Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ISBN: 978-1-4654-5429-4
2
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ust
P te ro d a
Sin
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Triceratops
lta
rope
Sau
us
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od
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Di
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rex
rus Neck
au c us
o
lod
os
ip Feeding on the
n
Tyran
D
only possible for
dinosaurs with
very long, flexible
necks, like the
Teeth leaf-loving
Meat-eating dinosaurs, Diplodocus.
such as T. rex, had
powerful jaws packed
with huge teeth, ready to
tear into flesh and bone.
What is a
dinosaur? gu
a nod
on
I
4
Plates
Stegosaurus had large plates running
along its back. They may have been
brightly colored and used for showing off
to other dinosaurs.
r
pto
ra Body
osa urus
ci
Some dinosaurs,
Velo such as Velociraptor,
eg
were covered in
St
feathers. Birds
are descended
from dinosaurs. y losaurus
nk
A
Tail
Though dinosaur tails
helped with balance,
one swipe from the
muscular, clublike tail
of Ankylosaurus could
prove deadly
to enemies.
Brachiosa
ur
us
Eggs
Female dinosaurs laid
clusters of hard-shelled
Hind legs eggs. Some dinosaurs
Dinosaur legs were built nests and looked
positioned directly after their young.
underneath the body.
This meant they could
support the huge weight
of giant dinosaurs like
Brachiosaurus.
5
Sizing them up
Dinosaurs have a reputation for being the biggest
and fiercest creatures ever to inhabit this planet.
While it is true that many were larger than a house,
some were as small as a chicken. Scientific
research has revealed the incredible range
of sizes of these reptiles, and how each of Triceratops
the dinosaurs measured up. Even though Triceratops
was an average-sized
dinosaur, it was still as
long as two cars.
Sinosauropteryx
This little carnivore was a fast
hunter, running on two feet.
Sinosauropteryx grew to just
3 ft (1 m) long, which is
about twice the size of a cat.
How do we know?
Dinosaurs died out 66 million years
ago, so how do we know so much
about them? Fortunately, scientists
have found lots of dinosaur fossils,
mainly of their bones. By examining
their preserved bones and the tracks 95 million-year-old dinosaur bones
they left behind, experts can tell how Looking at bones
large a dinosaur was, what it ate, Dinosaur experts take their finds back to the laboratory to
find out more about them. The bones shown here are from
how it lived, and even how it may a sauropod, a group of long-necked dinosaurs that were
have died. some of the biggest to ever walk the Earth.
6
Argentinosaurus
This super-sized dinosaur is one of the largest
ever found. Argentinosaurus was as long as
three buses and would have towered over a
two-story building.
7
Dinosaur world Jurassic period
The Jurassic period
(201–145 MYA) saw
changing seasons.
The Mesozoic Era is the name for the time A combination of high
when dinosaurs dominated the Earth. Lasting temperatures and rainfall
caused flourishing forests.
for over 180 million years, this enormous era The lush vegetation
is divided into three time periods called the included tall trees and
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. As the widespread plants,
providing a reliable
climate changed and new types of plants grew, food supply for huge
different animals appeared. To describe when plant-eating dinosaurs.
these periods were we shorten “million years
ago” to MYA.
Pleuromeia, a type
of treelike plant,
grew to 6 ft (2 m).
Plateosaurus gosaurus
Ste
All
osaur
us
Coelophysis
8
Pterodactylus was
a flying reptile
Cretaceous period
that lived in the The final age of dinosaurs was the
Jurassic period. Cretaceous period (145–66 MYA),
bringing a drop in temperature.
The warm and wet weather
produced rain forests and the first
flowers bloomed. Plant-eating
dinosaurs developed body armor
to protect themselves against the
Conifers, like this fierce meat-eating dinosaurs.
monkey puzzle
tree, thrived.
Brachi
osau
usr
Grass appeared
at the end of
the Cretaceous
period.
Tyrannosaurus rex
Triceratops
9
belong s to.
Answer the questions to find out which group an individual dinosaur
Go to page 14 to clash
heads with these big
Does it have armor NO boneheads.
YES
plates or spikes on
its neck, back, and tail?
YES NO
Dinosaur
Does it have an unusual
head, with a thick skull,
a frill, or horns?
detective
Dinosaurs come in all shapes and sizes, with
NO
Sharp blades
stood out on
either side of
the tail.
Spikes were
largest and » Scale
sharpest around
the neck.
Tail stretched
16 ft (5 m), helping
to balance the
heavy head.
Tyrannosaurus rex
This frightening reptile killed
and scavenged its way to the
top of the Cretaceous food
chain. It was armed with
more than 60 bone-crushing Biggest
teeth—the strongest of any teeth were
about 8 in
meat-eating dinosaur. (20 cm) long.
FACT FILE
Only two sharp-clawed
» When: Late Cretaceous fingers at the end of each
small, muscular arm.
» Length: 40 ft (12 m)
» Fun fact: Tyrannosaurus rex had a big
brain by dinosaur standards, which made » Scale
it a good hunter.
12
Therizinosaurus
This beaky giant was covered in
feathers and equipped with long claws.
It was one of very few theropods to
have a herbivorous (plant-based) diet.
FACT FILE
» When: Late Cretaceous
» Length: 33 ft (10 m) » Scale
» Fun fact: Reaching almost 3 ft (1 m), its
vicious claws kept predators away.
Allosaurus
On the attack, Allosaurus
grabbed and slashed its FACT FILE
victims before tearing into » When: Late Jurassic
the flesh. This dinosaur
may have hunted in packs » Length: 26 ft (8 m)
to bring down larger prey. » Fun fact: Fossil
remains show that
Allosaurus occasionally
» Scale ate one another.
Spinosaurus
This dinosaur is the largest land
carnivore (meat-eater) ever
recorded. It was the only
dinosaur specialized for
swimming, allowing it to
hunt for fish in rivers.
FACT FILE
» When: Late Cretaceous
» Length: 52 ft (16 m) » Scale
» Fun fact: Spinosaurus was four times the
weight of an elephant.
13
» Scale Bonehead
Surrounded by bony
spikes, the thick dome
covered the top of the
skull and protected
the brain. Wide hips
Forward-facing
suggest that
eyes provided
they had
excellent vision.
big guts.
Spikes
Bony spikes along the
snout may have been
used to injure rivals Long, powerful back
legs allowed this
or predators. dinosaur to run fast
when it needed to.
Pachycephalosaurs
Pachycephalosaur means “thick-headed lizard” and these
dinosaurs were instantly recognizable by the great domes
of bone growing from their skulls. They were herbivores
(plant-eaters) and traveled on two legs, searching forests
for fruits and leaves.
14
Skin Butting battles
The skin of
Pachycephalosaurus Some people think male pachycephalosaurs
used their heads to fight for females. It is
probably had a
believed that they banged their bony heads
bumpy surface together in head-butting contests. Today, wild
but little evidence sheep and goats behave in the same way,
survives so we can’t clashing horns to find out who is stronger.
know for sure.
Toes
The clawed,
four-toed feet The tail had
were spread out rodlike bones
with muscles
to help take the sitting between
dinosaur’s weight them. This feature
as it walked on is usually seen
two legs. in fish.
WOW!
!
FACT FILE The skull of a
» When: Late Cretaceous Pachycephalosaurus Pachycephalosaurus
Meet the largest
» Length: 16 ft (5 m) domed dinosaur of all. was at least
» Fun fact: The skull of Pachycephalosaurus had 20 times thicker
Pachycephalosaurus was
so thick that its fossilized
an incredibly thick, 10 in than other
remains have been found (25 cm) high bone dome.
long after the rest of its It might have used it for dinosaur skulls.
bones have broken down. defense against predators
like Tyrannosaurus rex.
15
Stegosaurus FACT FILE
This dinosaur showed off the
distinctive bony plates along its The bony plates » When: Late Jurassic
spine to impress rivals. may also have » Length: 30 ft (9 m)
worked like solar
Stegosaurus ate huge amounts panels, absorbing » Fun fact: Although
of plants to sustain its the Sun’s warmth. Stegosaurus was enormous,
its brain was the same size
massive size. and shape as a small sausage.
Stegosaurs
These armored dinosaurs moved slowly and ate only plants, but
they were a terrifying prospect for predators. Stegosaur means
“roof lizard,” and many of them displayed two rows of huge bony
plates standing up along their backbone. They used their spiky
tails to swipe at attackers.
16
Kentrosaurus
Bulky Kentrosaurus was one of
the spikiest of the stegosaurs,
making an attack challenging
for even the most FACT FILE
confident predator.
» When: Late Jurassic
» Length: 16 ft (5 m)
» Fun fact: Kentrosaurus
had one of the most
» Scale flexible tails of all
the dinosaurs.
FACT FILE
» When: Jurassic
» Length: 13 ft (4 m)
» Fun fact: Some skulls
of Huayangosaurus have
small horns above
the eyes, which could
Huayangosaurus » Scale mean they are skulls
Small by stegosaur standards, Huayangosaurus had of adults.
short front legs and longer back legs. This made it
easier to bend down to graze on plants.
FACT FILE
Scutellosaurus
Smaller than you, this » When: Early Jurassic
tiny dinosaur resembled » Length: 3 ft (1 m)
a modern-day lizard. » Fun fact: The skin of
Scutellosaurus wasn’t a » Scale Scutellosaurus was covered
stegosaur itself, but it in hundreds of bony studs.
was closely related
to them.
17
Sauropods FACT FILE
» When: Late Jurassic
The skyscraping sauropods were the largest land » Length: 88 ft (27 m)
animals to have ever lived on our planet. These » Fun fact: The whiplike
tail of Diplodocus could
plant-eating dinosaurs had healthy appetites to be used to keep
away attackers.
match their huge size. Using their incredibly long
necks to reach the leafiest treetops, they fed
continually to fuel their enormous bodies.
18
WOW! Flexible neck
! could reach
high in the
trees or forage
low on the
Diplodocus had ground.
a very long neck Small, squarish
skull with
that could reach broad mouth.
more than
26 ft (8 m).
SAUROPOD FACTS
3
1 Fossilized footprints reveal that
sauropods lived in family groups
or herds for safety.
Solid, muscular
legs carried the 2 The largest of the sauropods
weighed about the same as a
dinosaur’s weight.
passenger aircraft.
FACT FILE
» When: Late Jurassic
» Length: 69 ft (21 m)
» Fun fact: The front
feet of Apatosaurus » Scale
had a big, curved
thumb claw but no
other claws.
Saltasaurus
Small for a sauropod, FACT FILE
Saltasaurus was covered
in bony knobs and » When: Late Cretaceous
spines. This may have » Length: 40 ft (12 m)
been protective body » Fun fact: Saltasaurus was named after the
armor because its Salta area in Argentina where the first of these
small size made it an dinosaurs was found.
easier target.
19
Ornithopods
Ornithopod means “bird feet” and many
of these dinosaurs were small and
quick. Some switched between
walking on two or four legs.
Although they were bulky,
ornithopods were plant-eaters wing thumb
sh o sp
and many had beaks for collecting n d ik
eo
lh
leaves. Some may have lived in
nt
Foss
he right.
herds for safety.
Iguanodon
This huge ornithopod had a sharp
thumb spike on each hand to defend
itself against predators. Iguanodon Each bony thumb
was the first plant-eating dinosaur spike measured
6 in (14 cm) long.
discovered, with fossils found in
England in 1822.
» Scale
20
Heavy tail was raised » Scale
off the ground
for stability.
Past mistakes
Strong hind limbs
Historic ideas about dinosaurs were
gave the option of sometimes wrong. These Iguanodon
moving on two or models were based on fossils found
four legs. in 1822. It shows them as big lizards
and, as no skull was found, the
thumb bone was thought to be
FACT FILE a nose horn.
FACT FILE
Parasaurolophus FACT FILE
You would hear Parasaurolophus
» When: Early coming from a long way off! It had » When: Late Cretaceous
Cretaceous
a hollow crest on its head, which » Length: 40 ft (12 m)
» Length: 23 ft (7 m) made its calls reverberate, making » Fun fact: Scientists once
» Fun fact: A bony them louder. This dinosaur roamed thought that Parasaurolophus
bump in front of in herds, using its horny beak to lived in water, using its crest
each eye made as a snorkel!
feed on plants.
Ouranosaurus the only
horned ornithopod.
» Scale » Scale
21
Ceratopsians
The spectacular heads of ceratopsians stood out from all
the other types of dinosaur. Ceratopsian means “horned
face” and their horns and frills provided a protective
shield around the head. These four-legged
plant-eaters also used their distinctive facial
features for display.
Tail shorter than
that of most
Triceratops other dinosaurs.
Like a giant rhinoceros
with three horns,
Triceratops was built like
a tank. It was well-equipped
to deter predators with its Triceratops
walked on
overwhelming size, vast frill, four legs.
and spiky horns.
» Scale Einiosaurus
This ceratopsian was a stunning
sight with a long, curved horn on
its snout. It had bony ridges
above its eyes, and
FACT FILE
two spiky horns
sticking out from
Udanoceratops » When: Late a neck frill with
An unusual ceratopsian, Cretaceous
a wavy edge.
Udanoceratops had no » Length: 13 ft (4 m) Einiosaurus
face horns at all and » Fun fact: We only traveled in herds to
only a small neck frill. know about protect themselves
With a sturdy beak, it Udanoceratops against predators.
could feed on the tough from two fossils
found in Mongolia.
leaves of ferns. » Scale
22
Frill around the Pair of forward-facing
neck may have horns used as FACT FILE
been brightly
colored.
weapons.
» When: Late Cretaceous
» Length: 30 ft (9 m)
» Fun fact: Baby Triceratops had
stubby little horns, which grew
bigger and curved forward in
adulthood.
W O W!
!
Beaky mouth Triceratops
to browse
on plants. fought fierce
duels with rivals
by charging and
» Scale locking horns!
» Scale
23
e tail of Eu
blik op
North America clu l
oc
of
The most famous dinosaur
ep
il
Foss
halus.
in the world, T. rex, is only
found in North America.
Dinosaur Provincial Park in
Alberta, Canada, has more
than 40 types of dinosaur,
including the heavily
armored Euoplocephalus.
u ll
x sk Euoplocephalus Megalosaurus
. re
T
aning an Eor
Cle a
pt
or
skull.
Tyrannosaurus rex
they found?
Saltasaurus
Dinosaur remains have been found
on every continent of the world. South America
South America was home
Some sites are particularly exciting, to some of the earliest
with more than 10,000 bones being dinosaurs, including
Eoraptor. The continent
discovered. These include places where also boasts some of the
rocks have been worn away naturally, largest dinosaurs, such
exposing the remains, or cut away by as Saltasaurus.
human activity, such as in quarries.
24
Europe Asia
Nearly 200 years ago, European More dinosaurs have been found
scientists were the first to in China and other parts of Asia
correctly identify dinosaur than anywhere else in recent
remains. In 1824, the bones of years, including the feathered
a “great lizard” were given the Velociraptor and Sinosauropteryx.
scientific name Megalosaurus.
ropteryx s
o sa u ke
in le
to
n
Velociraptor
Plateosaurus
Sinosauropteryx
Australia and
New Zealand
Dinosaur Cove is a coastal
site in Victoria, Australia,
Isanosaurus where many discoveries were
Spinosaurus made in the 1970s. The
continent’s most complete
u rus skull skeleton is the plant-eating
sa
o Muttaburrasaurus.
ph o
Cryol
Kentrosaurus
Muttaburrasaurus
Africa
The Sahara Desert is a hot Antarctica
spot for human dinosaur Dinosaurs, including the
hunters. Spinosaurus was crested hunter Cryolophosaurus,
first discovered there, while lived in Antarctica when the
Kentrosaurus was found in climate was warmer and it was
Tanzania, East Africa. covered in forests instead of ice.
Cryolophosaurus
25
Fossilization
The process of fossilization turns dinosaur remains into
stone. Some dead dinosaurs became buried under layers of
mud over many millions of years. Chemical changes caused
their bones to be replaced with stone. These fossils are rocky
replicas of dinosaurs, preserving the past for all time. This
gives paleontologists, who are scientists that study fossils,
an incredible opportunity to see what they looked like.
A lake has
The bones of formed over
Allosaurus move the bones.
around with the
settling sediment.
Surrounding
mud and ash.
A tough layer of
mudstone is forming.
Death Burial
This Allosaurus died at the end of the The river carries sediments like mud, sand,
Jurassic period from sickness, old age, or and ash, which cover the dinosaur’s body.
injury. Its body lies in soft mud by a shallow The flesh and organs rot away, leaving only
river, while a distant, erupting volcano bones behind. Over millions of years, more
pours lava and ash onto the land. If layers of sediment are added, and heat and
scavengers stay away, the fossilization pressure build up, causing the layers to
process can begin. harden into solid rock called mudstone.
26
Mountains may
form on top of Trace fossils
the older layers Body fossils, like skeletons, are a direct look at
of rock.
dinosaurs themselves, but other remains also
provide information. Trace fossils are preserved
signs of life, such as footprints and dung. These
build a picture of how dinosaurs walked, lived,
and fed.
Coprolites
Coprolites are
fossilized dung.
Some still contain
the remains of the
dinosaur‘s last meal!
Erosion
has exposed
the fossil.
Mineralization Discovery
Minerals in the ground enter the bones A paleontologist spots a bone sticking out
and over time are turned into rock. The of the ground and discovers the dinosaur.
Allosaurus is turned to stone, like the An Allosaurus from the Jurassic period!
surrounding layers of sediment. The top Erosion has continued to wear down and
layers of rock begin to erode (wear down) carry away the rock around the Allosaurus
as rain, wind, and frost break them up until part of it is visible. The rest of the
and wash them away. skeleton can then be carefully dug up.
27
Meet the expert
We talked to Dr. Kenneth Lacovara, a paleontologist
at Rowan University in New Jersey, USA. He is
famous for discovering the super-massive sauropod
Dreadnoughtus in Argentina in 2005.
Dreadnoughtus
This dinosaur was
named Dreadnoughtus,
which means “fears
nothing,” because it
was too large for any
predator to prey on
it. Dreadnoughtus
weighed 65 tons
(59 metric tons) when it
died and was still
growing fast!
ghtus.
to the shin bone of Dreadnou
Dr. Lacovara lies next
28
Q: How do you know where to look for
dinosaur fossils?
A: First, find rocks of the right age.
Dinosaurs lived from 235 to 66 million
years ago, during the Mesozoic Era.
Fossils are only found in rocks formed
by sediments, such as mud. Don’t bother
looking for fossils in volcanic rocks or in
rocks that have been heated and squeezed Dr. Lacovara stands ne
by the Earth’s crust. They won’t be there! xt to the curving neck bo
nes.
Finally, look in deserts, where erosion is
constantly uncovering new bones. If you Digging up Dreadnoughtus
find those three things, walk, keep your It took the team five years to dig up the remains
of the super-massive Dreadnoughtus. More than
eyes on the ground, and be patient. You 70 percent of its bones were found.
will almost always find fossils.
Q: What sort of tools do you use? Q: How do you know what dinosaurs
looked like in real life?
A: In the field, we use simple tools, such
as pickaxes, shovels, hammers, and A: We know their shape from how their
chisels. In the laboratory, our tools are bones fit together. Scars on the bones show
high-tech. Robotics, 3-D scanners, 3-D us where muscles were. Sometimes armor
printers, and medical equipment all help plates, spines, and spikes are preserved and
us to understand dinosaurs even scales and feathers. To understand
and the way they lived. parts that do not fossilize, like lungs and
eyes, we look at birds, which are descended
from dinosaurs, and also crocodiles.
29
Skeletons
Dinosaur skeletons could support enormous bodies, providing
a strong and stable frame. These bony structures also
protected the vital organs like the heart and lungs.
Fossilized skeletons show us how dinosaurs
might have looked and moved.
Window in the
skull, called a
fenestra, made
the skeleton
lighter.
Claws
Dinosaur claws could be used to attack Killer claw
The meat-eating Velociraptor
prey or defend against predators. had an enormous curved
Hungry meat-eaters stabbed their claw on each foot, used to
victims with sharp claws, while rip open prey.
threatened plant-eaters
wounded attackers with
claws just as deadly.
30
Theropods like Albertosaurus are The backbones, or
described as “lizard-hipped.“ Their vertebrae, ran all the
hips are a different shape than other way down the tail.
dinosaurs that are ”bird-hipped.” Humans have a tail
bone called the coccyx.
Standing tall
Dinosaur limbs were arranged differently than
those of most living reptiles. The position of an
animal’s legs, their stance, affects how much
The knees were weight they can carry.
always bent.
Dinosaur stance
Dinosaurs stood upright
with their legs placed
directly under their bodies
for support, like mammals.
Crocodile stance
Crocodiles have limbs bent
at the joint, which do not
support weight as well.
Lizard stance
The big toe, or Small reptiles like lizards
hallux, was at the The feet were
have limbs that stick out
side of the foot. suited to running,
sideways. Their bellies often
and clawed toes
touch the ground.
were spread out
for balance.
WOW!
!
Defensive claw
The plant-eating
A titanosaur thigh
Therizinosaurus used its huge, bone is the largest
slashing claws to protect
against any aggressive dinosaur bone
predators. ever found at
8 ft (2.4 m) long.
31
Diet and teeth Front teeth
stripped
Looking inside a dinosaur’s mouth reveals plenty about leaves.
their diet. The shape of the jaw and the types of teeth
reflect what was on the prehistoric menu. While meat-
eaters had pointed teeth, plant-eaters had beaks or
peglike teeth.
Rows of razor
Suchomimus sharp teeth.
Herbivores
Many plant-eating
herbivores had a horny
beak to collect leaves from
plants. Others, like the
giant Giraffatitan, had rows
of spoon-shaped, blunt
teeth designed to nip the
leaves from tall trees. They
Carnivores swallowed their dinner
Meat-eaters had pointed teeth. without chewing!
These were used to slice up chunks
of meat or crunch through bone.
Suchomimus had a long jaw filled
with more than 100 curving teeth
that were perfect for keeping hold
of slippery fish.
Omnivore
A few dinosaurs were omnivores,
eating both animals and plants.
They needed more than one kind
of tooth in their mouths to deal
with their varied diet.
Heterodontosaurus, meaning
“different-toothed lizard,” had a
beak and teeth for chopping up
plants, and sharp tusks that may
rus Beak helps
ntos au have been used to tear meat.
o to tear food.
rod
H ete
32
Giant teeth
Gira
This terrifying 8 in (20 cm)
ffati
tooth belonged to T. rex. This
tan
monster carnivore had huge
jaws, which contained up to
60 pointed teeth. They were
strong enough to bite clean
through bone and to tackle the
heavy armor of ankylosaurs
like Ankylosaurus. A bite
from a T. rex was 50
times more powerful
than a human’s!
Long neck
to reach
tall trees. Pointed
tip and
serrated
edge.
!
WOW
!
LIFE SIZE!
Dinosaurs
continually grew
and replaced their
teeth throughout
their lives.
Carnivore teeth
were often
chipped and
damaged by use.
33
Hunting
Hunting in dinosaur times would have been a sight to
behold. Meat-eaters used sharp claws and teeth to kill
their victims. Sometimes packs of predators hunted
together, combining their strength to bring down larger
prey. Others hunted alone, relying on size and skill to
take down their target.
Safety in numbers
Some plant-eating dinosaurs traveled in
groups for protection. Together they could
spot approaching predators more easily, like
a herd of zebras might today. Predators find
it harder to attack a large group because
they need to single out a target.
Brachylophosaurus herd
34
Battle of the giants
Although Argentinosaurus was one of Argentinosaurus
the biggest dinosaurs ever discovered, was slow, meaning
Giganotosaurus could cause serious running away was not
damage, especially to young or injured an option.
individuals. It may have hunted in packs
to bring down larger adults.
Serrated teeth
were perfect
for slicing
through skin.
35
Color Frills
Fossilized bones cannot give us information Meat-eating Cryolophosaurus didn’t need a
about the color of dinosaurs. However, frill for protection. Instead, it is likely that its
throughout the animal kingdom, brightly crest was brightly colored and used for display.
colored feathers or skin are known to It may have appealed to females and scared
instantly attract attention. Dinosaurs like away rivals. Many ceratopsians had frills for
Citipati may have showed off in the same reason.
the same way.
Showing off
In prehistoric times there was fierce competition to attract
a mate, just like there is now. Dinosaurs developed special
features to show themselves off to potential partners. Many
millions of years later, animals today use similar tactics to
stand out from the crowd and catch the eye of the opposite sex.
36
Nose Horns
Not much is known about dinosaur mating Prominent horns might have been used
calls, but Muttaburrasaurus might have as weapons when fighting rival dinosaurs
used them to impress females. It had a for females and territory. Like many
bony bump on its nose that may have had ceratopsians, Pentaceratops had long
an inflatable crest attached to it! This brow horns that males may have
would have made its calls reverberate, so battled each other with.
they were louder.
37
ti
Eggs
pa
i
Cit
Like many of the dinosaurs themselves,
eggs were often enormous. They were
covered in hard shells like a chicken’s egg,
but were shaped differently. Although
large, eggs were often much smaller than
adult dinosaurs, so babies must have
) l o ng
grown fast.
7 i n ( 18 c m
Citipati egg
Fossil finds show that
beaked Citipati laid at least
n 20 oval eggs in a nest.
do These eggs were as big as
o
g
Tro
blue-green color.
5 1⁄2 in
Troodon egg
Many fossilized Troodon
n eggs have been found.
He
This meat-eating dinosaur
may have laid as many as
24 eggs in a single nest,
which were partly covered
with plants to help keep
them warm.
ng
lo
m)
(5 c
Chicken egg
2 in
Female chickens,
or hens, lay small,
hard-shelled eggs.
They keep the eggs
warm for about
21 days until the
chick hatches.
38
saurus
cro
pa
Inside an egg
Hy
) long
20 cm
8 in ( In rare cases, the skeletons of unborn baby
dinosaurs are found inside their fossilized eggs.
This helps identify which dinosaur laid the eggs
and gives an amazing chance to see what these
Hypacrosaurus
babies would have looked like.
The large eggs of plant-eating
Hypacrosaurus were almost as
Hard shell Eyes
big as a football. But even
Shells were hard The unborn dinosaur’s
bigger dinosaur eggs have
but broke easily, so eyes were large, like the
been found, which are more
newborns could oversized eyes of many
than twice the size of a
break out. baby animals.
Hypacrosaurus egg!
Nesting
Female dinosaurs often laid their
eggs together in groups called
clutches. Some made a nest covered
in plant matter or earth for warmth,
while others sat on the eggs and
protected them. Some dinosaurs
nested near each other for safety.
Hadrosaur nest
Sac Yolk
A thin, stretchy sheet called A bag of food called
the ”amniotic sac“ protects the yolk feeds the
the unborn baby. unborn dinosaur.
39
40
Staying safe
Parenting Today there are plenty of good
parents in the animal kingdom.
Some dinosaurs were good parents, treating their eggs and Crocodile mothers carry their babies
from the nest to the safety of the
babies with great care and attention. Fossils have shown water, while ostrich mothers and
that a few parents stayed with their eggs to keep them warm fathers watch over their chicks in a
group, like children in a nursery.
and to protect them against predators. When the eggs
hatched, these dinosaurs fed and helped their young until
they were able to take care of themselves.
REALLY?
!
A desert sandstorm or
heavy rainfall probably The eggs have hard
killed this father and shells, similar to a
modern bird’s eggs.
his babies.
41
Baby dinosaurs
Remains of young dinosaurs reveal how babies
grew and changed into adults. Like most
young animals, baby dinosaurs had
WO W!
!
oversized heads, eyes, and feet until
Maiasaura became
their bodies caught up in size.
the first dinosaur
Although they started small, babies
in space when bits
grew quickly and became fully grown of bone and shell
dinosaurs in just a few years. were carried on a
spaceflight in 1985.
Flat skull and
Scaly, patterned skin
large eyes
Baby
Maiasaura
Newly hatched
Maiasaura stayed in
their nest to keep warm
and grow strong. Their
mother brought plants and
leaves for them to eat. The
babies were only 12 in (30 cm)
long at birth, but a year later,
they were 10 ft (3 m) long.
42
Growing up
3 BABY DINOSAUR FACTS
The fossilized remains of large groups
1 The skeletons of some tiny
newborn dinosaurs could fit in
of Protoceratops have been found in
a human’s hand. deserts in Asia. The skulls show how
their heads changed in shape and size
2 Baby duck-billed dinosaurs, like
Maiasaura, doubled in size in just as these dinosaurs grew up.
six weeks.
Juvenile skull
As Protoceratops starts to grow up,
its beak gets longer, helping it to
At 30 ft (9 m) long, feed on plants.
the mother Maiasaura
was the same length
as a bus.
Sub-adult skull
The cheeks have become
wider and the beak more
narrow. The neck frill is
more developed.
43
Feathers
A feathery crest
may have
attracted mates.
Velociraptor
In 2007, paleontologists
reexamined a Velociraptor fossil
and discovered little bumps on its
arm bones. The feathers of birds
today sprout from similar bumps,
called quill knobs, suggesting Long feathers
on arm.
Velociraptor had long feathers
on its arms.
44
Tail ended in a
Short feathers fan of feathers.
on body.
True colors
Fast runner on In 1996 a fossilized discovery of
two powerful Sinosauropteryx became the first
hind legs. dinosaur reported to have feathers.
An exciting find of feather pigment
(natural coloring) in fossils allowed
scientists to create an accurate
color picture of this dinosaur.
Curved claws
ready to pounce
on prey.
Tufted b metrical fe
arb Sym ath
f er
ea
the
sha
r
p
shape
45
Sea and sky
Its wingspan
measured up
to 3 ft (1 m).
Pointed teeth
could hold tight Four flippers
to slippery squid. were used
Albertonectes like paddles.
46
Pterodaustro Quetzalcoatlus
This reptile lived and hunted by One of the largest animals to ever take
the beach. Pterodaustro was a flight, Quetzalcoatlus had a wingspan
filter feeder, scooping up water of 33 ft (10 m), the same as a small
in its big beak and straining plane. It was about the same size as
it to leave behind small an adult giraffe.
sea creatures.
A long,
curved beak
held about
The raised
1,000 teeth.
head crest
might have
been colorful.
Stenopterygius
As sleek as a dolphin, Stenopterygius
sped through the seas at speeds topping
A tail fin pushed 31 mph (50 kph). There was no
Stenopterygius escape for the fish or squid that
through the water.
found themselves caught in
its toothy snout.
Liopleurodon WO
W!
The king of the seas in
Jurassic times, Liopleurodon !
was a whopping 23 ft (7 m) Albertonectes
long. This giant hunter
killed marine life with grew up to
its huge teeth and had 36 ft (11 m) long,
no predators. which is as long as
a bus.
Its nose could smell
prey underwater.
47
End of the dinosaurs
The age of the dinosaurs came to an explosive end 66 million
years ago. Disaster struck when a huge rock from space
smashed into planet Earth. At the same time massive volcanic
eruptions released poisonous gases into the air. These
events caused such an extreme change in
the weather that many plants
and animals died in one
mass extinction.
Flying reptiles
Pterosaurs had ruled the skies
for millions of years, but not one
survived the extinction.
Dinosaurs
After 169 million years on Earth,
the dinosaurs were wiped out
in a very short space of time.
They were badly affected by the
cold temperatures.
48
Birds
Only 25 percent of bird types survived
the mass extinction. They are now the
closest living relatives of dinosaurs.
Mammals
Most mammal groups managed
to cling on during the extinction.
They quickly took advantage of
the disappearance of their
dinosaur predators.
Invertebrates
Although many invertebrates were
killed, the survivors bounced back.
Today there are more invertebrates
than any other type of animal.
Amphibians
Amphibians, like frogs, were lucky. It
seems they were unaffected by the
huge changes around them. Perhaps
Reptiles this was because they were small
Snakes, lizards, and turtles and could hide away.
survived. Freshwater
crocodiles were some of the
largest survivors of the
extinction in terms of size.
Who survived?
Some animal groups managed to adapt
to the new conditions and we can still
see their relatives today. With no
Fish dinosaurs to eat them, mammals grew
Deep below the to sizes they were never able to before.
surface, smaller fish
avoided the effects of
the changes in weather.
49
FACT FILE The small head
crest may have
Deinonychus been for display.
With its large, sharp claws and teeth,
Deinonychus was a Cretaceous killer.
This theropod dinosaur could run at high
speeds and do a lot of damage with its
weaponry. It is one of the dinosaurs most
closely related to modern birds.
» Length: 10 ft (3 m)
» Weight: 175 lb (80 kg)
» Diet: Meat
» Habitat: Woodland
Two clawed
feet were used
for walking. Sharp
talons could
rip flesh.
Feathers covered
Deinonychus.
Short,
feathered
wings
Archaeopteryx
Alive in the Jurassic
period, one of the earliest
birdlike dinosaurs was
Archaeopteryx. It had the head, clawed hands,
and tail of a dinosaur, but the wings of a bird.
These wings were too weak for anything more
than brief flight.
FACT FILE
Long tail
feathers
Chicken
Like all birds, chickens are the descendants of
Confuciusornis
dinosaurs. These small birds share many of the
By Cretaceous times,
features passed on from their giant ancestors,
dinosaurs like Confuciusornis
including feathered bodies, clawed feet, light were even more like modern
bones, and hard-shelled eggs. birds. The teeth and tail had
gone, replaced by a toothless
» Length: 16 in (0.4 m) Chickens rarely
beak and flapping wings,
use their wings
» Weight: 7 lb (3 kg) for flight.
though flying still
proved challenging.
» Diet: Plants, insects,
and seeds
Short
» Habitat: Farmland tail
and forests
Iberomesornis
The later Cretaceous
The clawed feet period saw sparrow-sized
have no feathers. Iberomesornis arrive. With large chest
muscles and a short tail, taking flight
was smoother and easier.
51
New dinosaurs
Although they died at least 66 million years ago, new
dinosaurs are still being discovered all the time. Once a fossil
has been dug up, scientists need to check it and see if it
should be named as a new type of dinosaur, which might take
years. Who knows what odd fossil
finds are yet to be made!
The fossilized
skull of Aquilo
fits in a human ps
hand.
Aquilops
A skull the size of a rabbit’s turned out to
ME be the earliest ceratopsian from North
NA D America. Aquilops was a four-legged
A birdlike beak
gives Aquilops plant-eater from the Cretaceous period
2014 its name, which with a strange spike on its nose.
means “eagle face.”
ME
NA D
Anzu
An unusual dinosaur recently
revealed in a rocky area called the
Hell Creek Formation in North
America has been nicknamed
“the chicken from Hell.” This
showing
birdlike dinosaur had a
Skull of Anzu toothless beak, feathery
head crest.
body, and sharp claws.
52
The hump
may have been
a fat store or
used for display.
Concavenator
An almost complete
skeleton found in Spain, MED
NA
measuring 20 ft (6 m),
belonged to a theropod 2010
from the Cretaceous
period. Concavenator
stands out from other
two-legged meat-eaters because
of its distinctive humped back.
Regalicera
tops skull
fossil
Regaliceratops
A new ceratopsian discovered
ME in Canada is a close relative
NA D of Triceratops. A dramatic
crownlike frill gives
2015 Regaliceratops its name, which
means “royal horned face.”
53
Dinosaur facts
and figures TROODON
is thought to have been
the smartest dinosaur
because it had a large brain
Dinosaurs were a fascinating group of reptiles. compared to its relatively
small size.
Here are some weird and wonderful facts you
might not know about them!
Compsognathus had a top speed of 40 mph (64 kph), which is faster than an Olympic sprinter.
12
is how old the English
2,300
The first dinosaur discovery might
fossil hunter Mary Anning have been as long as 2,300 years
was when she found the ago, when a Chinese man called
first ichthyosaur, a type of Chang Qu wrote about finding
ancient marine reptile. some “dragon” bones.
54
155–150 70–66
million years ago million years ago TODAY
nd
In 2006, a n
bo
ew
fos
dinosaur wa
As well as
silized dinosau
s
named Drac
or
hogwartsia ex
,
This fossilized which mean
s
skin came from “dragon kin
g
Hogwarts.” of
rs
an Edmontosaurus. ki
n.
You can see the scales!
1,000 169
species of dinosaur have been years is how long the
MILLION
55
Before dinosaurs » 235 million years ago
By 310 MYA there were reptiles,
amphibians, invertebrates, and
First dinosaurs
fish. Trilobites, sea creatures similar The earliest dinosaurs appeared around
to woodlice, died out before the 235 MYA. Dinosaurs like Eoraptor lived
dinosaurs even appeared. alongside other huge reptiles.
» 125 MYA
First flowering plants
The first flowers were
small compared to ones » 112 MYA » 100 MYA
today. By 100 MYA
many recognizable Spinosaurus First bees
flowers were blooming, Spinosaurus walked the Once flowers had
such as magnolias. Earth for five million appeared so did
years in the Cretaceous. flower-loving
insects such as bees.
Dinosaurs
and us » 30 MYA
First cats
Early cats were
meat-eaters, just
Dinosaurs existed for almost 170 million years, like cats today.
but this is just a moment in the 3.8 billion
years of life on Earth. A huge range of animals and
plants appeared before, alongside, and after them.
Once dinosaurs had disappeared, other types of
animal, like mammals, took over.
56
» KEY
Triassic
period
» 215 MYA » 195 MYA Jurassic
First mammals First sauropods period
The first hairy Early sauropods were Cretaceous
mammals, such as much smaller than period
Megazostrodon, their later relatives
were small and like Diplodocus, MYA Million years
ago
ratlike. which lived 154 MYA.
57
How to say it
This guide will show you how to say each dinosaur’s name and
what it means. Capital letters mean you should say that
part of the name a tiny bit louder.
58
Gojirasaurus Megalosaurus Scutellosaurus
(go-JEER-a-SORE-rus) (MEG-a-low-SORE-rus) (scoo-TEL-oh-SORE-rus)
Godzilla lizard great lizard little shield lizard
Herrerasaurus Mussaurus Sinosauropteryx
(huh-REHR-uh-SORE-rus) (mus-SORE-rus) (SINE-oh-soh-ROP-tuh-riks)
Herrera’s lizard mouse lizard Chinese reptilian wing
Heterodontosaurus Muttaburrasaurus
(hett-er-o-don-toe-SORE-rus) (mut-tah-BUR-rah-SORE-rus)
different-toothed lizard Muttaburra lizard Spinosaurus
(SPINE-oh-SORE-rus)
Huayangosaurus Ouranosaurus spiny lizard
(hwah-YAHNG-o-SORE-rus) (oo-RAN-oh-SORE-rus)
Huayang lizard brave lizard
Staurikosaurus
Hypacrosaurus Pachycephalosaurus
(STORE-ee-koh-SORE-rus)
(hi-PAK-ro-SORE-rus) (PAK-ee-sef-ah-low-SORE-rus)
Southern Cross lizard
near the highest lizard thick-headed lizard
Stegosaurus
Hypsilophodon Pentaceratops
(STEG-o-SORE-rus)
(hip-see-LOAF-oh-don) (PEN-ta-SER-a-tops)
roof lizard
high-crested tooth five-horned face
Suchomimus
Iberomesornis
(SOOK-o-MY-mus)
(eye-BER-oh-mes-OR-nis) Parasaurolophus crocodile mimic
Spanish intermediate bird
(par-a-SORE-roh-LOAF-us) Thecodontosaurus
Iguanodon near crested lizard
(thee-co-DON-toe-SORE-rus)
(ig-WA-no-DON)
socket tooth lizard
iguana tooth
Pisanosaurus Therizinosaurus
Kentrosaurus (pye-SAN-uh-SORE-rus) (thair-uh-ZEEN-uh-SORE-rus)
(KEN-truh-SORE-rus) Pisano lizard scythe lizard
spiked lizard
Plateosaurus Triceratops
Maiasaura (PLAY-tee-uh-SORE-rus) (try-SER-a-tops)
(mah-ee-ah-SORE-ruh) broad lizard three-horned face
good mother lizard
Protoceratops Troodon
(PRO-toe-SER-a-tops) (TROH-o-don)
first horned face wounding tooth
Regaliceratops Tyrannosaurus rex
(ree-GUH-li-SER-a-tops) (tie-RAN-oh-SORE-rus rex)
royal horned face tyrant lizard king
Saltasaurus Udanoceratops
(SALT-a-SORE-rus) (oo-DAHN-o-SER-a-tops)
Salta area lizard Udan-Sayr horn face
Sauropelta Velociraptor
(SORE-oh-PELT-ah) (vel-o-si-RAP-tor)
shield lizard speedy thief
59
Glossary Dinosaurs
lay eggs.
mammals Warm-blooded
vertebrate animals that have
skin covered in hair and feed
Einiosaurus is a
ceratopsian. their young milk
60
mass extinction Death of a predator Dinosaur or other serrated Having a sharp,
large number of dinosaur, animal that hunts other jagged edge
animal, or plant species at living animals for food
the same time solitary An animal that lives
prehistoric Ancient time alone
Mesozoic Era Triassic, before recorded history
Jurassic, and Cretaceous species Specific types of
periods together preserved Remains that dinosaurs, animals, or plants
have not changed much with shared features that
meteorite Rock from space over time can mate and produce
that crashes into Earth young together
prey Dinosaur or other
omnivore Animal that eats animal that is hunted stegosaurs Plant-eating
both plant matter and meat for food dinosaurs with four legs and
plates or spines down their
ornithopods Plant-eating primate Group of mammals backs. They lived in the
dinosaurs that stood on two that includes monkeys, apes, Jurassic and Cretaceous
legs. They lived in the and humans periods
Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods pterosaurs Large, flying theropods Meat-eating
reptiles of the Mesozoic Era dinosaurs that hunted on
pachycephalosaurs two legs. They lived in the
Plant-eating or omnivorous reptiles Cold-blooded Triassic, Jurassic, and
dinosaurs with two legs and animals with scaly skin that Cretaceous periods, and were
domed skulls. They lived in reproduce by laying eggs. the ancestors of birds
the Cretaceous period This group includes snakes,
lizards, crocodiles, Triassic period First of
paleontologist Scientist and dinosaurs three periods in the
who studies fossilized finds, Mesozoic Era, from 252 to
including dinosaurs, animals, sauropods Huge 201 million years ago
and plants plant-eating dinosaurs on
four legs with long necks and vegetation Plant life found
Pangaea Huge small heads. They lived in in a particular habitat
supercontinent that existed the Triassic, Jurassic, and
on Earth at the start of the Cretaceous periods vertebrate Animal with a
Mesozoic Era backbone
scavenger Dinosaur or other
plesiosaur Type of marine animal that feeds on the
reptile that usually had a leftover meat of another
long neck, alive in the animal that has already died,
Mesozoic Era whether by a predator attack
or natural causes
61
Index
A Chindesaurus 58 F
Africa 25 Citipati 36, 38, 40–41, 58 feathers 4, 5, 29, 44–45, 50,
Albertonectes 46, 47 claws 12, 20, 30–1, 45 51
Albertosaurus 30–31, 58 climate change 48 fights 15, 23, 37
Allosaurus 8, 13, 26–27, 58 Coelophysis 8, 58 fish 49, 56
Alxasaurus 45, 58 color 36, 37, 45, 53 flight 44, 45
amphibians 49, 56 Compsognathus 54, 58 flying reptiles 46–47, 48
Anchiornis 45 Concavenator 53, 58 footprints 7, 19, 27
ankylosaurs 10, 11, 33 Confuciusornis 51, 58 fossils 6–7, 20–21, 24–31, 39,
Ankylosaurus 5, 33, 58 coprolites 27 40, 45, 52–54
Anning, Mary 54 crests 21, 37, 51 fossilization 26–7
Antarctica 25 Cretaceous period 8, 9, 51, 52, frills 10, 22, 23, 36, 53
Anzu 52, 58 53, 56–57
Apatosaurus 18–19, 43, 58 crocodiles 31, 40 G
Aquilops 52, 58 Cryolophosaurus 25, 36, 58 Giganotosaurus 34–35, 58
Archaeopteryx 51, 56, 58 Giraffatitan 33, 58
Argentinosaurus 7, 35, 58 D Gojirasaurus 59
armor 9, 10, 11, 16–17, 19 Deinonychus 50, 58
Asia 25 diet 32–3 H
Australia 25 Diplodocus 4, 18–19, 57, 58 hadrosaurs 39
display 36–7, 44 head-butting 15
B Dracorex hogwartsia 55, 58 herds 7, 19, 21, 22, 34
babies, dinosaur 39, 42–43 Dreadnoughtus 28–29, 58 Herrerasaurus 58
Barosaurus 58 duck-billed dinosaurs 43 Heterodontosaurus 32, 44,
beaks 10, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 32, 59
40, 47, 51 E horns 22–3, 37
bird-hipped dinosaurs 31 Edmontosaurus 55, 58 Huayangosaurus 17, 59
birds 4, 5, 37, 44, 49, 50–51, 56 eggs 5, 38–39, 40 hunting 34–5
bones 6 Einiosaurus 22–23, 58, 60 Hypocrosaurus 39, 59
Brachiosaurus 5, 8, 18, 34, 58 Elasmosaurus 46 Hypsilophodon 20, 59
brain size 54 Eocursor 58
bristles 44 Eoraptor 8, 24, 56, 58 I
erosion 27 Iberomesornis 51, 59
C Euoplocephalus 24, 58 ichthyosaurs 46
calls 21, 37 Europe 25 Iguanodon 4, 20–21, 56, 59
camouflage 44 evolution 51 insects 8, 9
ceratopsians 10, 22–3, 36, extinction 48, 50, 57 invertebrates 49, 56
37, 52, 53, 56 eyes 39 Isanosaurus 25
62
J packs 7, 13, 34 Staurikosaurus 59
jaws 12, 30, 32 paleontologists 26, 27, 28–9 stegosaurs 10, 16–17
Jurassic period 8–9, 26, 27, 50, Parasaurolophus 21, 59 Stegosaurus 5, 8, 16, 55, 59
51, 56–57 parenting 40–41, 42, 43 Stenopterygius 46, 47
Pentaceratops 23, 37, 59 Suchomimus 32, 59
K Pisanosaurus 59 swimming 13
Kentrosaurus 17, 25, 59 plant-eating dinosaurs
(herbivores) 4, 8–9, T
L 10, 11, 13–23, 30, 31, 32–33, tails 5, 15, 16, 18, 21, 31, 34,
Liopleurodon 47 34 45
lizard-hipped dinosaurs 31 plants 8–9, 48, 56 teeth 4, 12, 32–33, 35
lizards 31 Plateosaurus 8, 25, 59 Thecodontosaurus 59
plates, bony 4, 5, 10, 11, 16, 29 Therizinosaurus 13, 31, 59
M plesiosaurs 46 theropods 10, 12–13, 31, 35,
Maiasaura 42–3, 59 Protoceratops 43, 59 50, 53
mammals 49, 56, 57 Pterodaustro 47 titanosaurs 31, 55
marine reptiles 46–47, 48 pterosaurs 46, 48 trace fossils 27
mates, attracting 36–37, 44 tracks 6, 7
meat-eating dinosaurs Q Triassic period 8, 56–7
(carnivores) 4, 9, 10, Quetzalcoatlus 47 Triceratops 6, 9, 22–3, 57, 59
12–13, 30, 32–33, 34–35 trilobites 56
Megalosaurus 24, 25, 59 R Troodon 38, 54, 59
Megazostrodon 57 Regaliceratops 53, 59 Tyrannosaurus rex 4, 9, 12, 24,
Mesozoic Era 8, 29 reptiles 49, 56, 57 33, 54, 55, 57, 59
meteorites 48 Rhamphorhynchus 46
mineralization 27 U
Mussaurus 59 S Udanoceratops 22, 59
Muttaburrasaurus 25, 37, 59 sails 20
Saltasaurus 19, 24, 59 V
N Sauropelta 11 Velociraptor 5, 25, 30, 44–45,
nests 5, 39 sauropods 6, 10, 18–19, 28, 57 59
New Zealand 25 Scutellosaurus 17, 59 vertebrae 31
North America 24 Sinosauropteryx 6, 25, 45, 59 volcanic eruptions 48
size 6–7
O skeletons 30–31, 39, 43 W
omnivores 32 skin 15, 55 wings 46–7, 51
ornithopods 10, 20–21 skulls 10, 14–15, 30, 43
Ouranosaurus 20–21, 59 South America 24 Y
speed 54 young 5, 38–43
P spikes 11, 14, 16, 29
pachycephalosaurs 10, 14–15 spines 10, 19, 29
Pachycephalosaurus 14–15, 59 Spinosaurus 13, 25, 29, 56
63
Acknowledgments
The publisher would like to thank the following people for their assistance: Ruth O’Rourke and
Kathleen Teece for editorial assistance, Alexandra Beeden for proofreading, Helen Peters for compiling
the index, Neeraj Bhatia for cutouts, Peter Minister and Andrew Kerr for CGI artwork, and Dan Crisp and
Ed Merritt for illustrations. The publishers would also like to thank Dr. Kenneth Lacovara for the “Meet
the expert” interview.
The publisher would like to thank the Psihoyos. 40 Alamy Images: Nature Oxford Museum of Natural History fcra;
following for their kind permission to Picture Library (tc/crocodile). Corbis: Back: Corbis: Walter Geiersperger tl;
reproduce their photographs: Richard Du Toit / Minden Pictures (tc). 43 Dorling Kindersley: The American
Dorling Kindersley: The American Museum of Natural History cla; Front Flap:
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; Museum of Natural History / Lynton Alamy Images: chrisstockphotography,
c-center; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) Gardiner (c/all skulls). 52 Andrew A. Rick Rudnicki clb; Dorling Kindersley:
Farke / Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum Natural History Museum, London bc;
6 Getty Images: Bradley Kanaris / of Natural History: (cra). Getty Images: Getty Images: Handout cra; Back Flap:
Stringer (crb). 7 Corbis: Tom Bean (bl). 8-9 Handout (bl). 53 Alamy Images: Rick Dorling Kindersley: Natural History
Dorling Kindersley: Dan Crisp. 11 Getty Rudnicki (crb). Getty Images: AFP / Museum, London crb, The University of
Images: Nigel Dennis (br). 14 Dorling Stringer (cra). 54 Alamy Images: Pictorial Aberdeen cl; NASA: clb; Front Endpapers:
Kindersley: Oxford Museum of Natural Press Ltd (bc); Dorling Kindersley: Dan Dorling Kindersley: The Natural History
History (tc). 15 Corbis: Darrell Gulin (cra). Crisp (cl) 55 Alamy Images: Museum, London tc; Back Endpapers:
20 Dorling Kindersley: Natural History chrisstockphotography (c); Corey Ford Ed Merritt (All earth images)
Museum, London (cra). 20-21 Alamy (cra). 57 123RF.com: Anna Omelchenko
Images: Nobumichi Tamura / Stocktrek (br) All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Images (b). 21 Alamy Images: The For further information see:
Natural History Museum (cra). 22 Alamy Cover images: Front: Corbis: Walter www.dkimages.com
Images: Kostyantyn Ivanyshen / Stocktrek Geiersperger fcr; Dorling Kindersley:
Images (clb). 24 Corbis: Louie Psihoyos
(cr). Dorling Kindersley: The American
Museum of Natural History (cla). 25
Alamy Images: Bosiljka Zutich (cb).
Corbis: Corbis Wire (cra). 26-27
Dorling Kindersley: Dan
Crisp. 27 Corbis: Scientifica
(cra). 28 Dr. Kenneth
Lacovara: (tr, bl). 29 Dr.
Kenneth Lacovara: (tr). 30-31
Alamy Images: Jim Lane. 30
Corbis: Walter Geiersperger (br). 31
Corbis: Walter Geiersperger (bc). 32
Getty Images: Photographer's Choice
RF / Jon Boyes (plates). 34-35 Corbis:
Nik Wheeler (background). 36 Alamy
Images: Octavio Campos Salles (crb).
Corbis: Daryl Benson / Masterfile (cb). 37
Corbis: Nigel Pavitt / JAI (clb). Dorling
Kindersley: British Wildlife Centre, Surrey,
UK (crb). naturepl.com: Visuals Unlimited
(bc). 39 Science Photo Library: Sinclair
Stammers (clb). 40-41 Corbis: Louie
64