Reason- pp.

85-86, 100

Reasoning – 6-7

Will- p. 73

Moral theory- p.7

Rationality will- 66,67,68,71

Theories – 14-20, 116-119

CONTENT:
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REASON AND WILL
 Differentiate Knowing and Actually Executing a Good Moral Decision
 Judge Moral Behavior in Terms of Planning and Execution in important Moral Experiences
MORAL THEORIES AND MENTAL FRAMES AND WHY THEY ARE IMPORTANT
 Explain the Role of Mental Frames in Moral Experience
 Classify the Dominant Mental Frames

MORAL THEORIES AND MENTAL FRAMES

https://www.coursehero.com/file/70464356/UNIT-2-Moral-Theories-and-Mental-Framespdf/

What is moral theory?

- A moral theory, then, explains why a certain action is wrong -- or why we ought to act in certain ways. Moral
theories provide the framework upon which we think and discuss in a reasoned way, and so evaluate, specific
moral issues.

TYPES OF MORAL THEORY

 Utilitarianism
 Deontology
 Relativism
 Divine Command Theory
 Virtue Ethics
 Egoism
 Natural Rights Theory

Utilitarianism: A Theory of Consequences

 - It is a theory that holds that the best way to make a moral decision is to look at the potential consequences of
each available choice; then, one should pick the option that either does the most to increase happiness or does
the least to increase suffering.

Deontology: A Duty-Based Moral Philosophy

- Deontology states that society needs rules in order to function and a person can only be called moral to the
extent that he abides by those rules.

Relativism: A Theory Based on Experiences

- It states that no one person’s morals are better or worse than any other. Relativism is a moral philosophy that
could, therefore, be different depending on where you grow up, and what may be right in your society, could be
very wrong in another person‘s society.

Divine Command Theory: A Higher Power

- Divine command theory states that God is the ultimate arbiter of what constitutes morality, and that without
God we have no clear way of telling right from wrong.

Virtue Ethics: Always Improve Yourself

- states that only good people can make good moral decisions. Therefore, the best way to be moral is to
constantly seek to improve oneself. Virtue ethicists argue that if a person tries his best to embody these traits.

Egoism: A Theory Based on Self-Interest

- Egoism is a moral philosophy that holds that the best way for one to be morally good is to act in accordance with
one ‘s self-interest. Egoists also believe that if everyone acts in their own self-interest, then society is more likely
to solve moral dilemmas to the satisfaction of all parties, thereby maximizing overall happiness.

Natural Rights Theory: Human Rights

- Natural rights theorists, or human rights theorists, believe that every person is endowed with certain inalienable
rights, such as the right to life, the right to own property, and the right to liberty.

What is mental frame?

- Mental framing is how you see any given situation and occurs when you position your thoughts in such a way as
to convince yourself of the value of difficult situations.

(ETHICS BOOK)

Types of Moral Theories

1. Utilitarianism
2. Natural Law Theory
3. Deontology
4. Virtue Ethics

UTILITARIANISM by Jeremy Bentham

- Is an ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure and the determination of right behavior based on
the usefulness of the actions consequences.
- It claims that one’s actions and behavior are good inasmuch as they are directed towards the experience of the
greatest pleasure over pain for the greatest number of persons.
 - Utilitarianism is consequentialist which means that the moral value of actions and decisions is based solely or
greatly on the usefulness of their consequences.
- It is the usefulness of results that determines whether the action or behavior is good or bad
- The utilitarian value pleasure and happiness which means that the usefulness of actions is based on its
promotion of happiness.

NATURAL LAW THEORY by St. Thomas Aquinas

- A theory which will provide us a unique way of determining the moral status of our actions

DEONTOLOGY by Immanuel Kant

- Evaluates actions that are done because of duty

- Refers to the study of duty and obligation
- Comes from Greek word deon, which means necessary

VIRTUE ETHICS by Aristotle

- One theory that can possibly provide a comprehensive understanding of how an individual can develop moral
character.
- It’s the ethical framework that is concerned with understanding the good as a matter of developing the virtuous
character of a person. Focuses on the information of one’s character book about by determining and doing
virtuous acts.

(PAGE 7) A moral theory is a systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining certain moral principles. In so far
as a theory is a system of thought or of ideas, it can also be referred to as a framework. We can use this term,
“framework”, as a theory of interconnected ideas, and at the same time, a structure through which we can evaluate our
reasons for valuing a certain decision or judgment.

There are different frameworks that can make us reflect on the principles that we maintain and thus, the decisions and
judgments we make. By studying these, we can reconsider, clarify, modify and ultimately strengthen our principles,
thereby informing better both our moral judgments and moral decisions.

(PAGE 115) THE VALUE OF STUDYING ETHICAL THEORIES OR FRAMEWORKS

These ethical frameworks or theories may serve as guideposts, given that they are the best attempts to understand
morality not the history of human thought has to offer. They shed light on many important considerations. They can
clarify many important aspects of morality.

UTILITARIANISM

- Pays tribute to the value of impartiality, arguing that a nap is good if it will bring about the greatest good for the
greatest number of those affected by the action and each one of those affected should be counted as one, each
equal to each.
- puts every single stakeholder at par with everyone else, with no one being worth more than any other.
- Puts more value on the notion of common good compared to any of the other ethical frameworks we have
covered.
NATURAL LAW THEORY

- Puts more emphasis on the supposed objective universal nature of what is to be considered morally good basing
its reasoning on the theorize existence of a human nature.
- Has the advantage of both objectivity and a kind of intuitiveness.

DEONTOLOGY

- Puts the premium on rational will freed from all other considerations as the only human capacity that can
determine one’s moral duty.
- focuses on one’s autonomy as constitutive of what one can consider as moral law that is free from all other ends
and inclinations—including pain and pleasure as well as conformity to the rules of the group.
- Shows disdain to these rules as being authorities external to one’s own capacity for rational will.

VIRTUE ETHICS

- Indicates is the need for the habitation of one’s character to make any and all of these previous considerations
possible.
- The way the collective happiness of human beings, to choose to act on what one’s innermost nature dictates,
enter practice once autonomy regardless of all other considerations especially to those that impinge on one’s
will.

MENTAL FRAMES
https://boycewire.com/framing-effect-definition-and-examples/

Types of Framing Effect

There are four main types of framing. The first is the visual frame which includes colour, font-
size, and imagery. We then have auditory frames that can be framed in different tones and
pitches.
There are also value frames, which assign numerical figures, percentages, and other such
values. Then the final frame is positive and negative frames. Let us look at them below.

 1. Auditory Frame

The auditory frame is relatively straight forward. When we are given two options, we can be
significantly influenced by how they are asked. Are they shouted, with a deep and aggressive
tone?
These frames tend to be a bit more nuanced, but we can look at both ends of the spectrum to
make the point. For instance, a car salesman says to us in a shy and naïve way ‘how ccc-an I
help you today?”. They don’t sound confident, so they are unlikely to get our attention or sale.
By contrast, we have a confident, well-spoken car salesman who asks us “How can I help you
today?” The same words, just spoken with more confidence and a more suitable inflection.
Voice inflection can be crucially important. In fact, it is more important than what is actually
said. At the same time, the speed and volume are also important when framing.
Asking a question quickly can come across more aggressively than when asked slowly.
However, it may be more useful when stating facts. We then have volume. Parents who are
telling their kids off will raise their voices to let them know they’re serious. By contrast, a softer
tone is gentler and loving.

2. Visual Frames
Visual frames can cover factors such as color, imagery, font-size, font-style, or even body
language. Colour, for instance, can be rather influential, with each promoting a slightly
different characteristic. For example, pink has a more feminine feel, so it’s probably not the
best color to promote men’s clothing.
Colour
Looking at the picture below, we have two images of the same picture. One with a pink
background and the other with a more neutral grey background. Now the pink one is
potentially more eye-catching but won’t appeal to the majority of men. It’s the same image but
framed differently.

Other colors work to create different qualities and unique perspectives on the product or
service being sold. In turn, these can influence our decision making. Take cars for example.
Most of those on the average forecourt will be grey, white, black, or some shade of such. The
reason? Well, first of all, they are the most popular colors and second of all, they fit in with the
crowd.
Often, we like to conform to social norms. That means following what everyone else is doing,
including getting a silver car. In addition, silver, white, and black are relatively neutral colors.
They aren’t in your face or stand out like a sore thumb which is why they are so popular.
So when forecourts look at what cars to ‘frame’, they tend to use such neutral colors. It can
have a significant effect on how we interpret the car and our feelings towards it. Having pink
or yellow cars at the front is going to push a lot of customers away and reduce sales whilst a
neutral color does the opposite.
Font-Size and Style
There is a whole science behind how fonts can make us feel. They can be framed in the
same way but can trigger different responses just from the size or style alone. If we look at
the example below, each is in a different font but with the same wording. The first and last
aren’t very legible, so using such a font wouldn’t be very effective.
We also have the ‘small print’. Most of the time, we won’t bother reading it. Why? Because it’s
so small that it’s difficult to read and we simply just miss it. If it was larger and more legible,
perhaps more of us would read it. Yet, because of the way it’s framed, we don’t.
The reason is quite simple. If we don’t read the small print, we won’t realize what is covered
by the warranty and what isn’t.
Body Language
Body language is perhaps one of the most under-rated framing factors. In fact, research
by Dr. Mehrabian found that as much as 55 percent of communication can be attributed to
body language.
Factors such as a smile, demeanor, facial expressions, and stance can all contribute to the
framing of a question. For example, imagine going to a car salesman and them telling you
they want $20,000 for the car whilst their arms are crossed.
Now imagine them asking whilst they are looking at the floor and with a hunched back. Hardly
a positive sign even though the words may be the same.
If we now imagine them asking with a shoulder wide stance and their hands clasped together.
These frames may not completely influence our decision as much as verbal, value, or positive
and negative frames, but they can, in fact, contribute to our decision. For instance, we will be
more likely to buy from a warm and friendly salesman compared to one that seems
disinterested.

 3. Value Frames

Quite simply, value frames are where psychological techniques are used to make us feel that
we are getting a better deal or offer than we really are. For instance, higher values tend to
make us believe that it means it’s a better deal. This is driven by the availability heuristic
which tries to simplify the cognitive process by using easily available information in our brain.
Higher numbers tend to mean better value. A 90 percent discount is better than a 50 percent
discount, right? That’s obvious, but when we play around with the framing, we can see the
difference.

4. Positive and Negative Frames

When we talk about positive and negative frames we can look at the classic example of the
glass half full, or is it half empty? Many marketers use such negative frames to get us to take
action and buy their products.
You may recollect phrases such as ‘Don’t miss out’ or ‘Your last chance to save’. The frame is
simple – make people feel like they are losing something. As stated in prospect theory,
people tend to fear and take action to avoid losses more so than gains. So when we may lose
out on a good deal, we are encouraged to take action.
Negative frames are effective in certain scenarios. They can create urgency among the
customer and convert sales. Whilst positive frames can work better in convincing people. For
instance, patients tend to be more receptive to surgery when there is a 90 percent chance of
survival than a 10 percent chance of death.
Our fear of loss is strong, but we tend to seek out positivity. After all, nobody likes to hang
around that one person who is bringing everyone down with negativity. It is for this reason
that positive frames tend to be more effective on the whole.
What many advertisers do is combine both a negative and positive frame in one. For
instance, ‘Sugar consumption means we lose our enamel’ (negative frame), ‘but you can
replace this with Toothpaste ABC’ (positive frame). This is a classic marketing example.
Create the problem (tooth decay) and then present the solution.

The role of Mental Frames in Moral Experience

https://pdfcoffee.com/ethics-activity2--pdf-free.html
The Mental Frames helps a human think or see a positive way to solve a situation. Some humans
solve their problems using frustrations without knowing that their way of solving it is definitely wrong.
Without Mental Framing, negativity in solving problems will always occur amd that will make our
solving ways wrong. In some instances it would result to depression and will cause the person to ask
the reason for their existence. We always need to look at the positive side most importantly if
problems occur. We should take note that mental framing is here remind us that problems are natural
to exist for it is part of life to help us live to the fullest.

Other Sources: (to be checked)

https://www.slideshare.net/BlackDetah/moral-framework-for-ethics
https://home.sandiego.edu/~baber/gender/MoralTheories.html
https://www.theclassroom.com/three-categories-ethical-theories-8373890.html