as
long as allowance is made for individual differences.
e. Intercultural training can sensitize you to the sorts of
factors that may be influencing communication.
f. Simple list of dos and don‘ts are of rather limited help
in making communication successful. While they are
appealing to the busy business person, effective
intercultural communication requires more than a
knowledge of a few basic facts.
g. Good training will avoids stereotyping, and
encourage people to change their view in the light of
what they observe.
2. Perception
The fact that people perceive the same thing in
different ways is particularly important in intercultural
communication. The way we perceive is culturally
determined, and the general lack of awareness of this is
another barrier to intercultural communication.
3. Stereotype
A stereotype is a fixed idea or image that many
people have a particular type of person, thing, or event,
but sometimes it is not true in reality. Generalization and

categories are necessary, but when they are too rigid they
can be a barrier to the effective interpretation of a
situation. In intercultural communication, it is vital to
distinguish between what is part of a person‘s cultural
background and what is part of their personality.
4. Interpretation
What is the problem in this situation?
A Japanese businessman is negotiating with an Australian
partner.
Chan : The deal will be very difficult…
Andrew : Well, what can I help to solve the problems, Chan?
Chan : ….
This is the case of misinterpretation, in which two
people have interpreted the same statement in completely
different ways.
For the Japanese (Chan), the message was quite
clear. For him, the statement that it would be very
difficult means there would be no deal. He expresses this
INDIRECTLY, to be polite, and to avoid ‗loss of face‖.
The Australian, not being aware of this, thought that
there were some problems that could be resolved.
Gudykunst (in Gibson, 2000) suggests three ways of
checking our interpretation of other people‘s behavior:

1. Perception checking
The aim of perception checking is to ensure that
our interpretation of the other person‘s behavior is
what he or she meant it to be. First we have to
describe what we thought the other person‘s meant,
before asking if this interpretation is correct. Even this
process is culturally determined, and for people from
some cultures could be too direct. If you are an
individualist communicating with a collectivist, it is
important to keep in mind that collectivist may not
feel comfortable answering direct questions. In this
case you may have to ask your perception checking
questions more indirectly.
2. Listening effectively
It is important to distinguish between hearing (the
physical process) and listening which involves much
more attention, and includes absorbing new
information, checking it with what you already know,
categorizing it, selecting ideas, and predicting what is
coming next. Active listening involves showing the
speaker that we are involved in the conversation,
trying to understand them better(by asking questions,
for instance, or restarting what they have said).

3. Giving feedback
This is the verbal or non-verbal response to others.
Again, the ways feedback is given vary widely across
cultures, but it often useful to follow the following
guidelines:
Be specific
Separate the feedback from the person
Present the problem as a mutual one
Mix negative with positive feedback
Provide feedback at an appropriate time
Use ―I‖ statement whenever possible
5. Culture Shock
Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that
result from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of
social intercourse. These signs are cues include the
thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to
the situations of daily life.
Further discussion about culture shock will be in the next
chapter.
6. Non-Verbal Behavior
While language is the primary means of
communication, nonverbal behavior also communicates.
Nonverbal patterns include gestures, facial expression,

eye contact, body movement, touching, and the use of
space and time. Gestures are an obvious source of
misunderstanding, because they may have different
meanings. However, other forms of nonverbal
communication may cause particular difficulty, partly
because we do not think about them much. Therefore, we
may not be able to figure out what is causing the
misunderstanding or why we feel uncomfortable. For
example, patterns of touching vary a great deal in
different cultures. In some cultures, people frequently
touch, kiss, and hold hands in public. In other countries,
this is not acceptable. In some cultures, people stand very
close together when they talk, but in other cultures, they
stand relatively far apart. In some cultures, a person who
looks down while talking appears dishonest, while in
other cultures, looking down shows respect. In some
cultures, you are expected to be on time for an
appointment, but in other cultures, you are expected to be
late. All of these differences have the potential to cause
problems.

B. Cultural Learning
Figure 4.2 shows different phases of cultural learning:
Deftness (Making it happen)
Selection (I know what will work)
Synthesis (I’m finding some good combination)
Understanding (I’m studying the difference)
Realization (they are different from us)
Ignorance (people are alike)
Local experts Tourist Curios sojourner Bicultural Expert Integrator Leader
Figure 4.2: Phases of cultural learning
At the lowest level is the belief that all people are

alike. Then comes a recognition that there are differences,
an acceptance of the differences, seeing ways of
synthesizing the different ways, selecting, and making
things run smoothly.
The process of cultural learning can be helped
along by experience, reflection and training. Intercultural

training not only provides information but also develops
skills, and encourages attitudes to enable people to
progress along the cultural learning curve.
C. Dealing with Difference

Use the following statements to reflect on how well suited
you are to be an international student/employee. How many
are true you?
1. I am a sociable person and have a lot of friends.
2. I enjoy travel, and learning about new culture.
3. I have always been good at learning languages.
4. I enjoy dealing with ambiguous situation.
5. I am tolerant of people who disagree with me.
6. I am prepared to change plans according to what happens.
7. I am a good listener.
8. I can cope with stress.
9. I have experience working abroad.
10. I have partner/family who is/are also keen in living
abroad.
11. I am patient when things don‘t work out as I want them
too.
12. I prefer to work in a team rather than on my own.
The more of those statements you ca honestly agree with,
the more suitable you are for work in a n international context.

Based on a research, Marx (in Gibson, 2000) enlists - in
order of priority - what personal manager in German
companies looked for in international manager:
1. Social competence
2. Openness to other ways of thinking
3. Cultural adaptation
4. Professional excellence
5. Language skills
6. Flexibility
7. Ability to manage/ work in a team
8. Adaptability of the family
9. Patience
10. Sensitivity
Note that on the list, professional excellence doesn‘t come
at the top of the list. If technical skill is the only criterion for
working aboard, the result will be rarely successful. Where
aggression, speed, and competitiveness may be important in a
monocultural environment, they could be dangerous ii an
intercultural one, where qualities, such as adaptability, and
high tolerance for ambiguity are more important.
D. Improving Intercultural Communication

It is essential that people research the cultures and
communication conventions of those whom they propose to
meet. This will minimize the risk of making the elementary

mistakes. It is also prudent to set a clear agenda so that
everyone understands the nature and purpose of the
interaction.
In interactions with people from foreign cultures, a person
who is interculturally competent understands the culture-
specific concepts of perception, thinking, feeling, and acting.
The basic requirements for intercultural competence are:
1. Break the Assumptions

Everyone makes or has assumptions about others.
Assumptions are beliefs rather than objective truth and are
usually influenced by a number of subjective factors.
For intercultural communication to truly work, people

need to assess their assumptions and ask themselves why they
hold those ideas or beliefs. By doing so and even openly
examining them with others, the initial barrier to intercultural
communication is overcome.
2. Empathise
In order to come to appreciate and understand people
from different cultures, empathy is vital. Through putting
yourself in someone else's shoes you come to see or appreciate
their point of view.

3.Involve
Involving others in tasks or decision making empowers
and builds strong relationships. Using intercultural diversity is
in essence a more creative approach to problem solving as it
incorporates different points of view.
4. Discourage Herd Mentality

Herd mentality refers to a closed and one dimensional
approach. Such a way of thinking curbs creativity, innovation
and advancement as people are restricted in how to think,
approach and engage with people or challenges.
Intercultural communication can only flourish and
therefore contribute if people are encouraged to think as
individuals, bring their cultural influences to the table and
share ideas that may be outside the box.
5. Avoid Insensitive Behavior

People can and do behave in culturally insensitive ways. By
attacking someone's person, you attack their culture and
therefore their dignity. This can only be divisive.
Effective communication depends on the informal
understandings among the parties involved that are based on
the trust developed between them. When trust exists, there is
implicit understanding within communication, cultural
differences may be overlooked, and problems can be dealt with

more easily. The meaning of trust and how it is developed and
communicated vary across societies. Similarly, some cultures
have a greater propensity to be trusting than others.
The development of intercultural competence itself is
mostly based on the individual's experiences while he or she is
communicating with different cultures. When interacting with
people from other cultures, the individual experiences certain
obstacles that are caused by differences in cultural understanding
between two people from different cultures. Such experiences
may motivate the individual to acquire skills that can help him to
communicate his point of view to an audience belonging to a
different cultural ethnicity and background.
As an example, International students face this issue: they
have a choice of modifying their cultural boundaries and adapting
to the culture around them or holding on to their native culture
and surrounding themselves with people. The students who
decide to hold on to their native culture are those who experience
the most problems in their university life and who encounter
frequent culture shocks. But international students who adapt
themselves to the culture surrounding them (and who interact
more with domestic students) will increase their knowledge of the
domestic culture, which may help them to "blend in" more. Such
individuals may be said to have adopted bicultural identities.

EXERCISES 1:
True/False Questions :
1. Japanese are coming into contact with people from other

countries more often these days.
2. Intercultural communication only involves communication

between people from different countries.
3. A study about what techniques Americans use to persuade

and what techniques Japanese use to persuade would involve
intercultural communication.
4. International communication is communication between

individuals from different nations.
5. A program preparing Japanese workers to go to their

company's office in England would be taking a culture-
specific approach.
6. When the sender and receiver are from the same culture, the
receiver is likely to interpret the message the way the sender
intends, because they share similar values, beliefs,
expectations, etc.
7. When cultures are very different, there is a greater likelihood

that a message will be misinterpreted.
8. Because their language, religion, philosophy, and social

attitudes are so different, and American farmer and a Chinese
farmer would not have anything in common.

9. Perceptions of beauty are the same in all cultures.
10. Though beliefs and values vary within a culture, certain

beliefs and values are held in common in one culture.
11. When there are different expectations for behavior, there can
be difficulties between people of different cultures.
12. Families in the United States and Japan are very different in
the way they communicate.
13. The family and the school are both important social
institutions for passing along culture.
14. Language is not an obvious cultural barrier.
15. Language is not a barrier to communication for people with

the same native language.
16. We tend to think a lot about how we communicate

nonverbally.
17. One way to improve communication with people of a

different culture is to learn about both that culture and your
own culture.

EXERCISE 2:
Read this dialogue.
Han, a Chinesse student, has been in L.A high school for two weeks.
Linda : Hi, Han! Remember me? I‘m in your math class…
Han : (blushing) Sure. You sit in the second row.
Linda : I think you are really good with numbers.
Han : thanks…
Linda : BTW, a bunch of our friends are getting together at
Dana‘s house this evening. Want to come along? We
are all meeting in my house at 7pm. We will walk over
to Dana‘s together.
Han : I‘d love to.
(later in the class, Han is talking to James)
Han : Hey James… I have a date tonight.
James : Really?Who is the lucky girl?
Han : Linda.
Discuss it!
1. What is the case of stereotype in intercultural communication
above?
2. What is the misunderstanding here? Explain!
3. How to cope with that kind of misunderstanding above?

CHAPTER V
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is the transfer of information from one

person to another. In other words we can say communication as
the exchange of ideas, information, etc. between two or more
people. Most of us spend about 75 percent of our waking hours
communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others.
There are three major types of communication, namely
visual, verbal or dialog, and von-verbal communication..
Visual communication, as the name suggests, is
communication through visual aids. It is the transmission of ideas
and information in forms that can be read or looked upon.
Dialog or verbal communication is a conversation between
two or more entities in which they use their speech organs to
convey a message
Non-verbal communication is the process of communicating
through sending and receiving wordless messages. Non-verbal
communication can be divided into 4 parts namely body
language (kinesics), eye contact (oculistics), touch (haptics), body
distance (proxemics), paralangue, and turn taking.
A. Body Language (Kinesics)

Body language is a significant aspect of modern
communications and relationships. Body language can be

defined as the conscious and unconscious movements and
postures by which attitudes and feelings are communicated. It
goes both ways:
Your own body language reveals your feelings and
meanings to others.
Other people's body language reveals their feelings and
meanings to you.
Body language, and more technically the study of body
language, is also known as kinesics, which is derived from the
Greek word kinesis, meaning motion. This includes body
movement, body position, facial expression, as well as dress.
1. Body movement (gesture)

Body languages allow individuals to communicate
a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and
hostility to approval and affection, often together with
body language in addition to spoken words. The most
familiar categories of body language are the so-called
emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional,
culture-specific body language that can be used as
replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the
U.S. for "hello" and "goodbye". Body languages are a
crucial part of everyday conversation such as chatting,
describing a route, or negotiating prices on a market etc.

One of the most frequently observed, but least
understood cue is a hand movement. Most people use
hand movements regularly when talking. It can indicate a
particular meaning, feeling or intention. The same
gestures can mean different things to people from
different cultures. Nodding head means ―ýes‖ or
understanding in many countries. In other places such as
Genovia, nodding head means ‗no‖. In some Australian
Aboriginal cultures, it is disrespectful to look an elder,
superior, in the eyes. It is a sign of respect to drop the
eyes, (whereas in Western culture not meeting
somebody's gaze is commonly considered to be a negative
sign, indicating deceit, lying, lack of attention, lack of
confidence, etc).
One of the most frequently observed, but least
understood cue is a hand movement. Most people use
hand movements regularly when talking. It can indicate a
particular meaning, feeling or intention. This category
includes:
Salute: The salute is a formal greeting where the open
hand is brought up to the forehead. It is often used in the
military in a strictly prescribed manner and in specific
situations.
Bowing: Bowing is another formal greeting and can be as
extreme as a full 90 degree bend from the waist to even

complete prostration on the floor. The greeter averts the
eyes (I dare not look at your majesty) and exposes the
head (You can kill me if you wish). The female variant on
the bow is the curtsey, which again can be a full sinking
to the floor or a slight bob. Bowing and its variants place
the person into a lower rank than the person who receives
the greeting and into a position of greater vulnerability.
Waving: Waving can be done from a distance. This
allows for greeting when you first spot another person.
Waves call attention and a big, overhead wave can attract
a person's attention from some distance. This also makes
others look at you and is not likely from a timid person. A
stationary palm, held up and facing out is far less obvious
and may be flashed for a short period, particularly if the
other person is looking at you (all you need is that he or
she sees the greeting).
Another familiar body language are using fingers.
Same as body movement, fingers communicate many
things. Here are some of the gestures:

O.K Gesture: When you put your
index finger on your thumb, in
America and England it means
everything is well or good. In Latin
America, Germany, Middle East, and
France, it is a sign of insult.
Thumbs Up: In America or Europe,

it's a sign of approval or hitchhiking.
In America when a person stands near
the road and uses this sign, it means
s/he wants to take a free ride in your
car, so you will stop and pick up the
person. But in Iran police advises
people not to pay attention to signs
like this. In Asia and Islamic
countries, it is considered rude.
Thumbs down: It generally indicates

that something is bad or not accepted.
"It received the thumbs down" has
entered the English language as an
expression to indicate that something
has failed.

V-gesture: With the palm facing
forward this gesture is seen as
positive and meaning victory.
During the 1960's and early 1970's it
became a symbolic gesture of the
"alternative" and "anti war" hippie
movement and became to mean
"peace".
With the palm facing inward this

gesture in Japan is seen as negative
or insulting.
Twisting Fingers: Generally this

means "wishing for good luck or
fortune". Another interpretation
could be seen as "here's hoping". As
such, folklore believes that crossing
the fingers when telling a lie
somehow offsets the evil of the lie.
Some historians believe that crossing
your fingers is a hidden or secret way
of making the Christian sign of the
cross - a sure-fire way of defeating
demons. As a gesture it is has both
positive and negative . symbolism,
luck or lies.
Crooked Finger: In today's

(Western) society, the "crooked
finger" is seen as a somewhat
impolite hand gesture. Almost
exclusively a superior-to-subordinate
(senior-junior, parent-to-child) hand
gesture, it has arrogance about it. It is
also used for summoning a waiter
and, in some countries; it is used
exclusively for calling-over a
prostitute (Philippines).

2. Body Position
Sales representative, Franz Bauer, from Germany and Jim

Banks from Britain are in a difficult negotiation. Things are
getting tense. Franz sits upright and is disturbed as Jim relaxes
on his chair. Franz feels that Jim is not taking the negotiation
seriously. Jim feels that Franz is getting more and more
aggressive.
The situation above shows how two people can

misinterpret each other‘s behavior, and so the situation
escalates. The German‘s upright position indicates the
seriousness; meanwhile the Britain‘s relaxing posture in
the chair indicates his wish to defuse the situation.
In some cultures travelers should be careful to avoid
exposing certain parts of their body. In Arab cultures, for
example, the sole of the foot is considered dirty, and
should never be shown, so anyone can adopt the local
custom of sitting on the floor, for instance, has to take
care to avoid doing this.
3. Facial Expressions
Facial expressions usually communicate emotions.
The expressions tell the attitudes of the communicator. It

is now generally accepted that certain basic facial
expressions of human emotion are recognized around the
world - and that the use and recognition of these
expressions is genetically inherited rather than socially
conditioned or learned.
Researchers have discovered that certain facial
areas reveal our emotional state better than others. This
means that, as the receiver of a message, we can rely
heavily on the facial expressions of the sender because his
expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind
the message than his words. Facial expressions
continually change during interaction and are monitored
constantly by the recipient. The meaning of these
expressions may be similar across cultures, such as:
a. Eyes
Possible
Signal Detailed Explanation
Meaning(s)
looking right creating, Creating here is basically
(generally) fabricating, making things up and saying
guessing, lying, them. Depending on context
storytelling this can indicate lying, but in
other circumstances, for
example, storytelling to a
child, this would be perfectly
normal. Looking right and
down indicates accessing
feelings, which again can be a
perfectly genuine response or
not, depending on the
context, and to an extent the
person.

Possible
Meaning(s)
looking left recalling, Recalling and and then
(generally) remembering, stating 'facts' from memory in
retrieving 'facts' appropriate context often
equates to telling the truth.
Whether the 'facts'
(memories) are correct is
another matter. Left
downward looking indicates
silent self-conversation or
self-talk, typically in trying to
arrive at a view or decision.
looking right visual imagining, Related to imagination and
and up fabrication, lying creative (right-side) parts of
the brain, this upwards right
eye-movement can be a
warning sign of fabrication if
a person is supposed to be
recalling and stating facts.
looking right imagining sounds Sideways eye movements are
sideways believed to indicate
imagining (right) or recalling
(left) sounds, which can
include for example a person
imagining or fabricating what
another person has said or
could say.
looking right accessing feelings This is a creative signal but
and down not a fabrication - it can
signal that the person is self-
questioning their feelings
about something. Context
particularly- and other signals
- are important for
interpreting more specific
meaning about this signal.
looking left recalling images Related to accessing memory
and up truthfulness in the brain, rather than
creating or imagining. A
reassuring sign if signalled

Possible
Meaning(s)
when the person is recalling
and stating facts.
looking left recalling or Looking sideways suggests
sideways remembering sounds; looking left suggests
sounds recalling or remembering -
not fabricating or imagining.
This therefore could indicate
recalling what has been said
by another person.
looking left self-talking, Thinking things through by
down rationalizing self-talk - concerning an
outward view, rather than the
inward feelings view
indicated by downward right
looking.
direct eye honesty - or faked Direct eye contact is

contact honesty generally regarded as a sign
(when of truthfulness, however
speaking) practised liars know this and
will fake the signal.
direct eye attentiveness, Eyes which stay focused on
contact interest, attraction the speakers eyes, tend to
(when indicate focused interested
listening) attention too, which is
normally a sign of attraction
to the person and/or the
subject.
widening interest, appeal, Widening the eyes generally
eyes invitation signals interest in something
or someone, and often invites
positive response. Widened
eyes with raised eyebrows
can otherwise be due to
shock, but aside from this,
widening eyes represents an
opening and welcoming
expression. In women
especially widened eyes tend

Possible
Meaning(s)
to increase attractiveness,
which is believed by some
body language experts to
relate to the eye/face
proportions of babies, and the
associated signals of
attraction and prompting
urges to protect and offer love
and care, etc.
rubbing eye disbelief, upset, or Rubbing eyes or one eye can
or eyes tiredness indicate disbelief, as if
checking the vision, or upset,
in which the action relates to
crying, or tiredness, which
can be due boredom, not
necessarily a need for sleep. If
the signal is accompanied by
a long pronounced blink, this
tends to support the tiredness
interpretation.
eye shrug Frustration An upward roll of the eyes
signals frustration or
exasperation, as if looking to
the heavens for help.
pupils attraction, desire The pupil is the black centre
dilated of the eye which opens or
(enlarged) closes to let in more or less
light. Darkness causes pupils
to dilate. So too, for some
reason does seeing something
appealing or attractive. The
cause of the attraction
depends on the situation. In
the case of sexual attraction
the effect can be mutual -
dilated pupils tend to be more
appealing sexually that
contracted ones, perhaps
because of an instinctive

Possible
Meaning(s)
association with darkness,
night-time, bedtime, etc.,
although the origins of this
effect are unproven. Resist
the temptation to imagine
that everyone you see with
dilated pupils is sexually
attracted to you.
blinking excitement, Normal human blink rate is
frequently pressure considered to be between six
and twenty times a minute,
depending on the expert.
Significantly more than this is
a sign of excitement or
pressure. Blink rate can
increase to up to a hundred
times a minute. Blink rate is
not a reliable sign of lying.
blinking various Infrequent blink rate can
infrequently mean different things and so
offers no single clue unless
combined with other signals.
An infrequent blink rate is
probably due to boredom if
the eyes are not focused, or
can be the opposite -
concentration - if
accompanied with a strongly
focused gaze. Infrequent
blink rate can also be
accompanied by signals of
hostility or negativity, and is
therefore not the most
revealing of body language
signals.
eyebrow greeting, Quickly raising and lowering
raising recognition, the eyebrows is called an
(eyebrow acknowledgement 'eyebrow flash'. It is a
'flash') common signal of greeting

Possible
Meaning(s)
and acknowledgement, and is
perhaps genetically
influenced since it is
prevalent in monkeys (body
language study does not sit
entirely happily alongside
creationism). Fear and
surprise are also signalled by
the eyebrow flash, in which
case the eyebrows normally
remain raised for longer, until
the initial shock subsides.
winking friendly Much fuss was made in May
acknowledgement, 2007 when George W Bush
complicity (e.g., winked at the Queen. The
sharing a secret or fuss was made because a
joke) wink is quite an intimate
signal, directed exclusively
from one person to another,
and is associated with male
flirting. It is strange that a
non-contact wink can carry
more personal implications
than a physical handshake,
and in many situations more
than a kiss on the cheek.
Additionally - and this was
partly the sense in which
Bush used it - a wink can
signal a shared joke or secret.
b. Mouth
The mouth can be touched or obscured by a
person's own hands or fingers, and is a tremendously
flexible and expressive part of the body too,
performing a central role in facial expressions.

Possible
Meaning(s)
pasted faked smile A pasted smile is one which appears
smile quickly, is fixed for longer than a
natural smile, and seems not to
extend to the eyes. This typically
indicates suppressed displeasure or
forced agreement of some sort.
twisted mixed Shows opposite emotions on each
smile feelings or side of the face.
sarcasm
dropped- faked smile More of a practised fake smile than
jaw smile an instinctive one. The jaw is
dropped lower than in a natural
smile, the act of which creates a
smile.
smile - head playfulness, Head tilted sideways and downwards
tilted, teasing, coy so as to part hide the face, from
looking up which the smile is directed via the
eyes at the intended target.
laughter Relaxation Laughter deserves a section in its
own right because its such an
interesting area. In terms of body
language genuine laughter is a sign of
relaxation and feeling at ease.
Natural laughter can extend to all the
upper body or whole body. The
physiology of laughter is significant.
Endorphins are released. Pain and
stress reduces. Also vulnerabilities
show and can become more visible
because people's guard drops when
laughing.
forced nervousness, Unnatural laughter is often a signal
laughter cooperation of nervousness or stress, as an effort
to dispel tension or change the
atmosphere. Artificial laughter is a
signal of cooperation and a wish to
maintain empathy.

biting lip Tension One of many signals suggesting
tension or stress, which can be due to
high concentration, but more likely
to be anxiousness.
hand suppression, Often an unconscious gesture of self-
clamped holding regulation - stopping speech for
over mouth back, shock reasons of shock, embarrassment, or
for more tactical reasons. The gesture
is reminiscent of the 'speak no evil'
wise monkey. The action can be
observed very clearly in young
children when they witness
something 'unspeakably' naughty or
shocking. Extreme versions of the
same effect would involve both
hands.
c. Head
The head is very significant in body language. The
head tends to lead and determine general body
direction, but it is also vital and vulnerable being
where our brain is, so the head is used a lot in
directional (likes and dislikes) body language, and in
defensive (self-protection) body language too.
Possible
Meaning(s)
head nodding agreement Head nodding can occur
when invited for a response,
or voluntarily while listening.
Nodding is confusingly and
rather daftly also referred to
as 'head shaking up and
down'. Head nodding when
talking face-to-face one-to-

Possible
Meaning(s)
one is easy to see, but do you
always detect tiny head nods
when addressing or observing
a group?
slow head attentive listening This can be a faked signal. As
nodding with all body language signals
you must look for clusters of
signals rather than relying on
one alone. Look at the focus
of eyes to check the validity
of slow head nodding.
fast head hurry up, Vigorous head nodding
nodding impatience signifies that the listener feels
the speaker has made their
point or taken sufficient time.
Fast head nodding is rather
like the 'wind-up' hand
gesture given off-camera or
off-stage by a producer to a
performer, indicating 'time's
up - get off'.
head held superiority, Especially if exhibited with

high fearlessness, jutting chin.
arrogance
head tilted to non-threatening, A signal of interest, and/or
one side submissive, vulnerability, which in turn
thoughtfulness suggests a level of trust. Head
tilting is thought by some to
relate to 'sizing up'
something, since tilting the
head changes the perspective
offered by the eyes, and a
different view is seen of the
other person or subject.
Exposing the neck is also a
sign of trust.
head forward, interest, positive Head forward in the direction
upright reaction of a person or other subject

Possible
Meaning(s)
indicates interest. The rule
also applies to a forward
leaning upper body,
commonly sitting, but also
standing, where the
movement can be a distinct
and significant advancement
into a closer personal space
zone of the other person.
Head forward and upright is
different to head tilted
downward.
head tilted criticism, Head tilted downwards
downward admonishment towards a person is
commonly a signal of
criticism or reprimand or
disapproval, usually from a
position of authority.
head shaking disagreement Sideways shaking of the head
generally indicates
disagreement, but can also
signal feelings of disbelief,
frustration or exasperation.
Obvious of course, but often
ignored or missed where the
movement is small, especially
in groups seemingly reacting
in silent acceptance.
head down (in negative, Head down is generally a
response to a disinterested signal of rejection (of
speaker or someone's ideas etc), unless
proposition) the head is down for a
purpose like reading
supporting notes, etc. Head
down when responding to
criticism is a signal of failure,
vulnerability (hence seeking
protection), or feeling
ashamed.

Possible
Meaning(s)
head down defeat, tiredness Lowering the head is a sign of
(while loss, defeat, shame, etc.
performing an Hence the expressions such as
activity) 'don't let your head drop', and
'don't let your head go down',
especially in sports and
competitive activities. Head
down also tends to cause
shoulders and upper back to
to slump, increasing the signs
of weakness at that moment.
chin up pride, defiance, Very similar to the 'head held
confidence high' signal. Holding the chin
up naturally alters the angle
of the head backwards,
exposing the neck, which is a
signal of strength, resilience,
pride, resistance, etc. A
pronounced raised chin does
other interesting things to the
body too - it tends to lift the
sternum (breast-bone), which
draws in air, puffing out the
chest, and it widens the
shoulders. These combined
effects make the person stand
bigger. An exposed neck is
also a sign of confidence.
'Chin up' is for these reasons a
long-standing expression used
to encourage someone to be
brave.
d. Arms
Arms act as defensive barriers when across the
body, and conversely indicate feelings of openness

and security when in open positions, especially
combined with open palms.
Possible
Meaning(s)
crossed arms defensiveness, Crossed arms represent a
(folded arms) reluctance protective or separating barrier.
This can be due to various causes,
ranging from severe animosity or
concern to mild boredom or being
too tired to be interested and
attentive. Crossed arms is a
commonly exhibited signal by
subordinates feeling threatened by
bosses and figures of authority.
People also cross arms when they
are feeling cold, so be careful not
to misread this signal.
crossed arms hostile Clenched fists reinforce
with clenched defensiveness stubbornness, aggression or the
fists lack of empathy indicated by
crossed arms.
one arm across nervousness Women use this gesture. Men
body clasping tend not to. It's a 'barrier'
other arm by protective signal, and also self-
side (female) hugging.
arms held confidence, As demonstrated by members of
behind body authority the royal family, armed forces
with hands officers, teachers, policemen, etc.
clasped
holding papers nervousness Another 'barrier' protective signal,
across chest especially when arm is across
chest.
adjusting cuff, nervousness Another 'barrier' protective signal.
watchstrap,
tie, etc., using
an arm across
the body
seated, holding nervousness One arm rests on the table across

Possible
Meaning(s)
drink on one the body, holding a drink (or pen,
side with hand etc). Another 'barrier' protective
from other side signal.
touching or nervousness Another 'barrier' protective signal.
scratching
shoulder using
arm across
body
e. Hands
Hands contain many more nerve connections (to
the brain) than most if not all other body parts. They
are extremely expressive and flexible tools, so it is
natural for hands to be used a lot in signalling
consciously - as with emphasizing gestures - or
unconsciously - as in a wide range of unintentional
movements which indicate otherwise hidden feelings
and thoughts.
Hand is used for various purposes, notably:
Possible
Meaning(s)
palm(s) up or submissive, Said to evolve from when open
open truthful, honesty, upward palms showed no
appealing weapon was held. A common
gesture with various meanings
around a main theme of
openness. Can also mean "I
don't have the answer," or an
appeal. In some situations this
can indicate confidence (such
as to enable openness), or

Possible
Meaning(s)
trust/trustworthiness. An easily
faked gesture to convey
innocence. Outward open
forearms or whole arms are
more extreme versions of the
signal.
palm(s) up, defensive, Relaxed hands are more likely

fingers instruction to stop to be defensive as if offered up
pointing up in protection; rigid fingers
indicates a more authoritative
instruction or request to stop
whatever behaviour is
promoting the reaction.
palm up and striving for or The hand is empty, but
moving up seeking an figuratively holds a problem or
and down as answer idea as if weighing it. The
if weighing signal is one of 'weighing'
possibilities.
hand(s) on seeking to be Although easy to fake, the
heart (left believed underlying meaning is one of
side of chest) wanting to be believed, whether
being truthful or not. Hand on
heart can be proactive, as when
a salesman tries to convince a
buyer, or reactive, as when
claiming innocence or shock.
Whatever, the sender of this
signal typically feels the need to
emphasise their position as if
mortally threatened, which is
rarely the case.
finger aggression, Pointing at a person is very
pointing (at a threat, emphasis confrontational and dictatorial.
person) Commonly adults do this to
young people. Adult to adult it
is generally unacceptable and
tends to indicate a lack of social
awareness or self-control aside

Possible
Meaning(s)
from arrogance on the part of
the finger pointer. The finger is
thought to represent a gun, or
pointed weapon. Strongly
associated with anger, directed
at another person.
finger point acknowledgement The subtle use of a winked eye
and wink or confirmation with a pointed finger changes
the finger point into a different
signal, that of acknowledging
something, often a contribution
or remark made by someone, in
which case the finger and wink
are directed at the person
concerned, and can be a signal
of positive appreciation, as if to
say, "You got it," or "You
understand it, well done".
finger warning, refusal Rather like the waving of a
wagging (side pistol as a threat. Stop it/do as
to side) you are told, or else..
hand chop emphasis - The hand is used like a
especially the last guillotine, as if to kill the
word on a matter discussion.
clenched resistance, One or two clenched fists can
fist(s) aggression, indicate different feelings -
determination defensive, offensive, positive or
negative, depending on context
and other signals. Logically a
clenched fist prepares the hand
(and mind and body) for battle
of one sort or another, but in
isolation the signal is
impossible to interpret more
precisely than a basic feeling of
resolve.
hand stroking thoughtfulness The stroking of a beard is a
chin similar signal, although rare
among women.

Possible
Meaning(s)
hand evaluation, Usually the forearm is vertical
supporting tiredness or from the supporting elbow on a
chin or side boredom table. People who display this
of face signal are commonly assessing
or evaluating next actions,
options, or reactions to
something or someone. If the
resting is heavier and more
prolonged, and the gaze is
unfocused or averted, then
tiredness or boredom is a more
likely cause. A lighter resting
contact is more likely to be
evaluation, as is lightly resting
the chin on the knuckles.
hand(s) on confidence, The person is emphasizing their
hip(s) readiness, presence and readiness for
availability action. Observable in various
situations, notably sport, and
less pronounced poses in social
and work situations. In social
and flirting context it is said
that the hands are drawing
attention to the genital area.
hands in disinterest, The obvious signal is one of
pockets boredom inaction, and not being ready
for action. Those who stand
with hands in pockets - in
situations where there is an
expectation for people to be
enthusiastic and ready for
action - demonstrate apathy
and lack of interest for the
situation.

4. Dress
Since the time of our cave-dweller ancestors, people
paid great deal of attention to clothes. They made clothes
out of tree leaves, animals' hides, and now we have
excellent apparel industries that use artificial materials to
manufacture clothing. Our clothing is a part of our
cultural identity.
Even the way people dress for business differs
widely across cultures. Wearing formal clothes in all over
the world means person is going to an interview,
workplace, celebration, or a place where some high-
ranking people are present. Wearing informal clothes in
all over the world means that the person is going to a
friendly party, BBQ or an informal place.
Businessman from continental Europe, wearing a sport
jacket and a tie, arriving for a meeting in London with his
British counterpart wearing a suit, to be greeted with the words,
“Did the airline lose your luggage?”.
To the British partner, his Europe partner‘s choice
of a sport jacket suggested inappropriate informality. As
always, it is not only national cultural differences that are
important, corporate culture can differ widely too, even
within the same industry.

When we understand body language we become better
able to refine and improve what our body says about us,
which generates a positive improvement in the way we
feel, the way we perform, and what we achieve.
B. Eye Contact (Oculistics)

Eye contact is the meeting of the eyes between two
individuals. In humans, eye contact is a form of nonverbal
communication and has a large influence on social behavior.
The study of eye contact is sometimes known as Oculistics.
Eye contact provides a way in which one can study social
interactions, as it provides indications of social and emotional
information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so,
probe each other's eyes and faces for signs of positive or
negative mood. In some contexts, the meeting of eyes arouses
strong emotions. Eye contact can establish a sense of intimacy
between two individuals, such as the gazes of lovers or the eye
contact involved in flirting. Alternatively, avoiding eye contact
can establish distance between people. When in crowds,
people tend to avoid eye contact in order to maintain privacy.
Eye contact develops in a cultural context and different
gazes have different meanings all over the world. The customs
and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures,
with religious and social differences often altering its meaning
greatly. According to the tenets of the Islamic faith, Muslims

ought to lower their gazes and try not to focus on the features
of the opposite sex, except for the hands and face. Japanese
children are taught to direct their gaze at the region of their
teacher's Adam's apple or tie knot. As adults, Japanese tend to
lower their eyes when speaking to a superior as a gesture of
respect. In Eastern Africa, it is respectful not to look the
dominant person in the eye, whereas such avoidance of eye
contact is negatively interpreted in Western cultures. As with
all forms of social interaction that impart social significance,
eye contact is culturally determined.
1. A British expatriate living in Germany complains about being
stared at the underground train, “They stare me straight in the
face as if I’ve come from another planet”.
2. A US manager reports problems with Japanese staff. “I asked
them how the project was going and of course, not much has been
done. I was suspicious when they didn’t even look me in the eye”.
The length of time that is acceptable to look directly in the
eye can also differ from one country to another. In some
cultures, looking someone in the eye is taken as the sign of
interest and honesty. in others, however this can be seen as a
sign of disrespect. Visitors gradually learnt not to look too
directly at the person they are talking too, in case they are
thought to be staring intrusively.

C. Touch (Haptics)
Question: Why do we touch, where do we touch, and
what meanings do we assign when someone else touches us?
An African-American male goes into a convenience store recently
taken over by new Korean immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his
purchase to Mrs. Cho who is cashier and waits for his change. He is
upset when his change is put down on the counter in front of him.
What is the problem? Traditional Korean (and many
other Asian countries) don‘t touch strangers., especially
between members of the opposite sex. But the African-
American sees this as another example of discrimination (not
touching him because he is black).
Touch is culturally determine, but each culture has a
clear concept of what parts of the body one may not touch.
Basic message of touch is to affect or control — protect,
support, disapprove (i.e. hug, kiss, hit, kick). Here are some
examples:
In USA, handshake is common (even for strangers),
hugs, kisses for those of opposite gender or of family
(usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Most
African Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if
touched on the head (good boy, good girl overtones).
Islamic and Hindu: typically don‘t touch with the left
hand. To do so is a social insult. Left hand is for toilet

functions. Mannerly in India to break your bread only
with your right hand. Islamic cultures generally don‘t
approve of any touching between genders (even hand
shakes). But consider such touching (including hand
holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate.
Many Asians don‘t touch the head (Head houses the soul
and a touch puts it in jeopardy).
A European manager who came to work in the US of an insurance
company was pleased to find that he had an excellent secretary. After
she had completed another piece of work long before the deadline, he
went up to her, tapped her on the shoulder and said, “Thanks again.
It really is such a help that you are here”. Her response was to
complain to the boss.
The situation above show that where, how, and how
often people touch each other varies widely across cultures.
In the USA, the actions of some male employees touching
female employees, whether innocently or otherwise, has
given rise to law suits for sexual harassment. When and how
often people shake hands varies widely too. A group of
British investment bankers felt that their German colleagues
shook hands excessively. In other cultures, hugging or kissing
are more appropriate forms of greeting, even in a business
context.

D. Body Distance/Space (Proxemics)
Proxemics or personal space is defined as (the study of)
the amount of space that people find comfortable between
themselves and others. People are usually more comfortable
standing closer to family members than to strangers. The study
of the way that people use physical space to convey messages
is called Proxemics. Look at figure below:
Figure 5.1: space pattern
Zone Distance For Detail

Intimate 0-45cm lovers, and Usually reserved for intimate
space physical relationships such as lover,
touching but also applies during

Zone Distance For Detail
relationships consenting close
activities such as contact
sports, and crowded places
such as parties, bars, concerts,
public transport, queues and
entertainment and sports
spectating events. Non-
consenting intrusion into this
space is normally felt to be
uncomfortable at best, or very
threatening and upsetting at
worst. Within the intimate
zone a person's senses of smell
and touch (being touched)
become especially exercised.
Personal 1-2m family and Touching is possible in this
space close friends zone, but intimacy is off-
limits. Hence touching other
than hand-shaking is
potentially uncomfortable.
Social 3m non-touch Significantly hand-shaking is
space interaction, only possible within this zone
social, only if both people reach out
business to do it. Touching is not
possible unless both people
reach to do it.
Public 7m no People establish this zonal
space interaction, space when they seek to avoid
ignoring interaction with others
nearby. When this space is
intruded by another person is
creates a discomfort or an
expectation of interaction.
Personality also determines the size of this space. For

American, distance in social conversation is about an arm‘s
length to four feet. Less space in American culture may be
associated with greater intimacy or aggressive behavior.

―Excuse me‖ or ―Pardon me‖ for the slightest accidental
touching of another person shows the American attitude about
personal space. When a person‘s space is intruded by
someone, he or she may feel threatened and react defensively.
Julio, an Argentinian student who is keen to improve his English, is
attending a course in English. He often stays behind after the class to
ask the British lecturer, Mr. Jim, some questions. When Julio
approaches, Mr. Jim looks uneasy and begins to move away. Julio
wonders whether Mr. Jim doesn’t like him, if he ask too many
questions, or whether students are not suppose to ask questions after
class.
How close you get to another person when talking to

them differs widely across cultures. Research has shown that
in the USA the ―comfort zone‖ is about an arm‘s length. In
Latin America, the tendency is for the people to get closer to
each other than people, for instance, in the UK. The fact that
this is a tendency or not, mean that all British people do this.
Julio‘s explanation of Mr. Jim‘s behavior might be correct, but
it could also ne that the lecturer feels uneasy because the
student is coming too close to him.

E. Paralangue
It is not only words that convey message, but also a range
of other factors, such as :
vocal characterizers -laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch,
yawn- send different messages in different cultures. For
example, in Japan, giggling indicates embarrassment, and
in India, belch indicates satisfaction.
vocal qualifiers such as volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo,
and tone have different meaning. Loudness indicates
strength in Arabic cultures and softness indicates
weakness. In German, it indicates confidence and
authority. Meanwhile in Japanese, it indicates indicates
loss of control. Generally, one learns not to ―shout‖ in
Asia for nearly any reason.
vocal segregates such as ―uh-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh,
humm, eh, mah, nahh‖ indicate formality, acceptance,
assent, uncertainty, and also controlling conversation.
A British – Polish joint venture is running into problems. Magda
Sapinska, one of the Polish staffs, impresses the UK partner company
with her performance. They asks her to stay on for another weeks for
further discussion. The British manager asks her to ring her boss to see
what he thinks. The telephone conversation is in Polish language.
Although the British manager can’t speak Polish, it quickly seems
clear to him that Magda is having a problem with her boss office.

When she puts the phone down, he says to her, “ Magda, sorry to
have got you into this problem “. Magda is puzzled and says, “ What
are you talking about? Everything’s fine. My boss has given us the
OK”.
Intonation patterns and tone voice vary widely in
different cultures. What in one culture sounds like a hysterical
argument, in another culture would be considered to be the
norm for a reasonable argument. The British manager came to
wrong conclusion about the tone of the conversation when he
judged the sound of people speaking in Polish by the very
different intonation pattern in English.
F. Turn - taking
In normal, civilized Western-type of conversation,
speakers do not speak all the time; they wait for their ‗ turn‘.
But, how do people go about allocating turns to each other or
themselves? This is the mechanism of turn taking. On the one
hand, there are natural breaks in every conversation; a speaker
has to pause for breath, or runs out things to say, or simply
declares his or her contribution to be finished.
Researchers looking into intercultural communication asked and
Italian and a Japanese to find out particular information from each
other. They interviewed them separately after the conversation. The
Italian said, “ He seemed like a nice guy, but he never really said

anything”. And the Japanese said, “ He was very friendly, but he
never gave me a chance to speak”.
The way that turn-taking works in a conversation, and
the role of silence, differ between cultures. In some it is
acceptable, and even desirable to interrupt, whereas in some
others it is normal to wait for your partner to finish speaking
before making your point. In some cultures, a period of silence
is accepted as the norm.
EXERCISE 1:
1. Answer the following questions
(a) What is non-verbal communication?
(b) The smile has many function. Explain.
(c) Why is eye contact important?
2. Answer the following questions about your own culture
(a) Are there any non-verbal communications in your
culture?
(b) What kind of impression do people form of one another
based in non-verbal communication?
(c) What should a foreigner learn about non-verbal
communication in your culture?

EXERCISE 2:
Choose :
A. If 1 and 2 are correct
B. If 1 and 3 are correct
C. If 2 and 3 are correct
D. If 1,2, 3 are correct
1. Four categories of non-verbal communication mentioned

are:
(1) Behavior, aggression
(2) Gestures, facial expressions
(3) Aye contact, space
2. Why might it be rude to stare at stranger?
(1) Staring is rude in any situation
(2) Staring can give a person too much power
(3) Staring is considered impolite
3. When an American accidently bumps into another person
he or she may say…
(1) I‘m sorry
(2) Pardon me
(3) Excuse me
4. The silent languge…
(1) Should be part of language learning
(2) Is as important as the verbal language
(3) Cannot be learnt

EXERCISE 3:
Choose the correct answer:
1. Signal to a waiter is done by…
a. Whistling
b. Shouting
c. Saying ―waiter!‖
d. Tapping the table
2. People end conversations non-verbally by…
a. Looking at their watch
b. Backing up slowly
c. Looking away from the speaker
d. Stopping the conversation abruptly
3. The best way to get the teacher attention is by…
a. Snapping fingers
b. Whistling
c. Raising hand
d. Going to the teacher‘s desk
4. Non-verbally, how would you get the attention of a busy
secretary in the office?
a. Stand by the door
b. Sit down near the secretary and remain silent until
you are noticed
c. Tap the secretary on the shoulder
d. Interrupt the secretary

5. How do you motion to a person non-verbally?
a. Extend brick arms in front of you
b. Extend one arm in front of you and wave the person
over
c. Roll your eyes
d. Smile
EXERCISE 4:
Analyze this situation!
Li, is a Japanese student in a sixth grade math class.
Teacher : okay, class. Please take out the homework. I
want to review the answer to the problems
you did. Li, what‘s the answer to number
one?
Li : (looks down his paper)
Teacher : Li, please look at me when you‘re called on.
Did you do the assignment?
Li : (shyly) Yes, Ms. Davidson. The answer is 31.
I always do my homework.
Teacher : Good! Now remember, I want you to speak
up when you know the answer. We‘re all take
part in this class.
Later, after the class.
Li : is Ms. Davidson angry at me? She always
seems to call me.

Jack : She‘s not annoyed. She wants us to
participate in the class to speak up when we
know the answer.
Li : but I don‘t want to be impolite
Jack : don‘t worry, you‘re doing fine. You always
do the homework, and know the answer
correctly.

CHAPTER VI
CULTURE SHOCK
Living in a new environment can be a real pain if we have

no knowledge about it and its culture. It‘s totally different from
just visiting or spending holiday in foreign country or places.
Culture shock happens when people become anxious because
they do not speak the language, know the custom or understand
people‘s in daily life. People who cannot adjust themselves to the
new environment or new culture may reject everything that is
new to them and exaggerate the positive aspects of their own
culture.
For many people, one of the first differences they notice
when traveling to a different country is the food. Newcomers to
the United States are often shocked by portion sizes, by how
often people eat, or by the places people eat (e.g., in their cars).
They may also be shocked by the amount of meat and cheese in
most American dishes. Meanwhile, Americans who travel abroad
are often surprised by the varieties of foods eaten. They may
encounter types of food they've never seen before. Travelers who
are afraid of trying new things are more likely to have a negative
experience or more profound culture shock.
The definition of culture shock is the trauma you
experience when you move into a culture different from your
home culture. Culture shock is the personal disorientation a

person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due
to immigration or a visit to a new country, or to a move between
social environments, also a simple travel to another type of life.
A. Cause of shock culture

Besides language barrier, frustration, anxiety and stress
also occur whenever people can‘t do all the things they are
accustomed to doing in their everyday lives. These can
include work, home and leisure related activities that they
are either no longer able to do at all or no longer able to do
like they are accustomed to. For example, sometimes
because of differences in transportation services people
cannot move around as freely or as widely as they are
accustomed to. Additional issues such as
telecommunication system, things like grocery shopping,
gas-station system, getting to work, and other things can lead
to frustration also.
Another source of considerable distress for some people is
not being able to eat the foods they are accustomed to.
Anyone who wants to live and work overseas should be
prepared to make considerable changes in their diet and get
accustomed to the local foods and the sometimes limited
selection of familiar foods in the stores and restaurants. They
may not have the nice variety of very large and well-stocked

grocery stores they had back home or the many choices of
restaurants and fast-food places.
And lastly is the issue of values. A person can experience
considerable stress and anxiety when they are living in a
different culture with different values from their own. A
person may find that some of their own cherished and deeply
held values and assumptions about life may not be equally
important to members of their new host culture. The areas of
religion, moral behavior, justice and fair play, racial equality,
work ethic and privacy are areas where there may a great deal
of cultural relativism, and people living and working overseas
need to learn to deal with these differences in a relaxed and
nonjudgmental way.
B. The Symptoms of Shock Culture

Although "culture shock" is generally understood as a
temporary shock felt when confronted by different cultural
customs, ways of thinking and behavior patterns, it actually
refers to a psychological state of depression caused by the
experience of successive failures in unfamiliar social
situations. Culture shock is temporary, and everybody goes
through it to some extent in the process of cultural adaptation.
General symptoms of culture shock include:
irritation
homesickness

loneliness
nervousness
loss of appetite
sleeplessness
feeling tired
extreme pride in one's home culture
hypersensitivity or excitability
confusion
incompetence etc.
C. The Stages of Shock Culture and Cultural Adjustment
Figure 6.1 : The Stages of Shock Culture and Cultural

Adjustment
Culture shock can be described as consisting of at

least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon, negotiation,
adjustment, and mastery. During the honeymoon phase,

the differences between the old and new culture are seen
in a romantic light. During the first few weeks, most
people are fascinated by the new culture. They associate
with nationals who speak their language, and who are
polite to the foreigners. This period is full of observations
and new discoveries. Like most honeymoon periods, this
stage eventually ends.
After some time (usually around three months,
depending on the individual), differences between the old
and new culture become apparent and may create
anxiety. This is the mark of the negotiation phase.
Excitement may eventually give way to unpleasant
feelings of frustration and anger as one continues to
experience unfavorable events that may be perceived as
strange and offensive to one's cultural attitude. Still, the
most important change in the period is communication.
People adjusting to a new culture often feel lonely and
homesick because they are not yet used to the new
environment and meet people with whom they are not
familiar every day.
Again, after some time, one grows accustomed to
the new culture and develops routines, marking the
adjustment phase. One knows what to expect in most
situations and the host country no longer feels all that
new. One becomes concerned with basic living again and

things become more normal. One starts to develop
problem-solving skills for dealing with the culture and
begins to accept the culture's ways with a positive
attitude. The culture begins to make sense and negative
reactions and responses to the culture are reduced.
In the mastery stage, assignees are able to
participate fully and comfortably in the host culture.
Mastery does not mean total conversion. People often
keep many traits from their earlier culture, such as accents
and languages. It is often referred to as the biculturalism
stage.
D. Coping Shock Culture

Culture shock can be prevented by striving to become
more culturally relativistic and flexible in thinking and
behavior, by developing a real enthusiasm for learning about
the host culture and by forming real intercultural
relationships. Successful cross-cultural communications is a
fairly straightforward proposition. With the correct attitude,
a few good cultural informants, a few cross-cultural
communications concepts and some time spent as a
participant-observer, a person will quite naturally develop a
repertoire of intercultural interaction skills. And, when a
person begins to move further along the continuum of cross-
cultural understanding and interaction, they will more

quickly put down ego-identity roots in the new host culture
and feel more at ease with themselves and their
surroundings. They will become happier and productive at
work, at home or while moving about within the society at
large. They will no longer be negatively affected by
disconfirmed expectancies. They will understand more and
be understood more by others. In short, they will have
become bicultural individuals.
EXERCISE
1. When does shock culture happen?
2. What is meant by honeymoon period?
3. How might people decrease the impact of culture shock ?
4. What happen to people who cannot adjust themselves to the
new culture?
5. What is the best way to prepare for life in another country?

CHAPTER VII
CULTURAL CONFLICT
Intercultural communication is communication between

members of different cultures. In intercultural communication,
people will deal with different perception, attitudes, and
interpretations. Even two people from the same culture can have
communication problems.
The obvious way we communicate is by using words.
However, as we have seen, we also use non-verbal
communication: our tone of voice, body language, gestures,
posture and facial expressions all impact on communication.
Often people think that the use of gestures and facial expressions
will be sufficient to convey an accurate message, without regard
for the different rules of non-verbal communication which may
apply in the other person‘s culture. However, just as verbal
communication rules differ across cultures, so too do the rules of
non-verbal communication. These rules are specific to each
culture and are largely taken for granted. We respond to these
rules without being aware of them.
Therefore it is important to be aware that our own non-
verbal communication might be insulting to others. For example,
in some cultures, maintaining constant eye contact while talking
is interpreted as disrespectful, meanwhile other cultures see it as a
sign of honesty and confidence.

A. The Cause of Cultural Conflict
Cultural conflict occurs as a result of ethnocentrism,
misinterpretation, and stereotype. Ethnocentrism often entails the
belief that one's own race or ethnic group is the most important or
that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other
groups. Within this ideology, individuals will judge other groups
in relation to their own particular ethnic group or culture,
especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and
religion.
Speaker from different cultures assume that what they
believe is right, because they have grown up thinking their way is
the best and this may result in negative attitudes and judgements
toward other cultures. These ethnocentrism attitudes cause
people become critical of individuals from different cultures.
Misinterpretation happens because people fail to interpret
the verbal and non-verbal communication correctly. As we know
that non-verbal language is more difficult than verbal language
because one culture to another has different sign and meaning
system.
Stereotypes are generalizations of people groups based on
past experiences, which are deep-rooted in the psyche of the
people. These stereotypes develop from jokes, textbooks, movies,
and television. Stereotypical beliefs prevent us from seeing people
as individual with unique characteristics. Negative stereotype

may lead to prejudice, suspicion intolerance or hatred toward
members of other cultural groups.
B. Dealing with Cultural Conflict

All kinds of cultural conflicts as the result of
ethnocentrism, misinterpretation, and stereotype can be
prevented by increasing awareness of our own attitude and
sensitivity to cross cultural differences.
There are some ways dealing with cultural conflict:
- If we are subjected to upsetting or offensive behavior, or if
you witness such a thing happening to someone else, clearly,
firmly and simply state that the behavior is upsetting.
- If the behavior is offensive, but not threatening or aggressive,
whether the person apologises or says nothing, let it go the
first time.
- If the behaviour is threatening or aggressive, or if the
offensive behaviour recurs, tell someone and follow the
guidelines.
- If we feel unable to confront the situation directly, or if we
are unsure about whether or not to act upon something
promptly, discuss the issue with someone such as a friend,
colleague, supervisor, employee advisor, or councelor.
- No matter who is involved in the negative interaction,
whether the offensive behaviour is directed at us or we

witness it happen to someone else, it is important that some
action is taken promptly.
EXERCISE 1:
1. How could misunderstanding create negative feelings and
confusion?
2. What is meant by cultural conflict?
3. What kinds of cultural conflicts exist in a heterogeneous
society?
4. Find the examples where stereotypes turned to hatred that
cause cultural conflict!
5. In your opinion, in what areas of culture create the most
serious problems in intercultural communication?
Explain!
EXERCISE 2:
Choose:
A, if only 1 and 2 are correct
B, if only 1 and 3 are correct
C, if only 3 and 2 are correct
D, if 1, 2, and 3 are correct
1. Ethnocentrism attitudes cause…
1) People become critical of individual from different
cultures
2) Negative judgement toward foreigners

3) People become aware of the cultural differences
2. The misunderstanding occurs in young men and young
women conversation shows…
1) Cultural differences in non-verbal communication
2) Avoidance of non-verbal differences
3) Misunderstanding of each other culture
3. Stereotypes are…
1) Overgeneralized descriptions of groups of people
2) Complimentary descriptions of groups of people
3) Distorted description of groups of people
4. Negative stereotypes may lead to… of other cultural
group.
1) Prejudice
2) Suspicion and intolerance
3) Hatred

CHAPTER VIII
MALE-FEMALE RELATIONSHIP
People‘s ideas about appropriate behavior for men and

women are deeply-held, and having been planted within them
from a very early age. People tend to believe strongly that their
own ideas on the subject are correct and other ideas are wrong or
somehow inferior. People‘s ideas about what is proper in male-
female relationship do not change easily.
Foreign visitors usually find that American pattern in
male-female relationship are different from the ones to which
they are accustomed. If they become involved with members of
the opposite sex, as lover or friend, they are likely to have strong,
negative reactions. At very least, they will be confused and
unsettled.
Besides this strongly-held ideas about what is and is not
acceptable, there is another obstacle in understanding men-female
relationship namely stereotype. People‘s stereotype about gender
might become a great barrier in understanding male-female
relationship.
A. Stereotype about American Men and Women

As stated in previous chapter, stereotypes are
generalizations of people groups which are deep-rooted in

the psyche of the people. People stereotype others based on
what they see, their experience, or may be from the media.
Foreigners typically hold two stereotypes about American
men and women. American women are stereotyped as
inhibited women due to their sexual activity with a variety of
men. The other common stereotype is that they are
domineering. Related to this, American men are stereotyped
as weak because they let themselves to be dominated by
women. However, this stereotype is not the representative of
the whole society.
B. Women and Gender Discrimination

Many of the stereotypes that result in gender
discrimination are not only descriptive, but also prescriptive
beliefs about how men and women. For example, women
who are considered to be too assertive or men who lack
physical strength are often criticized and historically faced
societal backlash. They can also facilitate or impede
intellectual performance, such as the stereotype threat that
lower women's performance on mathematics tests, due to the
stereotype that women have inferior quantitative skills
compared to men's, or when the same stereotype leads men
to assess their own task ability higher than women
performing at the same level.

Gender discrimination or sexism refers to prejudice or
discrimination based on gender, as well as conditions that
foster stereotypes of gender roles. There are several
prominent ways in which gender discrimination continues to
play a role in modern society. Occupational sexism refers to
discriminatory practices, statements, and/or actions based
on a person's gender which occur in a place of employment.
Wage discrimination in which gender is perceived to be a
barrier to professional advancement, and sexual harassment
in the workplace are all examples of occupational sexism.
Violence against women, including sexual assault,
domestic violence, and sexual slavery, remains a serious
problem around the world. Many also argue that the
objectification of women, such as in pornography, also
constitutes a form of gender discrimination.
C. Women Liberation
The term ‗women liberation‘ refers to collection of
opinions and developments that seek to end discrimination
against women. Equal right for women is the goal. Adherent
of the women‘s liberation movement urge that school
textbooks and teachers take note of women contributions to
history, science, and other fields. They argue for an end to
what they see as stereotyping of women on television and
other media. They seek to raise the consciousness of all

American concerning what they consider to have been a
pervasive, unfair, and unwarranted anti-female attitude in
society.
The themes underlying women‘s liberation movement
are individualism, independence, and equality. They believe
that women have been unfairly denied the rights and
opportunities that all American citizen ought to have.
Women liberation brings many impacts to men-female

relationship, such as:
1. Women working and househusband

In 1960‘s, only 33,3% of the American work force
was female. By the 1985, the percentage had risen to
54,7. More and more women, both single and married,
are working outside their homes. Women liberation no
doubt has something to do with this situation. Difficult
economic time has contributed to the increase in female
participation in the labor force. Moreover, advanced
technology also influence the role of women outside the
house.
Couple of decades ago, women spent many hours a
day for doing household chores. It made them less time
for working outside or having work. With the invention
of advanced life tool, such as washing machine and

microwave, women can save time for doing her work,
besides household chores. They have time to go outside
and do their things, meet friends, even become career
women. They are working not just in clerical position,
but in the profession and trades as well. It is more
common to find female engineers, doctors, lawyers, and
other professionals.
The fact that more women are working has
implications for male-female relationship. More women
are earning money and are therefore in a position to
assert their independence. Traditional female
responsibilities in the areas of childcare and household
chores are being reallocated. Men now are doing things
such as washing clothes in Laundromats, cooking,
cleaning the house, and taking care of the children.
2. Single parent
The single parent family in the United States is
increasing markedly. According to U.S census
information, the number of families headed by a single
parent has more than doubled in the past 20 years. Most
single-parent households are headed by women. Most of
these women were once married, although an increasing
number of American women are deliberately having
children with no intention of having husband.

D. Sexual Revolution
In last 30 years, there has been a sexual revolution point
of number of changes:
- People, particularly younger ones, feel freer than they
once did to talk about sex-related subject, such as human
sex organ, menstruation, and other things. It‘s also
portrayed in many videos, songs, movies, and literature.
- More young people engage in premarital intercourse.
- Homosexuals (gay & lesbian) have become much less
reluctant than they used to be o be openly acknowledge
their sexual orientation. In some communities there has
been legislation to protect homosexuals from
discrimination in housing and jobs. The American belief
in individualism is reflected in legal efforts to protect a
group of people whose behavior may not be approved, but
considered to have a right to behave as they wish.
Despite all of the changes mentioned above, not
everything has changed. Foreign visitors will still find
individuals and communities where traditional ideas about
male-female relationship hold sway. There are still many
men and women who believe in premarital chastity, marital
fidelity, modesty about sexual functions, non working wives,
and male as a breadwinner.

EXERCISE
1. What is women liberation?
2. In your opinion what causes sexual revolution?
3. What are the American man and women stereotypes?
4. How can you relate the technology development with
sexual revolution?
5. Relate the phenomenon of single parent and women
liberation

CHAPTER IX
TABLE MANNER
―The dinner table is the center for the teaching and practicing not just of
table manners but of conversation, consideration, tolerance, family
feeling, and just about all the other accomplishments of polite society
except the minuet.” -Judith Martin
Table manners are the rules of etiquette used while eating,

which may also include the appropriate use of utensils. Different
cultures observe different rules for table manners. People who
hasn‘t known and experienced table manner may find it
complicated because there are many etiquettes.
Meals are social events. The idea is not only enjoying
meals but also enjoying other‘s company. Table manners help us
to know how to eat with a good manner and keep us from
embarrassing ourselves such as how to eat tricky foods, what to
do when we want to excuse, etc.
Table manners were designed to keep people from
scarfing food down like animals, so learn them before you eat
with others. One of the most important things to keep in mind is
that you should never call attention to yourself by blatantly
breaking the rules set by society.
Here are some essential dining etiquette rules that you
should follow:

Sit straight on your chair.
Turn off your cell phone before sitting down. It is rude to
talk on your phone or text while in the company of
others.
Taste your food before you add salt, pepper, or other
seasoning. Doing otherwise may be insulting to the host
or hostess.
Chew with your mouth closed.
Never talk when you have food in your mouth, even if
someone asks you a question, wait until you swallow
before answering.
Bring your food to your face, not your face to your food.
Say ―Thank You‖, ―Please‖, and ―Excuse Me‖ if you
want to do something or when someone gives you a
favor.
Don‘t cut all your food before you begin eating. Cut one
or two bites at a time.
Never blow on your food. If it is hot, wait a few minutes
for it to cool off. Scoop your soup away from you.
If you are drinking from a stemmed glass, hold it by the
stem.
Break your bread into bite-sized pieces and butter only
one bite at a time.
Try at least one or two bites of everything on your plate,
unless you are allergic to it.

Compliment the hostess if you like the food, but don‘t
voice your opinion if you don‘t.
Keep your elbows off the table. Rest the hand you are not
using in your lap.
Eat slowly and pace yourself to finish at the same
approximate time as the host or hostess.
Don‘t eat noisily or make noise with cutlery.
Don‘t reach across the table. Reaching on the other hand
is never allowed; if anything is beyond your normal reach
(meaning you have to rise from your seat to get to it) or is
within another‘s personal space, always ask the person
closest to pass the item you need.
Avoid burping or making other rude sounds at the table.
If you spill something at a restaurant, signal one of the
servers to help. If you spill something at a private dinner
party in someone‘s home, pick it up and blot the spill.
Offer to have it professionally cleaned if necessary.
When you finish eating, leave your utensils on your plate
or in your bowl.
Never use a toothpick or dental floss at the table.
You may reapply your lipstick, but don‘t freshen the rest
of your makeup at the table.

A. Etiquettes
Modern etiquette provides the smallest numbers and
types of utensils necessary for dining. Only utensils which
are to be used for the planned meal should be set. Even if
needed, hosts should not have more than three utensils on
either side of the plate before a meal. If extra utensils are
needed, they may be brought to the table along with later
courses.
Figure 10.1 : dining setting
1. Starting to eat
If you are eating out, you should wait until all the
members of your group have been served before picking

up your fork. At a private dinner, observe the host or
hostess and pick up your fork when he or she does.
However, if you are at a buffet, you may start when there
are others seated at your table.
2. Napkin
The basic function of the napkin is to wipe your
fingers and blot the mouth.
After sitting, unfold your napkin (do not open your
napkin by shaking it; open it discreetly under the
table. and place it in your lap and don't tuck it in
your collar) after the host or hostess has placed his or
her napkin in their lap.
Place your napkin in your chair if leaving the table
during the meal.
Don‘t use napkin as a handkerchief
When the meal is completed, the napkin is folded
loosely and placed to the left of your plate (or in the
center of your place setting if your plate has been
cleared).
3. Fork
Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant
to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork,
a meat fork, and a dessert fork. It should not be necessary

for the diner to distinguish between types of forks; forks
are used in order from outside to inside.
Once the meal begin, utensils should never touch the
table, as no one enjoys the site of a soiled tablecloth. It's
improper to even allow the handle of a utensil to touch
the table while the other end rests on the plate.
Figure 10.2: fork handling
When used in conjunction with a knife to cut and

consume food in Western social settings, two forms of
fork etiquette are common. The European style, also
called the Continental style, is to hold the fork in the left
hand and the knife in the right. Once a bite-sized piece of
food has been cut, it is conducted straight to the mouth by
the left hand. For other food items, such as potatoes,

vegetables or rice, the blade of the knife is used to assist or
guide placement of the food on the back of the fork. The
tines remain pointing down. The knife and fork are both
held with the handle running along the palm and
extending out to be held by thumb and forefinger. This
style is sometimes called "hidden handle" because the
palm conceals the handle.
When talking, drinking or excusing yourself from the
table between bites ("resting position"), the knife and fork
are crossed in the center of the plate, fork tines pointed
down.
Figure 10.3: Continental fork signal
In the American style, also called the zig-zag method or

fork switching, the knife is initially held in the right hand
and the fork in the left. Holding food to the plate with the
fork tines-down, a single bite-sized piece is cut with the
knife. The knife is then set down on the plate, the fork

transferred from the left hand to the right hand, and the
food is brought to the mouth for consumption. The fork is
then transferred back to the left hand and the knife is
picked up with the right. In contrast to the Continental
hidden handle grip, in the American style the fork is held
much like a spoon or pen once it is transferred to the right
hand to convey food to the mouth. In resting position, set
the fork so that the tines are facing up and balance the
knife on the right side of plate.
Figure 10.4: American fork signal
When a course is complete, place any utensils meant

for that course on the plate, whether or not they were
used. For example, if during the salad course you don't
use your knife, it still goes on the plate at the end of the
course. If you don't put it on the plate, the waiter will do
it for you.

B. World Table Manner
Table manners are the rules of etiquette used while
eating, which may also include the appropriate use of
utensils. Different cultures observe different rules for table
manners. Here are some examples:
1. United kingdom
In the UK, the host or hostess takes the first bite
unless he or she instructs otherwise. The host begins after
all food is served and everyone is seated. Food should
always be tasted before salt and pepper are added.
Applying condiments or seasoning before the food is
tasted is viewed as an insult to the cook, as it shows a lack
of faith in his/her ability to prepare a meal. In religious
households, a family meal may commence with saying
Grace, or at dinner parties the guests might begin the
meal by offering some favourable comments on the food
and thanks to the host. In a group dining situation it is
considered impolite to begin eating before all the group
have been served their food and are ready to start.
2. India
In formal settings, the host requests the guest to
start the meals. Similarly, one should not leave the table
before the host or the eldest person finishes his or her

food. It is also considered impolite to leave the table
without asking for the host's or the elder's permission.
Normally whoever completes first will wait for others and
after everybody is finished all leave the table.
A cardinal rule of dining is to use the right hand
when eating or receiving food. Handwashing,
both before sitting at a table and after eating, is important.
Cleaning with cloth or paper tissue may be considered
unhygienic. Small amounts of food are taken, ensuring
that food does not reach the palms. It is considered
important to finish each item on the plate out of respect
for the food served. Traditionally, food should be eaten as
it is served, without asking for salt or pepper. It is,
however, now acceptable to ask for salt or pepper
with a mention that you like more of it.
Distorting or playing with food is unacceptable.
Eating at a medium pace is important, as eating too
slowly may imply dislike of the food and eating too
quickly is rude. Generally it is not acceptable to burp,
slurp, or spit. Staring at another diner's plate is taken as
being rude. It is inappropriate to make sounds while
chewing. Certain Indian food items can create sounds, so
it is important to close the mouth and chew at a medium
pace.

3. China
Seating and serving customs play important roles in
Chinese dining etiquette. For example, the diners should
not sit down or begin to eat before the host (or guest of
honor) has done so. When everyone is seated, the host
offers to pour tea, beginning with the cup of the eldest
person. The youngest person is served last as a gesture of
respect for the elders.
Just as in Western cultures, communal utensils
(chopsticks and spoons) are used to bring food from
communal dishes to an individual's own bowl (or plate).
It is considered rude and unhygienic for a diner to use his
or her own chopsticks to pick up food from communal
plates and bowls when such utensils are present. Other
potentially rude behaviors with chopsticks include playing
with them, separating them in any way (such as holding
one in each hand), piercing food with them, or standing
them vertically in a plate of food. A rice bowl may be
lifted with one hand to scoop rice into the mouth with
chopsticks. It is also considered rude to look for a piece
one would prefer on the plate instead of picking up the
piece that is closest to the diner as symbol of fairness and
sharing to the others. The last piece of food on a
communal dish is never served to oneself without asking
for permission. When offered the last bit of food, it is

considered rude to refuse the offer. It is considered
virtuous for diners to not leave any bit of food on their
plates or bowls. Condiments, such as soy sauce or duck
sauce, may not be routinely provided at high-quality
restaurants. The assumption is that perfectly prepared
food needs no condiments and the quality of the food can
be best appreciated.
4. South Korea
In formal settings, a meal is commenced when the
eldest/most senior diner at the table partakes of any of the
foods on the table. Before partaking, intention to enjoy
their meal should be expressed. Similarly, satisfaction or
enjoyment of that meal should be expressed at its
completion. On occasion, there are some dishes which
require additional cooking or serving at the table. In this
case, the youngest/lowest-ranked (non-child) diner should
perform this task. When serving, diners are served the
meal (including and beverages: water, tea, or alcohol) in
descending order starting with the eldest/highest-ranked
diner to the youngest/lowest-ranked.
Usually, diners will have 1 bowl of soup on the right
with 1 bowl of rice to its left. Alternatively, soup may be
served in 1 large communal pot to be consumed directly
or ladled into individual bowls. Dining utensils will

include 1 pair of chopsticks and 1 spoon. Common
chopstick etiquette should be followed, but rice is
generally eaten with the spoon instead of chopsticks (as
eating rice with chopsticks is considered rude). Often
some form of protein (meat, poultry, fish) will be served
as a main course and placed at the center of the table
within reach of the diners. Banchan- small dishes of food
served along with cooked rice- will also be distributed
throughout the table. If eaten with spoon, banchan is
placed on the spoonful of rice before entering the mouth.
With chopsticks, however, it is fed to the mouth directly.
The last piece of food on a communal dish should
not be served to oneself without first asking for
permission, but, if offered the last bit of food in the
communal dish, it is considered rude to refuse the offer.
Bowls (of rice or soup) should not be picked up off the
table while dining, exception for large bowls of noodle
soup. Slurping while eating noodles and soup is generally
acceptable, is not uncommon to chew with mouths open.

EXERCISE
Based on the table manner practice, discuss these questions!
1. In your opinion, what is the basic difference between
Indonesian and international table manner?
2. What is the most difficult part in table manner?
3. Can we (Indonesian) practicing table manner in Indonesian
cuisines?
4. Which one is the most suitable for you: Continental or
American style? Explain your reason!
5. How do you handle the difficulties in practicing table manner?

CHAPTER X
HOTEL TOUR
Hotel is a commercial establishment providing lodging,

meals, and other guest services. In general, to be called a hotel, an
establishment must have a minimum of six letting bedrooms, at
least three of which must have attached (ensuite) private
bathroom facilities.
A. Loby
Lobby is a large open area inside and near the entrance of
a public building (such as a hotel or theater). Sometimes it
referred to as a foyer or an entrance hall. Many office
buildings, hotels and skyscrapers go to great lengths to
decorate their lobbies to create the right impression and
convey an image, or "power lobby".
In these types of lobbies it is common for there to be
comfortable furniture, such as couches and lounge chairs, so
that the customer will be able to wait in comfort. Also, there
may be television sets, books, and/or magazines to help the
customer pass time as they wait to be served.

B. Restroom
Restroom is a room with toilet and sink.

C. Meeting Room/ Hall
Hall is a large room used for meeting, concert, and other
public events.
D. Hotel rooms
Hotel rooms are classified by the number of beds in them,
the size and the amenities that they offer, and their rates vary
accordingly. There are some basic room categories for a
hotel:

1. Single Room
It is the room which provide single occupancy. This room

only have single bed.
2. Double
It is the room which provide double occupancy, two

travellers sleeping in the same bed .

3. Twin room
It is the room which provide double occupancy with 2 single

separates beds.
4. Triple room
It is the room which provide occupancy for 3 people, either it

has 2 double & 1 single beds or 3 single beds.

5. Quad room
It is the room which provide occupancy for 4 people , with

three separate beds, or a double bed plus a single bed.
6. Suite room
A combination on or more bedroom & a parlour. It may also

contain a bar & small kitchen.

There is considerable variation and many frills within these
basic types, the rule of thumb being that the more you pay,
the larger your room becomes. Some business-oriented hotels
offer an executive level, where a steep premium gets you
access into an airline-style lounge and typically some perks
like "free" Internet access or pay-per-view movies. Naming
for these rooms varies, with eg. the Hilton Hotel dubbing
even its cheapest rooms as "Deluxe" and the next category
up being "Executive", and ―President‖.
Hotels may additionally offer meal service included in the
price. Common terms include:
Bed and breakfast (B&B). The morning meal is
included. This may range considerably from a simple
roll and coffee to an elaborate spread.
Half board ( half pension, demi-pension, modified
American plan). A hotel rate that includes breakfast and
one additional meal, typically dinner. Also called
Modified American Plan and demi-pension.
Full board (full pension, full American plan). A hotel rate
in which three meals a day are included in the price.
All inclusive. All meals and drinks are included. The
list of "free" drinks is usually limited though: house
wine is probably OK, champagne probably isn't.
Hotels may also charge a mandatory fee in addition to the
standard room and board charge to provide access to

additional facilities. This is typically called a Resort Fee and
can include access to things such as exercise facilities, pools,
and high - speed internet access.
In every room, there will be many goods such as:
 Bed
 Spring box
 Head board
 Bed Side Table/side table/night table
 Telephone
 Night lamp
 Full length mirror/body mirror
 Wardrobe/cloth cabinet
 Writing Table/ Dressing Table
 Dressing mirror
 Dressing chair/arm chair
 Waste basket
 Coffee chair
 Coffee table
 Coffee table lamp
 Night curtain
 Glass curtain
 Balcony chair
 Balcony table
 Lugage rack/baggage stand

E. Star ratings
Star ratings are awarded by each country according to
their own rules, and the difference between a 3-star and a 4-
star may be something as obscure as having a minibar in
each room. It's also worth noting that star ratings are often
'sticky', in the sense that once awarded they're rarely taken
away: a four-star built last year is probably still pretty good,
but a four-star opened in 1962 and never renovated since
may well have turned into a dump.
1. Five-star hotels
The five-star hotels is the quintessential luxury hotel,
offering thrills above and beyond the actual needs of the
travel. They have restaurants and night spots that are
world class, with food and entertainment that draw non-
guests to sample it too.
Five-star hotels also tend to have opulent and expensive
decorations; fancy gyms, swimming pools and spas.
Needless to say, all this comes at a steep price, and you're
unlikely to be able to justify the expense of a five-star for
ordinary business travel.
2. Four-star hotels
The four-star hotel is a good business hotel. Everything
works smoothly, there's Internet in every room, a well-
equipped business center, they'll arrange your airport
transfer and room service is palatable and only somewhat

expensive. And your boss will probably not faint when
they see the bill.
Samples hotel: Hilton, Marriott, Novotel (Accor),
Crowne Plaza (IHG), Kimpton Hotels and Radisson BLU
Hotels (Carlson Rezidor).
3. Three-star hotels
Three-star hotels are solid but dull. Your room will have
an attached bathroom and there's probably a restaurant
downstairs and 24-hour reception service.
4. Two-star hotels
Two stars means no-frills hotel. In many countries, two
stars means that your room may have its own bathroom
and there's almost certainly a TV and perhaps a telephone
in your room, but rooms are bare-bones and you're
unlikely to want to spend any more time than strictly
necessary inside.
5. One-star hotels
You don't see many of these, and with reason. One-stars
are not just no-frills, rooms are barely functional, shared
bathrooms are somewhere down a corridor and the
painted ladies from the all-hours karaoke bar next door
dance the horizontal tango all night long in the room next
to yours.

GLOSSARIES
active listening - listening very attentively and empathizing and

reflecting back understanding through body language and usually
words too.
adaptors - small signals given when anxious or when behaving in

a way that does not comfortably match the feelings, for example
lip-biting or face-touching, which are self-comforting signals.
alerting/announcement gestures - indicating need to speak, for

example raising a hand, or taking a breath and lifting the
shoulders.
anthropology - the study of humankind in all respects - especially

culturally, socially and in evolutionary terms, and how these key
aspects inter-relate.
asymmetric/asymmetry - describing gestures or facial

expressions, especially a smile, that are not symmetrical (equal on
both sides), which tends to indicate incongruence or a mixed
signal and not what it might initially seem to mean.

Attitude - a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects,
events, or ideas in one's environment an expression of favor or
disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or event
auto-contact - describing self-touching gestures and actions.
autonomic/automatic signals - effectively involuntary stress-

induced physiological behaviours, such as crying, shaking,
blushing, quickened pulse-rate, and in extreme cases retching,
vomiting, fainting, etc.
barrier - something which prevents something from happening

or makes it difficult
biculturalism - The state or quality of being bicultural.
body language - noun - the conscious and unconscious

movements and postures by which attitudes and feelings are
communicated [for example]: his intent was clearly expressed in
his body language."
cluster - term for a group of body language signals, which more

reliably indicate meaning or mood than a single signal.

cognitive dissonance - conflicting understanding or feelings -
cognition is understanding things through thought; dissonance is
disharmony or conflict. This is a widely used term in psychology
and the effect arises very commonly in relationships and
communications. Conflicting body language signals can
sometimes indicate this attitude or reaction in a person.
compliance - submissive behaviour, hence compliance signals or

signs, which indicate this.
communication - the exchange of meaning
community - a group of interdependent organisms inhabiting the

same region and interacting with each other
context - the surroundings, circumstances, environment,

background, or settings that determine, specify, or clarify the
meaning of an event or other occurrence. the surroundings,
circumstances, environment, background, or settings that
determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of an event or other
occurrence.
courtship - an old term for (typically) male-female relations from

initial meeting through to going-out relationship stage.

Cross-cultural understanding- concerned with understanding
people from different cultural backgrounds/culture of the people
so we can construct our attitudes and world view, more tolerable
and generous toward strange ways that may be shown by other
citizen of another country.
Cultural stereotypes - Applying both evidence and our existing

beliefs about the members of that cultural group.
culture - The beliefs, values, behavior and material objects that

constitute a people's way of life; the arts, customs, and habits that
characterize a particular society or nation.
cultural relativism - the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values
are dependent on their cultural context, and should not be used in
the study or description of another culture.
Cultural stereotypes - applying both evidence and our existing

beliefs about the members of that cultural group
culture shock - the disorientation a person may feel when

experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to being in a new
culture.

denial - signals of denial effectively undo or contradict more
conscious typically false or manufactured body language, thereby
betraying true feeling or motive.
dialog - a conversation between two or more entities in which

they use their speech organs to convey a message
displacement - a stress signal typically prompted by suppression

of natural reaction due to fear or other inhibition, for example
biting fingernails, picking at finger(s) or thumb.
distraction - signalling prompted by stress, usually quite

inappropriate to the needs of the situation, for example stretching
and relaxing, or pausing to take a drink when an emergency
arises.
emotional intelligence - also known as EQ, Emotional

Intelligence is based on 'feeling intelligence' (rather than IQ -
Intelligence Quotient - based on logical intelligence), and the
capability to understand and communicate with others very
empathically.
emphatic/emphasizing gestures - gestures which reinforce the

meaning of spoken words, e.g., jabbing fingers, weighing hands.

Ethnic group - groups of people with particular characteristics
Ethnocentrism - The tendency to look at the world primarily

from the perspective of one's own culture. judging another culture
solely by the values and standards of one's own culture
expatriate - a person living in a country that is not his own
eye contact- the meeting of the eyes between two individuals
eye flash - a sudden direct glance to attract attention or warn,

usually followed by some other more specific signal.
eyebrow flash - quickly raising and lowering both eyebrows -

typically in greetings, recognition, acknowledgement, or surprise.
An eyebrow flash can therefore also be a signal of positive
interest.
eye shrug - upwards eye-roll signalling frustration.
family - A group of people related by blood, marriage, law or

custom.

flirting - It is a playful activity involving verbal communication
and also body language to indicate an interest in a deeper
romantic or sexual relationship
gender - The socio-cultural phenomenon of the division of people

into various categories such as "male" and "female", with each
having associated clothing, roles, stereotypes, etc.
gender discrimination - prejudice or discrimination based on

gender, as well as conditions that foster stereotypes of gender
roles.
gender roles - Sets of social and behavioral norms that are

generally considered appropriate for either a man or a woman in
a social or interpersonal relationship.
gesture - A motion of the limbs or body, especially one made to

emphasize speech
Group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to
one another.
haptics - the study of human touch, from the Greek word

haptikos, meaning able to touch.

herd mentality - a closed and one dimensional approach. Such a
way of thinking curbs creativity, innovation and advancement as
people are restricted in how to think, approach and engage with
people or challenges.
heuristic - An experience-based technique for problem solving,

learning, and discovery
hybrid expression - a term apparently originated by Charles

Darwin, it refers to a facial expression which combines two
seemingly different or opposing meanings, for example a smile
with a head-turn away from the person the smile is meant for.
illustrative gesture - gestures which shape or describe the

physical dimensions of something by using the hands in the air.
Immigration - coming into a non-native country for the purpose

of permanent residence.
index finger - first finger of the hand - usually the most dominant
and dexterous finger, hence used mostly in pointing gestures.
ingroup - a social group to which a person psychologically

identifies themselves as a member

inferior – lower, not as good as others.
information- Things that are or can be known about a given

topic; communicable knowledge of something.
influence - An action exerted by a person or thing with such

power on another to cause change.
Institution - An established organization, especially one

dedicated to education, public service, culture, or the care of the
destitute, poor etc.
Intercultural competence - the ability to communicate effectively

and appropriately with people of other cultures
Language - language is a purely human and non-instinctive

method of communicating ideas, emotions and desire by means
of voluntarily produced symbols
Marriage - The union of two (or sometimes more) people,

usually to the exclusion of all others
mask/masking - using body language, usually intentionally, to

deceive others as to true feelings or motives.

micro-gestures - tiny body language 'leakage' signals, often
unconsciously sent and interpreted, more likely to be seen and
reacted to unconsciously rather than consciously, unless
concentrating determinedly.
mime/miming gestures - gestures used consciously to convey a

specific message, such as extending the thumb and little finger by
the ear to say "Phone me," or wiping imaginary sweat from the
brow to express relief after a crisis subsides.
mirroring - the synchronizing or matching of body language (and

speech characteristics), usually between two people, which helps
build feelings of trust and empathy.
Misinterpreted – wrongly understood
Mores -norms which specify behavior of vital importance to the

society and which embody its basic moral values
National Stereotype - a system of culture-specific beliefs

connected with the nationality of a person. This system includes
beliefs concerning those properties of human beings that may
vary across nations, such as appearance, language, food, habits,
psychological traits, attitudes, values etc

Nonverbal communication - the process of communicating
through sending and receiving wordless messages
Norm - A rule that is enforced by members of a community
Occupational sexism - discriminatory practices, statements,

and/or actions based on a person's gender which occur in a place
of employment
oculesics - The study of eye contact as a form of body language.
outgroup - social group to which an individual does not identify
palm - inside surface of the hand - significant in body language

because an open palm has for thousands of years indicated that
no weapon is concealed, which survives as perhaps a genetically
inherited signal of peace, cooperation, submissiveness, etc.
Personal space - The physical space closely surrounding a

person, which, if encroached upon, can lead to discomfort, anger
or anxiety.
pseudo-infantile gestures - gestures of childlike vulnerability,

often made to avert attack, attract sympathy, or to induce feelings
of compassion, attention, etc.

Perception - Conscious understanding of something; acuity. the
organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory
information in order to construct a mental representation through
the process of transduction, during which sensors in the body
transform signals from the environment into encoded neural
signals.
Proxemics - the study of the way that people use physical space
to convey messages
Punctuality - the characteristic of being able to complete a

required task or fulfill an obligation before or at a previously
designated time.
Race - A large group of people distinguished from others on the

basis of common physical characteristics, such as skin color or
hair type.
Relationship - Connection or association; the condition of being

related.
Religion - a collection of belief systems, cultural systems, and

worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to
moral values.

Riddle - a difficult and amusing question to which one must
guess the anwer
Ritual; a repeated set of actions
Sanction - A penalty, or some coercive measure, intended to

ensure compliance; especially one adopted by several nations, or
by an international body
Sex - The distinguishing property, quality, or assemblage of

properties by which organisms are classified as female or male on
the basis of their reproductive organs and functions
sexual harassment - intimidation, bullying, teasing, or coercion

of a sexual nature, or the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of
rewards in exchange for sexual favors
Sexual orientation - One's tendencies of sexual

attraction,considered as a whole.
Society - long-standing group of people sharing cultural aspects

such as language, dress, norms of behavior and artistic forms

social behaviors - In physiology and sociology, social behavior is
behavior directed towards society, or taking place between,
members of the same species
Social Interaction – a social exchange between two or more

individuals
social scientist – the study of society, human social interaction,

and the rules and processes that bind and separate people not
only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups and
institutions
Stereotypes - generalizations of people groups based on past

experiences, which are deep-rooted in the psyche of the people
Stereotype threat - the experience of anxiety or concern in a

situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative
stereotype about their social group.
Subcultures – smaller part of the main culture
Symbolic - Something with an implicit meaning
table manners - the rules of etiquette used while eating, which

may also include the appropriate use of utensils. Different

cultures observe different rules for table manners. Each family or
group sets its own standards for how strictly these rules are to be
enforced
universal – common to all society, worldwide
value - the degree of importance given to something.
values - A collection of guiding principles; what one deems to be

correct and desirable in life.
Verbal - words
visual communication - communication through visual aids.
volunteersm - generally considered an altruistic activity, and is

intended to promote good or improve human quality of life,
which in return produces a feeling of self-worth and respect, but
no financial gain.
Wage Gap - The difference between male and female earnings

expressed as a percentage of male earnings.
women liberation- collection of opinions and developments that

seek to end discrimination against women

REFERENCES
Althen, Gary. 1988. American Ways. USA: Intercultural Press

Gibson, Robert. 2000. Intercultural Business Communication. New
York: Oxford University Press
James, Joyce. 1996. The language-Culture Connection. Singapore:
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Koentjaraningrat. 1990. Pengantar Ilmu Antropologi cetakan ke-8.
Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta
Larson, M.L. 1984. Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-
Language Equivalence. Lanham: University Press of America
Murphy, Andrew. 1994. Cultural Encounters in The USA. Illinois:
National Texbook Company
Newmark, P. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon
Press
…………… 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice-
Hall International
Nida, E& Taber, C. 1982. The Theory and Practice of Translation.
Leiden: E.J.Brill
Storti, Craig. 2001. The Art of Crossing Culture. UK: Intercultural
Press
Tomasouw, Pauline. 1986. Buku Materi Pokok Cross Cultural
Understanding. Jakarta : Karunika Jaya
(Anonymous). www.boundless.com
(Anonymous). http:// encyclopedia. jrank. org

(Anonymous) www.etiquettescholar.com
(Anonymous) www. Wikipedia .com
(Anonymous). www.goldenline.com

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CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING:

Umi Pujiyanti & Fatkhunaimah Rhina Zuliani

Desain Cover & Layout

ii | Cross Cultural Understanding

In teaching English as second language or foreign

Cross Cultural Understanding | iii

CHAPTER I LANGUAGE AND CULTURE .................. 1

CHAPTER II GENERAL AMERICAN VALUES ........... 13

iv | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | v

CHAPTER V NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION...... 65

CHAPTER VI CULTURE SHOCK .................................. 103

vi | Cross Cultural Understanding

CHAPTER VII CULTURAL CONFLICT ....................... 111

CHAPTER VIII MALE AND

CHAPTER IX TABLE MANNER .................................... 125

Cross Cultural Understanding | vii

CHAPTER X HOTEL TOUR ........................................... 139

viii | Cross Cultural Understanding

Figure 1.1 : the Iceberg Analogy of Culture ....................... 3

Cross Cultural Understanding | ix

Many people who go abroad encounter features in their host

Cross Cultural Understanding | 1

2 | Cross Cultural Understanding

- Material culture as the product of human

- Social culture as the people‘s form of social

- Ideological culture including people‘s belief and

(Figure 1.1: the Iceberg Analogy of Culture)

Cross Cultural Understanding | 3

4 | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | 5

6 | Cross Cultural Understanding

4. Cultural Patterns of Behavior

Cross Cultural Understanding | 7

8 | Cross Cultural Understanding

C. The Relationship Between Language and Culture

Cross Cultural Understanding | 9

- language is a key component of culture. It is the

- Children learning their native language are learning

- Language is influenced and shaped by culture. It

- Cultural differences are the most serious areas causing

10 | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | 11

To understand the political, economic, social and even

Cross Cultural Understanding | 13

14 | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | 15

16 | Cross Cultural Understanding

G. Idealizing what is practical

Cross Cultural Understanding | 17

18 | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | 19

20 | Cross Cultural Understanding

A stereotype is generalizations of people groups based on

Cross Cultural Understanding | 21

Figure 3.1: Levels of uniqueness

22 | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | 23

some individuals some individuals

Figure 3.2. How attitudes and belief are distributed

When a person makes inferences about a new person or

24 | Cross Cultural Understanding

Cross Cultural Understanding | 25