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 GTU – CIKS – DHAROHAR
And
BHISHMA SCHOOL OF INDIC
STUDIES
Reference Study Material for
Certificate Course
Ancient Indian Science &
Technology

©
Bhishma School of Indic Studies
• Bhishma School of Indic Studies
Website: www.bhishmaindics.org

• Gujarat Technological University

Website: www.gtu.ac.in

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Please Note
1) Study Material is for reference only
2) The nature of the course in introducery level.
3) It is supportive material to the theme of the
course.
4) It will provide primary information about the
course and subject matter
5) It cannot be shared or forwarded.

Bhishma School of Indic Studies

622, Janaki Raghunath, Pulachi Wadi,

Deccan Gymkhana, Pune – 411004

Mo: 7875743405 / 7875191270

Email: namaste@bhishmaindics.org

Website: www.bhishmaindics.org

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction................................................................................... 5
2. Discovery of Fire .......................................................................... 24
3. Numerals ..................................................................................... 29
4. Mathematics................................................................................ 43
5. Physical Sciences ......................................................................... 86
6. Astronomy ................................................................................. 123
7. Airborne Vehicles ...................................................................... 158
8. Archaeology ............................................................................... 181
9. Ayurveda ................................................................................... 209
10. Metallurgy .............................................................................. 248
11. Civil Engineering ..................................................................... 266
12. Temple Architecture ............................................................... 304
13. Agriculture .............................................................................. 339

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 1. Introduction

According to our Puranas, the real history of any people is not the
political ups and downs of the dynasties of the kings, emperors or of
the great social leaders. They are just like bubbles on the sea of life,
the records of fleeting moments on the vast ocean of the
measureless, Lord Time. The real history constitutes of the record of
the development of thought processes, the arts and the sciences,
and the cultural traits.

Science is the factual analysis of the way of living and thinking. And
we have il in our Vedas and other allied literature.

In India the Vedas and the Upanishads have a place of pride in this
domain. The Vedas record the discovery of fire by the sage Atharvan-
Angirasa. His period cannot be traced with any degree of certainty. It
may be as old as the hills for it is said that, the Vedas themselves are
the breaths of the Lord, the Creator. Atharvana is stated to belong to
the earliest of the sages who saw the Vedas.

The momentous discovery of Fire in all its details is recorded in the

Vedas. We have also in the Vedas the discovery of numerals from
one to almost the highest conceivable number, one upon numberless
7 eroes.

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Of the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry and
Biology, we have also the first glimpses there. There are many who
believe that the Vedic verses are symbolic and they contain many
eternal truths of the sciences of physics, chemistry and biology. But
the man has not been able so far to unravel them. In the domain of
philosophy, the discoveries noted in the Vedas are so great that they
remain unsurpassed by any later effort of man in this respect. In the
field of Astronomy too, the Vedic seers have covered that domain
with gigantic strides.

Politics divides but science unites. Politics is divisive in nature,

separating man from man, group from group and one nation, the
geographical unit from the other. The political history is the history
of the struggles for power, of wars fought to gain it and retain it. The
history of science is however quite the opposite, the man's
endeavour to bring about unity of ideas regarding nature and life.

The Vedas are the heritage of mankind. They do not belong to one
nation or group of people.

Thus the Hellenist world picked up the ideas contained in the Vedas
from their neighbours, the Arabs, who in turn had imbibed these
from their source, India, the original habitat of the Vedas. The Vedas
are the heritage of mankind, so when a statement is made that the

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Arabs are purveyors of the knowledge contained in the Vedas to the
Western world, it merely means that the stream of knowledge had
its source in the Vedas and its children carried this current to
different parts of the world, adding many new ideas on the way, and
thus strengthening the store of knowledge all along. Science has
obliterated the geographical boundaries, despite two bloody wars
fought during this century, turning different geographical units into
one indivisible world.

II

Any history political or of the development of the ideas has to be

objective free from national pride or prejudice. In a way the task of
the present writer is a little easy for what has been recorded in this
Volume is just a paraphrase of the relevant Vedic texts. However the
task has now become unenviable because of the political dimensions
introduced in it by the deliberate bias of the European writers in
general about whatever has emanated from India. Though such
writers are in a minority, they are politically influential. When we say
that the Vedas are the heritage of mankind, what one expects is
unquestioned reverence for this mother scripture of the human race.
Instead we find the Western ^world largely prejudiced against them.
It would aver that the Vedic Aryans were the nomadic barabarians
and the Vedas, the babbling of babes. Whatever science or
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technology or highly evolved philosophical thought is traced to the
Vedas, they would clamour and say that the Dravidians were the
earlier or the pre-Vedic invaders of India the earliest. Their gift is the
Harappan culture. Aryans are the uncouth copyists of these or the
Dravidians who followed. Thus this European thought-world belittles
whatever lofty found in the Vedas.

If we argue, 'well! whether Dravidian or Aryan it represents the

genius of the people from their Indian habitat they would turn round
and say 'no, that is not true.' Whatever is found archaeologically in
Harappan records on stone precedes the Vedic written records and
whatever is in Harappan records is again borrowed by the Dravidians
from their Hellenic source. So the upshot of all the impression
created is Indians, whether Dravidians or Aryans were incapable of
doing or producing anything worthwhile.

Since Vedic times, the individuals who led a highly pious life and
whose sole pursuit was devotion to think and discover truths hidden
behind the cosmic phenomena were designated as the BrShmanas.
The Christian and Islamic missionaries saw in the BrShamana-class
the arch devils, and the mindless robots as they were destroyed
whatever came their way before they settled in India. They thus
carried on deliberately anti-Brahmin campaign. They wanted to

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destroy the Hindu-Vedic civilization by getting the Brahmanas out of
their way.

For this purpose some of these missionaries went to the length of

stating with all seriousness that "Hindu religion had its origin in
British isles.2" Such a ridiculous statement after all had notakers.

The British conquered whole of India by 1818 A.D. and thereafter as

a conquered people, the Indians, they considered as incapable of any
original contribution to the development of thought now or at any
time earlier.

In contrast until about a century and a half before the first of these
British accounts appeared in print, India was to virtually all
Europeans, a semi-mythical land of ancient wisdom, unaccountable
treasure, exotic spices and strange gods3.

We have, in our volumes I, IX, XII and others, shown that Arya is not a
racial term. The Aryans of the Vedas are not racially different from
other people in India. They are autochthonous to India. Arya simply
means a civilised person. The Dravidians were also not a separate
people. In fact the Harappan civilization is in continuity of the Vedic,
which is the oldest and was common to all the peoples of the World.
About its (Vedic) earliest date we cannot say anything definite. For it
is the oldest extant civilization and is rooted in the Vedas. We cannot

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say anything definitely about the earliest date of the Vedas. All that
can be said about the date of the Vedas is that it cannot be later than
7200 B.C. the date we have determined for the Dasharajna war-one
of the most significant events noticed in the Rgveda.

There is no distinction between the Aryas ard others. There were no

Dravidians. Those who did not follow the Arya way of life were
considered Dasas or Dasyus-Anaryas.

The Vedas are the works of the highly envolved Vedic seers,
theforefathers of all the peoples of the globe. They do not belong
toIndia alone. The seers do not claim authorshp of the Vedas. They'
state that in their highly tranquil state of mind devoid of all
impurities,passion, infatuation, anger or greed, they saw these and
reduced them to writing.

The Sciences and Arts described in this Volume have been developed
by such seers.

III

In every human endeavour, the urge to know and to discover is

implicit. Necessity is the mother which urges the man to think and to
discover. There is a practical side to these basic instincts. The great
discovery of fire was ofcourse through the demand of the necessities
of life. Without fire, man cannot lead a civilized life: When the man

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stepped on this mother earth, his first need was to satisfy his thirst
and hunger. These he was provided with by the natural surroundings
around. Water to drink was found in the rivulets around and food
he gathered from the fruit-bearing trees and other plants and
vegetable life seen around. He may have shut himself in a cave for
shelter. Then developed a thatched roof over his head. He received
heat from the sun and also discovered that friction produces heat.
Then he found that he would have fire by his side, when and
wherever he required it, he could develop a civilised way of life.

Harappan civilization has shown that in that remote age (6500 B.C. or
more) the people knew the art of painting. This is clear from the
painted potteries discovered there. The discoveries at these sites
show that the science of chemistry and metallurgy were in quite a
developed state.

IV

One point should be borne in mind. We are apt to hold that such and
such a thing did not exist during the Vedic period, even if the Veda
expressly notes it. For the criterion of authenticity accepted today is
everything noted in our ancient literature is untrustworthy unless it
is corroborated by the supporting evidence of archaeology. For
example, if it is stated in the Vedas that an armour made of iron-

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wires was used by a soldier, we should feel sceptical about such an
averment for according to archaeology iron is said to have been
developed in India around 1980 B.C. We hold Vedas to be earlier
than 7200 B.C. and so iron, these archaeologists say, could not have
been used by the Indians then. We have shown later that to get
steel, iron ore has to be heated to about 1500°c. In India, it is stated
that temperature above 1080°c. could not have been developed
then. However, in the Veda, we have a statement that such
temperature could be developed by a certain process (See R.V. IX
112-2).

The scholars of this persuation would accept Herodotus' s statement

made in his book on History as true, as they believe Herodotus to be
writing after due verification of his "facts. They would accept
Megasthenes's version to be true even if it is palpably wrong. He has
made a statement that anthills in India contain gold and it was
deposited there by ants as big as foxes. An obviously incorrect
statement. But they would not reject it off hand. They have to, but
they would do so after lot of cogitation.

Our Vedas and Puranas contain lot of what is authentic. If they have
made any exaggerated statement, they themselves indicate that
these are for ---------- balanam sukhabodhaya to instruct theignorant
about the truths of life in an interesting manner.' We have made a
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detailed study of our Puranas in our vol. II. Interested readers can
refer to it with profit.

We should put faith in the Vedic literature and our Puranas and
accept statements therein as true and authentic unless they can be
rebutted with other clinching evidence. So far the Western
scholarship and its Indian adherents take whatever statements made
in the Vedas and the Puranas as not true or misinterpret them. We
have to learn to take them as true unless they are found to be
apparently wrong. Adi Shankara the Great has laid down this lest to
judge the statements in the Vedas.

Another point to note is that we have to reject the current view that
human civilization is only about 4000 years old, with the back ground
of Biblical notion (now dormant though dominating) that the world
started with the big bang around 4004 B.C. The human civilization is
pretty old. The man's skeletal remains have been dated as from 5
lacs or more if not much much earlier. The human civilization must
have, therefore, been pretty old. The Vedic view is that there are
yugas-epochs or cycles of creation, sustenance and dissolution of a
few million years - one succeeding the other. According to the
Puranas our present Kalpa-epoch is atleast 31000 years before
present. In each Kalpa the civilization reached a peak and then
dissolved due to ecological imbalance. After the deluge or excessive
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heat lasting for several hundreds or thousands of years, the man
again made his appearance on the earth and started anew, from
where he had left in the earlier epoch. This is an endless and
beginningless process.

In each epoch there were scientific achievements and they were

discovered anew in the succeeding epochs. The Vedas record
theseachievements, some in direct terms and some in symbolic. We,
therefore, cannot'take the view that whatever has been noted in the
Vedas was known to the Vedic people and whatever is not so
mentioned was unknown to them. It is possible that at the beginning
of every new epoch, some achievements of the preceding epoch
would remain unknown, remaining to be discovered. Rgveda though
the earliest human record, being a prayer book may not note all the
achievements of man. But only on that account, we need not assume
that there were different periods such as Vedic, Brahmana or
Upanishadic. The Upanishads and the Srauta Sutras also represent
the Vedic age. Next is the Epic age and then the Historic age. With
this background in view, we would have 'to note the, scientific and
technological achievements during the current epoch.

Around 1785 A.D. Prof. Playfair the well-known British

mathematician had made a very bold statement that perhaps India
had a Newton 5000 years ago4. When I read this statement I was
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thrilled beyond all imagination. The hair all over my body stood on
end with joy and wonder. Since the British became our political
masters the missionaries, their mouth-pieces, have been dinning into
our ears day in and day out that the Indians were a body of
superstitious idolaters, who have suffered defeats from the invaders
since times immenorial and they have nothing positive to show in
any branch of life. Their past is one whole dark period with nothing
to be proud about.

This statement, coming as it did on the back ground of this vile

propaganda, made all the difference to me, all the dark period
glowing with ultra white incandescence.

In our ancient texts like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas,

we find the use of nuclear war-heads and the use of deadly missiles.
It is said that the Verses of Asya-VSmiya hymn from Rgveda (1-164)
can yield secrets of atomic structure. Some of the Verses in it also
yield a formula E = MC2.

All this knowledge can enable a much-maligned Indian to raise his

head erect, focus his eyes on his detractors and see straight into
their eyes. But this joy of mine lasted for a while. If such was the
state of knowledge of our forefathers, if they had distinguished

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themselves in all the branches in the past, where is the evidence to
show that we possessed so extraordinary a talent?

These questions have not been raised by the foreigners, for it is

generally held that these ideas did not trouble the minds of anybody
anywhere before these stirred the imagination of James Watt, the
Scottish inventor of steam engine in 1750 A.D. or Micheal Faraday,
the English scientist, the inventor of electricity during the middle of
the last century.

Our forefathers have however distinguished themselves in fields of

life, social, political, scientific and others. In the field of philosophy,
they have developed Advaita Vedanta - the philosophy of life par
excellence. In the social organisation, they had structured it on the
foundation of Chaturvarnya - each contributing work according to his
capacity and partaking of the cake thus produced according to his
needs, none being superior or inferior, everybody working to the
best of his ability for the common welfare of all. They devised
agricultural methods, the land yielding three times that of today,
keeping the fertility of the soil intact. Veda is the source of unlimited
knowledge. It has Dhanurveda, the science of archery and the
military, the Gandharva Veda the science of art and music, the
Sthapatya Veda, the science of Engineering and architecture. Our
medical system, designated Ayuraveda - the science of life is even
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today the envy of the modern medical system. It is stated that the
system of medicine, developed in the ancient Greece by Hypoqritus
was just a copy of the Ayurvedic system, passed on by him as his
own, giving to the English lexicon, the word Hypocrisy - concealing
the true character of the source of knowledge.4A

Even the science of surgery was^ developed to such an extent that

artificial limbs were made and joined to the body parts replacing the
old damaged ones. Even the science of plastic surgery,was
developed. In this field, however, the extremist ideas of non-violence
preached under the Jain-doctrine changed the whole atmosphere.
This doctrine of Non-killing of animals in the name of sacrifice and
offering the cooked flesh of these animals as oblations to gods, was
stretched too far under its extreme form so that the Vaishyas who
were to look after farming and tending of cattle, left this job to the
Shudras, for fear that they would be killing pests and such other
creatures while tilling the soil or in the course of sowing operations.
In surgery too, cutting of parts of body or causing injury to some of
its parts, being the main function, the medicine men from amongst
the upper caste left such jobs to barbers who were adept in using
razors and scalpels. They became afraid, that causing injury or killing
somebody in the process, may earn them sin.

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Those who were following the Jain-faith took to trading activities and
did not join the army or engage themselves in any activity which may
cause even the least injury to any life including the life of insects or
bacterial life. Respect for the saints following such extreme form of
non-violence developed and the ideas of pollution gained currency
and caught the imagination of the upper castes. As a result, those
engaged in meat trade, removal of the garbage or night soil were
regarded as untouchables. Those engaged in the profession of
removal of dead animals or tanning the skins of these were also
regarded as untouchables.

These ideas of non-violence could not be followed strictly in practice.

Yet they caught the imagination of the intellectuals. They considered
gaining of knowledge of Brahman and the discussion of the
philosophical systems to be the acme of perfection. As a sequel they
did not develop the art of surgery or the art and science of warfare.
They neglected it and considered these as a positive hindrance to the
attainment of individual liberation.

The adventurous spirit of Indians however did not allow them to sit
at home and contemplate on the niceties of philosophical questions
about life and death. They, the traders and the Brahmanas, set sail
on voyages launching their boats on uncharted seas. They discovered
almost all the lands of the globe and preached the inhabitants of
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these newly found lands, the doctrine of love, and live and let live in
peace and harmony.

They hardly used their weapons to conquer others though they used
their bow-arrows and sword in self-defence. In the Mahabharata
days they knew the use of gunpowder and perhaps some nuclear
weapons and missiles of mass destruction. But they consciously
shunned the use of these. This non-use doctrine was carried to such
an extreme measure that they became oblivious of the fact that their
forefathers were using them.

As the others, the world over knew no better weapons than these
Indian adventurers, with the weapons in possession of self defence,
the Indians could occupy these lands and spread their message of
love and organise the life in these new-found lands on amity and
good will. The political and social administration was based on the
Kautiliyan principle viz. in the welfare of the subjects lies the welfare
of the king.

This could go on till Pauline Christianity preached the doctrine of

jealous god and iconoclasm accompanied by irrational doctrines of
original sin and judgement day. They started on the mission of
converting others calling them pagans or heathens i.e. uncivilised
people, and increasing their own number. Formerly the Vedic Aryans

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and the Buddhists, who preached the same doctrines as the Vedic
Aryans, spread their message of love and good will to all the peoples
of these new found lands, not violence to increase their number.
They disseminated their doctrines of love and peace and amity so as
to elevate or ennoble the life of man. They never preached hatred
between man and man. Their message was: 'Let all people be happy,
let all people enjoy healthy and disease free life. Let all people see
good and do good and let nobody suffer from misery.'

This all was radically changed under the Christian doctrine of 'jealous
god'. They proclaimed from Louse tops : 'worship our god alone. If
you do not, he will throw you out into hell fire'. Under the Buddhist
or Vedic doctrine even an atheist was entitled to good life informed
by love and goodwill. Under the Christian doctrine only the Christian
has a right to enjoy good life. All the non-Christians are to be the
denizens of hell-fire. Similar has been the doctrine of Islam.

These Christian and Islamic missionaries started, with sword in one

hand and Bible and Kuran in the other, on their conversion mission. It
had much less to do with god or spiritualisation of man's inner life. It
was out and out a marauder's mission-terrorism practised in the
name of religion and the jealous god. It was mission to grab political
power for their self-aggrandisement rooted in criminal instinct of
man.
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This the Hindus/did not understand. The Hindus the modern name of
Vedic Aryans, did not study the doctrines of these new 'faiths in
depth and so they could not devise means to combat their terrorist
activites. These marauders had no scruples and practised fraud on
the gullible Indians. With their developed weapons systems they
could overpower the resistance of the Hindus. The Hindus had no
naptha bombs nor artillery. Nor did they develop spy system. The
duties enjoined on a king by Arya Chankya were all forgotten. For
lack of the study of the character of the Islam and its practice of
hymn of hatred of others belonging to faiths different from their
own, the Hindus first lost their freedom to the Muslims and later to
the English with their superior system of technology. The English had
established supremacyover the sea routes. Their artillery was also
more effective and the soldiers were well-trained.

The Hindus proved to be late comers in this field and so had to yield
before the superior technology.

We have to learn this lesson. Our weapons system and technology

have to be inferior to none, but superior to every other one. With
our philosophy of 'ife, we cannot go astray. The others reared on
'jealous god' concept, can.

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To preserve our culture and outlook on life, it is necessary for us to
be up-to-date in the development of science and technology. Let us
not forget the Mahabharata dictum; 'when the borders of the nation
are made secure by the "'use of the latest weapons and technology,
our intellectuals can think coolly and in depth about the
advancement and spread of culture to all the parts of the globe.'
Indian culture founded on the doctrine of 'universal brotherhood*
can alone usher peace in this strife-torn world.

These lines are not penned from parochialism. Our traditions in

science and technology and for that matter in all aspects of life,
social, political, economical, spiritual and the like are rich. We pay
only lip sympathy to these and bark about modernism. We are,
therefore, neither here nor there. Any tradition to survive requires
dynamic study of the past, present and future and the underlying
continuity that harmoniously unites them. And what is modernism?
Sustained efforts, discipline and self-awareness are the hallmarks of
modernism. In Indian context atleast, modernism is time tested
traditionalism.

As Jug Suraiya (Times of India 26-8-95) puts it: "our modernism is a

Formica facade; a veneer of ersatz sophistication used on a cover up
job for the imperfectly finished surface below."

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Our tradition of deep study of arts and sciences is a hoary continuum
that was broken awhile because of the foreign despotic rule. Let us
study it again by beginning with the Vedas. The Vedic tradition is rich
in science. Unfortunately technological details are lost due to the
vandalism of the foreign invaders. Let us not be nostalgic about it.
Let us revive it.

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 2. Discovery of Fire

Just as we say that man's very life is inextricably bound to the food
he gathers and eats, similarly the beginnings of civilization are made
possible by the discovery of fire. Rgveda attributes this discovery to
the sage Atharvana who through his intelligence produced Agni -the
fire through the process of rubbing. Rgveda states :

Tvamagne puskaradadyatharva nirmanthayata murdhno visvasya

vaghatah

- O Fire, the sage Atharva extracted thee from the lotus leaf: This
universe is all praise for the Lord of the Universe. The sage through
his intelligence conceived and produced thee."

Here the Lotus leaf is the lotus of the intelligence in the head of the
sage. He conceived it, showed the method and his son Dadhyanga
actually ignited it. (VI.16-14). Thus produced, Yama the son of the
sage Vivasvat started the collective form of worship using fire as the
chief instrument through which prayers can be offered to the Lord -
the Creator (R.V.X.21-5). This is the sacrificial form of worship.

By rubbing lotus leaves one cannot produce fire. Atharvana saw that
through the rubbing of the clouds, lightening fire is produced. So
through his brain wave conceived the idea of rubbing two hard

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substances together and produced fire._ The brain is stated to be in
the form of lotus and so this discovery is attributed to the brain.

Greek Version:

The ancient Greeks believed that one Prometheus stole the fire from
heaven ( as in Rgveda-from the head of the universe) and brought it
to the earth. Chambers encyclopaedia has given the etymology of
the word Prometheus thus:

"The religious history of fire is even more obscure than the history of
its production, although everywhere we find that a rich mythology
has gathered round the subject. Like all the chief manifestations of
natural forces, fire was early personified and worshipped, and we
see a similar process of personification and divinisation in the names
of the first fire-givers - the Greek Prometheus, the 'pra-mantha' of
the early Aryans, and his Chinese parallel Suy-jin.

Prometheus is thus 'Pra-Manth' of the Rgveda. In Greek the word

Prometheus means 'fore-sight'. Atharvana fire was conceived in the
brain and actually produced by rubbing-manthan - two hard
substances.

How old is the discovery?

It cannot be said with certainty when fire was first produced by

the'sage Atharvana or by anyone else. Rgveda is the oldest

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document of mankind. It records that Atharvana was the first sage
who conceived the idea of producing fire and his son Dadhyanga
developed the technique and produced fire. Since then it is in
existence. The discovery of fire is no doubt very important. It not
only gives heat but also gives light. Without light man cannot work
during night or in a dark place. So the man, as he had set his foot on
earth, must have been giving a racking to his brain to discover the
method to produce it. He must have seen that by friction, fire is
produced in wild forests. Around him he found hot springs and the
craters emitting smoke. He had also seen volcanos emitting flames of
fire. Further the modern travellers all over the world have not been
able to discover any tribe not knowing the use of fire.

Thus the truths recorded in the Vedas are very old. Though some of
the portions of the Veda are of comparatively later date, yet for the
earliest ones no definite point in time - dimension can be identified.
Atharvana whose name is also Angirasa is said to belong to the
earliest period in the Veda. We have in our Vol. II. tried to fix the
date of the present Sveta-Varaha Kalpa epoch at 31000 years before
present (1996). According to Bhagavdgita (9-7) several such epochs
have come and gone. The Veda being the record of the fundamental
scientific truths of mankind and the fire being the first, the most
essential, and the most elementary necessity of mankind, one has to

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place it as the earliest and the most ancient discovery of science. Its
use in sacrificial form of worship, the Rgveda (X.21-5) tells us, was in
the days of Vaivasvata Manu and his brother Yama, whose period in
this epoch is determined by us around 13000 B.C.

Method of preservation:

In the olden days fire was created by rubbing two hard pieces of
stone or iron. But this process was tiresome and often time
consuming. So to save the labour on initial process of procuring it, or
carrying on live fire from place to place, earliest method of
preserving it for constant and instantaneous use was to extract it by
rubbing two hard pieces of stone and keep it in a community place,
say temple or some such public building, from where anyone
needing it would take it away.

The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians had such a
central place to keep the fire burning all the twentyfour hours of the
day. Anybody would come, and use it. Take light or flame or burning
wood and take it home for use in cooking or lighting the place
duringnight. The Mexicans, the Mayans and the Peruvians had their
'national fires' kept in Temples. The 'eternal lamps' of today in the
Synagogues and in the Byzantine Catholic churches may be just a
survival of these old customs. The Zoroastrian fire-temple or burning

GTU - BHISHMA

27
fire in some groups of the Hindu families - agnihorins fire-keepers are
also these old customs continued in one form or the other.

The temples or synagogues were in the olden days just community

assembly places and convenient fire-keeping places. Air, fire and
water are three basic needs of human beings for survival. Air is free,
water is not so easily available as air, while to obtain fire one has to
make some effort. We therefore hear more of fire worship than
water worship. Water is, however, regarded as 'Life-jeevan' itself.

With the custom of constantly keeping of fires, it became easy for

every house-hold .to have its own fire place. In every house such a
fire-place was considered holy by the family.

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28
 3. Numerals

In the earlier chapter we have seen in connection with the

manufacture of bricks, that the sage Medhatithi using the numerals
in the powers of ten - dasa hundred - Sata, thousand = shahasra, ten
thousand = ayuta, a lac = a niyuta, a prayuta = ten lacs, Koti, (crore) =
arbuda, 10 crores = nyarbuda, 100 crores, or abjas = a samudra and
so on upto parardha (see below). So we have in the Vedas terms for
calculation purposes extending to a parardha or ten nikharvas or ten
lac crores. In later literature (Aryabhatiya 2) instead of ten millions
we have Koti (crore). These calculations come from the Vedas and
the seer Medhatithi is associated with these. He belongs to the
Kanva line of the sages and in Rgveda 313 Verses are assigned to
him.

I give below these calculations for easy understanding.

Sanskrit word Numeral

Eka 1

Dasa 10

S'ata 100

Sahasra 1,000

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29
 Ayuta 10,000

Niyuta 1,00,000

Prayuta 10,00,000

Arbuda 1,00,00,000 (one

crore)
Nyarbuda
ten crores
Samudra
100 crores or abja
Madhya
1,000 crores
Anta
10,000 crores
Parardha
One lac crores

Medhatithi is also known as Medhyatithi. In Atharvaveda

Medhyatithi is shown as the seer of 17 Verses and Medhatithi as of
35. One verse No. XX/43-9 is noted in the joint name of Medhatithi
and Medhyatithi. However from the Rgveda Book VIII we find both
these names appear together. May be, they arc one and the same. In
Yajurveda also his name occurs as the seer of a few verses, notably
XVII - 2 wherein the number of bricks counted extend upto a
parardha or one lac crores.

GTU - BHISHMA

30
In R.V.I. - 22 -16 to 18 Medhatithi tells us that Lord Vishnu has
traversed this world. He planted his foot three times and the whole
world was collected in the dust of his three steps.

Here we get a unit of measure - a foot.

In the famous hymn to Purusha R.X90-1 we are told, that the

Purusha the Lord of the universe has thousands of heads, eyes
andfeet. .He pervades the whole universe and is still greater than it
by ten angulies i.e. ten fingers.

Here there is another unit of measure noted by Rgveda namely, a

yojana, about 4 miles (X.78-7).

Medhatithi in R.V. VHI-33-18 notes that Indra has two horses. Then
he gives the number three (RV 1-15-4) while stating that Agni brings
the gods hither at the place of sacrifice and that they are to be
arranged at three places.

Then in R.V. I.-15-10 he notes the numbers as four or fourth or one

fourth. Then at various places he notes the numbers 5,6,7,8,9, and
10. We have also the terms 'eka or ekah' for one (R.V. 10-29-15) or
ekaka-singly or by one alone, ekam-eka single (V-52-17) ekadasha for
11 or Pratham for first.

In the same manner the terms for 2,3, and so on, are scattered all
over the Rgveda.

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31
The Rgvedic seers are fond of giving us a definite numerical order.
For example the seer Grtsamada in Book II-18-4 to 6 offers a prayer
to Lord Indra and invokes him to come in his chariot by joining to it
his horses 2 in number or 4, or 6, or 8, or 10. Then he says, your
chariot by harnessing to it horses 20 in number, or 30, or 40, or 50,
or 60, or 70, or 80, or 90 or 100 in number, come to us. He arranges
the numbers in even order uplo 100.

In Atharvaveda the sage Atharvan similarly arranges the numbers

from 4,5,6,7, upto 20. It is remarkable to note here that the sage
when mentioning 19 uses the term 'ekonavimsati' one less than
twenty and not nava dasha nine + ten. This way Atharvan
popularised the uses for odd numbers such is 29, 39, 49 and so on.

The sage Gopatha in Atharva Veda (XIX-47-3 to 5) uses ninety and

nine, eighty and eight, seventy and seven, sixty and six... twenty and
two and thus gives us in reverse order the connections between 90
with 9, 80 with 8 and so on.

The multiplication table is given in YV-xviii-25 as 4,8,12,16,20... up to

48. It will thus be seen that in those remote days numerals both
integers and fractions and their uses in day today life was quite well-
known.

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32
Etymology of Numerals:

Not only has India given numerals to civilization but their names and
etymology are also given. These names in modified forms are used.
The following table will give the idea:
Sanskrit Greek Latin Russian Gothic German Aigte- French Italian English
SMi
Eka Oine Unus ah-Deen Ains Gin An Un,Une Uno One
Dva, Dvi Dyo Duo Dvo Twai, Zwei Twa Deux Due Two
Twos
Tri Treis Tres Tri Trei Thri Trois Tre Three
Catus Tettares, Quatour Chih Fidwor Vier Feower Quatre Quattro Four
Tessa res Tihree
Panca Pente Quinque Pyat Fimf Funf Fif Cinq Cinque Five
Sas.Sat Hex Sex Shayst Sains Sechs Six,SeoxSi Sei Six
x
Sapta Hepta Septem Sem Sibun Sieben Seofan Sept Sette Seven
Asta Octo Okto Vaw-seem Ahtau Acht Eahta Huit Otto Eight
Nava Ennea Novem Day- Nium Neun Nigon Neuf Move Nine
weet
Dasa Deka Decem Day -sect Taihum Zehn Tien Dix Died Ten
Vimsati Eikosi Viginti Dva-tsut Twaitigius Zwanzig Twentig Vingt .Venti Twenty
(two-
tens)
Satam Hekaton Centum Staw Hund Hundert Hund Cent Cento Hundred

Yaska the great lexico-grapher in his Nirukta gives the etymology of

the terms thus:

GTU - BHISHMA

33
About Eka he says eka ita samkhya - eka is number. Oneness is
present in all numbers.

About dva - two - he says dvan, drutatara sankhya this number goes
ahead of one - it is derived from the root dru meaning to move =
gatau.

Regarding tri three he says - traystirnatama samkhya it crossed the

first two numerals.

Thus he goes on to explain the different names given to different

numerals.

Numeral System of the Greeks.

Indian numerals reached the Western world rather late. Till then
they had their own system. But it was rather crude, cumbersome and
time-consuming. It was the system of Roman numerals. In it the
digits were:

I, II, III, IV, V, VI... IX, X, XI - and so on.

It will be seen that in Indian system there were numbers 1, 2, 3... to 9

and thereafter it was again 1 with 0 on i.e. 10... then 2 with 0 = 20
and so on while in Roman system there were numbers from I to V
and further again V+1 = VI, VH, VTII, IX and X. From X again I, n, were
added to X, 20 was noted as two X + X. From XX again I, II were
added to XX, and again continued from XXI, XXII and so on.
GTU - BHISHMA

34
For 50 they noted L. So for 51, they have LI... and so on. For 60 it is
LX, then for 70 LXX and for 90 LXXXX and for 98 LXXXXVIII.

Then for 100, they have C. So C is twice L. D is 500 or five times C.

Again M is twice D i.e. 1000 and so on. To write further numbers in
Roman system becomes cumbersome. So they use 'abacus'. Instead
of writing numbers they are shown on the abacus. It is a device used
for making mathematical calculations. It consists of a frame with rods
on which balls or beads are moved thus.

This is cambersome and time-consuming, e.g. to write 2897 you have

to write MMDCCCLXXXXVII. On abacus it can be shown, but then for
calculation purposes, you have to carry this device from one place to
another and to record result you have again to use letters as shown
above.

For larger sums or multiplication involving larger numbers, abacus

cannot be used.

One bright boy named Leonardo da Pisa (Italy) had accompanied his
father on a trade trip to Baghadad. He noticed that his Arabian
counterparts were using a numeral system different from his own.
That system enabled the Arabian to do their calculations appreciably
in lesser time. His curiousity was roused and he learnt it.

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35
He wrote a book on it under the title - Liber Abbaci. He wrote: "There
are nine numbers of the Indians.

9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1

With these nine numbers and with the sign 0 (zero) which is in Arabic
called Zephirum, any number can be written as will below be
demonstrated." 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, and so on.

He wrote the book in 1202 A.D. and revised it in 1228.

But it took a long time before it could be introduced in all the States
and make its use universal. The people of Europe were accustomed
to the use of their old abacus system. They took their time to adopt
it.

The system of Indian numerals had overwhelming advantages as

compared to the abacus.

Today the system of Indian numerals has become one of universal

application. Indian numerals have brought about unity of the peoples
of the world atleast in the matter of mathematical calculations9.

Art of writing:

In our Vol I. we have a very elaborate discussion about the art of

writing. It developed in India since very remote times. We have
adduced evidence in support which runs into over 50 pages. We have

GTU - BHISHMA

36
seen that knowledge of the numerals had been available to the
Indian sages and this fact is recorded in the Rgveda itself. In RV. X.71-
4 it is clearly noted that there are two forms of languages-one is
visual and the other is audible. Audible is what we hear, but visible is
recorded. Rgveda notes the development of a highly evolved
civilization and the seers, the authors of such a civilization, cannot be
so dullards as not to know the art of writing. This hymn X-71-4 clearly
shows that the seers had developed the art of reducing the verbal
sounds into the graphic ones.

The Westerners argue that Rgveda does not contain any word such
as ---- likh = to write or to smear. The words like likh,lekha
samlikhitam, rekha, etc. which occur in other Vedas like Yajurveda or
Atharvaveda do not appear in the Rgveda. But this argument of
silence is a negative one, and it cannot prove that the Rgvedic seers
did not know the art of writing. There is positive evidence in RV.X.71-
4 about its presence. Again in RV. 1-62-13 we have the statement
sandyate Gotamah Indra navyam ataksata Brahma hari yojanaya,
the sage Gotama has this new prayer hymn. Here the word used is
ataksata incised, carved. It shows that it is reduced to writing by
some pen. It is inscribed on some material. Again in R.V. 1.164-41 we
have the statement: 'gaurirmimaya salilani taksati ekapadi sa
catusapadi, navapadi, babhuvusi sahasra-aksara parame vyoman.

GTU - BHISHMA

37
This white coloured (cow in the form of poetry) creates waters
(poems) and engraves on the mental sky, one line, two lines or four
lines or eight lines or nine lines of verses. Thus thousands of letters
get inscribed." Here the seer refers to the process through which
verses get composed in his mind. Unless these are reduced towriting,
how can he proceed in his further composition? To state that all this
is a mental process exhibits lack of imagination on the part of the
person making the statement.

We have discussed this problem threadbare in our first Volume, and

with supporting authentic evidence. It is better to read it there.

The S.S. (Indus valley) civilization throws new light on this art of
writing. In the excavations at these sites, thousands of seals have
been discovered. On these short inscriptions have been found. The
problem of decipherment of the letters of these inscriptions was a
difficult one. The scholars engaged in this task started with the
wrong premises. They hold Indus valley sites to belong to Dravidian
civilization and the language of the inscriptions to be Dravidian. They
further hold that the script is not alphabetic but that it is
pictographic. With these notions, no progress could be made.
S.R.Rao an archaeologist of repute started on a clean slate and has
almost deciphered it. 'India's contribution to the world is thus not
only the numerals and the decimal system, but also the alphabetic
GTU - BHISHMA

38
script, the precursor of the Aramaic and the Brahmi. And this is
natural as the Vedas are the heritage of mankind. And none earlier to
the Vedic civilisation has come to light. In Rgveda there is a hymn on
dice-play (X-34). On the dice there were numbers from 1 to 5. The
gamester says: "for the sake of the number eka or the other on this
dice I have deserted my affectionate wife." (X-34-2). It, therefore,
goes without saying that we had a system of writing down numerals
in the Vedic times. Our philosophical texts and the prose parts of
Yajurveda also show that the art of writing was known to the Indians.

In Atharvaveda we have the word 'samlikhitam - it is written' (AV.

VII-5005). Now Atharvaveda is as old as the Rgveda if not older than
it. The Alharva Veda as its very name suggests is the Veda compiled
by the sage Atharvan alias Angirasa. This sage is the oldest of all the
ancient seers. The Rgveda itself notes that Atharvana and Angirasa
are very ancient seers. Vaivasvata Yama, the seer terms Atharvana
and Angirasa as their forefathers.

- Angirasas our fathers = the performers of sacrifices lasting for nine

days, Atharvanas and Bhrigavas i.e. those sages belonging to the
families of Angirasa, Navagva, Atharvan and Bhrigu all are lovers of
soma-juice.'

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39
These families are the most ancient among the seers. Though there
are no hymns in their names in the Rgveda yet there are hymns in
that Veda in the names of the descendents of their families. This
particular statement is made by Vaivasvata Yama - himself a very
ancient seer. Grtsamada the sage of second Book of Rgveda is
himself the scion of the family of Angirasa.

If we therefore, remember that this Atharvan alias Angirasa is the

seer of the Atharvaveda, it goes without saying that Atharveda is also
as ancient as the Rgveda if not the first veda. Rgveda is the prayer
book. The hymns in that Veda are selected from out of the floating
mass of these. These are selected by Bhagavana Vedavyasa around
3300 B.C. While all the Vedas belong to a period much earlier than
this date. Chronologically Atharva Veda appears to be the most
ancient. Though some of the hymns in the Rgveda may be as old as
those in the Atharvaveda.

If therefore, we find in the Atharva veda the word 'Likh = to write' we

have to take that the art of writing has been as old as the Vedas. In
Atharva-Veda we have the words 'Likhat' XX-132-8 likhitam (XII-3-22)
and likhit (XIV-2-68) all these words mean 'engraved, incised, carved,
scratched' i.e. written with some sharp instrument. In Panini (about
2200 B.C.) the words 'those who write' occurs (Panini ffl-1121).

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40
Here we have to note that we have conclusively shown that
Chandragupta Maurya belongs to 1534 B.C. and was not the
contemporary of Alexander of 327 B.C. That Chandragupta was the
one belonging to the Imperial Gupta dynasty. So Panini now
regarded as belonging to 760 B.C. must be shifted to around 2200
B.C.

Mohenjodaro and Harappa have revealed some writings. The

Archaeologist S.R. Rao has come to the conclusion that the script is
Sanskrit and the period is 3500 B.C. In these writings numerals are
shown by vertical lines. Ashokan edicts (1472 B.C.) show numerals 4,
6, 50, and 200. Naneghat inscriptions are said to belong to the early
pan of the third century B.C.

"In a cave inscription, 75 miles from Poona on Naneghat Hills, we

have an inscribed list of the 7, 9, 10, 29, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, 700,
1000, 4000, 6000, 10000 and 20000. There is another inscription
obtained from the Nasika cave belonging to the first or the second
century A.D., which has the inscribed numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 20, 40,. 70, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 8000, 7000.
Brahmi numerals (developed around 1000 B.C.) got full currency
throughout India. The place value of numerals (for units tens,
hundreds, etc.) is very well seen from the inscriptions and
Danapatras (gift plates) found from time to time."
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41
In Europe, Arabs introduced the complete arithmetic based on Indian
numerals with Zero in the 12th century A.D. The arithmetic was
known as algorithm before this date, some crude form of arithmetic
was in use in Europe.

GTU - BHISHMA

42
 4. Mathematics

How should one think about Mathematics?

1)Mathematics is a higher knowledge: Example:The natural number

system (1, 2, 3...) is one of the basic mathematical objects. It is
suggested as a natural abstraction of the counting process. For a
child, it takes some time to learn it, or rather "internalize" it, so that
it becomes an integral part of its subconscious. Some animals appear
to exhibit understanding of "one and many", or "one, two, and
many." Chimpanzees appear to do a little better. However, among all
animals only humans appear to be able to understand the whole
natural number system.

2) Three categories of mathematical thought: space, number and

symmetry.

The "Space" -aspect, primarily but not exclusivelyrefers to what we

can visualize in the plane and in the 3-dimensional physical space.

The "Number" -aspect refers, first of all, to the natural number

system (1, 2, 3...), and its various extensions such as the system of
integers, the system of rational numbers, the system of real
numbers, the system of complex numbers, and many others. It also
refers- to systems of equations relating these systems.

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43
The "Symmetry" - aspect is the most subtle one.

Examples of Symmetry: Among all triangles, an equilateral triangle

catches our eye, since it is more "symmetric" than the other
triangles. For a similar reason, among all quadrilaterals, a square
catches our eye, among all pentagons, a regular pentagon catches
our eye, and so on. The precise mathematical language {the language
of groups) to capture the essence of symmetry is of recent origin,
less than 200 years old.

3) Three levels of mathematical analysis: global, local, infinitesimal.

Example: Consider one of the most ancient problems, namely, to find

the area of a farmer's farm. We have precise formulas for the area of
a triangle (1/2 the base into the height). If the farm has a polygonal
boundary, we can divide it into finitely many triangles, and add up
the areas of the triangles. This is the process of going 'from the
global level to the local level and back."

If the boundary is not polygonal, we may hope to approximate by

shapes having polygonal boundaries. This will give an infinite
sequenceof areas of the polygonal approximations, and its "limit"
may be taken as the area of the farm. Passing to the limit involves
the process of going "from the local level to the infinitesimal level
and back." Calculus, as developed by Leibnitz and Newton, was a

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44
superb systematization of this process.. This development should be
considered as one of the great triumphs of the human mind.

4) Methods of mathematics:

i) 2-valued logic: This is the form of logic which is ,used in large parts
of mathematics. The very meaning which we attach to "P implies Q"
(namely, either P is false or."Q is true; in particular, a false statement
always "implies" any statement), or the method of contra positive
("P implies Q" is equivalent to "Q implies P") are based on the
assumption of the 2-valuedness of logic.

ii) Existence and uniqueness of solutions, and their constructions:

Given a problem, to "construct" and "explicit" solution would be the
most natural approach. This works very well, for example, in solving
linear equations, (Gauss's method of elimination).

But after all a problem may not have a solution. (For example, it will
be futile to search for an integer whose square is 2). Also we have to
allow for a possibility that a problem may have more than one
solutions. (For example, there are two square-roots of 1 in integers,
namely, 1 and -1). An interesting development in the latter part of
the 19th century was the realization that in mathematical analysis
one may be able to assert existence and/or uniqueness of solutions
without necessarily offering a construction for them. (For example, it

GTU - BHISHMA

45
is much easier to prove that every non-negative real number has a
unique non-negative square-root, than to offer an explicit
construction for it. Think, for instance, what is the positive square
root of π?)

iii)Discreteness and continuity: This is one of the basic

considerations in mathematics and mathematical modelling. The
basic example is provided by the real numbers which form a
continuous set, and the integers which form a discrete subset of the
set of real numbers.

Examples: a) Sound: The sounds are modelled over positive real

numbers (in terms of "frequencies associated to sound waves"). This
model is continuous. The sound produced by a piano, however,
forms a discrete approximation.

The range of sounds, which a human being it able to make or

hear, is modelled by an interval of positive real numbers which
appears to be larger than the intervals associated to most other
animals. The alphabets of human languages are discrete
approximations to this rangeof sounds. Also a person gets used to
only a part of this range, which accounts for different "accents."

b) Time: Depending on which cosmological model one subscribes to,

time is modelled either over real numbers or a bounded interval of

GTU - BHISHMA

46
real numbers. Some scientists working "as an individual" may be
modelled on time, and hence on an interval of real numbers, but
"thoughts of an individual" may correspond only to a discrete subset
of this interval.

iv) Dimension: This is one of the subtle concepts which is actually

quite hard to make precise. However, intuitively, one should be
willing to grant that the real line is "1 -dimensional", the plane is "2-
dimensional", and the space of physical experience is "3-
dimensionaI."

It requires more thinking to see that a) the space of lines in the plane
is 2-dimensional, b)the space of circles in the plane is 3-dimensional,
c)the space of parabolas in the plane is 4-dimensional, d)the space of
ellipses in the plane is 5-dimensional, e) the space of triangles in the
plane is 6-dimensional, whereas the space of congruence classes of
triangles in the plane is 3-dimensional, and the space of similarity
classes of triangles in the plane is only 2-dimensional... and so on.
We invite the reader to ponder over these assertions. At this point,
he can convince himself about their validity only intuitively, since we
have not offered any definition of dimension.

v) Measurement: The real line is a basic object in Mathematics. It is a

deep fact that this can be turned into the real number system, that

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47
is, the points on the real line can be added and multiplied so that
these operations of addition and multiplication satisfy remarkable
stringent rules of commutativity, associativity, etc.

A measurement on an arbitrary set X is an association of X with the

real line, or more precisely, with the real number system. Roughly
speaking, an association of X with the number line may be called a
qualitative measurement on X, whereas an association of X with the
real number system may be called a quantitative measurement on X.
It is clear that in many situations, setting up, or understanding, a
qualitative measurement may be easier than a quantitative
measurement.

Example: Consider the heights of students in a class. The qualitative

measurement "A is taller than B, B is taller than C" etc. associates the
class with the real line, whereas associating each person with a
number, which is his/her "height", provides a quantitative
measurement. It is conceivable that in this case the Chimpanzees
may be taught to make the qualitative measurement much more
easily than the quantitative measurement. ,

5) Mathematics is study of structures: different phenomena may

have the same underlying structure. Mathematics concerns itself

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48
mainly with the underlying structure of a phenomenon, rather than
with the phenomenon itself.

A fantastic example from physics illustrating this point is that the

laws governing both gravitation and electricity involve the "inverse
square law." So the mathematics which was developed for studying
gravitation was also useful for studying electricity.

Similarly, abstract discrete structures, often modelled on elementary

number theory or naive set theory, have found many applications in
physical as well as social sciences.

6) Mathematics is a language of communication: As we have

observed, the natural number system is an abstraction suggested
from ordinary counting. It may be regarded as natural and very
useful extension of our ordinary language. Thus, for example, we
speak of parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, great-great-
grandparents... This may suffice for ordinary purposes, but it is
clearly not sufficient, for example, for recording the history of a
community. See how clumsy our expressions will be without natural
numbers. Instead of saying, "our family has been here for the past
eight generations", we shall need to say "our great great great great
great garandparents came here!"

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49
We know that in most human languages there arc singular and plural
forms of nouns, conjugation of verbs etc. In some human languages,
for example in Hebrew and Sanskrit, there arc singular, double, and
plural forms of nouns, conjugation of verbs etc. These are clearly
beginnings of the perception of "one, two. and many" etc.

Similarly, the ideas of "discreteness and continuity", the idea of

"dimension", "measurement" etc. referred to earlier, are actually our
ways of giving a clear expression to our various experiences. Thus,
for instance, the comparative and superlative form of adjectives
(such as "good-better-best", "tall-lallcr-tallost" etc.) arc really special
cases of qualilative measurements.

This language is unsurpassed in clarity by any ofthe languages the

human beings have been able to develop so far. This aspect has
attracted many great men and women to the study of mathematics,
not all of whom became professional mathematicians. For instance,
we know that President Abe Lincoln had a rather poor early
schooling. It is reported that before he entered politics, he studied
Euclidean Geometry, in order to sharpen his skills as an orator and a
debalor. We also know that Napoleon took a good deal of interest in
Geometry, enough to apparently discover an interesting theorem on
triangles! Also the great philosopher Spinoza tried to formulaic Ethics

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50
following theparadigm of Euclidean Geometry. This has certainly
endeared him to scientists for generations.

Moreover, a nice thing about this language of Mathematics is that it

is inoffensive. An ordinary language, if spoken with a different
accent, may sound jarring to some ears, but not mathematics. For
this reason, mathematics makes for genuine friendships going far
beyond nationality, gender, class, ethnicity... This language is really
not hard to learn if one approaches it in a proper spirit. It is because
of this uniqueness of the language of mathematics it is placed at the
head of all the branches of vedic knowledge.

Yatha Sikha mayuranama naganam manayo yatha

tatha vedangasasranam ganitam murdhani sthitam (------2500BC)
- Like the crest of a peacock, like the gem on the head of a snake, so
is mathematics at the head of all branches of the Vedic knowledge".

Ganita is calculation or measurement. At other place in place of

Ganita we get Jyotisa, for both involve calculations and
measurements of distances and durations of time.

The tenor of this statement clearly brings out the importance, the
Indians attached to this subject. Here 1 am reminded of the
statement of Prof. Playfair, F.R.S. made around 1785 A.D. after he
had visited and probably studied mathematics at the feet of the

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51
Varanasi Pandits, the experts in this branch. He had thrown a hint
that India had perhaps Newton 5000 years ago". When 1 quote this
statement the mathematicians of today ask me a question with a
shrug of shoulders. "Well! This is a general, statement. What is the
basis for this1? We do not have complete details of the steps which
led Prof. Playfair to make such a statement." These are legitimate
queries. And we do not have adequate answers. India lost its vitality
after the advent of-the Muslims as rulers around fourteenth century
A.D.

After the Muslim rule was established, the Muslims here did not
show any inclination to learn the arts and sciences from the
Brahmanas; on the other hand they hated them. So they (the
brahamanas) retired into silence. They would disclose and ex-plain in
details the theories they were propounding about science and
technologies only to those who showed an aptitude to learn and
work hard to master what they would be taught. Otherwise they
would keep studied silence. But their records of the sciences and
technologies developed are also now lost. The Muslims destroyed
our libraries here. And that is the tragedy of the first magnitude.

This was true of the great genius, Ramanujam, the mathematician

from Erode (Tamil Nadu) in the earlier part of the present century.
He died at his age of 32. About his style G. G. Joseph writes:
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52
"Ramanujam's style of doing mathematics was very different from
that of the conventional mathematicians trained in deductive
axiomatic method of proof. From the accounts of his wife and close
associates, he made extensive use of a slate on which he was always
jotting down and erasing what he's described as 'sums' and then
transferring some of the final, results into his Note book when he
was satisfied with his conclusions. He felt no compulsion to prove
that the results were 'true - what mattered were the results
themselves."

Ramanujam had scribbled his notes on scraps of paper. About one

such 'Last Note Book' an eminent mathematician Richard Askey
observes : "The work of that one year, while he was dying, (and
obviously in considerable pain a lot of the time, according to his-
wife), was equivalent of a life-time of work of a very great
mathematician. What he accomplished was unbelievable. If it were a
novel, nobody would believe."

On these scraps of paper, great mathematicians are devoting their

life-time. From the work of these mathematicians on Ramanujam's
notes, a number of sub-disciplines have emerged. Well! if the
modern day mathematicicians had not worked on Ramanujam's
'Notes', we would have only noted his results and stated; 'Oh! it was

GTU - BHISHMA

53
so!" without giving any proof for these results. This is what has
happened to our ancient scientific lore.

These great masters of science merely stated the results and

provided oral demonstrations or written commentaries for the
benefit of their students. These are now lost. We cannot on that
account make a generalization that the non-Europeans were just
superstitious and that they had not developed sciences like,
mathematics and physics and technology based on these sciences, as
the present .day Europeans are accustomed to think.

During the last four centuries the Europeans have established

political hegemony and founded empires in almost all the parts of
the globe. This has coloured their view of history including the
history of science and technology. They believe that with their
advance in political sphere rapid parallel advance in science and
technology also took place. Before this period, there was hardly any
progress in this branch, so they assert. When, therefore, they
discovered ancient mathematics on Papyri in Egypt and clay tablets
in Mesopotamia, they had to acknowledge that atleast some 2000
years ago, the East had some written mathematical records.

In Eurocentric view Greece was the source from which mathematical

and other sciences were inherited by Europe. For example we

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54
havethe view: "The history of mathematics cannot with certainty be
traced back to any school or period before that of the Ionian Greek."

Even as late as 1953 the same view has been expressed.

"Mathematics finally secured a new grip on life in the highly
congenial soil of Greece and waxed strongly for a short period... With
the decline of Greek civilization the plant remained dormant for a
thousand years... when the plant was transported to Europe proper,
once more imbedded in fertile soil."

This view can be expressed thus: Mathamatics began in Greece

around 600 A.D. There was not much development till 1600 A.D.
Then in European setting, it flowered and bore fruit as it did never
before. It thus ignores the development of mathematics in India
around 900 B.C. or much before that contained in Sulbsutras (The
Rules of Cord). It also smugly believes that there was no
development of the science of mathematics during the intervening
period of 1000 years, in other countries other than Europe. As far as
Maths was concerned, there was no development whatsoever
elsewhere. It altogether ignores the development of mathematics in
India since Vedic times.

Again there are a few scattered references in the works of Herodouts

(450 B.C.) to the knowledge acquired in Maths and astronomy. The

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55
survey begins with the work of the Egyptians. Aristotle (350 B.C.)
considered Egypt to be the cradle land of mathematics. Earlier Thales
died in 546 B.C. is considered as the founder of Greek Mathematics.
Pythagoras (500 B.C.), it is stated had travelled and acquired
knowledge of Maths from the masters in India. 'According to the
Greek tradition, Pythagoras, Thales, Empedocles, Ananagoras,
Democritus and others undertook journeys to the East to study
philosophy and science. While it is farfetched to assume that all
these individuals reached India, there is a strong historical possibility
that some of them became aware of Indian thought and science
through Persia.'16

This would show that India was the cradle-land of Mathematics. This
is not stated from the narrow parochial point of view. For as I have
shown in our Vol. I Egypt, Greece, Persia, Mesopotamia including
India, were the common cradle-land of Vedic civilization. This Vedic
civilization though started in India in the ages past, the cultural
leaders travelled further and spread it to all over these regions.

It is stated that the structures of the religio-philosophical character

of the Pythagorean fraternity resembled Buddhist monastic orders
and the contents of the mystical speculations of the Pythagorean
schools bear a striking resemblance to the Hindu Upanishads. This
statement also goes to prove that Buddha himself had flourished
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56
much earlier than sixth century B.C. For Buddhistic monastic orders
were developed about 200 years after the Nirvan of Buddha in 1805
B.C.

A Babylonian clay tablet (2000 B.C.) kept in a Berlin museum gives

the value of n3 + n2 for n= 1, 2... 10, 20... 50. This would indicate that
the Babylonians had used these values in solving cubic equations.

Arabs were also mathematicians of a very high order. The Egyptian

technique of measurement and the remarkable instrument of
computation -the Indian number system was carried by the Arabs to
the Europeans.

There are many other achievements to the credit of the Arabs. (l)The
description of pulmonery circulation of blood is attributed to Harvey.
But there are records that the Arab by name Ibn-al-Nafis was earlier
to Harvey. There is still earlier explanation of it in China. (2) The
statement of refraction of light is attributed to Newton. The Arab, by
name Ibn-al-Hayatham was even earlier to bring this phenomenon to
light. (3) The scientific discussion of gravity is usually attributed to
Newton. But al-Khazin an Arab scientist had given it earlier. (4) The
evolutionary theory attributed to Darwin was earlier stated by Ibn-
Miskawayh. There are many more such discoveries to the credit of
the Arabs. If we remember that the Arab scholars had constant and

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57
regular contact with their Indian counterparts, it can be easily
surmised that there was invariable give-and-take between these two
peoples.

G.G. Joseph the author of the book 'The Crest of the Peacock-Non-
European Roots of Mathematics' traces the development of
mathematical sciences during the fifth century to fifteenth century.
A.D. by means of a diagram thus: India-Baghadad-Cairo-Cardoba
Spain-Taledo (Spain)-Western Europe.

Alternatively the route was India - Baghadad - Cardoba as well as

Sicily. Yet another route of travel of these ideas is:

India - Persia, and India-China (both ways). It is noteworthy that

during these 1000 years, no branch of knowledge was so developed
in Western Europe or Sicily from which ideas flowed to other parts of
the world. Western Europe rose from its age-old slumber and
ignorance only in the sixteenth century. Though Europe was in the
grip of ignorance, yet intellectual activity continued in the rest of the
then known world.

Beginnings of Mathematics: Vedas are the earliest records of

mankind. They show development of Mathematics and other
sciences at a very high level. The archaeological discoveries in other
parts of the world reveal scratches on stones, knots on strings or

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58
notches on sticks and bones. These have been found all over the
world. They exhibit some sort of record of account-keeping.

One such discovery is at Ishango a place where such notches on bone

are found. It is high in the mountains of Central Equatorial Africa on
the borders of Uganda and Zaire, along the shore of Lake Edward,
one of the farthest sources of River Nile. Its period is some 20,000
years before present.

Another one with 29 clearly visible notches dating back to about

35,000 B.C. has been discovered in the Lebembo Mountains on the
borders of Swaziland in Southern Africa. Yet another such find is
located in Czechoslovakia about 30,000 B.C. It contains 57 deeply cut
notches each with 5 feet in length.

These notches only go to show that beginning of counting of events

or articles is an age-old habit of man. In the passage of time, some
evidence of such a fact on stone of bone has been left. This cannot
be regarded as the beginning of mathematics. For man has been
here since times immemorial and had attained high civilization ages
ago. These discoveries only go to show that this enumeration-
method was followed" by certain villagers or unlettered men during
particular times. We do not have details of their mathematical
systems developed by them in those remote days.

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59
We can very well imagine that the use of finger counting should have
proved a more efficient method of enumeration in the beginning.
The fingers of two hands number 10. Then counting by 10s was only
the next logical and the easy step.

As far as India is concerned, this rudimentary stage in the

development of mathematics is buried deep into the limbo of
oblivion. Much before the res of the Vedas were composed there
was a floating folk-lore literature and it also contained much
advanced mathematics. This literature was later on compiled in the
form of the Puranas. The present 18 Maha-puranas contain as many
as four lacs of verses and these are the versions available from about
400 B.C. The original Puranas are lost. An attempt was made by
Bhagawan Vedavyasa to give these a definite form around 3100 B.C.
But the present version does not represent this compilation too.
There have been many redactions in the course of copying of these
and the present ones show a modified version of what they were
around 3100 B.C.

The Vedas were composed side by side with the Puranas and these
were also set in final form by Bhagavan Veda Vyasa around 3100 B.C.
They continue in the same form as before. The original date of
composition of some of the res (verses) is stated to be as old as the
hills. So the mathematics and other sciences which we canderive
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60
from these can also be said to belong to a hoary antiquity. However,
from the astronomical details contained in these, the earliest date of
the Vedas can be as early as 29000 B.C. and the latest as early as
4500 B.C. The Vedas are the first available written records of the
mankind. Though these have originated in north India, in the region
of Kurukshetra called Brahmavarta they have no geographical
connotation. They belong to this wide world. It is therefore meet and
proper that whatever the developments in mathematics and other
sciences which have taken place the world over prior to 3100 B.C.
should be taken to the credit of all the peoples of the world. They are
the children of the Vedas. But the current fashion is more
individualistic i.e. the region in which some trace of mathematics has
been found or the person who has made some contribution to its
development that is considered as the achievement of the peoples of
that region and the credit is given to the individual who has done it.

Surprisingly, we have not still come out of the grip of the ideas
propounded by the European historians about the antiquity of the
Vedas. They consider the date of the Indus-valley civilization (we call
it Sarasvati Sindhu-S.S. civilization) as the starting point of the Indian
history. They date it at 3500-1500 B.C. and consider the period of the
Vedas as 1500 B.C. to 800 B.C.

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61
This is the assumption made by G.G. Joseph in his Non-European
Roots of the Mathematics published in 1991. This is the history of
mathematics from the earliest to say 1600 A.D. He traces historical
roots of the beginnings at Mathematical calculations at 35,000 B.C.
and locates the discovery at a place in the Lebembo Mountains on
the borders of Swaziland in South Africa. He has also made a mention
of notches for the purpose of accounting on the bone discovered at
Ishango again in Central Equatorial Africa.

Joseph notes that the settled life as an agricultural community has

been traced in Egypt around 16,000 B.C. Ca.bon dating has shown
that the remains of barley and unicorn wheat found at Kubbaniya
near Aswan in upper Egypt are of 16,000 B.C. "And the Egyptians
according to the historian Diodorus are colonists sent out by the
Ethiopians... And the large part of the customs of the Egyptians... are
Ethiopian, the colonists still preserving their ancient manners."

The Egyptians are thus Africans and they are not a separate entity
plucked out from somewhere and replanted in the middle of the
Mediterenean Sea. The Egyptian civilization is ancient and there is
archaeological and historical evidence to show that it is closely
linkedwith the Vedic civilization, from the names of Kings like
Ramesas, Dasharatha etc. And the words like Ashvayaji (One who
performs horse-sacrifice etc.). Menes (corrupt form of Manu - the
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62
first king of mankind of this epoch) is the king who founded the long
line of 32 dynasties in all. These ruled a stable society. The territory
of the Egyptian Kingdom included parts of modern Israel and Syria.

Herodotus wrote: "Sesostris (Pharoah Ramesas 11-1300 B.C.) divided

the land into lots and gave a square piece of equal size, from the
produce of which he exacted an annual tax. If any man's holding was
damaged by the encroachement of the river... The King... would send
inspectors to measure the extent of the loss, in order that he might
pay in future a fair proportion of the tax at which his property had
been assessed. Perhaps this was the way in which geometry was
invented, and passed afterwards into Greece."

This would show that the Egyptians had developed instruments of

land measurement and allied mathematics. The Egyptian Papyrus-
rolls are the major sources of information about Egyptian Civilization
and mathematics. The Ahmose Papyrus of 1650 B.C. and the one
preserved in the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow, known as Moscow
Papyrus 1850 B.C. Ahmose tells us that his material has been derived
from an earlier document from the middle kingdom i.e. China 2000-
1800 B.C. He even hints at the possibility that it may have been
derived from Imhotep (2650 B.C.) physician to Pharaoh Zoser of the
third Dynasty. These dates are based on the assumption that Menes
was there around 3500 B.C. If we take into account that he was
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63
followed by a long line of Pharaohs 32 dynasties in all and that
Pheraoh Zoser of third dynasty was around 2650 B.C. it would mean
that there were roughly 900 years for 3 dynasties or 300 years per
dynasty. For 32 dynasties it would mean 32x300 = 9600 years in all
from Manu to the last one. This would roughly tally with the period
of 8000-9000 B.C. during which period Manu's sons Ikshvaku and
others began their rule. This would indicate that Egyptian
mathematics is as old as the Vedas.

The chronological sequence of historical events in India as adopted

by G. G. Joseph and othors would have, therefore, to be drastically
revised. We would have to put the Vedas at the top. In our volume II
-The Puranas, we have shown that the present epoch called Sveta -
Varaha-starls from 31000 years before present. We have no clear
dynastic list of kings from 31000 years B.C. to about 11000 B.C. From
1100Q B.C. we have connected history. Joseph following the current
European view puts Indus Valley period between 3000 B.C. to 1500
B.C.

In fact this civilization cannot be called Indus Valley; it mainly

flourished along the rivers Sindhu and Saraswati and would have to
be renamed Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization as represented by the Epics,
Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Vedas are much earlier as the
Sarasvati river is described therein as a grand and mighty stream. In
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64
Ramayana and Mahabharata it is stated that it is flowing
underground.

The chronological structure for Indian History currently adopted

vitiates the whole perspective of looking at India and her
achievements. We shall have to change it. It is necessary.

Vedic Sutras:

Here I summarise the view of H.H. Swami Bharati, Krishna Tirtha,

regarding the attitude of the Western Indologists towards the Indian
achievements. Swamiji had found sixteen Ganita Sutras and thirteen
sub-sutras the easy mathematical formulas as an appendix to
Atharvaveda. These are terse and need elucidation. These sutras give
the end-results in unintelligible forms without giving the details or
methods used.

In the currently available copy of the Atharvaveda with the

parishishtas these sutras are not found. It is, therefore, taken by
eminent mathematicians that these sutras are composed by Swamiji
himself and are passed on as 'Vedic Sutras.' However, this does not
appear to be true. Swamiji himself has categorically stated that they
were available to Prof. Colebrooke, H.H. Wilson and R. T. H. Griffith
of the early last Century. Prof. Colebrooke had said: "We are unable
to understand what the contents of these Sutra* are, and what

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65
connection these sutras have with mathematics." However, H.H.
Wilson with a-superiority complex, in which he could not possibly
admit that something was unintelligible to him, took another stand
altogether. Commenting on the same passage, the portion of the
Atharvadeda, Wilson said: "This is all nonsense." This was the single
word with which the whole thing was dismissed. And R.T.H. Griffith,
the translator of Ramayana and other Sanskrit works went further
and said: "This was utter nonsense."

Swamiji with his reverence for the Vedas and as he was the product
of Indian traditions, could find the key to one of the Sutras and from
that he could decipher the meaning of the other Sutras. He notes: "I
found to my extreme astonishment and gratification that the Sutras
dealt with mathematics in all its branches. Only sixteen Sutras ever
all branches of mathematics - arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
trigonometry, physics plain and spherical geometry, conies, calculus,
both differential and intergral, applied mathematics of various kinds,
dynamics, hydrostatics, statistics, kinematics and all."

I don't know whether it is a tall claim. But I cite here the opinion of
Dr.R. Briggs of NASA California.

"It is interesting to speculate as to why the Indians found it

worthwhile to pursue studies into unambiguous coding of natural

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66
language into semantic elements. It is tempting to think of them as
computer scientists. Let us not forget that among the great
accomplishments of the Indian thinkers were the invention of zero,
and of the binary number system a thousand years before the West
re-invented them. Their analysis of language (Sanskrit) casts doubt
on the humanistic distinction between natural and artificial
intelligence, and may throw light on how research in Artificial
Intelligence may finally solve the natural language understanding and
machine translation problems."

Narendra Puri notes: "Vedic Mathematics introduces to us the

wonderful applications of the Vedic Sutras to arithmetic, algebra,
factorizations, higher order equations, calculus, co-ordinate
geometry, as also the wonderful Vedic numerical code."

In U.K. the research includes 'applications of Vedic mathematics to

trigonometry, three dimensional co-ordinate geometry, solution of
linear differential equations, matrices and determinants, log and
exponentials etc. Recently five books have been published in the U.K.
giving details of the research!'

The most interesting point to note is that Vedic mathematics

provides unique solutions in several instances where only the trial
and error method is available at present. For example, Kepler's

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67
equations can be solved in just 90 seconds as compared to the
present tedious trial and error method.

Swamiji's Vedic mathematics helps students to get solutions quickly

and makes it possible to multiply 20 digit number by a 19 digit
number, without use of pen and paper. One can enjoy learning
mathematics with Swamiji's Sutras.

With calculators also we can do multiplications, divisions and other

operations, with less mental energy and less time. But there is no
personal involvement in them. While in Vedic mathematics there is
full personal involvement and it helps us to sharpen our calculating
ability. The job of calculating in Vedic mathematics becomes easy
and interesting.

There is a controversy going on whether these Sutras of Vedic

mathematics do really in fact appear in any of Vedas. Swamiji hassaid
that he had these in the Parishishta to the Atharvavedas. But that
Parishishta is now lost. It is stated that it has roots in one of the Sulba
Sutras. Even supposing that these are constructed and developed by
Swamiji, their importance in mathematical literature is not
diminished in any way.

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68
Vedas as Science

It is said that Vedas are nothing but science and they cover all
aspects of the universe. Scientific experiments are verifiable in a
laboratory by anyone anywhere, any time. Its methods are
experience, observation, calculation, and analysis. But this is not
enough, there are certain elements which cannot be so analysed.
Science is knowledge, it is not mere technology.

According to the Vedas, Pranas are the elements which are beyond
matter. They are not product of matter. The Vedas say that the
Brahman is without any attributes, it is formless and changeless. The
theory of Expanding Universe appears meaningless for expanding
and shrinking are relative terms. Things expand when they have
definite shapes, areas, limits or boundaries. We know that thing
expands within its own limits. When we know that this universe is
limitless, how can we say that it expands ? Can we demarcate its
boundaries of expansion and contraction ? Obviously, we cannot. '

Pandit Madhusudan Qza and Pandit Motilal, his (Oza's) disciple have
explained in detail the theory of creation presented in the theory
Yathaq Brahmande tatha Pinde - Whatever exists in nature
(Brahman) exists in human body. They describe the universe as
consisting of five parts. We see around, the Sun, the Moon and the

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69
Earth, besides the stars, planets and the sky. According to the
present understanding the Sun is an infinitesimal part of this vast
universe. These scholars propound that the Sun is in the middle of
the universe, and beyond the Sun there is a sphere known as
Parameshtha - the greater and the higher sphere. In magnitude the
Sun would be just a bubble in the ocean of universe. The Sun
completes a full round of Parameshtha in 25000 years. Besides
Parameshtha there is one more and it is called Swayambhuva.
Parameshtha circles around it. Svanambhuva is, however, static and
it produces on its own volition, the Pranas, the fundamental
elements known as such. Swayambhuva is the origin of the Universe.

Svayambhuva is Brahman of the Vedanta Philosophy. And Brahman

as we have seen is 'Blissful Consciousness. And Vedas propound
thesefive parts. (1)Earth and planets, (2)Stars, (3)the Sun,
(4)Parameshtha and (5) Swayambhuva. These Pandits do not give
further details.

Mathematics has Vedic origin. This shastra Ganita is considered to be

the 'eye' of all other shastras. Besides it develops intuition, analytical
thinking and deduction. And this is what the Vedic methamatics
does; the calculations on the other hand dulls intuition and logical
reasoning. The Vedic mathematics improves one's mental abilities.
Suprisingly from what Swami Bhararti Krishna Tirthaji has stated it
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70
appears that Ganita Sutras - (concise rules of mathematics) and sub-
sutras (corollaries), were hidden in a simple narration. The heading
of the subject is Ganita Sutras or mathematical formulae and the
narratrion is: "In king Kamsa's reign famine, pestilence, unsanitary
conditions prevailed." Swamiji states 'that seemed to be the meaning
of the text apparently nothing to do with the mathematics.'

Swamiji himself was puzzled. He adds: "And after long years and
years of meditation in the forest, I took the help of lexico-graphics,
Lexicans of earlier times... including Visva, Amara, Arnava,
Sabdakalpadruma etc.. Books which are known by name only, and
which people see in the libraries, but which are never turned for arv
useful purpose. Well, with these I was able to find out the meanings,
I got the key in that way in one instance. And one thing after another
helped me into elucidation of other Sutras, other formulae."

A genius of his type brought up in the Vedic tradition and exhibiting

steady application of the mind with unmatched perseverance can
alone dicipher the codes contained in these apparently simple
narrative sentences.

We shall see a few applications of Swamiji's Sutras.

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71
Take Nikhilam Sutra i.e. all from 9 and the last from 1024 ] -Example:
Multiply 87 by 95.
The method used is algebraic.
87 is less than 100 by 13 and 95 by 5
then arrange
100
87 13
95 5
82 65 = 8265,

Here we multiply 13 by 5 and note 65 below, as above and by cross

subtraction of 95 -13 = 82 and 87 - 5 = 82, we get the figure 82,
arranged as above. By this method any number of multiplications can
be easily made. Answer is: 8265.

Let us take an example of surplus.

2. Multiply 1044 by 1012.

arrange
1000
1044 44 Multiply 44 x 12 = 528
1012 12 cross addition we get 44 +12 = 56.
1056 528
Answer is 1056528
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72
Let us take another, surplus and deficient

3. Multiply 1044 by 982

arrange
1000
1044 44 multiply 44X18 = 792
(1000-982) 982 18 Cross addition 44 + 82= 126
Sutract 1 from 26 and 792 from 1000
(for it is less than 1000)
1026 792
1026 (1000-792)
1025 208 = 1025 208 is the answer.
deficiency or surplus is to be taken from the nearest multiple of
10 e.g. upto 100 take 100, then take 1000.

4. Let us take a little more complicated multiplication. Multiply

1044 by 128
arrange
1000
1044 44 add 44+128 =172
128 872(1000-128) multiply 44x872 = 38368
172 38368

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73
 Merge 172000-38368 = 133632
Here the method employed is different -
arrange thus:
Thousand Hundred Tens Units (eka or one)
1 0 4 4
0 1 2 8

One has to master the sutras and their application and we get
flawless results.

With computers and calculators, these have lost significance, as it is

even before the arrival of the computers and calculators, these could
not be used by an average intelligent man. So they had gone into
disuse. However, for computer type of calculations, they were used
by men of above average intelligence.

Geometry

The Hindu ritual revolved round a sacrificial form of worship. For

performing a sacrifice, a prescribed size of altar was essential. A
slightest deviation from it was not tolerated. It was believed that
even the slightest irregularity may accrue sin rather than merit. So
the greatest care was taken to construct the reguired size of the
altar. Thus grew the science of geometry.

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74
The three types of altars were constructed, namely, Garhapatya.
Ahavaniya and Daksina. To measure accurately the sides of the
altars, a sulba or sulva was used, sulba or sulva means to measure.
For this purpose a rope or cord is used. Thus the measuring rope is
also called sulba. This word acquired the meanings-mensuration or
process of measuring, a line or surface, which one gets as result of
this act of measuring, the'instrument of measuring, and the
geometry or the art or science of measuring.

The literature which embodies this knowledge as called the 'Sulba-

Sutras.' These are the manuals for the construction of altars. These
are the sections of the Kalpa-sutras-one of the Vedanagas - A limb of
the Vedas or a section of the Vedic literature. These are also called
Srauta sutras, for these are part of Vedic literature.

There were seven authors to compose these. Each one had his
complete treatise. They are: 1) Baudhayana, with 116, 83 and 323
sutras in three chapters, respectively, 2) Apastamba, with 223 sutras,
3)Katyayana with 90 and 40 or 48 in two parts, 4)Manu, 7 Chapters
with both prose and verse, 5)Maitrayana, with 4 Chapters. 6)Varaha
with two parts, 7) Vadhula, no information of his sutras is available.

There are two types of Yajnas, Nitya and Kamya. Nitya are obligatory
and the Kamya are performed with special motives or objects.

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75
Baudhayana and Apastamba both give the same set of geometrical
propositions. The only difference is that Apastamba has dealt with a
smaller number of varieties of the Kamya yajnas and conseuently
with fewer altars than Baudhayana.

Katyayana Sutras give the whole body of the geometrical knowledge

required in the building of Vedic altars, in a more systematic way.
While others take many aspects for granted and proceed with the
details.

These authours do not claim originality in their works. For they are
after all Sutras-aphorisms based on earlier Brahmana works,
particularly the Taittiriya Samhita or Krishna Yajurveda. Though these
sutras are based on Taittiriya Samhita, its inspiration comes from the
Rgveda itself.

Geometry

The altar of the Garhapatya "must, be circular while that of

Ahavaniya has to be a square. The altar of Daksina is semicircular.

Bibhutibhushana Datta after a careful study of this aspect states:

"Hence it seems that the problem of the squaring of the circle and
the theorem of the square of the hypotenuse (atleast in the simplest
form) are as old in India as the time of Rgveda. They might be older

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still. For it has been shown by Oldenberg that these three fires are
earlier than the Rgveda."

What is that period which can be older than the Rgveda? for we
consider Rgveda to be coeval with the creation. B.Datta does not
throw any light on this aspect. Probably he takes the date of Rgveda
tobe around 1200 B.C.

An expert in the construction of these altars is known as the Agnicit.

The fire-altar is known as Vedi. We have a number of references to
the Vedi in Rgveda. In R.V.I-170-4, the priest is said to decorate the
altar (Vedi) and kindle the fire to the east. Further references are in
R.V.V31-12, VH-35-7, VII-19-18 etc, even a direct reference to
Garhapatya fire is made inR.V.I-15-12 and in few other hymns.

It will .be seen that these altars are of different sizes, and the bricks
used number 200. These operations presuppose the knowledge of
geometrical operations like the following :
(i) To Construct a square on a given straight line.
(ii) To circle a square and vice versa
(iii)To double a circle. This would necessitate the evaluation of a
surd-2, or it may be considered a case of doubling a square and then
circling it. This would lead to a further proposition.

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(iv)The area of the square on the diagonal of a square is double the
area of that square. Further, we are told in the scriptures that the
Saumiki-vedi or Maha-vedi is of the form of an isosceles trapezium
whose face is 24 padas (or prakramas), (pada is a foot or about 12")
base 30 padas and altitude 36 padas. The Sautramani-vedi is stated
iq be an isosceles trapezium similar to and with an area one-third of
that of the Maha-vedi, and the Paitriki-vedi is one-ninth of the latter.
The Pragvamsa is a rectangle. These and similar altars lead to such
operations.

(v) To construct a rectangle having given sides.

(vi)To construct an isosceles trapezium whose face, base and altitude

are given.
(vii)To find the area of an isosceles trapezium.
(viii)To construct an isosceles trapezium whose area will be equalto
a simple multiple or sub-multiple of, and which will be similar to,
another isosceles trapezium.

Some of the vedis or altars are even more complicated in their

constructions. There is an altar known as Syena-cit or the altar of the
form of a falcon. The atman (or body or trunk) of the citi (altar)
consists of 4 square purusas each. Each of its wings is rectangle of
one purusa by one purusa and one aratni (one aratni = 1/5purusa).

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Its tail is a rectangle of one purusa and a pradesa (1 pradesa = 1/10
of a purusa). The altar is usually known as Saptavidha saratni-
pradesacaturasra-syena-cit because its area is 7.5 square purusa, its
shape resembles that of a falcon (syena) and because the bricks used
in its construction are square.

We shall not enter into the details of numerous other altars, also
known after some bird or animal, such as:

(i) vakra-paksavyasta-puccha syena-cit (falcon with bent wings and

out-spread tail).
(ii) Kanka-cit (after heron).
(iii) Alaja-cit.
(iv) pra-u-ga (isosceles triangle)-cit.
(v) (Ubhayatah-pra-u-ga (isosceles triangle on both the sides,
rhombus) -cit.
(vi) Ratha-cakra (chariot-wheel)-cit.
(vii) Drona (trough) cit.
(viii) Samuhya (combined)-dr.
(ix) Smasdna (cemetery)-dr.
(x) Kurma (tortoise) cit etc.

The construction of these altars would need the following

geometrical operations:

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(xi)To construct a square to a simple equal multiple (or sub-multiple)
of another square.
(xii)To construct a square equal to the sum or difference of two
unequal squares.
(xiii)To transform a rectangle into a square and vice versa.
(xiv)To construct a triangle or a rhombus equal to a square. All this
necessitates the acceptance of the following well-known theorem:
(xv)The area of the square described on the diagonal of a rectangle is
equal to the sum of the areas of the squares described on its two
sides.

It was customary that every altar had five layers of bricks; these five
layers brought the altar to the height of knee (= about 32 angulis).
Again, the scriptures prescribe a definite number of bricks of
specifiedshapes for every layer. For example, each layer of the
square Garhapatya altar is constructed with 2] bricks of square or
rectangular shape and each layer of the caturasra-Syena-cit consists
of 200 square bricks. In some Kamya sacrifices, shapes of the bricks
are varied, but the number of them to be employed remains the
same, i.e. 200. Naturally, all this would need, (i)the division of figures
into a particular number of parts of specified shapes and (ii) solving
sometimes problems of indeterminate character.

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Then there are several postulates concerning the division of figures
such as straight lines, rectangles, circles and traingles, methods how
to construct these figures are also given.

So-called Pythagorean theorem (Pythagoras 540 B.C.) has been

discovered much earlier by Baudhayana. Baudhayana enunciates the
theorem thus:

"The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas which its length

and square described on the diagonal of a rectangle has an area
equal to the sum of the areas of the squares described on its two
sides27."

Rational Rectangles

Bibhutibhushan Datta has given in his The Science of the Sulba a list
of the rational rectangles mentioned in the Sulba literature in
different contexts:

Category 1:32+42 = 52 (Bsl.1.49; Apsl.V.3)

(a) 92 + 122 = 152 (KSI.P. verse 31)
(b)122 + 162 = 202 (ApSI. V.3)
(c)152 + 202 = 252 (ApSi. V.3)
(d)722+96:= 1202 (MaSI. ffl.4-6)
category H: 52 + 122 = 132 (BSI.1.49); ApSi. V.4)
(a) 15= + 362 = 392 (BSI.I.49; ApSI. V.2-3)

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(b)402+ 1042 (MaSI. m.3; MaiSi. V.2-3)
Category III: 72 + 242 = 252 (BSI.I.49)
Category IV: 82 + 152 = 172BSI.I.49; ApSI, V.5)
Category V: 122 + 352 = 372 (BSI.I.49; ApSI. V.5)

The history of rational rectangles (15.36.39) can be traced to a very

early age. For we find in the Taittiriya Samhita the following passage:

"All this earth is the Vedi, but they can measure off and sacrifice on
so much as they deem they can use. The back cross-line is thirty feet
the eastern line is thirty-six feet, the front cross line is twenty-four
feet. These make up tens (i.e. ninety)" (T.S. VI.2.4.5).

This description is in connection with the Mahavedi. This also

then reappears in the Kathaka Samhita (KtS. XXV.4) Maitrayani
Samhita (MaiS. ID. 8.4), Kapisthala Samhita (KapS. XXXVIII.6); and
Satapatha Brahamana (SBr III-5-1-1 & X-2, 3-4). The passage in the
Satapatha Brahmana is as follows :

"From the. (Western) end of the Vedi, he measures off the vedi
thirty-six steps long eastward, thirty (steps) broad behind, and
twenty-four (steps broad) in front-that makes ninety, this then is the
Vedi measuring ninety steps; thereon he lays out the sevenfold Fire-
altar.

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The right-angled triangle in this case is of half of the thirty steps
(from the cross line), i.e. 15 steps (perpendicular), thirty six steps
base eastward, and the total sum of the three sides is 90, which
means that hypotenuse is of 39 steps.

152 + 362 + 392

15 + 36 + 39 = 90

We have seen earlier that there are three type of Agnis and
corresponding three Vedis-circular, square and semi-circle. But the
area of all has to be the same. Baudhayana's method of squaring a
circle is described thus (BS-1-1-58).

If you wish to circle a square, draw half its diagonal about the centre
towards the east -west line; then describe a circle together with the
one-third of that which lies outside (the square) BSI-I-58.

Baudhayana's Value of √

It has been long realised that the value of root two (2) cannot
be determined with exactness. Bauddhayana (and also Apastamba)
says the following in this connection :

Increase the measure (of which the dvi-karani is to be found) by its

third part," and again by the fourth part (of this third part) less by the
thirty-fourth part of itself (i.e. of this fourth part). (The value thus
obtained is called) the savisesa. (BS1. 1.61-2 ApSl. 1.6). Katyayana
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puts the same thing in almost similar words. (KS1. n.13). Thus if d be
the dvi-karani of a, that is, if d be the side of a square whose area is
double that of square on a, then, according to the rule,

d = a + a/3 + a/3.4-a/3.4.34 .

Now, it has been stated before, the diagonal of a square is its dvi-
karani. So this value gives the relation between the diagonal and side
of a square. Indeed, the above rule is particularly meant to define
that relation.

Thus we get: √2 = 1 + 1/3 + 1/3.4-1/3.4.34.

In terms of decimal fractions, this gives the following value of √2 =

1.4142156... According to the present calculations, the value
accepted for √2 is 1.414213... This gives a credit to the Sulba
calculators for having found out so accurate a value for this quantity
(B.S. I-I-58)30.

I have given here only a few glimpses of what Geometry had been
developed to in that remote antiquity, following Dr. Satya Prakasha's
exposition quoting him in extenso.

Baudhayana also knew the value of π-the ratio, which is constant

between the circumference of a circle and its diameter. We find a
large number of references to chariots in Rgveda (1-102-3. FV-46-2
etc.) Bullock cart was also known. To fix a metallic rim on the
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wooden circular frame of a wheel, the relationship between the
circumference of the wheel and its diameter is necessary. Baudhayan
and other Sulba-sutrakaras have derived it at 3.088. But Aryabhatta I
of BC period had worked it out accurately at 3.1416 or rouhghly at
22/7.

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 5. Physical Sciences

Physics and chemistry are the basic foundational sciences dealing

with matter and its properties. Physics deals with matter, energy,
motion and force, while chemistry investigates the composition,
properties and transformations of substances and various
elementary forms of matter.

The Vedas not only deal with these sciences, but go to the root of all
the physical phenomena seen around. The Vedas aver that source of
all this phenomena is the Conscious Energy (Sat-Cit-Ananda or Ekam
Sat). It has two aspects Prakriti-Purusha = Consciousness and the
foundational matter. Both these are unmanifest (avyakta). These two
emanate from Brahman the Conscious Energy, when this Energy
develops a desire to create. The Brahman is the ultimate ground
reality. According to the Sankhya philosopher-Kapil-Puranas place
him around 11000 B.C. (see our Volumell), this Prakriti is infinite,
eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, undifferentatied, indeterminate
continuum (please refer to Nasadiya Sukta in Rgveda X-129). This
Prakriti is constituted of three Gunas-reals, the three substantive
entities namely sattva(the essence or intelligence stuff), rajas (the
energy stuff) and tamas-(the inertia or matter stuff). .,

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The equilibrium state of these three Gunas is Prakriti-the infinite
continuum. Prakriti in the state of equilibrium appears to arrest its
further evolution. To start its evolution some push to it is necessary.
This is provided by the presence of Purusha-the transcendental
consciousness around it. It's very presence near Prakriti exerts a
magnetic influence on the slumbering Prakriti, which then gets
disturbed and starts on the course of evolution. Purusha is this
transcendental self. On the cosmic level it is Brahman - the Universal
self. And Prakrili is its creative intelligence.

This evolution is the process of differentiation in the undifferentiated

Prakriti or foundational matter - the combination of intelligence -
energy - and matter stuff. Prakriti or cosmic nature is not matter as
we ordinarily conceive it. It is a special matter which combines into
itself, the energy or intelligence stuff. When this equilibrium of it is
disturbed by the proximity of the Purusha, nobody knows. There is
space-time-continuum. It is beginning-less and endless. It cannot be
measured in time and space. For it is beyond these conceptions. It
can only be described as space-time continuum. This is the creation
process. This process is both creative and destructive. By this process
organic and inorganic matter is created as well as destroyed. This
process of creation anddissolution or dissipation is endless. When
the equilibrium is restored, all this process slops. Then there is only

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Brahman with its Maya-the creative intelligence, the Prakriti latent in
it. But this equilibrium state is unlikely tobe reached again as the
process of creation and destruction is said to be endless.

We are ofcourse not concerned with philosophical aspect of this

Brahman or its Maya or Prakriti. We know from the Sankhyas that
the source of this universe with its diverse phenomena is this
Purusha and Prakriti. The Vedanta caps this duality and declares
Brahman to be the embodiment of this both Purusha and Prakriti.

From this nature of Prakriti, we are told that this totality of Prakriti
with its energy and matter stuff is constant. It transforms but never
diminishes. The totality of the gunas is constant together with its the
manifested and unmanifested aspects. The actual and potential is
constant.

This is the law of conservation energy.

Upanishadic concept :

The beginning of this universe with all its diverse phenomena is a

little different according to the Upanishads. The Upanishads conceive
the Brahman to be the source of this universe manifested and
unmanifested. They tell us that Brahman at the beginning of creation
said to itself 'I am alone, I shall be many'. With this thought,
disturbance arises in it and the creation process begins. The process

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is described thus : 'From the universal soul - the Brahman - the
Akasha - the empty space with the subtle infra atomic particles-of
sound arose. As sound is not a solid matter, its waves are these
atoms and are created. Its nature is shabda or sound. From sound
arose air, from air the fire, the kinetic energy-from this energy, water
and from water the earth and from the earth the vegetation and
from vegetation the man.'

This is not much different from the Sankhya view in its metaphysical
aspects. We shall now try to analyse the atomic conception of
matter.

Kanada is the propounder of this system. He is the ancient physicist.

His system is called Vaisesika. He accepts Akasha, Air, Fire (Teja),
Water (Apa) and Earth (Prithivi) as the five basic elements (panch
Mahabhutas). He state:, that these five elements except Akasha, are
made up of finite tiny particles called atoms. These are infinitesimally
small, invisible and indivisible. The Akasha has no such particles but
the other four elements have. They are differentiated from one
another by their particular qualities - and this is the Vishesha-the
particularity. And so this system is known as Vaisesika. Particularity
of air (vayu) is its quality of sound + touch, of fire it is sound touch +
form, of water,it is sound + touch + form + taste and of earth, sound
+ touch + form + taste + smell. Each has the distinguishing quality, of
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touch for vayu, form or colour for fire, taste for water and smell for
earth.

The earth represents all solids, the water all liquids and the fire all
energy and (vayu) all gases. Akasha is inert and ubiquitous and serves
as substratum to sound, which travels in waves.

These atoms have some inherent qualities and they unite with one
another to form molecules and compounds. It would be clear from
this that our ancients had the concept of the modern physics, that
the atoms are not the final indivisible particles of matter. Atoms of
all these four bhutas (elements) are further divisible and now it is
seen that all the atoms of these four elements can be reduced to the
three elementary particles namely, electron, proton and neutron,
Modern physics now has come to the conclusion that these three
particles lire further reduced to electrons which are called the tiniest
of particles, but these are in fact waves. The proton has an unit mass
of 1850, but still it is invisible and light. It carries a unit positive
charge and unit mass. The electron is the negative charge and has
negligible mass. Mass of 1850 electrons is approximately equal to the
mass of proton. From this one can imagine how light is the electron.

Electron is further analysed and divided into sub-particles called

quartz.

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Brahman with its inherent power Maya or Prakriti being the
substratum of all creation, electron visible to the scientist's
conception of the ultimate in matter can be stated to be the basic
unit of matter, the building block of the universe, the manifested
form of Prakriti.

How old is this view ?

The Nasadiya Sukta conceived the source of this universe as that

Conscious energy(tad-ekam), which the Upanishads call as Brahman.
When Kapil the propounder of Sankhya-Philosophy is stated to
belong to 11000 B.C. this Sukta. may have been seen or composed
even earlier. Maharshi Kanada can be stated to belong to that
remote period i.e. around 11000 B.C. or even earlier. For he is also
known as Kashyapa or the son of Kashyapa, the Prajapati.

The earliest propounder of the atomic hypothesis amongst the

Greeks is Democritus (460-370 B.C.) So even the suggestion that the
Greeks may be the teachers of the Hindus is unthinkable. Yet an
attempt is made to suggest that the Indians have borrowed their
conception of atomic physics from the Greeks. But many scholars
have a contrary view. Macdonell in his History of Sanskrit Literature
remarks on thispoint thus : "According to Greek tradition, Thales,
Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus and others undartook journey

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to oriental countries in order to study philosophy. Hence, there is
atleast the historical possibility of the Greeks having been influenced
by the Indian thought through Persia."

Colebrooke another Sanskrit Scholar observes:

"I should be disposed to conclude that the Indians were in this

instance Teachers than Learners.

Prof.H.H.Wilson in his Preface to Samkhya Karika (1887-PIX) states

that the Hindus derived any of their philosophical ideas from the
Greeks seems very improbable, and "if there is any borrowing in the
case, the latter were most probably indebted to the former."

Atomic Theory of Kanada

Kanada is the propounder of the theory of Indian physics. He is so

named as it is said that like pigeon he ate the particles of rice
scattered on the ground. Kana is a small particle of food. He ate (-----
-to eat) it and lived on it, so he is Kanada. He is also called kana-bhuk
meaning who feeds himself on small atom-like particles. He is the
founder of the science by which he has tried to prove that the origin
of this universe is in the minutest particles called Paramanu-the
minutest anu-atom which cannot be further sub-divided. He
propounded this theory of anus-kanas-so he is Kanada.

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He is said to be the son of the venerated sage Kashyap, the sage as
ancient as Atharvana alias Angirasa and Bhrigu. As he is son of
Kasyapa, he is known as Kasyapa. He is also traditionally known as
Aulukya the son of the sage Uluka. Lord Shiva, because of his
devotion to the study of the secrets of atoms, gave him the
knowledge of the atoms appearing before him as an owl. So his
darshan or system of philosophy is known as Aulukya darshan.

Lord Shiva delivered to him the truths of the Six preclicables a

category, a padartha, object denoted by that term. Padarthas are all
nameable things. He divided all the nameable things into two classes
viz. existence and nonexistence. The objects of the first element
Existence are again categorised as :

(1)Dravya-Substance, (2)Guna-attribute, (3) Karma-action,

(4)Samanya-genius, (5)Visesa species and (6)Samavaya-combination.
These with Abhava nonexistence are the seven padarthas or
predicables.

Kanada's time :

So the system of Kanada is a very old system, older than Uttara-

Mimansa or Vedanta philosophy. The Sankhya and other systems
have also madereference to this system of Kanada. It has to be noted
that the first principles or the elementary forms of all these systems

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are very old and go back to the Vedas. But the Vedanta sutras are
attributed to Bhagavana Vedavyasa who is also known as Badarayana
Vyasa. Vyasa's date is pretty certain. It is around 3300 B.C. The sage
Kapila of the Sankhya philosophy is mentioned in Bhagavadgita. So
Kanada like the sages Atharvana, Kashyapa may be even earlier than
Kapila. The/ development of the Samkhya came a little later. If
Kanada is the son of sage Kasyapa, his date may be very old. This
system is noted in V5yii and other Purunas and Mahabharata. So
Kanada may have flourished much prior to 3300B.C.

In Vayapurana he is said to be the disciple of Soma Shanna (V.P.-

Purna Khand Chapter 23-202, 203). Kanada was the resident of
Prabhasa-Tirtha-on the coast of Saurashtra, where Lord Krishna left
his mortal coil. The Founders of science, however note that he may
be a resident of Pabhasa in the Allahabad District.

Vaisesika system

Every Padartha - substance can be distinguished from the other

because of its particular characteristic or Visesatva - so it is called
Vaisesika system.

Earth (prthivi), water (jala), fire (teja) and vayu are existing
substances. So they can be divided till the last atom which is
indivisible. These substances according to this system are eternal and

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indivisible. They further regard Akasha, time, space, soul and mind as
formless substances. They also cannot be divided and are eternal.

Vaisesikas regard all these substances as eternal as they are existent

and uncaused. The eternal exists. Things as they appear in nature
cannot be eternal. In these things the relation of parts and whole is a
matter of experience. It cannot be unlimited, since otherwise there
would be no difference in quantity between a mountain and a grain
of mustard seed, both being originated by infinite parts. Therefore a
substance without parts must be the limit, and that substance is the
ultimate atom. It is eternal, and imperceptible (Vaisesika sutras IV-1-
145 Upaskara's commentary on it).

Vaisesikas are not atheists. They believe in the Vedas. They see
around and formulate logically the first principles on which this
universe is founded. Like modern physicists, they are unable to say as
to how these different substances come together and combine into
one substance distinguishable from the others. They conceive some
unseen force (Adrsia) which does it. Again the modern development
in physics has proved beyond all reasonable doubt that the origin of
this universe is from the ONE source (Brahman of the Vedanta
Philosophy) and its manifestationis one energy wave, called electron.
This energy wave, called electron, turns on its own into a proton and
a neutron to form a stable atom. From this conscious energy wave
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the whole universe has sprung. The modern physicists do not yet say
that this energy wave possesses consciousness. But the Vedanta calls
Brahman - sat = existence, cid = energy and ananda = blissful. So
Brahman is Blissful Existencial Conscious energy or Brahman is
Conscious Energy.

Vedanta theory, that ONE is the source of all what we see and what
is beyond our power to see, is thus proved. Yet Vaisesikas were the
ancient physicists who tried to explain the nature of the universe.

The ancient Greeks had borrowed this atomic theory from the
Vaisesikas. Dr. Satya Prakash. in his Founders of Science has shown a
remarkable coincidence between Kanada and Scheme of categories
as developed by Dr.Christoph Sigwart in his Logic.

Adi Shankara considers this system as godless as like him (the

Advaitins) the Vaisesikas do not consider some God as the creator.
They regard the five elements and four more categories - time,
space, soul and mind as permanent or eternal categories from the
combination of which this whole universe of myriad forms and
varieties springs. As we have seen this theory is not tenable. So Adi
Shankara in his intuitive wisdom considers these Vaisesikas as half
destroyers (Ardha-Vainasikas) of the concept of true state of the
universe. They are half destroyers i.e. they have not been able to

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completely grasp the true nature of things around, unlike the
complete destroyers - the Bauddhas who are regarded by him as the
Purna Vainasikas the complete-destroyers of the theory of the
Vedanta which is the only true explanation of the origin of this
universe. Complete destroyers means that the Bauddhas are not at
all able to grasp the true nature of things around.

The Bauddhas regard this universe as a non-existing entity. This

concept of existence is according to them the play of the mind. If
mind is not there, would you see the thing around? It is the mind
which brings into the existence the things we see. The Vaisesikas say,
this Bauddhas' concept is too incredulous to believe. When you see
things around how can you deny their existence? One may refuse to
believe and say that this is a play of mind, but all cannot perceive
things around in a similar way. Vaisesika argument is logical.

Vaisesika system is known as the Paramami-Karanavada-the theory

which postulates atoms as the cause of this universe. They believed
that the atoms of the substances are eternal and indivisible. They
had not envisaged the splitting of atoms. But once you believe in this
theory,where do you stop? They believed that at a certain
infinitesimal stage atom is indivisible and eternal. The Vedantains
saw the flaw in this theory. They stated that the ultimate reality is

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only Conscious Energy-sat-cit-ananda and nothing else. And they are
proved right by modern discoveries.

The Vaisesika anu or atom was a substance not seen with length,
breadth or height. But they had to accept that their atom had some
form and some mass. Otherwise they would land themselves in
trouble by stating that from a formless, massless atom this whole
universe with forms and mass has come about. They believed that
paramanu and dvyanuk (two Paramanus together) were unseen and
beyond sensory perception, but the tryanuk (three Paramanus
together) was perceivable. Actually they had not divided any atom to
this level. But they believed that when this universe would be
destroyed at the time of pralaya -deluge - the atom would be split
and it would bring about .total destruction of this universe.

After Pralaya the unseen power would again start activity (karma,
one of the substances) and bring about the combination of different
substances and reconstruct this whole universe.

Vaisesikas could not explain, like the modern physicists, the nature of
the eternal paramanus and why they want to come together to form
an object. Their alma is not a conscious soul. This atma is joined to
the body by that unseen power (adrsta)

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This system is a complete science of physics and is elaborately
discussed in 370 Sutras in Ten books. A number of commentaries are
available on these. Their theory that paramanus of certain basic
elements or categories are the cause of this universe is very ably
presented. Their conception of 'soul' and 'mind' is very near that of
Vedanta. With the modem discoveries in physics the Vedantic theory
is proved. Otherwise the big question in that theory was:what is
Conscious Energy? and How do you prove its existence ?

The Vaisesikas unlike the modern materialists did not consider 'soul*
or 'mind' as a byproduct of certain physiological processes. They
considered it as a distinct entity possessing distinct attributes. This is
certainly a step further than the modern physicists who do not want
to bother about questions concening 'soul' and 'mind'.

Let us see in a little detail as to what these physical scientists of the

ancient age have to say about soul :

Kanada's perception of the theory of causation is worth noting in

detail.

Soul

'The immediate purpose of the Vaisesika-Darsana is to teach the

difference between the Self and the Not-Self. Kanada has accordingly
entered into a detailed enquiry respecting the existence and

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attributes of the Soul. He has shown that the Self is not an empty
idea but has a real existence; that the Soul is not a by-product of
physiological processes, nor is identical with the stream of conscious
states, nor, again, ultimately resolvable into the supreme self during
the circle of secondary creations and dissolutions, but that it is a
distinct entity possessing distinct attributes and length of experience.
Now, among substances, the Soul, like Ether, Time, Space, Air and
ultimate Atoms, is not an object of external perception (VS.VIII.i.2). It
is also not an object of internal perception by ordinary minds. Only
persons who have attained a certain level of the spiritual
development, that can, through a particular conjunction of the Soul
and the Mind in the Soul, have immediate consciousness of the
existences and attributes of the Soul, as also of other substances as
well as Attributes and Actions.

Otherwise the proof of the existence and attributes of the soul is by

means of inference. The mark of inference is, in this case, supplied by
the very fact of experience. For, perception of the objects of the
senses is a universal experience among mankind (VS.III.i.1); and this
universal experience of the objects of the senses is a mark of the
existence of an object, (namely the Soul) different from the senses
and their objects.

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The readers if they so desire may follow this discussion in the Text of
these Sutras.

Mind

Mind is the internal organ of sense. Like the Soul, it also is not an
object of ordinary perception Us existence is inferred from the
production and non -production of cognition even on the contact of
the Soul with the senses and objects. Itsattributes are number,
quantity, separateness, conjuction, disjunction, priority, posteriority
and potentiality. Its substance-ness and eternality are proved like
those of Air.From the non-simultaneity of volitions and cognitions, it
follows thatthereisonly one Mind in each organismFor the same
reason, its quantity is atomic.

Now, the Mind is the inner sense, internal organ, or the organ of
internal perception. We may take up here Kanada's theory of
perceptual cognition in general. Perception denotes certain
unchanging cognition, produced in the Soul, through the contact of
the senses and objects. This contact, or presentation of objects to
the soul through the medium of the sense, is eigher laukika or
ordinary, or a-laukika or extraordinary. But the conditions under
which external perception can take place remain to be pointed out.
The first condition of external perception is that the five external

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senses are respectively constituted by the very same element which
they severally apprehend. Community of substance, therefore,
between the sense and object is the essential condition for the
apprehension of the external objects, viz. Earth, Water, Fire. The
conditions of external perception in particular instances are laid
down in the aphorisms.

Objects that are beyond the reach of the senses, under ordinary
circumstances, are the Ultimate Atoms, Air, Space, Time, Ether,
Mind, Soul, Combination, Gravity etc. They are, however, cognizable
in two ways, namely, intuitively, in rare cases, as in the case of sagely
cognitionor through the medium of alaukika or extraordinary
presentation of objects to the Soul. Extraordinary presentation is
three-fold, being samanya-laksana (presentation by genus), jnana-
laksana (presentation by cognition) and yogajadharma (presentation
by the yoga).

Undoubtedly, the Vaisesika doctrine of realism is founded upon this

theory of perception.

Kanada's perception of the theory of causation is worth noting in

detail.

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Kanada and Law of Causation

Perhaps the greatest discovery of the human thought is the

realisation of a link between cause and effect. The evolution of
science is based on the implicit faith in the law of causation. The
scientific study means the search of a cause or a number of causes
leading to a particular phenomenon. In the history of the Indian
thought, Kanada's is the first attempt to explore a relation between
cause and effect. This was later on developed in a modified form by
the Samkhya school also and more critically examined by the
Buddhistic schools and also by the Vedantins.

In the Tenth Book of the Vaisesika, we have a number of

Sutras,relating to the nature of the cause. The Vivrti on one of these
Sutras refers to three kinds of Causes

i) Samavayi Karana, i.e. inherent or combinative or material cause;

ii) Asamavayi Karana, i.e. non-inherent or non -combinative or formal

cause, and

iii) Nimitta Karana, i.e., instrumental or efficient cause.

Prof. Keith has very well described these three causes. He says : "The
first is the inherent cause, in which case the relationship is that of
inseparable connection. It is illustrated by the relation of the threads
to the rug as opposed to the shuttle which aids, in the production of

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the fabrics, and the same relation exists between all products and
the substances of which they are made. It holds also between
substance and quality and substance and motion : the threads of the
rug stand in the relation to the colour of the rug; is the inherent
cause (Samavayi -karana) of its colour, and it is readily admitted that
as the cause must precede the effect at the moment of its coming
into being, the rug must have no colour, and since it can also have no
dimension, cannot be perceptible at all until these attributes have
come after an infinitesimal delay into being. Secondly, there is the
non-inherent cause (asamavayi -Karana), which inheres in the same
substratum with the effects or with the inherent cause. The first is
the relation of the arrangement of the threads of a rug to the rug;
the arrangement or conjunction as a quality is inherent in the
threads, which are the inherent cause of the rug. The relation may
secondly be indirect : thus the colour of the rug; and the colour of
the rug inheres in it. Thirdly, the category of instrumental cause
(nimitta-kdrana) is the receptacle for every sort of cause which
cannot be brought under the two preceding heads, including the
agent; in it again there may be .drawn distinction between special
and general causes, of which there are eight: God, his knowledge,
desire and action, antecedent non-existence, space and time, merit
and demerit, to which some add absence of counteracting

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influence."40 But in this view of the third category it seems that the
term cause is too widely applied, and a better method is that
followed by those who distinguish between primary (mukhya) and
subordinate causes and subdivide the former only into the three
classes relegating the other matter to the inferior category.

Of the three kinds of causes, the first two, Samavayi and asamavayi
are always extraordinary or uncommon (asddharana), while the third
are of two kinds : Sadhdrana and asddharana, Under the former
heads we generally include the eight : God (Isvara), knowledge
(jnana), desire (Iccha), God's action (Isvarakrti), space (dik), time
(kala), unseen (adrsta) and prior existence (pragabhava). The
asadharana or instrumental causes are innumerable.

It is not always easy to define what cause is and how it is related to

effect. In various contexts, Kanada has given a few important
maxims, which we shall briefly enumerate here :

i) Substance is not annihilated either by effect or by cause [(------------

- - VS. I. i, 12)]

Substance is not destroyed either by its own effect or by its own

cause. The meaning is that the relation of the destroyer and the
destroyed does not exist between two substances which have
entered into the relation of effect and cause. Substance is destroyed

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only by the destruction of the support or substratum and the
destruction of the originative conjunction.

ii)Dravya or substance is characterised by action and attribute, and is

a samavayi or inherent cause

iii) Non-existence of effect (follows) from the non-existence of cause.

If cause is destroyed, the effect would be destroyed.

iv) But non-existence of cause (does) not (follow) from the non-
existence of the effect.

If the law of the relation of effect and cause does not exist, then the
non-existence of cause will follow also from non-existence of effect.
Non-existence of effect is not instrumental towards the non-
existence of cause; but non-existence of cause is instrumental
towards non-existence of effect. .

v)The attribute of the effect is seen to be preceded by the attribute

of the cause

vi)The existence (of colour etc.) in the effect (follows) from their
existence in the cause.

Effect Pre-existing in cause

The effect may of course be defined in terms of cause as that which

follows on that which is necessary and not accessory merely, but a

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more pregnant definition is that of Annam Bhatta, who makesit the
positive correlate of an anterior negation, thus emphasizing the
fundamental feature of the doctrine of casuality in the Nyaya-
Vaisesika, its denial that the effect always prefigured in the cause (a-
sat-karya-vada). The doctrine is already expressly insisted upon by
Kanada: without a cause there can be no effect, not, however,
without an effect no cause. Thus the doctrine of the school is that
the cause always precedes the effect, and the latter has no existence
until it is brought into being. It has, therefore, some affinity with the
Buddhist doctrine of the generation of being out of not being, and it
stands in absolute contradiction with the Samkhya assertion of the
pre-existence of the effect in the cause (sat-karya-vada) or the
Vedanta view which preserved the identity of the cause, while
holding that the effect was ultimately illusory. The Samkhya lays
stress on such arguments as the fact that in experience we see that
there can be no creation of anything new; the blue colour can never
be converted into red; the sesamum can be traced in the oil pressed
from it; no effect is ever produced from any cause as would be
possible in the Nyaya view, but only from a specific cause; if the
suggestion is made that the cause possesses" some power to
produce the effect, is this power connected with the effect? If so,
that is the fatal difficulty as to the concurrence of definite

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effects with definite causes. Finally, as cause and effect are
correlative ideas, it is impossible to assert the existence of cause
without its producing at once the effect. The Nyaya reply is not
uningenious: the same atoms make a pot or a saucer; on the identity
theory the atoms, pot, and saucer should all be the same which is
not the case, an argument which the Vedanta meets by denying that
things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
The shape of a pot again is not to be traced in its constituents and
must be new. Or, if it is argued that the effect is latent but is made
manifest, then the manifestation itself, being an effect, must have
existed previously and so on indefinitely. This argument has been
apparently met by resort to the Vedanta theory that the whole
manifested work is but the play of illusion, and that one real alone
remains. Hence Sankara's conception of inherence in its relation to
causality escapes the difficulty of the Samkhya, which is compelled to
ignore obvious facts by its insistence on the prefiguration of the real
cause in a real effect.

Nyaya - Vaisesikas

Gotama the author of Nyaya-sutras was a contemporary of Kanada.

Nyaya as we have noted earlier is one of the philosophical systems
which like the Vaisesika had accepted the authority of the Vedas.
Kanada's view that the things in the universe were real and existed
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was acceptable to Gotama. These two systems did not regard like the
Buddhists, that the existence of things in outside world as unreal.

Characteristics of Atom

Paramanu, (atom) has been defined as the ultimate particle of each

of the four out of the nine substances, earth, water, fire and air. Sucli
a particle is necessarily supersensuous. Its existence, for this reason,
is sometimes questioned. That a Paramanu is not perceived need not
imply its non-existence; this may as well be due to the action of
certain factors [Mahabhasya on Panini Sutras, IV.i.l; Samkhya Karika,
Verse 7)] which stand in the way of its perception, and as there is no
magnitude in the paramanu, it is not perceived. Its existence,
therefore, is proved through inference as is described below :

The moles, observed floating in the sun-beam entering a room

through a little chink, are usually called trasarenus or truti in the
Nyaya systems [(NS.IV.ii. 17)] and represent the ultimate particles of
matter in so far as they are visible. Possessed of magnitude and
being amenable to sense perception, these particles must be held to
have component parts which, called dvyanukas, must, in their turn,
possess similar constituents of their own for identical reasons. The
components of these dvyanukas are called paramanus [(NV.IV.ii.17;
VS.IV.i.2)] which are indivisible by nature and incapable of further

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analysis. The assumption of the analogy of grosser matter would lead
to a regressus add infinitum. Besides, in as much as every material
product would, in that case, consist of an equally endless number of
constituents, there would be no actual difference in the dimension of
the various products; so that the dimension of the highest mountain
of the world would be equal to that of a mustard seed. But that there
is such a difference cannot be denied. Hence, a paramanu cannot be
further divided.

The more important characteristics of the atoms are :

1) They are eternal and indivisible.

2) By themselves they cannot produce anything else; their eternal

character would involve a continuous process of production.

3) Each of the four kinds of paramanus possesses its specific

attributes, namely, smell, touch, taste and colour. That is, the earthly
paramanu has smell, the airy touch, the watery taste and the fiery
colour (VS.FV.i.3).

4) They cannot be perceived through any of the organs of sense

perception. Thus, for want of magnitude and manifested colour
(NS.D.i.36; VS.IV.i.6) in them, there can be no visual perception; for
want of magnitude and manifested touch, they cannot be felt
through the actual sense-organ, and so on. But this does not mean

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that a sense organ does not come in contact with paramanus
(NV.II.i.33) for, they are perceived by the yogins (VU.VIII.i.2). In other
words, in the case of the yogins also, the direct perception of the
paramanus is through the sense-organ andobject-contact. This does
not deny the possibility of the intuitive perception of the paramanus
by the yogins (VU.Vin.i.2).

The Buddhists object to this Nyaya-Vaisasika view of the Paramanus.

The argument of the Buddhists contains two parts : i) that the

paramanu has got parts and that it is non-eternal; ii) and that Akasa
is not all-pervasive. As regards the first objection, the Nyaya-
Vaisesika view is that it is untenable; for, the expressions 'in' and
'out' in regard to an object refer to the parts of that object, but as
the paramanu is conceived to have no parts, it is not possible to talk
of it as having 'in' and 'out'. Hence, the expression vyatibheda
(permeating both 'in' and 'out') is not applicable to a substance like
paramanu (NS.lV.ii.20).

Regarding the second part, the only answer which can be adduced is
that all-pervasiveness means that a substance having all-pervasive
nature should be in contact with each and everything having limited
form (murtimat) and not that it should also be in contact with a thing
which has no existence. How can, therefore, we assume that Akasa

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will not remain all-pervading if it is not held to be in contact with 'in'
and 'out' sides of the paramanu which are non-existing? Therefore,
this objection also like the other one, falls to the ground (NV.IV.ii.20).

It is to be noted here, that the Nyaya and the Vaisesika have finally
decided that a paramanu is an ultimate and indivisible particle of
bhuta and is eternal. Being fully convinced of their position they
would not allow any objection against this conviction. Hence, most of
the objections raised by the opponents are thrown aside only
because these objections refer to a paramanu having parts, which of
course, it cannot possess.

Thus, the objection that as objects, having limited form and

possessing touch sensation, occupy space and possess parts, a
paramanu also which possesses a limited form and touch sensation
should occupy space and have parts is rejected on the ground that if
it were so, then a paramanu could not be the ultimate indivisible
particle (NS. and NBha. IV.ii.23., NM.p.551: Vyom., p.207)].

The next objection is that as paramanus combine together, they

must possess constituent parts, like threads, for instance. In other
words, when one paramannu comes between two other paramanus
and combines with them, it really has two aspects corresponding to
the two paramanus with which it combines. From this mediation it is

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inferred that the front part of the intervening paramanu has come in
contact with the paramanu in the front, while the rear part has
combined with the paramanu at the back. Now, these front and rear
parts naturally referto the two constituent parts of the intervening
paramanu. Likewise, the mediating paramanus will combine
simultaneously with other paramanus put on all other four sides. In
this way, the paramanu in the middle will join others on six sides. As
conjuction is an attribute, it must have a substratum, and, again, as it
does not pervade over the whole of its substratum, there must be
parts in its substratum. This shows that a paramanu has parts.

To this it is said that the contact of the paramanu in the centre with
the other paramanus is due to the fact that a paramanu possesses a
limited form (murta) and not because it has parts. And, again, a
substance which has parts inheres in another substance, but as a
paramanu does not in here in any substance, it has no parts; hence,
it is wrong to hold that there are parts in a paramanu .with which
other paramanus combine [(Tat.IV.ii24-25, p.651)J.

Paramanu and Motion

Before we take up the question of the formation of a composite

whole (avayavin) from the paramanus, we should know something
about motion which plays an essential part in its formation. A

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composite is formed out of conjunctions which are brought about by
motion (karman) which is the cause of conjunction and disjunction.
Motion inheres in a substance having limited form and is produced
by weight (gurutva), liquidity, effort and conjunction. It is always a
non-material (asamavayi) cause and never an instrumental one, like
attributes.

Such a motion is very essential both for the production and the
destruction of the sensible world. As the universe (samsara) is
beginningless and ever-changing, all its products must undergo
changes. Changes are brought about by motion. According to the
Nyaya Vaisesika, motion is not intrinsic but comes from without.
Hence, either through effort (in the case of individual destruction), or
through DIVINE effort (in the case of universal destruction) a motion
is produced in the object, and through a regular process the motion
brings about the destruction; so that, all the non-eternal objects are
ultimately reduced to various paramanus through motion. These
paramanus remain, during the period of dissolution (pralaya),
separated from one another; so that, they cannot bring into
existence any product for sometime, till the commencement of the
cosmic order sets it. Even during this period there exists, according
to some, a sort of motion which is non-productive of any
conjunction. It is caused to the paramanus from the first shock

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(samksobha) or blow in the objects causing their destruction. This
shock produces motion in the paramanus, which is productive of the
impression (samskara)., called vega (velocity). This motion persists
even during the dissolution period in the form of atomic vibration.

It may be asked: What is the use of such a motion then ? The answer
isthe only use of -this sort of motion in the paramanus is to mark the
time-limit.

Thus, it is clear that the series of Karmas present in the paramanus

during the dissolution period are unable to make them group
together so as to form any effect. But there must be grouping of that
sort; hence, we require another motion. This motion is to be had, like
all other motions, from some cetana agency. As it is not possible for
individual soul (Jivatman) to produce such a motion at that time, we
are constrained to assume the presence of a super-human power,
conscious and capable of producing such a motion in the paramanus.
It does this under the influence of the adrsta of the persons or
creatures who are to make use 6f the body or object concerned. But
why should the conscious agent be at all influenced by adrsta? For,
adrsta inheres in the Jivatman, and Jivas are then in a discamate and
insensate condition. The truth is that as soon as the cumulative
adrsta of the Jivas matures for fructification, the Will-of-God, which
is eternal,- becomes, as it were, creative and immediately the
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paramanus group themselves round the Manas (mind) and form
organisms one for each. The initiation of motion in Manas and
paramanus is attributed to adrsta quickened by the Divine Will.

Thus, there are, so to say, two kinds of motion in the paramanus

before any effect is produced out of these. Apparently, one appears
to be intrinsic, while the other extrinsic. But when closely observed
we find that both have come from without, the only difference being
that of time, and in both the cases, the motion is due to some cetana
element. Both of these motions are produced by effort (prayatna)
and adrsta helped by Divine will respectively.

With the help of such a motion paramanus group together to form

biggest parts (avayavas) till composites are formed and the cosmos
comes to exist.

Source of Energy :

Apart from the conception that the Conscious Energy is the only one
First Cause of the whole process of Creation, through two agents
Purusha and Prakriti, the whole gamut of creation process is
explained logically in the Upanishads. The Purusha and Prakriti are
activated by that First Cause. Purusha is the conscious desire to start
this process and Prakriti is equilibrium of the three primary
subatomic particles, Essence, Energy, and Mass or inertia or in the

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modern language of the atomic physics-r'ectron, protron and
neutron.

In this physical world the Sun is the store house of all energy that the
Earth gets. Through this solar heat, all the chemical changesin the
earth substances take place. The phange of colours in grasses - the
green, blue, red etc. are due to this solar heat and not due to Agni
heat from fire.

It is the solar heat that helps grass, grain and fruits to grow. It helps
to ripen these fruits, which it is otherwise not possible through heat
generated by any other process like fuel fire or electrical heat.

The solar heat thus brings about chemical changes, like taste, smell
etc.

Varahamihira (around first century B.C.) has given many empirical

recipes to bring about chemical changes in substances. Technology in
this respect had been developed considerably.

Hard rocks are difficult to be pulverised. Varahamihira notes down

the technology in this respect. He says:put the rock into the fire of
Palasha and Tinduka wood and after taking it our red hot, sprinkle on
it diluted milk or a solution of wood ashes. He has given further such
processes.

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The recipes for hardening and sharpening of steel articles,
preparation of cements, nourishment of plants etc. are also
described.

Motion :

The modern Scientists have made gigantic strides in unearthing the

secrets of nature in almost all the branches of science except that
section which concerns consciousness. They believe that
consciousness is the result of certain specific arrangement of matter.
This arrangement, they have not been able to discover and to isolate
in a laboratory.

The ancient physicists the Vaisheshikas who were able to propose

the theory of four permanent or eternal anus -atoms of Vayu, Tejas,
Water and Earth proposed that some Adrishta -unseen force is at
work in this universe, which causes motion. The Sankhyas went a
little further and proposed the duo-the Purusha (the conscious
principle) and Prikriti the transcendental matter constituted of
Essence-Sattva, Energy, Rajas, and inertia mass or Tamas, (the three
gunas). The Vedantins went still further ahead behind this
phenomenon and postulated Brahman as the First cause, the
Conscious Energy behind this Sankhya Purusha and Prakriti. And

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there the matter rests. And the day would not be far ahead when the
modern physical scientists would accept this Vedantic postulation.

It is, therefore, interesting to probe a little into what the

Vaisheshika's conception of Adrishta has been.

Adrishta or unseen is the unknown cause behind all this phenomenal

world.

The problems as to what man is, how he is born, how men with
different aptitudes and capacities are seen to work around, from
where they come, why do they come, and where do they go ? - are
all inexplicable phenomena of nature.

1) The Vaisheshikas state that man's birth and his aptitude and
capacity is due to his merit or demerit in his previous birth. This is
Karma-siddhanta-the theory of rebirth accepted as proved by all the
systems of philosophy built up by the Indian thinkers. This is the
moral law of causation, superimposed on the natural law. This is
adrishta, the unseen factor which is at work in the universe. It admits
of the Vedantic conception of soul present in individual conscious
being.

2) Another sector in which this unseen power is said to be at work is

the phenomena of movement, we are conscious of and which cannot
be explained by observation or inference. For example - why air-

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Vayu-moves, why flames of fire move upwards, why the needle is
attracted by a magnet etc. These natural properties have to be
ascribed to adrishta.

So adrishta is that unseen force or cause which cannot be explained

through experimentation in a laboratory currently or in future. The
future cannot be predicted by scientific theories. If in future the
causes behind these unexplained laws of nature are unravelled, then
adrishta would cease to work in that field.

With this background information, the ancient Indian scientists

explain the nature of motion. They call it samyoga -
vibhaganirapeksa karanam -the unconditional cause of conjunction
and disjunction of a particle-its change of place. Motion is Karma in
Sanskrit. Impressed motion or momentum is Vega-speed. Sanskara
implies series of motion.

Change of place is one type of Karma or motion. There cannot be

two at one and the same time. When, therefore, the motion meets,
with an equal and opposite force, the particle is said to be at rest.
One and the same motion can affect one substance at a time unless
one substance is linked or joined with another-as in a train.

Again the motion has a direction-rectilinear, or upward or downward

or sideways. It would be thus rotatory or vibratory if the motions of

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that type are impressed on the object. Motion is again active,
changing one place after the other, when force is applied to the
object.

Motion or movement when not caused by contact with matter is

volition - prayatna -as movement of the hand. The movement of the
falling body is by Gurutva the attraction (akarshana) exercised by the
earth on the falling material body.

Four Kinds of paramanus :

(i) Earthly (ii) Watery (iii) Fiery or (iv) and Taijasa Airy

The earthly paramanus possess attributes of colour, taste, smell and

touch which are all non-eternal for, these are produced and remain
changing due to the application of heat through the process of
chemical action (pakaprakriya). These attributes are unmanifest.
Padmanabha Misra holds that although there is variegated colour
and touch in earthly products, yet they do not inhere in paramanus.
But Sankara Misra, on the other hand, thinks that there is variegated
colour even in these.

The watery paramanus possess colour, taste and touch which are all
eternal as these are not due to any chemical action (pakaja).

Similarly the fiery paramanus possess the attributes of colour and

touch which are also eternal, as they do not possess pakajavisesa.

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The airy paramanus' attribute is touch which is eternal, as there is no
chemical action in them.

This is just a translation of Vaisesika and Nyaya Sutra and a few

commentaries on these. From this whole discussion, it can easily be
inferred that our ancients had come to the conclusion that the origin
of the universe is in ONE - conscious energy. Paramanus are seen as
waves and particles with motion but with no length, breadth and
height. This is word for word the description of the ultimate sub-
atomic particle-the quartz. It is both wave and particle.

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 6. Astronomy

Astronomy is the science of the stars or the heavenly bodies.

Everyday the man sees the moon, the sun and the stars appear in the
sky regularly. He sees that the Sun rises daily in the morning and sets
in the evening. Such is, however, not the case with the Moon. He
sees the full Moon only on one day and also notes that she does not
appear at all on some other day. The days in between the waning
and waxing of the moon i.e. from the no-moon day to the other
sameday, he observes to be around 29 and 1/2. He called it a month
(chdndramasa) the lime between sunrise and next sunrise he called
it a day.

He also saw that the seasons summer, autumn and winter appear
regularly. These appear to take place, one after the other in 12
months. He thus took the day from one sunrise to the next as one
day and such 30 days were termed a month. And twelve such
months a year. So, for practical purposes a year of 360 days came,
into vogue. It is called a civil year.

By minute observations, he found that the sun takes 365 days, 6

hours and 9 minutes and 9.6 seconds to complete its motion from a
given star to the same star again. Aryabhata I takes it at 365 days

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15Ghatika or 6 hours and 31 pale or 11 minutes. He called it
Nakshatra (or side-real) year. During this period, the three seasons
appear and cover these 365 days, 6 hours and 9 minutes and 9.6
seconds. To square the difference between chandramdsa the Lunar
year and the Solar year an extra month called adhikamasa
(intercalary) was added every 32 months. (R.V.I. 25-8). Now by exact
calculations once in 27 to 35 months it occurs. The Lunar month in
which the Sun is seen not to cross from one Rashi (Zodiacal sign) to
another is declared as Adhika masa.

Aryabhata 1 was firmly of the opinion that the Earth moves and the
stars are steady. The Vedas clearly hold that the Earth is the
daughter of The Sun. The Sun is the soul and the source of this world.

Development of Astronomy :

From the natural curiosity to know about stars and their movements
and the causes of seasons (Rtus) the Aryans felt the need to develop
this science to fix their agricultural operations, and the observance of
their rituals and performances of the yajnas the sacrificial form of
worship. They found the regular occurences of full moon day-
Paurnima and no moon day - Amavasya. The Lunar month they
divided into about 30 days and called it Tithi - a day little smaller
than the Solar day.

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When to start the calculation of the year was the next problem. They
found the start of the Vernal equinoix (Vasanta Ritu) to be the month
convenient. Thus when the sun entered the Zodiacal sign Aries
(Mesa) they took it to be the start of the year. This month came to
be called Madhu in which the bees hum around flowers gaily to
collect honey. Later on the original names of the months viz. (1)
Madhu, (2) Madhava - these two constitute Vasanta Ritu - the gay
season, (3) Shukra, (4)Shuchi, these two months are the months of
the hot season called Greesma, then come, (5)&(6)Nabhasya-the
Varsha Ritu or the rainy season, showers drop from the cloud-
Nabhas-, the next two are called, (7)Ishaand (8)Urjathe ritu being
Sharada-when the sowing season begins and the crops begin to
grow, occasional showers also we get; afterwards we have. (9)Sahas
and (lO)Sahasya-the months of Hemanta Ritu-the pleasant and
happy season and last two are, (ll)Tapas and (12)Tapasya-the Winter
months rather hard and the season is called Shishira-(Tai-Samhita-4-
4-ll),they were changed to Chaitra Vaisakha - the present
nomenclature.

The intercalary or Adhika month is given the name Samsarpa. The

year based on the seasonal calculation is called astronomical or
equinoctial year or tropical year and is a little short of the Sidereal
year by about 20.4 minutes. This is the interval between one vernal

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equinox and the next or the mean motion of the sun through 360° of
longitude or one complete mean apparent circuit of the ecliptic by
the sun-this is 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes and 49.7 seconds.

The currently followed year in India is the Julian year adopted by the
West and corrected by allotting different days to different months
and adding one day every four years to the month of February.

The Tropical year system adopted by our seers causes the seasons to
fall back nearly one lunar month in about every 2000 years, as the
sidereal is the obvious and the correct standard of measurement.

To correct distortion, the Indians have to add one more lunar month
as Adhik or intercalary month every 2000 years. Or they can add 1
day every 100 years and 2 days every 200 years to make up the
time... of 30 days in 2000 years.

It would thus be seen that Astronomy has been quite a developed

science in India since the Vedic days.

The Sun takes a northerly direction for six months - uttarayana and
southerly direction for another six months - dakshinayana which has
been noted in the Vedas (Shat-Br.2-13).

The equinoctial day called Visuva-when both night and day are equal
in length is also known to the Vedas (Aitareya Br. 18-18). According

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to the Gregorian calendar it now falls on 21 st March and 23rd
September each year.

A day is divided into five parts morning, active, mid-day, advanced

day and evening (R.V.V-76-3 Tai. Br 1-5-1). A day is further divided
into 15 Muhurtas. Likewise the night is also divided into 15
Muhurtas.

Vedanga Jyotisa :

About Nakshatras there are umpteen number of references in

different scriptural texts including Rgveda itself. In Atharva Samhita
19-7, there is a list of 28 Nakshatras. This list begins with Krittika and
ends with Bharani. In Taitiriya Samhita, for Pushya, we have Tishya,
for Dhanistha, we have Shravistha, for Shravana, we have Shrona, for
Shatataraka we have Shatabhishak and for Bhadrapada we have
Proshthapada. Ashvini is noted as Ashvayuji.

Detailed discussion about Astronomy is found in one of the branches

of the Veda, namely Jyotisa. The author of Jyotisa attached to Rgveda
is Lagadhacharya. When did he compose it? We have some clue in its
sixth verse. It runs thus :

- The Sun and the Moon are seen to turn towards North at the
beginning of constellation Shravishtha (Dhanishtha), and towards the
South at the beginning of the second half of the constellation of

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Ashlesha. The Sun turns towards the North in the month of Magha
and towards South in the month Shravana."

The next verse stales: "When the Sun turns Northwards the day
increases steadily by Prastha (some measure to record the increase)
and the night becomes smaller by the same measure. And quite
contrary happens when the Sun turns towards the South."

This was the position of the stars and the Sun, when this verse was
written. S. B.Dixit the author of Bharatiya Jyotisashastra in Marathi
(This book is now translated in English) has worked out the period of
this position of the stars. In 1887, when he worked it out, the star
Shravistha was 10 Rashis, 15 Amshas, 48 Kalas and 29 Vikalas-the
Indian units of measurements - away from 1887 position. The rate of
precession is 50 Vikalas per year. This way he calculated that
3297years have elapsed since this position of stars as is noted in the
Verse 6 or 3299-1887 = 1410 years B.C. Dixit has noted how
Colebrooke and Whitney have wrongly worked out this year at 1108
B.C.

According to me this date requires to be pushed back considerably.

The Westerners have incorrectly assumed that Chandragupta
Maurya to be the contemporary of Alexander, the Greek adventurer
who had come up to the Indian borders around 327 B.C. I have

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shown that Chandragupta I of the Gupta Dynasty to be that
contemporary. Chandragupta Maurya flourished around 1534 B.C. a
difference of 1534-327= 1207 years. I have also worked out Adi
Shankara's date to be 509 B.C. instead of 788 A.D. as is assumed
today and Buddha's date to be 1887-1807B.C. In these two cases the
difference is 509 + 788 = 1297 years and 1887 - 543 = 1344 years
respectively. According to the speculative modern historians Panini is
stated to have flourished about 400 years before Buddha say in 900
B.C. According to my calculation he would have to be placed around
1887 + 400 = 2287 B.C. When Vedanga Jyotisha is stated to be earlier
to Panini by about 500 years (1410-900 = 510) its date would be
around 22874510 = 2797 B.C. if not still earlier.

In Mahabharata days, the Uitarayana used to start in Shravana

constellation which is earlier to Dhanishtha. This way the period of V.
Jyotisha can be pushed back to pre-Bharata war date (3139 B.C.).

I have shown that date of composition of the Vedas to be shrouded

in mystery. Even Max Muller opines thai the earlier dale may be even
much earlier lo 3000 B.C., nobody can determine it with any degree
of certainty. The latest date of compilation of the Vedas can,
however, be fixed at around 3200 B.C., the date when Bhagvan
Vedavyasa compiled the Vedas into four samhitas. Vedang Jyotisha
came to be composed immediately hereafter. The date of it can,
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therefore, be around 3000 B.C. (Please see BWSHMA'S Volume I for
details)

Dixit has observed that his date of Vedanga Jyolisha at 1410 B.C. as a
mere Arithmetical compulalion.il is nol so.-The period of equinoctial
precession (Ayana-chalana) fixed at 50 Vikalas a year is not a fixed
factor in calculation. Even Dixit in his magnum opus-p.398 observes
that this figure of 50 vikalas can be much less than that.

In his time (around 1887 A.D.) the uttarayanastarted in the

constellation (Purvashadha) instead of in Dhanishtha as stated in
Vedanga Jyotisha. He has worked out the precession at 45°, 48 Kalas
and so the date is deduced at 1410 B.C. on the assumption of the
rate of precession at 50 Vikalas a year. If we assume this rate around
40 and the precessionat 53° the date of Vedanga Jyotisha, the
constellations are 4 in number, including these both, so the
precession will be well around 53° instead of '45°, 48 Vikalas as
assumed by Dixit.

The Westerners are prone to push forward the date of our ancient
literature, when Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas - our
historical treatises note around 3139 B.C. the date of the Bharata
War. Max Muller works out the date of Vedanga Jyotisha at 300 B.C.
and Weber at 500 B.C. With evidence Dixit shows the fallacy in their

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arguments. There is ample evidence to show that V. Jyotisha to be
pre-Paninian. Dr. Martin Hou notes that for "a day" the term used is
"Gharma." The use of this term had ceased to be even in "Yaska's"
days. And Yaska is certainly pre-Paninian.

The three Vedas, the Rgveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda have each
of them their V. Jyotisha. Though Veda Vyasa has compiled the Vedas
in four parts, the Verses from them have a hoary antiquity. It cannot,
therefore, be said that Rgveda is the earliest and the others are later.
According to the theme of the Verses, they were divided into four
parts, the prayer and other general hymns were gouped together in
the Veda called Re-verses Veda, Rgveda. Those pertaining to
sacrifices and other rituals were set apart and grouped together in
Yajurveda. The verses pertaining to secular matters, such as arts and
physical sciences were compiled together by the seers, Atharvana,
Bhfigu and Angirasa. This compilation is called Atharvaveda. The
verses set to music have been grouped together and this collection is
called Sama Veda. Thus there is nothing earlier or later in the matter
of Veda.

Similarly the V. Jyotisha pertaining to three Vedas are named

separately. As far as period of composition is concerned, they are
more or less contemporary. The subjects of course differ a little here
and there.
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In Yaju - V. Jyotisha, there is a clear mention of the year with 366
days, six seasons (Ritus), two Ayanas (Uttar and Dakshina) and 12
solar months (Verse No. 27). In Atharva Jyotisha we get names of
seven days of the week, namely Aditya (modem name Ravi or Sunday
in English), Soma (same as today-Monday) Bhauma (Mangala-
Tuesday) Budha (same as today-Wednesday), Brihaspati (Guru-
Thursday) Bhargava (Shukra-Friday), Shani (same as today Saturday).

Grahas or planets are mentioned here in this Jyotisha (v.92). They are
also available in Rgveda too (R.V.I.I05-10).

In Baudhayana Sutras, we get a direct refernce to Rashis the 12

Zodiacal signs, like Mesha (Aries), Vrishabha (Taurus)
etc.(Minamesayormesavrsabhayor vasantah). In Maitreya-sutra1
again we have a reference to Rashis: If in two months the sun crosses
one zodiacal sign, the earlier of the two is Adhika or malimlucha
month. i.e. (intercalary).

It is stated that the Egyptians knew these signs around 2160 B.C. and
the Khaldians in 3800 B.C. If it is so the Indians being the pioneers in
the field of Astronomy and Egypt, Khaldia, Babylon, etc. being the
contiguous lands where Aryans spread to all these regions, the
Aryans in India knew these earlier.

In Aitareya Brahmana 1-5-2, we have a little longer passage -

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"Now starts the analysis of the constellations from Krittikas. Krittika
is the first, upto Vishakha (these 13) are the best. These are
dedicated to gods. (The other set of 13) Anuradha is the first, and
Bharani is the last -these Constellations are dedicated to God of
Death - Yama.

(Krittikas are the first, so they are left out of the calculation here).
The first set of 1 3 turns towards the Northerly course when the sun
is in Krittikas and the other set turns towards South then.

This clearly indicates that the Uttarayana started when the sun was
at Krittikas. This position would point to the period 8750 B.C.

Ordinarily scholars are reluctant to assign such an earlier period to

the composition of this Aitareya Brahmana. In Shatapatha Brahmana
we have the following statement-

The krittikas are seen not to swerve from the east."

This meens that the constellation Kirttikas is seen to rise at the East
at the Equator. Today they are seen at the north. The period
indicated by this state noted in the present tense works out to 3100
B.C.

These two statements one from Aitareya Brahmana and the other
from Shatapatha drive us to the conclusion that these passages are

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being written continuously from 8750 B.C. to 3100 B.C. No other
explanation is possible.

Even such a scholar as S.B. Dixit is puzzled and is hesitant to endorse

such a conclusion. His hesitation does not alter the situation.

Bentley the European Indologist accepts the starting constellation in

the Vedas as Krittikas, but works -out that period at 1500 B.C. Dikshit
takes sampata crossing point on the equator by the sun in Krittikas
(same as Bentley) and works out 57°, 54Kala as the place in north
where Krittikas as appear in 1850 A.D. It is found that for 1 degree
change in the position of the constellation it takes about 72 years.
So, 57°, 54kalax72 = 4170 year- 1850 = 2320 B.C. that year when
Krittikas were seen in the Eastern horizon on the equator. In China
also Bio an astronomer had worked this year at 2357 B.C.

In Shatapatha Brahmana 11-1-1-7 we find a statement "---------------

He who starts fire sacrifice on theno-moon-day of the month of
Vaishakha etc." This would indicate that the months also were in
vogue aileast from around 3000 B.C. In Kaushitaki Brahmana also in
19-2-3 we find the mention of the months Pausha (called then
Tishya) and Magha. Panchavimsha Brahmana also notes the name of
the month of Falguna.

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About eclipses it is stated in RV. V. 40-9 that the seer Atri had the
knowledge when and how the eclipses occur, what is the period for
which they are seen and when do the moon and the sun get the
release from the shadow. The Khaldians knew that the same eclipses
occur after the lapse of 6586 days. In our Vol.1, we have shown the
seer Atri as hailing from Babylon. Khaldia is part of it.

This brief survey from the Vedic literature would show how very
advanced was the knowledge of our ancients about astronomy.

Just as the smritis like Manu, Yajnavalkya and others are composed
after digesting the sruti texts, similar is the case with Astronomy.
Detailed and systematic treatises have been composed in the later
period.

Varahamihir who was one of the nine jewels in the court of Shakari
Vikramaditya (82 B.C. -19 A.D.) is a well-know astronomer of India. In
his Pancha-Siddhantika-Grantha, he starts his mathematical
calculations from the shaka year 427. As this shaka year is prior to
B.C. era, it cannot be Shalivahana Shaka. As Alberuni has noted this
shaka era was founded by Harsha Vikramaditya of Ujjain in 457 B.C.
The year 427 may be of that Shaka era. 427 Shaka therefore would
be 475 - 427 = 30 B.C. There is another reference to his birth-date.
The verse regarding his date of birth means that in the Yudhishtira

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Shaka year 3042, a brahmana by name Varahamihira was born to
Adityadasa, through the blessings of the Lord Sun.Jaya is
Yudhishthira shaka founded in 3076 B.C. by Janmejaya in the name
of the first Pandava king, the brother of his great-grand-father Arjuna
the Pandava hero. Varahamihira's birth-date thus works out to 3076
- 3042 = 34 + 25 (3101 - 3076 = 25) = 59 B.C. He has written his
Pancha-siddhanta in 30 B.C. When he was 59-30 = 29 years of age.
Some scholars hint at'-a Shaka of 55o B.C. noted by Garga. The Verse
is Yudhishthira Shaka is founded in 3076 - 2526 = 550 B.C. Here,
however, this cannot be the shaka era. For it does not suit the
context, moreover the shaka year starting from 550 B.C. is
shrounded in mystery.

S. B. Dikshit was not aware of this Harsha Vikramaditya era founded

in 457 B.C. and so he ignored this authentic reference. It is said that
Varahamihira discarded his mortal coil in 509 shaka or (509-457 = 52
A.D. He thus lived from 57 B.C. to 52A.D. i.e. for 109 years.

He was the resident of Avanti (Ujjaiyani) and was blessed at

Kapithaka by the Lord Sun. He has written treatises on 'Vivaha'
(Marriage), 'Ganita (Karana), Hora (Astrology) and Samhita
(Movement of Stars and Planets). His BrhataSamhita is a very famous
treatise on Samhita.

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Astronomy is constituted of these three main branches viz., (1)
Ganita or SiddhanTa. (2) Samhita - it concerns mainly with the
relationship between stars and planets, eclipses, muhurtas etc. and
(3) Hora-astrological details.

Varahamihira refers to the five ancient treatises on siddhanta or

ganita in his treatise, Panch-siddhantika. They are: (1)Paulisha,
(2)Romaka, (3)Vasistha (4)Surya and (5)Pitamaha

Pitarriaha Siddhanta is the most ancient amongst these. Yet it is later

than Vedanga Jyotisha, But it is now mostly lost. Only five verses are
available from it in Panchasiddhantika.

Next in chronological order is Vasistha. But Varahmihira states that

its calculations are far from correct. Romaka is the later one than all
the five: From its name it appears to refer to Hipparchus the Greek
astronomer who flourished around 150 B.C. But his treatise is not
available. The Indian astronomers do not rate it high. Another one is
Paulisha with its author a Greek named Paulus. His treatise is also
not available. We" get information of these from the quotations of
their works, in other treatises.

The most important of these five ancient treatises on Siddhanta

branch of Astronomy is Surya Siddhanta. In Varahmihir's Panch-
Siddhantika it is'noted as one of the most ancient treatises. The

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detailed calculations of the movements of the stars and planets given
in it tally with their actual positions in the sky. This treatise is,
therefore, held in reverence. Alberuni the Muslim Pandit (1030 A.D.)
states that this Surya Siddhanta is composed by Latacharya. Varaha,
however, does not mention Lata's name. But this original Surya
Siddhanta was replaced by another of the same name. The original is
now available in fragments i.e. quotations in Varahmihira's Pancha
Siddhantika.

Varaha notes that Latacharya had commented on Romaka and

Paulisha (Chapter 1-3). He does not say that Lata had commented on
Suryasiddhanta. In Alberuni's time' another SuryaSiddhanta was
available. It may be the composition of Lata. Varaha further notes
the names Aryabhata, Pradyumna, Vijayanandi and Simhacharya as
his famous predecessors (Last Chapter verse 59 and Chapter 14-
44,45).

Brahmagupta (628 A.D.) notes these astronomers' and adds the

names of Srisena and Vishnuchandra along with those referred to by
Varaha.

In addition to these five Siddhantas, two more, (1)Soma S. and

Brahma S. are available now. The old five mentioned by Varaha are
also available in their new versions along with these.

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According to Alberuni, the presently available Surya S. (S.S.) is by
Latacharya and Lata is mentioned by Varaha, so Lata's period is prior
to 57 B.C. as I have worked out above. Aryabhata I is thus prior to 57
B.C.

The present S.S. appears to have been based on the original one
composed by Lata, Varaha, however, has not stated that the original
S.S. has been composed by Lata. It, therefore, appears that the one
composed by Lata is taken as S.S. and the tradition once established
has been noted by Alberuni.

Even though the present S.S. is not the original, yet its wide
acceptability shows that the calculations in the present one have
been the traditional ones. Ii can thus be seen that the present one
has been there at least a century or two prior to Brahmagupta (628
A.D.).

Aryabhata I has been noted by Varaha. It is, therefore, clear that he

flourished before 57 B.C. His period, however, is noted as Shaka 421
or 499 A.D. This obviously cannot be his period. This must be of
Aryabhata n. S.B. Dlikshit determines his (Aryabhata n) Period
around875 Shaka or 953 A.D. But he is not sure about it. He notes
one significant statement from a treatise called Laghusidhhanta - or
Sidhhanta in brief. 2-2) These two Sidhhantas are composed after the

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lapse of a short period after Kali yuga" The two referred to are:
IJParashara Sidhhanta and 2)Arya Bhata Siddhanta. It is thus clear
that these two are very ancient treatises on astronomical
calculations. Varahamihira does not include it in his Pancha-
Siddhantas as Parashara is called 'Apauruseya' i.e. as revealed, while
AryaBhata's is man-made. In his short volume - Dasa-gitika, he starts
with bow to Pitamaha or Parabrahma. So the Pitamaha Siddhanta
noted by Varahmihira in his Panch-Siddhantika is as if it has come
from Lord Brahma -the Creator. ,Jid Arya bhata notes in his last
verse. this Siddhanta is Arya Bhatiya (composed by Arya Bhatta). It is
as if composed by Brahma - svayambhuva." He avers that he follows
Pitamaha - Siddhanta (P.S.).

As it is very ancient, it is also like others available in fragments. Arya

Bhata n has followed the treatise composed by his ancient namesake
and has added his own contribution to this ancient treatise. The
original P.S. had become outdated, so AryaBhata I composed his own
and called it AryaBhatiya.

The year of the birth noted at 398 Shaka or 476 A.D. is therefore of
AryaBhata n and not of the first. The verse means :

When 3600 years and three yugapadas elapsed (after Kali) I was 23
years old." Thus 3600 (after Kali) -3 101 B.C. = 499 A.D. is the year

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indicated by this verse. The year of his birth is thus 499 - 23 = 476
A.D.

The period of AryaBhata I is immediatly after Vedanga Jyotisa and

after Pitamaha Siddhanta i.e. around 2500 B.C. He in his Ganita Pada
has shown value ji at 3.1416 and qualified it as 'approximately' (v-
10). He also notes that the earth moves around its axis.

AryaBhata I notes that the counting of a day starts from the sun-rise
and at some places it is counted from mid-night (both these
alternatives are noted) - so tells us Varahamihira in his
PanchaSiddhantika chapter 14-44, 45. This statement of AryaBhata is
not found in the present AryaBhatiya. This goes to prove the present
AryaBhatiya has come down to us in fragments. AryaBhata I's Arya
Bhatiya and other treatises . have been followed by later
astronomers like Sri Sena and Visnuchandra. They did not follow the
calculations as given in other treatises on Siddhanta; they have
followed Arya Bhat's calcultions. This would indicate the greatness of
AryaBhata I.

Days in a year :

This world with greenery and flowing fountains around and the star-
spangled sky above is itself a heaven on earth for the observant man.
He sees the rising and setting of the sun and the moon regularly. And

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the most woundeful of all, he sees the regularity of the day and night
and the seasons, the springtime, summer, the rainy season, and the
winter. Another peculiarity the man observes is of the moon daily
growing by a degree for a fortnight and thereafter full moon is seen
for a day. The moon then is seen waning everyday in the same
manner and one day it is not seen at all. It is Amavasya or no-moon-
day. In Rgveda, therefore the moon is called a Masa-a month.
SurySmasamithah uccaratah (R.V.X.68-10) the sun and the
moon,follow each other."

The moon's monthly movement was seen to be of 29Vz days. The

next observation was of the regularity of the seasons once in 12
months. The seasons were given names such as Vasanta (spring),
Grisma (summer), Varsa (rainy season) Sharad (autumn), hemanta
(winter) and sisira (cold season). In R.V.X- 164-4, we have three out
of these mentioned - Satamjivasarado vardhamanah satam
hemantan satam u vasantan -May you live for hundred Saradas,
hundred Hemantas and hundred Vasantas." The verse further notes
the man's life span as of hundred years.

The moon was seen completing one cycle once in 29Vz days or 12
cycles in 354 days in a year of twelve months. This is called the lunar
year. But this caused difficulty in agricultural operations. The
seasonal or tropical year was found to be of about 365V* days. So to
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adjust the lunar with the tropical year, the sages added one
intercalary month. It R.V.I-25-8 we have a statement: "He knows that
the year is of twelve months and one more month is added
periodically."

The Vedas thus show the knowledge of

(1)The lunar year of 354 days.

(2) The civil year of 12 months or 360 days -Sunrise to Sunrise.
(3) The tropical year of 365V4 days, the seasons are based on this
year, and
(4) The sidereal year i.e. Nakshatra year of 366 days.

The Vedic seer Atri was the first to discover that the eclipses are a
natural phenomena caused by the movements of the earth round
the sun and of the moon round the earth.

Constellations

The word Naksatras or constellations occurs several times in all the

Vedas. Atharvaveda in its XIX-78 enumerates these, twenty eight in
number. It states:

astdvimsani sivani sagmani sahayogam bhajantu me- Let these

twenty eight mighty and propitious stars help me to prosperity."
Sage Garga is associated with this hymn.

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These are considered to be the abodes of Gods -the pious persons
who leave their mortal coils here on earth and become the denizens
of the starry heaven. All these stars are the daughters of Daksa
Prajapati and the wives of the Moon. These descriptions of theirs and
their names are mythological. Their names with English equivalents
are enumerated below:

S.No Name English equivalent whferever available with

notes.

1 Krittikas Pleiades-the deity is Agni

2 Rohlni The principal star is Aldebaran. Its name

suggests that it is reddish in colour. She is said
to be the favourite wife the planet Moon - the
deity is Prajapati

3 Mrgasiras Antelope's Head - It has seven stars called

Orionis - the deity is Soma.

4 Ardra Moist - Western monsoon brings heavy rains

to Western India - the deity is Rudra.

5 Punarvasu This is one of the lunar asterisms.

6 Sunrta Very pleasant. This is also the name of Ushas

or dawn. Along with Punarvasu and Pushya

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 the deity is Aditi. This is not now enumerated
separately.

7 Pushya The nourisher-constellation which brings

about prosperity.

8 Ashlesha Naga - the serpent is the deity.

9 Magha The Pitaras - the Fathers is the deity.

10 Svati The star Arcturus - Vayu is the deity

11 Chitra Bright-variegated and bright looking - Spica

Virginis - Indra is the deity.

12 Phalguni Forming part of a double Nakshatra, also

called Arjuni. There are two Phalgunis, Purva
or earlier and Uttara the latter. Their deities
are Aryman and Bhaga.

13 Hasta Identified with pan of the constellation

Corvus. It means hand. Its deity is Savita - the
Sun.

14 Radha Success. This along with Vishakha, has Indra

and Agni as the deities. Radha is also part of
Vishakha. There are thus two Vishakhas. (for
the deities of all the Nakshatras, please refer

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 to Taittiriya SamhitaIV-4-10).

15 Vishakha

16 Jyeshtha

17 Mula

18 Purva
Ashadna

19 Uttara The deity is Vishvedevas.

Ashadha

20 Abhijit

21 Shravana Vishnu is the deity. This constellation is called

Shrona in Taittiraya Samhita.

22 Shravishtha The deity is Vasus.

23 Shatabhishak Knower of hundred ways of curing a disease.

Indra is the deity.

24 Proshthapada Proshthapadas - the deity is one foot .goat -

Ekapada aja. Naga - serpent is also another
deity.

25 Revati Splendid - Pushan is the deity.

26 Ashvayuja two-horse hamessers, the head of Aries-

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 Ashvinau - is the deity.

27 Bharani Yama is the deity.

When Phalguni and Proshthapada are taken as two Nakshtras

each, the total works out 29. However generally 27 are recognised
and Abhijit is mentioned as the twentyeighth.

Shravishtha is now called Dhanishtha and Shatabhishak is

Shatataraka. Ashvayuja is Ashvini. Now the Nakshtras begin with
Ashvini. Formarly they began with Krittikas.

Proshthapada is Purva-bhadrapada and Uttara bhadrapada.

In the above list Sunrata is mentioned as one constellation. It is

now merged in Punarvasu. This way the total remains 27 or 28.
Phalguni is now known as Purva (Phalguni) and Uttara Phalguni and
Radha is deleted from the current list.

Nakshatra in general means a star or an asterism in a Zoadiacal

belt consisting of one or more stars. The Zoadiac is divided into 27
equal parts.

Shunahshepa is one of the great seers in the field of

observation of the constellations. He is the son of Ajigarta a poor
Bhamana. He was sold to Rohita the son of King Harishchandra of the

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solar line. The King had no son. He worshiped Varuna and got a son.
He isnamed Rohita. The King had promised to sacrifice the first born
son to Varuna. When however Varuna claimed his victim, the king
avoided to perform the requisite sacrifice. When Rohita came of age,
and he found his father's difficulty, he left the palace and took to
forest. There he found one poor Brahmana Ajigarta and his family
wandering in search of food. Rohita offered 100 cows to the poor
Brahmana and obtained from him his second son Shunahshepa as a
substitute for him. When this boy was tied to the sacrificial post, he
offered prayers to Lord Varuna and got his release. This boy later
became a great seer. In his name there are seven hymns in the First
Mandal of the Rgveda - No.24 to 30. Again hymn No IX-3 has been
seen by him. He was later on adopted by the sage Vishvamitra who
gave him the name Devarata - a gift from the gods. In his
(Vishvamitra's) academy Devarata discovered the seven seers -
Saptarshi star - the great Bear.

It will be seen that this story is symbolic. One has to dedicate his
whole life to obtain special knowledge.

Other seers engaged in the study of astronomy are Parashara the son
of Shakti. Bhagavan Vedav-yasa was his son. In his name the hymn 1-
68 and others occur. He uses the word --------the stars- We have the
description of the star-spangled sky in 1-68-5. This word is also found
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in the hymns I-66-E and H-2-5. From this word str=, word star in
English is derived. 'Aster' is also a derivation form it. The very word
astronomy the science of the stars has come from this word 'aster'.

The Rgvedic seers were much interested in knowing about stars.

They felt that these are the bright persons who were once while on
earth had strived hard for the good of their fellow-beings. Out of
gratitude for them, the posterity has given to these stars the names
of these extraordinary persons. The Saptarshi stars thus
commemorate the names of the seven seers the great benefactors of
mankind, namely Marichi, Angirasa, Atri, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu and
Vasishlha. The other great personalities like Yayati, Devayani,
Shannishtha and others are also immortalised by naming a few stars
after them.

Others interested in Astronomy were Grtsamada and Gautama.

Vamadeva belonging to the Gautama family of seers notes in the
hymn seen by him RV IV-50-4, the planet Jupiter -Guru or Brhaspati
thus :Brhaspatih Prathamamjayamano maho jyotisah parame
vyoman -The Jupiter when first being born in the highest heaven of
supreme light dispelled the darkness. It has seven mouths and seven
rays and its form was seen with attractive brightness' (R.V.IV.50-4).

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This description is as if the seer was seeing the creation of the Jupiter
for the first time. It made a very big sound and had seven mouths i.e.
it had its own seven moons and its size was marked by its largeness.
This situation must have occurred billions of years ago.

Taittiriya Brahmana notes its rise in Pushya (Tishya) Constellation.

(ID-I-I-5). This situation in the heavens cannot be later than 4650 B.C.
This is, therefore, the date of Taittiriya Brahmana. Rgveda thus
certainly has to be placed at much earlier period.

In R.V.I 105-10 there is a reference to five planets - ami ye

pancoksano madhye tasthurmaho divah -These five oxen i.e. planets
are seen in the midst of the high heavens.'

Rgveda is also witness to the fact that all the seven planets were
known to the seers. R.V.I.-105-10 refers to the five oxen which stand
in the midst of the great heaven. They are all easily seen from earth.
The sixth the Jupiter was identified by sage Vamadeo. The Venus has
been identified by Vena the son of the ancient sage Bhrigu. In R.V.IX-
85-10, 11,12 and X-123-1,2,5 Venus named after Vena, is described
as the brightest star which-inspires the poet to go into ecstacies over
its pleasing lustre. In the verse 5 Venus is described as the lover of
the beautiful heavenly nymphs.

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Krttikas:

Krttikas or Pleiads are shown as the first in the list of the

constellations in the Vedic literature. Now we begin with Ashwini. It
is because in the days when the list was made, Krttikas were seen to
be constantly in the east at the time of vernal equinox. This period
was around 2900 B.C. In Satapatha Brahmana (I1-1-2) we have a
statement etdh ha Krttika pracyai dise na cyavante -These pleiads do
not swerve from the east", others do. The Western Indologist Fleet
dismisses this statement as a priestly invention, without assigning
any cogent reason. Thibo77 slates that the first place to Krttikas in list
shows that the year began with these and this affects MaxMuller's
assignment of 1500 B.C. to 800 B.C. as the date of Rgveda. His
assignment is incorrect.

It is not true to suggest that the Indians borrowed the Nakshatra

system from either the Arabs or the Chinese. Thibo78 shows that the
Arabs themselves admit that they had borrowed this system from
Indian siddhamas. Thibo also states that the Chinese had not
developed the complete list of 28 Nakshatras as the Indians had
done. Their knowledge in this respect was sketchy.

Usefulness of Astronomy

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Jyotisa, comprising the disciplines of Mathematics, Astronomy and
Astrology, is one of the fourteen ancient Indian branches of learning:

It was mainly useful for the computation of auspicious moment for

the performance of the sacrificial rites laid down in the Vedas. The
oft-quoted above verse names the four Vedas, six Vedangas,
Mimamsa, Nyaya, Purana and Dharmasastra as the fourteen
branches of learning. Elsewhere instead of Mimansa, Nyaya, Purana
and Dharma-sastra, we get the four upavedas, namely, Ayurveda,
Dhanurveda, Gandharva-veda and Sthaptya (architecture). Among
the Vedangas (the six accessory texts of the Vedas), Jyotisa occupied
an important position similar to the eyes of man as stated in the
verse :

It has been stated that just as the plumes on peacocks and gems on
serpent's hoods, Jyotisa rests at the top of the Vedanga :

Divisions of the Jyotisa :

It was broadly divided into three skandhas or branches such as

Ganita, Jataka (or Hora) and Samhita. Ganita consisted of Astronomy
and Mathematics dealing with computation of time, spherics, the
motions of planets and their positions and eclipses. The word
'Astronomy' has the same meaning as Jyotisa. The latter is derived
from jyut-dyut-to shine. To the ancients this science was known as

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'Nakshatra Darshan - observation of stars. Astronomy is itself derived
from the Sanskrit word Nakshatra - aster = a star, neme = arrange, It
is the science dealing with motions, and the characteristics of the
heavenly bodies. Jataka was devoted to foretelling of the future of
the individuals based on the positions of planets at the time of their
birth and other indications. The last section Samhita was concerned
with prognostication based on natural phenomena. This section
includes predictions based on omens, gems, physiognomy, palmistry
etc. We may cite as examples Brhajjataka of Varahamihira and
Jatakapaddhati for Jyotisa skandhas, and Brhatsarhhita for the
Sarhhitaskandha.

Divisions of Ganfta

They fall mainly under three groups - Siddhanta, Tantra and Karana
based on the zero-points adopted for their computation. Accordingly
siddhanta texts take the beginning of an extensive period of 1008
cycles of four yugas as the starting point of calculations when all the
planets and their nodes and apogees would have been at the first
point of Aries. (Mesa). From the prescription of planetary revolutions
for this long stretch of time computation of the planets are made.
The Suryasiddhanta, Brahmasphutasiddhanta of Brahmagupta and
Siddhantasekhara of Sripati are examples of this type.

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The Tantra class of texts, divided into Maha and Laghu, prescribe the
parameters for the four yuga periods at the beginning of which all
the planets and the Moon's apogee and node would have at the
zero-point, the first point of Aries and compute the planets based on
the number of days passed in the Kali era. The Aryabhatlya, the
Mahabhaskariya of Bhaskara and the Sisyadhlvrddhida of Lalla are
examples of Mahatantra and Laghubhaskariya of Bhaskara I and the
Tantrapradipa of Yogi are examples of Laghu.

The Karana texts take a recent contemporary date as the zero-point,

calculate accurately the planetary positions at sunrise on that day
and use them as zero -corrections. Calculations are rather simplified
on account of the use of smaller figures. These texts prescribe also
suitable corrections called blja for obtaining correct results. The
Khanda-khadyakaof Brahmagupta, the Grahacaranibandhana of
Haridatta, Laghumanasa of Muiijala and the Drgganita of
Paramesvara are treatises of this type of texts.

The tradition of ancient sages :

It is interesting to mention that several sages are believed to have

propagated the science of Jyotisa.

The eighteen astronomers are: l)The sun, 2)Pitamaha or Brahma,

3)Vyasa, 4)Vasishtha, 5) Am, 6) Parashara, 7)Kashyapa, 8)Narada,

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9)Garga, lOJMarichi, ll)Manu, 12)Angirasa, 13)Lomasha 14)Paulisha,
15)Chyavan, 16)Yavana, 17)Bhrigu, and 18)Shaunaka. These are the
traditional teachers of astronomy.

Fortunately some of the works ascribed to some of these authorities

have come down to us. It is significant that the above verse enables
us to infer that the tradition enjoyed antiquity.

The pre-scientific Astronomy in India dates back to the Vedas. From

ordinary statements referring to the genesis of the universe, the
creation of the sun, moon, sky, earth etc. and the descriptive
passages glorifying the sun as the sole lord and light-giver etc, the
moon as surya-rasmi' (sun's light), the phenomena of the new moon
and full moon and to the events that had taken place when a
particular asterism was seen in the sky or the appearance of the
equinoxes (visuvat), solstices (ayana), the solar year, the lunar
month, the twelve months referred to by specific names such as
Madhu-Madhava etc., the intercalary months (samsarpa), the
revolving wheel of time having twelve spokes consisting of 360 days,
sixty special names for the day-times and night-times of the dark and
bright fortnights and sixty special names of the muhurtas of the days
and nights, we infer that there was awareness about the natural
phenomena and analysis of time, since early days.

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Only in the Vedanga-jyotisa attributed to Lagadha, the Vedic
astronomy is set out as a regular discipline. The Jyotisa of the Rgveda
and Yajurveda respectively contain 36 and 43 verses and 30 verses
among these are common. We find in these works methods for
determining, for the sake of rituals, the positions of the sun and the
moon at the solstices, new and full moons in the zodiac of twenty-
seven asterisms, lunar days, parvans, visuvat etc. In the Vedanga
Jyotisa, a five-year cycle known as yuga based on the solar years and
solar months forms the basis of calculation. A solar year was taken as
366 lunar days. Two of these lunar months are considered as
intercalary months (adhimasa), one at the end of the third year and
the other at the end of the fifth year. These two are ignored and the
two cycles were made to coincide at the end of every five year
period. The commencement of every new five-year cycle was with
the coming tpgether of the sun and the moon along with the
commencing of the asterism Dhanistha or the first day of the bright
fortnight of Magha, at the beginning of the Uttarayana (winter
solstice). When the precise 12 constellations were adopted, the 27
asterism-zodiac of the Vedanga - Jyotisa was discontinued from
practice. .

The Atharvaveda Jyotisa in 162 verses is divided into 7 chapters. It is

in the form of a dialogue between Brahma and sage Kasyapa. We

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find more astrological material than astronomical material in this
work. It explains the muhurta, karana, yoga, tithi and vara relating to
a day and the effects of actions performed in each one of them.

In this work, the Naksatra - prakarana and Garbhadhana - prakarana

are devoted solely to astrological matters.

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 7. Airborne Vehicles

Vimana-Shastra

In the volumes on Itihasas-Mahabharata, Ramayana and the Puranas,

we get large number of references to the vimanas, the airborne
vehicles! These are yantras. In Sanskrit, machine is called a yantra. In
Samarangana Sutradhara of king Bhoja, a yantra is defined as a
device that "controls and directs, according to a plan the motion of
things that act accordingto its own nature

For example we had till recently a taila yantra - a wheel pulled by an

ox around a circular track to crush seeds kept in a stone tank
specially made for the purpose to extract oil. This was called-Ghana.

In military operations a machine called 'Sarvatobhadra' - a rotating

wheel that hurls stones, was in use according to Kautilya
(Arthashastra-sixteenth century B.C.)'. Muhammad bin Kassima an
Arab Commander in his invasion of Sindh (India) in 712 A.D. had used
such a device. It was called Manjanika. Another machine in use in
Kautilya's days, was Sara Yantra an arrow-throwing machine.
Udghatima a machine that demolishes walls using iron bars was also
in use. Many such simple devices were in use in ancient times in
India.

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As far as 'airplane' is concerned its body was made up of light wood
or laghu-daru. It had the shape of a bird with flapping wings on each
side. It looked like modern aeroplane. Its motive power was provided
by a fire-chamber with mercury placed over a flame. When
sufficiently heated it supplied the power to the device-yantra. "The
boiling mercury ovens produce a terrific noise which is put to use in
battle to scare away elephants. By strengthening the mercury the
roar of the engine could be increased so that by it, elephants are
thrown completely out of control."

How this airplane was working on the power generated by the

mercury vapour is not detailed in Bhoja's Samarangana Sutradhara. It
appears that the machine placed in the plsfhe was propelled by it,
and it made the bird-like wings to flap. The plane then became
airborne and the pilot made it fly in the desired direction. That
mercury engine was a source of mechanical power for flapping the
wings as in a bird flight was known to our Ancients. Raghavan has
noted that Roger Bacon has described a> flying machine in which
some kind of revolving engine caused wings to flap through a
mechanical linkage.

Ramachandra Dikshitar however states that the vimana in ancient

India had "two resplendent wings and is propelled by air." This
suggests that some kind of jet propulsion was used.
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All sorts of mechanical devices to produce artificial storms
(vfiyavygstra) etc. are noted in Mahabharata- and Ramayana. But
how they were produced ? The procedure is nowhere available in out
ancient texts.

Prof.Playfair (1748-1819) has some explanation to offer. He was a

mathematician and a geologist. He was joint professar of
mathematics in the university of Edinburgh. He was one of the
original members of Royal Society, Edinburgh. 'After detailed
examination of the Indian astronomical observations pertaining to
the period of 3102 B.C. the year of the start of the hypothetical Kali-
yuga, he felt that these observations were correct. These could have
been arrived at by astronomical calculations. But he rejects this on
the ground that it would imply, "there had arisen a Newton among
the Brahmins to discover universal principle which connects, not only
the distant regions of space, but the most remote periods of
duration, and a De La Grange to trace through the immensity of both
its most subtle and complicated operations84.

Prof.Playair does not want to ascribe to the Indian astronomers the

capacity to make such detailed astronomical calculations. So he felt
that the Indians may have arrived at correct analysis of the position
of stars in 3102 B.C. by direct observation.

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But another astronomer, M.Le Gentil had visited India in 1769. The
account of his visit is thus noted in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "During
the time of his stay in Hindustan the Brahmanas had been much
more familiar with him- on account of his astronomical knowledge,
than they usually were with other Europeans and thus had an
opportunity of obtaining insight into their methods of calculation. In
consequence of the instruction he obtained from them he published
tables and rules, according to Indian method, in the Academy of
Science for 1772."85

So the incommunicativeness of the Hindus was due to the usual

secretiveness of the Indian scholars as they felt that their highly
sophisticated and complex theories of such subjects would not be
understood by these foreign visitors. But when once they were
convinced of the bonafides that they were the seekers of truth from
them, they would open their hearts to them. M. Gentil's example
brings out the truth of this observation.

At the same time it has to be noted that the general secretiveness of

such highly intellectual persons and their desire to pass on such
knowledge only to their trusted disciples has tended to the loss of
such knowledge to the posterity. Or this desire to be secretive about
their knowledge may be due to the fact that Muslims as a rule would

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not tolerate learning elsewhere than in Kuran. And they were the
rulers.

It is stated that a successful attempt was made during the last,

quarter of the last century in Mumbai to construct such airplane
following the information from the treatise, Samarangana-
Sutradhara.

Ofcourse such airplanes could not have leen made by anybody or

everybody for it involved lot of expenditure and technical know-how.
It was not possible to produce them on a commercial scale. Only a
few could make them. In Ramayana there is a mention of only one
such plane named Pushpaka.

The point is that such stories about vinamas existing in ancient India,
are not fake. They are genuine. There are elaborate descriptions of
the machines made in those far off days. They show that many
sophisticated machines were then made, though the technique of
these is now lost. Even in Surya-Siddhanta, a highly developed
treatise on astronomy, we have information of a mercury engine
used to provide rotary motion for gola-yantra, a mechanical model of
the planetary system.

So it is clear that mercury engines were used in those remote days to

provide motive power. It has also been noted there that this

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technology for making such engines was only to be given to the
trusted disciples. When this line of disciplen was broken, the
knowledge was completely lost. Recent example is that of
Ramanujam the mathematician from Madras. His theories have been
proved to be of immense significance. But what he left behind him
are the conclusions of his analysis. The steps which led him to these
conclusions are not available. This was noted by a contemporary
Cambridge mathematician Dr. Hardy. He had visited Madras and had
visited his widow. She told him that he used to make his calculations
on a slate and would note the results on a piece of paper and the
steps which led him to that result were thus forever lost. Hardy could
however get a few exercise books in which Ramanujam had scribbled
these. They proved very valuable to reconstruct his theories..

We have a very elaborate treatise on aerial technology called

Vaimanik Shastra. Kanishk Nathan states that there is some ancient
Sanskrit text on aerial technology. It "Describes a technology that is
not only far beyond the science of the times, but is even way beyond
the possible conceptual scientific imagination of an ancient Indian,
including concepts such as solar energy and photography."

This book Vaimanic Shastra was written in the early part of this
century by a psychic process known today as channeling. As the
knowledge in India used to be passed on orally, and when such a
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163
tradition died down, it was written on palm> leaves. When these
became lost due ,to climatic effects, "these lost texts became
embedded in the ether of the sky, to be revealed like television - to
gifted mediums of occult perception. G.R. Josyer, the translator of
this Shastra, has stated that the medium in this case was one Pandit
Subbaraya, "a walking lexicongifted with occult perception." He
began to dictate the Vaimanika-Sastra to Mr.Venkatachala Sarma on
August 1, 1918. The complete work was taken down in 23 exercise
books upto August 23, 1923. In 1923 Subbaraya Sastrv also had a
draftsman prepare some drawings of the Vimanas according to his
instructions.

The theory behind this occult perception is that the knowledge once
articulated or reduced to writing remains in a vibrational pattern in
the ether. Thus the medium which can tune its perception to that
wave-length in the ether can reproduce, as does a computer. This
programme is stored in the memory of the ether as the computer
and one can get it back whenever properly tuned.

According to Pandit Subbaraya Sastry, the medium who wrote

'Science of Aeronautics - Vaimanik Shastra' is only a part of the
Encyclopaedia of machines- Yantra-Sarvasva written by the ancient
sage Bharadvaja. This science is now written from what is lost to us.
Fortunately, if the spiritual level atleast of a few persons is increased
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164
to a significant extent and if they are motivated to learn it, perhaps
through their occult perception we may be able to get back all these
sciences which are now lost to us. In the meanwhile we should strive
to develop respect for whatever is written in the Puranas or the
Mahabharata or the Ramayana or the Vedas, and should not discard
the statements therein as silly nonsense.

UFO-Phenomena:

Before we proceed further, let us try to understand the phenomenon

behind the 'unidentified flying object-UFO for short.' Thousands all
over the world testify to the fact of having seen these objects flying
high up in the sky. These cannot be explained by known laws of
Physics or other allied sciences.

So far the physicists have been proclaiming that they have

understood rules governing ordinary matter. While the molecular
biologists explain life in terms of these laws, some amongst them
find the problem of consciousness as perplexing. The Vedic world
view is based on conscious soul having links with the transcendental
higher reality. It thus discards the mechanistic view of life. It gives
purpose and meaning to life on earth.

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165
There is some link between the UFO phenomenon and the Vedic
world view of matter. Both these phenomena cannot be explained
by the known laws of physics and allied sciences.

Condon Report

When there were eye-witness accounts of the existence of UFOs, the

University of Colorado sponsored a scientific study of UFOs,
fundedby a government grant of $5230007- in 1967. It was headed
by Edward V. Condon, the eminent physicist. The study was
completed in 1969, by producing a 500-page report. It stated that
there was a strong evidence which suggested that some UFOs might
be vehicles exhibiting an unknown technology. Condon however
concluded that the study would not yield any scientifically verifiable
data. Hoagland was then President emeritus of the Worcester
Foundation and a member of the Board of Directors of the AAAS-
American Association for the Advance of Science. He observed about
UFO stating that it is impossible for science to prove a universal
negative. He felt that for want of verifiable data, the evidence about
UFOs is not scientifically useful.

UFOs Seen by Scientists, Engineers.

Dr. Richard Thompson in his book 'Alien Identities' records his

personal discussion (pp29 to 31) with Dr. Elmer Green connected

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with military research. Green had heard of UFO sightings. He had
heard that photographs were also taken of these objects. Green
himself had sighted UFO once in the presence of Jack Clemente- a
photographic officer at the Naval Ordnance Test center at China
Lake. They saw an object about 16ft in diameter below their A.J.
bomber. It was a structured mechanical craft. It remained there
pacing the plane for a few seconds and then it flew away at great
speed. Green and many in his group had experienced many more
UFO's during 1947 to 1957. The Government authorities, however
did not report these, for they did not want to admit their inability to
understand UFOs flying with impunity through their skies.

This shows that at least 40 to 50 professional scientists and leaders

of society had definite knowledge of UFOs in the early 1950s. But
they did not reveal this 'hard' evidence for fear of ridicule or loss of
career. They were afraid that the people in general would feel that
they were superstitious. Further the Government authorities may
question them as to why these UFOs were not pursued.

Mac-Donald a senior physicist and Professor in the meteorology

department at the University of Arizona observed: "As intensive
analysis of hunreds of dozens of key witnesses in important cases,
have led me to the conclusion that the UFO problem is one of
exceedingly great scientific importance. Instead of deserving the
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description of nonsense problem' which it has had during twenty
years of official mishandling, it warrants the attention of science,
press, and public, not just within the United States but throughout
the world, as a series of problems of first order significance."89

But Me. Donald was ridiculed by the scientific community. He had

given an account of an episode in July 1957, in which an Airforce R.
B47 manned by six officers, was followed by a luminous,
highlymanoeuverable object for about 1-5 hours as it flew from
Mississipi through Louisiana and Texas and into Oklahama. This case
is significant because it involved simultaneous observation of the.
object by human vision, by radar from the ground and from the
airplane, and by .electronic counter-measures equipment on the
airplane.

This scientist committed suicide (June 13,1971). The obituary notice

read thus:

"The history of the UFO problem has been full of unusual and tragic
events. Men of highest scientific achievements have been
themselves involved in strangely opposing views. Others have
become victims of vitriolic attacks or perhaps, worse, of ridicule. Mr.
Me Donald was one of them."

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In France also such studies have been undertaken. Gepan is the
study group on UFO created by the Government in 1977. It notes in
its reports: "One of the conclusions of the total report is that behind
the overall phenomenon there is a flying machine whose modes of
sustenance and propulsion are beyond our knowledge.

This survey shows that many of the incidents recorded stand

uncontroverted. The study of UFOs though bizarre cannot be
altogether valueless. It does add to our fund of information and may
one day reveal phenomena higher and unknown to mankind. We
may be able to interpret and understand the statements in Vedic
literature in a more rational manner.

The difficulty with this type of study is that these beings behave in an
elusive way. We here on earth cannot establish relationship with
them on clear mutual understanding. Do they really exist ? Or are
these strange psychological entities? Such questions dog every step
of the researcher in this field of Ufo-nautics. Even close encounters
with these otherworldly visitors yield no useful information as they
do not give any opportunity for gathering any useful information for
meaningful study. Can Ancient Indian Literature throw light on this
strange phenomenon known as Ufonautics ?

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In Mahabharata, Ramayana and the Puranas there are accounts of
earthly human beings travelling to the other worlds. So far these
were taken to be cock and bull stories.

The Puranas speak of Gandharvas-very beautiful people with

melodious voice, Siddhas, men with the capacity to perform miracles
the power acquired through yogic or spiritual practices,
Kimpurushas-humanlike but very strange beings of 2-3ft in height
and strange faces. Such human - like beings are encountered in these
Ufo-incidents. This raisesthe possibility of yielding some useful
results, if UFO - incidents are studied with the incidents recorded in
the Puranas.

For example Arjuna, the Pandava hero is said to have travelled to the
region of the stars. He was taken there in the chariot driven by
Matali the chariot-driver of Indra, the Lord of the heavens. The
description of this visit is given in Thompson's volume 'Alien
Identities.' It is a translation of Verses from Mahabharata, books 2
and 3.

"No sun shone there, or moon, or fire but they shone with a light of
their own, acquired by their merits. These lights that are seen as the
stars look tiny like oil flames because of the distance, but they are

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very large. The Pandava-Arjuna saw them bright and beautiful,
burning on their own hearths with a fire of their own...

"Beholding those self-luminous worlds, Arjuna was astonished,

questioned Matali in a friendly manner and the other said to him.
"Those are men of saintly deeds, ablaze on their hearths, whom you
saw there, My Lord, looking like stars from earth below."

In this sober description of the scene around Arjuna, the only

puzzling statement is, 'the stars are men of saintly deeds.' Perhaps
these luminous worlds are inhabited by men of saintly deeds - we
don't know.

In our literature it is stated that these men of saintly deeds live in

other Lokas i.e. worlds. We have no other means of verifying these
statements. This literature is a mixture of statements which are
readily understood by us humans, as well as of statements which are
beyond our ken. The persons or races called Siddhas (who attained
miraculous powers) Caranas (heavenly singers), Guhyakas (followers
of Lord Siva) and Vidyadharas (highly intelligent beings), belong to
super-human categories. But these are said to help human beings.

Adi Shankara notes about divine beings as the residents of extra

terrestrial regions. And UFO is all about such beings.

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R; Thompson refers to a very peculiar story of a five-year boy having
been saved by a Jala-Devata (a water-deity). It happened at
Mayapura, near the town of Navadvipa in West Bengal in June 1992.
Mayapura is situated on the bank of a branch of Ganga river. The
story is as follows:

"Some boys from a Gurukula went swimming in the Ganges and a

five-year-old boy named Bhagavata went with them. He did know
how to swim, but because all the boys went there, he also went with
them. One boy took him on a bicycle and the parents were just
behind. So 6very one jumped into the Ganges, and this boy also
jumped, thinking "That is what I am supposed to do."

When the parents reached the bank, they could not find their son.
They began shouting, 'Where is Bhagavata?', 'Where is he?' Nobody
knew. Then one boy said, 'he is there?' His mother .saw her son's
finger slicking up above the surface of the water. The current there
was very powerful. One boy jumped in, caught hold of him and
brought him to the shore to the ecstatic delight of his parents.

How did it happen? When the current was fast, how could he hold in
fast to the spot? The boy said: "When I was drowning, a lady with a
crown held me fast." The boy began repeating that the lady was very
beautiful. He asked his mother, "Whether she was mother Ganga."

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Such experiences are common in India. We get any number of such
stories of miraculous escapes from certain death.

Is there extra-terrestrial life ?

The Vedic world view is that conscious soul lives in the gross body.
The gross body is constituted of physical elements and a subtle body
made up of energies known as mind, intelligences and false ego.
These energies cannot be isolated and identified by the current
scientific instruments. So the scientists say these do not exist. This is
against the experience of even the meanest intelligence.

The soul and subtle body are said to transmigrate from one gross
body to another. These also can travel outside the gross body,
temporarily. These movements are regulated by these extra-
terrestrial humanoid beings.

UFO reports talk of soul, transmigration and out of body experiences.

So the study of UFO appears very important to know what man really
is.

In Vedic cosmology there are seven lokas or worlds. The highest is

Brahma-loka the seat of the Creator Brahma. The lowest isBhuloka-
earth. The next in order are Bhuva i.e. middle region or Antariksha,
Svarga-loka or Svara - the heaven the region of light, the Maharloka,

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Janaloka and Tapa Loka. The Janaloka and Tapaloka are on the earth,
where Siddhas ascetics) live.

On the earth we also find Devas the highly evolved beings and he
demons who are materialists or self-centred people. We have also
Gandharvas the beautiful people on astral planes and the manes -
the departed souls-on some astral plane.

Airplanes

The UFO phenomena prove that in ancient days our fore-fathers

knew how to make air-planes though rarely. In Bhagavata Purana we
have an episode as to how SSlva, the king enemical to lord
Krishnahad acquired a remarkable plane. Swami Bhakti-Vedanta
Prashupada in his Krishna (1988) notesJhe characteristics of this
plane thus.

"The airplane occupied by Salva was very mysterious. It was so extra-

ordinary that sometimes many planes would appear to be in the sky,
sometimes apparently there would be none, sometimes they would
see the airplane on the ground, sometimes flying in the sky,
sometimes resting on the peak of a hill and sometimes floating on
the water. The wonderful airplane flew in the sky like a whirling
firebrand-it was not steady even for a moment."

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Compare with this the movements of UFO observed by USA Air force
personnel over the South-central U.S. on July 17, 1957. This case was
summarised in the journal Astronautics and Aeronautics as follows.
An Air Force RB-47, equipped with electronic countermeasures
(ECM) gear and manned by six officers, was followed by an
unidentified object for a distance of well over 700 miles, and for a
time period of 1.5hr., as it flew from Mississippi, through Louisiana
and Texas into Oklahama. The object was, at various times, seen
visually by the cockpit crew as an inwardly luminoid light, followed
by ground-radar and detected on ECM monitoring gear aboard the
RB-47. Of special interest in this case are several instances of
simultaneous appearances on all three of these physically distinct
"channels," and rapidity of manoeuvres beyond the prior experience
of the air crew.

Salva had obtained that air-plane through the grace of Lord Siva after
worshipping him for over a year. The plane was actually
manufactured by Maya Danava. The plane however was not
equipped with bombs.

Krishna with sound-seeking arrows, destroyed Salva's airplane when

it had become invisible.

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There are a number of UFO accounts that also have this feature. One
example is given by the story of a man named Maurice Masse, which
is briefly summarized here.

Masse was a lavender grower of the French Provincial village of

Valensole. On the morning of July], 1965, at about 5.45a.m., he was
finishing a cigaette before starting work. Suddeenly he heard a
whistling noise and turned to see a machine shaped like a rugby
football and the size of a Dauphine car. This was standing on six legs,
with a central pivot stuck into the ground beneath it. He saw two
boys near the object, but on approaching he found that they were
not boys. At a distance of about 5 meters, one of the beings pointed
a pencil like device at him, and he was paralyzed.

After some time, the beings returned to their machine, and Masse
could see them looking at him from within the craft. At this point,the
legs retracted, and with a thump from the central pivot, the machine
floated silently away. At 20 meters it disappeared, but it left traces of
its passage in the lavender field for 400 meters. It is said that newly
planted lavender would not grow at the spot where the vehicle
stood.

That technology is however lost now. The modern scientists and

technologists have developed many new weapons-systems and new

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technologies like computer systems and these are being used on a
commercial way. The information that we can glean from our Vedic
or Pauranik literature is thus of Historical interest only. We have no
means to know how to use it.

However, another point has to be noted in respect of UFO-nautics.

The story of how king Salva obtained his vimana - the airplane is
interesting in this respect.

Having made his vow, the foolish King [Salva] proceeded to worship
Lord Pasupati as his deity by eating a handful of dust each day, and
nothing more.

The great Lord Umapati is known as "he who is quickly pleased", yet
only at the end of year did he gratify Salva, who had approached him
for shelter, by offering him a choice of benedictions.

Salva chose a vehicle that could be destroyed by neither demigods

[Devas], demons [Asuras], humans, Gandharvas, Uragas nor
Raksasas. That vehicle could travel anywhere he wished to go, and
that would terrify the Vrsnis.

Lord Siva said, "So be it." On his order, Maya Danava, who conquers
his enemies' cities, constructed a flying iron city named Saubha and
presented it to Salva.

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This unassailable vehicle was filled with darkness and could go
anywhere. Upon obtaining it, Salva went to Dvafaka, remembering
the Vrsnis' enmity towards him.

Salva besieged the city with a large army. He decimated the outlying
parks and gardens, the mansions along with their observatories,
lowering gateways and surrounding walls, and also the public
recreational areas. From his excellent airship he threw down a
torrent of weapons. A fierce whirlwind arose and blanketed all
directions with dust.

Thus terribly tormented by the airship Saubha, Lord Krsna's city had
no peace05.

The airplane built for Salva was not made by human engineers. The
ancient literature of ours points to some non-human agency involved
in manufacture of such mystical modes of flight. The vimana for
Salvawas made by Maya Danava a resident of the planet Talatala.
Maya was, however, available for human beings on earth whenever
he was invited to build such wonderful machines. Maya appears to
be family name. A member of his family had built a very beautiful
and architecturally superb palace for Dharmaraja the king of the
Pandavas ruling from Indraprastha - the modern Delhi. There is a
treatise on Architecture by Maya under the title 'Mayamata'.

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The king Salva had asked for a vehicle which could not be destroyed
by Devas, Asuras, Gandharvas, Uragas or Rakshases. These were
highly evolved human beings available for assisting the human
beings on earth who performed severe austerities to obtain their
help. It appears that these were directly under the command of Lord
Siva-the God of the Hindu Trinity.

These Demigods did not work only for the Hindus of the ancient
times. They were for the whole universe. The stories about them are
available in the records preserved by the Hindus. Otherwise these
records are the heritage of mankind. Such type of mystical flight
vehicles are nowadays seen flying over USA skies. It is because of this
that literature about these UFOS is proliferating in USA.

Salva's Viman is said to be an iron city. It was large and metallic in

appearance.

R.Thompson summarises the Salva episode thus.

In summary, the story of Salva's vimana involves a flying machine

with features similar to those reported in UFO sightings. It also
involves persons who exhibit unusual powers and patterns of
behaviour that are typical of those reported in UFO close encounters.
In a droll way, this was recongnized by J.A.B. van Buitenen in the

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introduction to his translation of the Mahabharata. Here are his
remarks on Krsna's battle with Salva.

Here we have an account of a hero who took these visiting

astronauts for what they were: intruders and enemies. The aerial city
is nothing but an armed camp with flame-throwers and thundering
cannon, no doubt a spaceship. The name of the demons is, also
revealing; they were Nivatakavacas, "clad in airtight armour," which
can hardly be anything but spacesuits. It is heartening to know that
sometime in the hoary past a man stood up and* destroyed the
spaceship and aborted its mission with bow and arrow."

The Nivatakavacas 'are a subgroup of the Danavas. The word nivala

means "no air," and kavaca means "armour." Perhaps this does refer
to spacesuits.

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 8. Archaeology

Archaeology is a science which studies the relics of man found in

deposits and ruins. To find, interpret, and preserve materials which
delineate prehistoric life and supplement these with the
documentary material of historic periods, the archaeologists work
with various experts and technicians. To find the age of objects, they
measure the amount of radioactive carbon 14 in organic or carbon
containing objects. This method was discovered by W.F. Lebby (born
in 1908) an American chemist. He won Nobel prize in 1960 for
development of the atomic time clock - a method for determining
the geological age of the objects.

In India the most famous and spread over almost the whole of India
and Afghanistan are the Sarasvati-Sindhu (S.S) sites. The old city-
ruins are located in these sites. These reveal how very highly evolved
were the people living all over India.

The Archaeologists have made certain assumptions. They believe

that this civilisation was the work of the pre-Vedic people. The Vedic
people, the Aryans, have destroyed these sites and established their
rule over all of India. They then composed the vedas, so the
argument of the Western Indologists and their camp followers in

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India, goes. They consider the Vedas to be the primitive outpourings
of nomadic and barbarous people. For this assumption they have no
literary or archaeological evidence. Yet the Indologists have
fabricated evidence in the form of newly constructed science of
philology. On this they have built up the theory of Aryan invasion.
We have demolished it. For this please see our Bhishma series
VolumeI:The Beginnings of Life and Culture, and our writings on the
Vedas.

The assumption here is that the Aryan invaders were so dull-witted

as to destroy and nor to develop the already developed sites of this
wonderful S.S. Civilisation.

Recently one Murad Ali Baig a scholar in Archaeology has

propounded that India had suffered an invasion from Sumerians
around 2500B.C. and later on the Aryans invaded her around 1800
B.C. and 1300 B.C. He avers that the Sumerians had invaded Amri in
southern Sindha, Kot Diji near Mohenjodaro in upper Sindh and
Kalibangan in northern . Rajasthan and 'burnt to ground' these pre-
Harappan settlements. Even Mortimer Wheeler (1968) had not put
forward the theory of Sumerian invasion. He had said that a few
'masons' had come to Mohenjodaro to teach the locals the art of
building brick houses. Later on in 1973,he had repudiated this theory

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too. Dr.F.A. Khan an excavator states that the cause of fire at Kot Diji
was not the work of Sumerians.

Dr. Richard Meadow (USA) had done some excavations at Harappa.

He found no evidence of either burning or earth-quakes or
destruction of the pre-Harappan and Harappan cultural sites.

About Aryan invasion Mortimer Wheeler falsely stated that human

skeletons were found at Harappa, where in fact no such skeletons
were discovered at all. They were found at Mohenjodaro and were
transposed to Harappa a site 600 Kms. away. He said Rgvedic God
Indra destroyed the fortifications at Harappa an utter lie. Another
archaeologist G.F. Dales has completely demolished Wheeler's
invasion theory, by proving that none of the 36 to 38 so called
victims of massacre had died due to the use of the sharpedged
weapons. A former Director General, therefore categorically opines
in his classical paper "Aryans: A Reappraisal," that archaeologically, it
cannot be proved that the Aryans came to India from outside either
peacefully or otherwise118.

Here we are concerned how very dogmatic these archaeologists are;

best example is that of Darwinism. They are prone to concoct and
defend their pet theories passed on as scientific truths.

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Darwinism:

The paleo-anthropologists try to comprehend the age of human

origins by studying the bones or other objects discovered in the ruins
located all over the world. Their pet theory is Darwinism that one
specie evolves from the other and that the human beings have to
seek their origin in the monkeys on the basis of this evolutionary
science-Darwinism. Thomas Huxley presented the evidence showing
similarity of the human anatomy to that of the Chimpanzees and
Gorillas. Now this theory that the humans have evolved from apelike
ancestors is accepted as a scientifically established truth and is
taught as such in schools and colleges.

The scientists stale that 99% agreement is found between the DNA
sequences of human genes and thoses of the Chipanzees. But this
cannot prove that man had his anteslor in the Gorilla or the
Chimpanzee. This only shows that all life has come from one and the
same source-as the Vedas put it ekam santam bahudha kalpayanti -
the Conscious Energy, the God is the source of all animals including
the humans. This percentage may vary from animal to animal. This
cannot by itself prove that the different life patterns come by
evolutionary processes. The evolution of species particulary human
species must rely on the interpretation of fossils and the other
remains found in the earth's strata.
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Around 1845 A-D. Edour Larter had found fossils of Pliopithecus, an
extinct primate thought to be the ancestor to modern Gibbons
belonging to Miocene (5 to 25 millions of years ago) age. He believed
trial human beings might have existed at such a remote age. This was
anathema to the modern scientists.

Then these scientists came upon some fossils in Neanderthal valley in

Prussia, Germany. They believed them to belong to a 'barbarous
aboriginal race' (in 1857). But Huxley rejected this finding as an
intermediale human being belween men and apes. The age of this
man was put at around 40000 years before present.

A German analomist Ernsl Haeckel then propounded his theory that

ontogeny, the step by step growth of an animal (or human) embryo,
represents animals phylogeny or evolutionary development over
millions of years from a simple, one celled organism. But Haeckel's
drawings turned out lo be fakes and he was tried in court of Jena
university on charges of fraud.

Lyell was another evolutionist like Huxley and Haeckel before

Darwin, who believed that humanlike fossils could be discovered. To
supplement his earlier conjectures in his "The Origin of Species
(1858)" Darwin (1871) published another work 'Descent of man', in
which he made the statement thatman is descended from a hairy,

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tailed quadruped. "In the dim obscurely of the past we can see
thatthe early progenitor of all the vertebrata must have been an
aquatic animal... more like a larvae of the existing marine Ascidians
than any other known form."

There is no proof lo support this statement. It is estimated that 982

million species have existed during the earth's history compared with
the 130000 known fossil species. The scientists have concluded that
only about .013 of one percent of the species that have lived during
this 600 million-year period have been recognised in the fossil
record.

This way no proof of progressive evolution from larvae to man will be

available. But can we then say that humans of the modern type have
not exiled in the dismal bygone ages ?

Earth's Time table

Paleontologists say that 46 billion years ago the earth came into
being as part of the formation of solar system. Single-celled animals
came some 3-5 billion years ago. By 630 million years ago, simple
multicellular creatures are seen in fossil records.

The first apelike beings appeared, it is believed, about 38 million

years ago. The first hominids-human-like erect-walking primates
aresaid to occur in fossil record about 5 million (years ago. The

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earliest known hominid is Australopithecus, the 'southern ape' which
came about 4 million years ago. Then came Homohabilis with a
larger body nearly double that of 'southern ape'. Homoerectus was
the next-Java man and Peking man, around 1-5 million years ago.
Anatomically modern human being Homo sapiens emerged gradually
from Homo erectus some 3 lacs to 4 lacs of years ago. The human
type known as Cro-Magnon, anatomically like the modern man
appeared in Europe approximately 30000 years ago'. In Africa this
modern man appeared around 1 lac years before. The evolutionary
link between these different types of records is not established by
any evidence. This all is conjectural.

If however modern humans appear in fossil records older than these,

the evolutionary theory goes out of the window. But Java man
anatomatically similar to modern man was given an age 8 lacs of
years and Peking man some 5 lacs of years before present.

The authors of 'Forbidden Archaeology' note a number of old finds

whose ages go as far back as 5 to 25 millions before. At this age the
scientists believe that man with modern anatomy could not have
arrived on the scene. The last date for him at the maximum,
according to the scientists, is 8 lacs of years before present.

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The old finds recorded by these authors are: (l)One of these finds in
dispute was St. Prest-France. It is in the Valley of the Eure River. In
April 1863. M.Desnoyers of the French National Museum, reported
his findings to the French Academy of sciences that the bones in the
fossils bore cut marks and they were definitely the work of humans.
The age assigned to these finds was over 5 millions of years. This was
later, i.e. after Darwinism became the accepted scientific theory,
vehemently disputed. "After discussing the site at St.Prest, Laing
(1893, p. 113) stated: "In these older graves have been found stone
implements, and bones of the Elephas Meridionalis with incisions
evidently made by a flint knife worked by a human hand. This was
disputed as long as possible, but Quatefages, a very cautious and
competent authority, states in his latest work, published in 1887,
that it is now established beyound the possibility of doubt."

(2) On April 20, 1868, at the meeting of the French Academy of

sciences a sealed packet of May 16, 1864 by the researchers F.
Garrigou and H.Filhol was opened. These researchers had written:
"We now have sufficient evidence to permit us to suppose that the
contemporaneity of human beings and Miocene mammals is
demonstrated."

Miocene is geological era with 25 millions years before the present.

Please see the table below.
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 TABLE
Geological Eras and Periods
Era Period Start in Millions of Years
Ago
Cenozioc 01
Holocene
Pleistocene 2
Pliocene 5 -
Miocene 25
Oligocene 38
Eocene 55
Paleocene 65
Mesozoic Cretaceous 144
Jurassic 213
Triassic 248
Paleozoic Permian 286
Carboniferous 360
Devonian 408
Silurian 438
Ordovician 505
Cambrian 590

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 When we see the presence of human being about 15 million
years ago on French soil where he is supposed to be not earlier than
40000 years ago according to the current evolutionary doctrines, we
have to conclude that the evolutionary theory has no leg to stand on.
It is totally unscientific. Surprisingly the scientific community has
allowed the evidence against the evolutionary to remain buried. This
is a deliberate act.

(3)Carlos Ribeiro was the head of the Geological Survey of Portugal in

1857. He was also the member of the Portuguese Academy of
Sciences. He presented to the members of the Portuguese Academy
a collection of flint and quatrizite implements including those
gathered from the Tertiary formations of the Tagus valley. In 1872, at
the International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and
Archaeology meeting in Brussels, he gave a similar report. Rebeiro's
Miocene flints made an impressive debut at Brussels, but remained
controversial. In 1878, at the Paris exhibition, he displayed 95
specimens of Tertiary flint tools in the gallery of anthropological
science. Gabriel de Mortillet, professor of. prehistoric anthropology
in Paris habitually rejected all evidence for human work on incised
and broken bones. Suprisingly, however, he was impressed by the
specimens of Ribeiro. He admitted that 22 of the flints had
indubitable signs oi human work.

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De Mortillet (1883) wrote: "The intentional work is very well
established, not only by the general shape, which can be deceptive,
but much more conclusively by the presence of clearly evident
striking platforms and strongly developed bulbs of percussion."

"There can be no doubt," wrote De Mortillet (1883) about Ribeiro's

stone implements. "The diverse specimens are formed from big
flakes, almost all of them triangular and without retouch, some in
flint, some in quartzite. In looking at the collection, one believes
oneself to be seeing Mousterian tools, only somewhat coarser than
usual." Mousterian is the name given to the type of stone tool
usually considered to have been made by the Neanderthals (Homo
sapiens neanderthalensis), who are thought to have lived in the
latter part of the Pleistocene. By making the comparison with the
late Pleistocene Mousterian implements, De Mortillet was pointing
out that Ribeiro's specimens almost exactly resemble those that are
universally acknowledged as being of human manufacture. De
Mortillet (1883) further observed: "Many of the specimens, on the
same side as the bulb of percussion, have hollows with traces and
fragments of sandstone adhering to them, a fact which establishes
their original positions in the strata. The sandstone is inserted among
strata of clays and limestones in the valley of the Tagus, together
comprising in some places a depth of 400 meters (over 1300ft.). The

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beds have been dislocated and are in some places now resting
almost in vertical position. It is very evidently Tertiary terrain. Of the
22 worked specimens 9 are indicated by Riberio to be Miocene. They
are Pliocene."

Afterwards, Rebeiro's finding were examined by an International

commission which visited the sight of the flint tools on September
22, 1880. There were some nine members in that commission
(p.221).

Paul Choffal, a member of the commission and its secretary, later

reported to the Congress: "Of the many flint flakes and apparent
cores taken from the midst of the strata under the eyes of the
commission members, one was judged as leaving no doubt about the
intentional character of the work."

The age of these tools is thus proved to be 5 to 25 million years old,

showing the presence of man with modern anatomy at such an early
age.

(4) Crude paleoliths were also found in Miocene formations at

Thenay, France. S.Laing, an English science writer, noted: "On the
whole, the evidence for these Miocene implements seems to be very
conclusive, and the objections to have hardly any other ground than
the reluctance to admit the great antiquity of man."

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Primitivity of man

The volume Forbidden Archaeology gives voluminous evidence about

the stone implements and such other artifacts made by our
ancestors. These show man to have existed since over 2800 million
years before present. The question then arises, was the man for so
many millions of years living in caves using flint tools? Did he not
advance in civilisation ?

It is a legitimate question. And answer to it is not far to seek. All the

evidence gathered is by the westerners, who have been brought up
under the Christian belief that the world began about 4000 years
before Christ. They thus could not bring themselves round to believe
that the civilised man may have existed much before that date. It is
true that scientists like J.H. Huxley, Darwin and others did conceive
the humans to have existed on this earth since about 40000 years
before present. But under their evolutionary conception they could
not believe that the modem man capable of living in built-up houses
and using developed pots and pans, was existing much before 10000
years before present. For this purpose one has to turn to the Vedic
literature. Our Bhishma series Vol. - XID India the Wpnderlad of
Perennial Culture details the high degree of civilisation the Vedic
people had attained in the remote antiquity. This civilisation was not

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confined to India alone. It was a worldwide phenomenon, as the
Vedas are the Heritage of Mankind.

The Rgvedic Aryans were not wandering nomads. They had a highly
settled and civilised life, with the comforts and luxuries of a cosy
home, a highly developed agriculture, arts and crafts. The S. S.
civilisation is Vedic civilisation. Mehergad agricultural settlement
depicts the highly developed agriculture. The earlier ruins have all
been washed away and destroyed in the heavy floods and
subsequent giaciation. We cannot therefore get any archaeological
discoveries of highly evolved and artistic remains.

Even so we get hints of unexpected accomplishments from some of

the articles discovered in the ruins. If the archaeologists train their
minds to discover very highly intricate designs of objects in fossil
records, they would be rewarded. So far they have been trained to
look for stone and flint tools. If these scientists want to know the
earlier highly developed state of civilisation they have to study the
Vedas closely and then go about interpreting the fossils and the
ruins. One point can however be made. The Vedas note nuclear
weapons and the people know of the nuclear energy. But they do not
indicate the use of steam power. So we may not get articles
connected with the laying down of the railway lines or industries run
on steam power. Otherwise theVedic appears to know of the use of
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electricity. If we can unravel the mystery of the working of the Ufo-
nautics, perhaps more light can be thrown on the state of earlier
civilisation.

The Vedas tell us that this universe is without any beginning or it has
no end. Civilisations come and go in regular cycles.

The authors of Forbidden Archaeology also note a few discoveries of

such ancient artifacts.

(1) Artifacts from Aix en Provence

France (age uncertain).

In his book Mineralogy, Count Bournon recorded an intriguing

discovery that had been made by French workmen in the latter part
of the eighteenth century. In his description of the details about the
discovery, Bournon wrote: "During the years 1786, 1787 and 1788,
they were occupied near Aix en Provence, in France, in quarrying
stone for the rebuilding, upon a vast scale, of the Palace of Justice.
The stone was a limestone of deep grey, and of that kind which- are
tender when they come out of the quarry, but harden by exposure to
the air. The strata were separated from one another by a bed of sand
mixed with clay, more or less calcareous. The first which were
wrought presented no appearance of any foreign bodies, but after
the workmen had removed the ten first beds, they were astonished,

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when taking away the eleventh, to find its inferior surface, at the
depth of forty or fifty feel, covered with shells. The stone was exactly
similar to that of the quarry: they found moreover coins. Handles of
hammers, and other tools or fragments of tools in wood. But that
which principally commanded their attention, was a board about one
inch thick and seven or eight feet long; it was broken into many
pieces, of which none were missing, and it was possible to join them
again one to another and to restore to the board or plate its original
form, which was that of the boards of the same kind used by the
masons' and quarry men; it was worn in the same manner rounded
and waving upon the edges."

Count Bournon, continuing his description, stated: "The stones which

were completely or partly wrought, had not at all changed in their
nature, but the fragments of the board, and the instruments, and
pieces of instruments of wood, had been changed into agate, which
was very fine and agreeably colored. Here then, we have the traces
of a work executed by the hand of man, placed at a depth of fifty
feet, and covered with eleven beds of compact limestone: every
thing tended to prove that this work had been executed upon the
spot where the traces existed. The presence of man had then
preceded the formationof this stone where the traces existed, and
that very considerably since he was already arrived at such a degree

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of civilization that the arts were known to him, and that he wrought
the stone and formed columns out of it."

These passages appeared in the American Journal of Science in 1820

(vol.2.00.145-146); today, however, it is unlikely such a report would
be found in the pages of a scientific journal. Scientists simply do not
take such discoveries seriously.

(2)From a quarry 12 miles northwest of Philadelphia, a marble block

was taken from a depth of 60-70 feet. In that block two letters
appeared to have been carved. This block with letters appeared to
have been specially made and placed at a depth of 60-70 feet. This
suggested that the characters were made by intelligent human
beings from the distant past.

(3) Nail in devonian sandstone, north Britain

In 1844, Sir David Brewster reported that a nail had been discovered
firmly embedded in a block of sandstone from the Kingoodie
(Mylnfield) Quarry in North Britain. Dr. A. W. Medd of the British
Geological Survey wrote to us in 1985 that this sandstone is of
"Lower Old Red Sandstone age" (Devonian between 360 and 408
million years old). Brewster was a famous Scottish physicist. He was a
founder of the British association for the Advancement of Science
and made important discoveries in the field of optics.

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In his report to the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, Brewster (1844) stated: "The stone in Kingoodie quarry
consists of alternate layers of hard stone and a soft clayey substance
called 'till*, the courses of stone vary from six inches to upwards of
six feet in thickness. The particular block in which the nail was found,
was nine inches thick, and in proceeding to clear the rough block for
dressing, the point of the nail was found projecting about half an
inch (quite eaten with rust) into the 'till', the rest of the nail lying
along the surface of the stone to within an inch of the head, which
went right down into the body of the stone." The fact that the head
of the nail was buried in the sandstone block would seem to rule out
the possibility the nail had been pounded into the block after it was
quarried.

(4) Gold thread in carboniferous stone, England

"A few days ago, as some workmen were employed in quarrying a

rock close to the Tweed about a quarter of a mile below Rutherford-
mill,a gold thread was discovered embedded in the stone at a depth
of eight feet" Dr.A.W. Medd of'the British Geological Survey wrote to
us in 1985 that this stone is of Early Carboniferous age (Between 320
and 360 million years old.)

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(5) Metallic vase from precambrian rock at Dorchester,
Massachusetts

The following report, titled "A relic of a Bygone Age," appeared in the
magazine Scientific American (June 5, 1852). "A few days ago a
powerful blast was made in the rock at Meeting House Hill, in
Dorchester, a few rods south of Rev. Mr. Hall's meeting house. The
blast threw out an immense mass of rock, some of the pieces
weighing several Ions, and scattered fragments in all directions.
Among them was picked up a metallic vessel in two parts, rent
asunder by the explosion. On putting the two parts together it
formed a bell-shaped vessel, 4-1/2inches high, 6-1/2inches at the
base, 2-l/2inches at the top, and about an eithth of an inch in
thickness. The body of this vessel resembles zinc in colour, or a
composition metal, in which there is a considerable portion of silver.
On the side there are six figures or a flower, or bouquet, beautifully
inlaid with pure silver, and around the lower part of the vessel a vine,
or wreath, also inlaid with silver. The chasing, carving and inlaying
are exquisitely done by the art of some cunning workman. This
curious and unknown vessel was blown out of the solid pudding
stone, fifteen feet below the surface. It is now in the possession of
Mr. John Kettel. Dr.J.V. C. Smith, who has recently travelled in the
East, and examined hundreds of curious domestic untensils, and has

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drawings of them, has never seen anything resembling this. He has
taken a drawing and accurate dimensions of it, to be submitted to
the Scientific. There is no doubt but that his curiosity was blown out
of the rock, as above stated; but will Professor Agassiz, or some
other scientific man please to tell us how it came there? The matter
is worthy of investigation, as there is no deception in the case."

The editors of Scientific American ironically remarked: "The above is

from the Boston Transcript and the wonder is to us, how the
Transcript can suppose Prof. Agassiz qualified to tell how it got there
any more than John Doyle, the blacksmith. This is not a question of
zoology, botany, or geology, but one relating to an antique metal
vessel perhaps made by Tubal Cain, the first inhabitant of
Dorchester."

According to a recent U.S. Geological Survey map of the Boston-

Dorchester area, the pudding stone, now called the Roxbury
conglomerate, is' of Precambrian age, over 600 million years old.
Bystandard accounts, life was just begining to form on this planet
during the Precambrain. But in the Dorchester vessel we have
evidence indicating the presence of artistic metal workers in North
America over 600 million years before Leif Erikson.

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(6) In Lignite (soft brown coal) bed near Laon France a chalk ball was
discovered. It has been assigned the date 45-55 million years ago.
Mellevialle (refer to geologist 5 p. 145.148-1862) fell that this ball
was a human work. De Mortillet (1883-p.28) the scientist, felt: "If
humans made the ball they must have been in France 45-55 million
years ago. This looks extraordinary to those attached to the standard
evolutionary views.

(7)Machine made copper quasi coin was discovered at a depth of

about 114ft. below the surface from lawn Ridge in Marshall county
Illinois. U.S.A.. Its age has been determined between 200000 to
400000 years old. This has been reported by William E. Dubois of the
Smithsonian Institution (1871). The authors of Forbidden
Archaeology (p.802) further note that at a depth 120ft. workmen
discovered at White Side County Illinois (W. Dubois 1871-p.225) a
large copper ring or ferrule similar to those on ship spars at the
present time... They found something fashioned like a boat-hook.
The age of these objects has been determined at 50000 years to 410
million years before present.

(8)Human images skillfully formed in clay were found in 1889 at

Nampa, Idaho at a depth of 300ft. level of a well-boring. "It was a
female figure and had the life-like lineaments in the parts which
were finished that would do credit to the classic centres of art.""In
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comparing the figurine one cannot help being struck with its
resemblance to numerous 'Aurignacian figurines' found in prehistoric
caverns in France, Belgium arid Moravia. Especially is the
resemblance striking to that of the 'Venus impudica' from Laugeric
Basse," the age of the images is two millions years old.134

(9)On.June 11, 1891 - The Morrisonville Times reported a curious

find, a gold chain of eight carol gold and weighted eight penny
weighls, in a lump of coal. It was embedded in the lump. While one
Mrs.S.W. Gulp was breaking ii a small chain of curious workmanship
was seen embedded in it. Both the lump and the chain later
examined by the archaeologists, revealed their age 260-320 million
years old. The Illinois State Geological Survey has said the coal in
which the gold chain was found is 260-320 million years old. This
raises the possibility that culturally advanced human beings were
present in North America during that time.

(10) A carved stone was found buried into a mine at a depth of

130,ft. (Article in April 2, 1897 edition of the Daily News of Omaha,
Nebraska (USA). The stone is of a dark grey color and about two feet
long, one foot wide and four inches in thickness. Over the surface of
the stone, which is very hard, lines are drawn at angles forming
perfect diamonds. The center of each diamond is a fairly good face of
an old man having a peculiar indentation in the forehead that
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appears in each of the pictures, all of them being remarkably alike.
Of the faces, all but two are looking to the right. How the stone
reached its position under the strata of sandstone at a depth of 130
feet is a question the miners are not attempting to answer. Where
the stone was found the miners are sure the earth had never before
been disturbed. Inquiries to the Iowa state Historical preservation
and office of State Archaeology at the University of Iowa revealed
nothing new. The Lehigh coal is probable from the Carboniferous:.

(11) A partial shoe sole which had been turned into a stone was
discovered by John T. Reid, a distinguished mining engineer and
geologist. Fore part of it was missing. It is a fossil 5 million years old.

(12) Discovery of Metabolic Tubes - (Corliss W.R. -1978 Ancient Man

p. 652-53) Y.Druet and H.Salfati announced in 1968 the discovery of
semi-ovoid metallic tubes of identical shape but of varying sizs in
Cretaceous chalk (Corliss 1978, pp.652-653). The chalk bed, exposed
in a quarry at Saint-Jean de Livet, France, is estimated to be at least
65 million years old. Having considered and eliminated several
hypotheses, Druet and Salfati concluded that intelligent beings had
lived 65 million years ago.

(13)Over the past several decades, South African miners have found
hundreds of metallic spheres, at least one of which has three parallel

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groves running around its equator (Jumison S 1982-Weekly World
News-July 27). A.Bisschoff, a professor of geology at the university of
Potchefstroom, has opined that the spheres were 'Limonite
Concretions.' Limonite is a kind of iron ore. A Concretion is a compact
rounded rock mass formed by localised cementation around a
nucleus. But the ball under reference is perfectly round as if it is
made by a human being. It is a sphere with parallel grooves around
its equator, hi the absence of a satisfactory natural explanation, the
evidence is somewhat mysterious leaving open the possibility that
the South African grooved sphere found in a mineral deposit 2.8
million years old-was made by an intelligent being.

The authors of Forbidden Archaeology have recorded over 160

archaeological facts discovered through the last 160 years, which
disprove the evolutionary theory propounded by Darwin and others.
The theory posits that anatomically modern humans evolved from
more apelike creatures fairly recently about 100000 years ago in
Africa, and in the view of some in other parts of the world as well.
Another conclusion these evolutionists have drawn is that the
humans, evolved about a lac of years ago, yet did not enter the
subarctic regions of the New World until about 12000 years ago.
Among these type of scientists there is a general reluctance to admit
the great antiquity of man.

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These scientists appear to have developed sort of vested interest in
sticking to this evolutionary theory without any proof about the
origin of man, that they try to harass the young scientists who come
forward with the evidence supporting the antiquity of man.

The authors of this monumental work - Forbidden Archaeology

record the case of Thomas Lee of the National Museum of Canada
who had in 1950 found advanced stone tools in glacial deposits at
Shenguiandah on Mountain Island in northern Lake Huron. These
tools were at least 65000 years old if not as much as 125000 years
old. This position was not acceptable to the evolutionlists sticking to
the standard views on North American prehistory.

Thomas E. Lee complained: "The sites discoverer [Lee] was hounded

from his Civil Service position into prolonged unemployment;
publication outlets were cut off; the evidence was misrepresented by
several prominent authors...; the tons of artifacts vanished into
storage bins of the National Museum of Canada; for refusing to fire
the discoverer, the Director of the National Museum, who had
proposed having a monograph on the site published, was himself
fired and driven into exile; official positions of prestige and power
were exercised in an effort to gain control over just six Sheguiandah
specimens that had not gone under cover; and the site has turned
into a tourist resort... Sheguiandah would have forced embarrassing
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admissions that the Brahmins did not know everything. It would have
forced the rewriting of almost every book in the business. It had to
be killed. It was killed."

This is not an isolated example. Geologist Virginia Steen of

Hueyatlaco Mexico and others of a U.S. Geological Survey team had
discovered implement bearing layer with an age of about 250000
years before. She experienced difficulty in getting her dating study
on Hueyatlaco published. She wrote to Estelia Leopold associate
editor of Quaternary

Research: "It concerns the manipulation of scientific thought the

suppression of 'Enigmatic Data,"data that challenges the prevailing
mode of thinking. Hueyatlaco certainly does that. Not being an
anthropologist. I didn't realize the full significance of our dates back
in 1973, nor how deeply woven into our thought the current theory
of human evolution has become. Our work at Hueyatlaco has been
rejected by most archaeologists because it contradicts that theory,
period."

G.Ragozzoni a geologist found at Castenedelo Italy in 1880 fossil

bones of several Homo. Sapiens Sapiens - individuals in layers
Pliocene Sediment 3 to 4 million years old. This is against the
approved age for the humans, by the scientists. They now

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manipulate radiometric and chemical tests to attach recent ages to
such bones. The carbon 14 test is especially unreliable when applied
to bones when these have remained in museums for decades. These
are exposed to contamination and then these yield young dates.
Ragozzini a professional geologist was careful to record the
stratographic evidence which gave him the age of the bones 3 to 4
million years old. The Italian scientist G.Sergi was aware of the
scientist's prejudices to the old ages of the fossil remains of the
humans. He wrote in 1884-"XXD" "By means of a despotic scientific
prejudice, call it what you will, every discovery of human remains in
the Pliocene has been discredited."

"The objections made to the existence of man in the Pliocene and

Miocene seem to habitually be more related to theoretical
considerations than direct observation." Thus wrote Armand in his
book quoted in Forbidden Archaeology op. cit. p. XXVI

There exists in the scientific community knowledge filter that screens

out unwelcome evidence.

The truth of the matter is, there is no such thing as evolution,

modern man having come to the perfectly evolutionary stage after
millions of years of developments of matter by chance and natural
selection. These evolutionists are trying to manufacture knowledge

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to suit their pet theories. As Michael Lynch puts it: "the scientists
construct and use instruments, modify specimen materials, write
articles,, make pictures and build organisations." Why do they
indulge in this anti-social attitudes? They want to prove that God
does not exist and matter evolves into consciousness. How and why
matter acts this way, they have no clear-cut answers of evidence. It is
their belief. Like the religious bigots, these are highly educated,
intelligent, superstitous science-bigots.

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 9. Ayurveda

Ayurveda deals directly with the art and science of life. It is as old as
the other Vedic literature. It is said to have descended from God
Himself. The western ideas about it have poisoned our minds like
other false beliefs that :

1) The Aryans were nomadic barbarians and their Vedas the babbling
of babes; 2) These Aryans were the first invaders of India and they
destroyed the highly evolved Sindhu-valley civilisation; 3) The Indian
civilisation cannot go back to such antiquity as the Brahmanas are
not tired of repeating it, when according to the Bible the date of
origin of the universe is 23, October 4004 B.C.; 4) The Indians have
no sense of history; 5) They are the superstitious people; 6) They are
always invaded and subjugated first by the Aryans then by the
Kushanas and the Shakas followed by the Muslims and finally by the
British. Allied with these the Westerners have fostered the belief
that Ayurveda is no science of medicine. It has some merit as a
practical guide. There is now no research.

The basic principles of Ayurveda -1) Maintenance of health by taking

proper food, adequate exercise and sufficient rest, and 2) when the
body is diseased, observe fast and take herbal medicines. Ayurved is

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thus a holistic science taking care of both aspects of life namely
maintaining bodily health both physical and mental as well as cure of
diseases. It thus deals with developing healthy habits and helping
prevention of disease.

While Allopathy is concerned only with the superficial aspect namely

suppression of the symptoms of disease, rather than eradicating the
cause of the origin of the disease, Ayurveda recognises that the
direct cause of the disease is bacterial or virus infection. But these
are considered secondary. It goes to the root of the problem as to
why bacteria or virus develop in the body at all. This development is
called Doshas. Disturbance in the body equilibrium causing
disharmony in the Dhatus, the elements constituting the structure of
the body. If the Dosas and Dhatus are in perfect equilibrium the
foreign bodies like bacteria or virus cannot cause any disease in the
body. So the emphasis of Ayurveda is on maintaining this equilibrium
by good conduct, proper food and' adequate bodily exercise. These
increase bodily resistance against the disease causing organism.

Ayurveda recognises the Sankhya doctrine of Purush (conscious

principle) and Prakriti (the matter stuff). These two elements
Purusha and Prakriti are ground reality. They spring from Ekam sat
the God. Prakriti is constituted of three gunas, namely Sattva (the
essence), Rajas (energy) and Tsmas (steadyness). Sattva in its
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manifested from serves as the medium for the reflection of
intellegence and consciousness. Rajas is the tendency to work and
overcome resistance. Tamas counter-acts the tendency to work, and
causes obstruction to conscious manifestation. Prakriti in the
unmanifested state maintains the equilibrium of these three Gunas.
When there is disturbance in this equilibrium creation begins. Thus
creation is subject to the three Gunas-the definite natural laws. The
man the best representative of this process of creation, has to
conform to these natural laws.

In the limited sense he is also endowed with free will.

The Indian system of medicine is known as Ayurveda, the body of

knowledge concerning life. It deals with the human body and the
ailments it can suffer, through malnutrition or through over-eating or
through eating foods and taking drinks which are not suited to one's
own body. It is thus the science of life. It is the Veda or more
correctly it is Upaveda a subordinate Veda.

Its other name is Arya-vaidyaka the science of medicine propounded

and adopted by the Aryas. Arya means a civilised being Vrttena hi
bhavati-aryah na dhanena na vidyaya-Aryn is one whose conduct is
civilised. Not wealth or fund of knowledge makes one Arya'
(Mahabharata).

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Just as the Vedas (Rgveda, Yajurveda etc.) are considered to be
eternal by the Hindus, similarly this science of medicine is also
considered to be eternal. Man exists eternally so the science of the
maintenance of his bodily health is eternal. Naturally the aim of
Ayurveda is maintaining bodily health and curing the ailments which
afflict the body.' Man here stands for mankind.

The maintenance of the body in good repair depends on following

the dictates of nature scrupulously. For example Gita enumerartes
the food intake of different individuals on one's innate nature. One
eats food to increase the duration of life, purify the mind and
increase bodily strength. The Sankhyas divide the innate nature of
man into three kinds : 1)Sattvika-or mode of goodness, 2)Rajasa-
mode of passion, and 3)Tamasa-or mode of ignorance. These are
three types of material modes of nature. None is born with only
Sattvika or Rajasa or Tamasa qualities. Man is a mixture of these
qualities, material modes of nature in different proportions.
Someone is born with predominantly Sattvika qualities, while
someone else has Rajasic qualities dominating his nature. Yet some
other is born with Tamasic qualities dominant in his nature.

The Lord in Gita tells us that the Sattvika dominated individuals love
to take such foods as would increase the duration of life, purify one's
existence and give strength, health, happiness and satisfaction.
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Such foods are juicy, fatty, wholesome and pleasing to the heart (17-
8), while those in material mode of passion (Rajasic) would derive
pleasure in the intake of foods that are too bitter, too sour, salty,
hot, pungent, dry and burning. Such foods cause distress, misery and
disease. (17-9). Those in mode of ignorance or darkness (Tamasic)
would take stale and tasteless foods (17-10).

In general milk and its products, rice and wheat preparations,

jaggery, fruits and vegetables properly cleansed and cooked would
be wholesome to the body. Meat and liquor are not health giving.
Fatty foods mentioned in 17-8, are not animal fats obtained by
slaughter. One can get these through milk-products or vegetable oils.
Protein is a necessary ingredient of health-giving foods and those are
available in peas, pulses, whole wheat and soaked beans. A little salt
adds to the taste and is considered wholesome. Similarly a little
pepper or chilly powder also adds to the taste, and may be taken.
Excess in anything is ruinous. No food-intake unless one is hungry,
should be the rule in eating food,Proper and wholesome food in
quantities that cannot cause indigestion or bring in its wake
slovenliness is another health-maintaining rule. Too much intake or
too little intake of food is injurious to health. Similarly too much
sleep or too little also spoils your health (Gita 6-16). He who has

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regulated habits in eating, sleeping, recreation and work and
practises yogic exercises, can maintain perfect health and live long.

Naturopathy :

It is of tern said that 'nature' is the best doctor i.e.vaidya or medical

advisor. Naturopathy is the science of health based on nature-cure
practices. If you eat too much of sweet foods, you develop nausea
for such. Similarly if you eat hot foods, you feel like taking sweets. If
you feel uneasy in stomach your desire for foods is almost nil. You
want to observe fast in such a state. These are intuitive remedies
suggested by nature. A dog or a cat would eat grass when its
stomach is in disorder. Grass is not the natural food of a dog or a cat.
But nature suggests it to eat grass when in suffering. Nature is the
best doctor, but man should learn its ways to keep himself in good
health. It prompts man to think and mend his ways. But one neglects
its suggestions and often falls ill. In fact medicine does not bring
about the cure of the disease, it only helps the body to fight the
disease and bring itself to its former healthy state.

Psychological remedies :

Psychology plays a very important part in maintaining one's own

health. In Viveka Chudamani, Adi Shankara says :

mana evamanusyanam karanam bondha-moksa yoh.

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Man's mind alone is the cause of his bondage or liberation.' Just as in
the path of salvation, so in the maintenance of health, mind plays a
very vital sole. In Manusmriti 1-83, we are told that in the earlier
ages man's life-span was of four hundred years:

arogdh sarvasidddrthdh caturvarsasatdyusah

Krte tretadisu hyesdmayurrhasyati pddasah
In former yugas, man leading a very healthy and regulated life and
having all his objectives fulfilled, used to live for four hundred years.
His life span got reduced by quarter in every yuga-Krta, Treta,
Dvapara and Kali."

Now it is hundred years. So the key to long life is to free the mind
from anxieties and keep it away from its enemies. Entertaining
unsatiable desires, mind-consuming anger, greediness, ego,
infatuation, and jealousy are the six enemies of mind. The Lord in
Gita 3-37 directs man to keep himself away from them. They distract
your mind and disturb your bodily equilibrium.

In Rgveda the seer avers:Svstipanthanamanucarem -I shall follow the

path of my good.' In Yajurveda we have tanme manah
sivasamkalpamastu -Let my mind always conceive good thoughts."

The teachers of Ayurveda like Charaka advise men to follow the path
laid down by the ancient seers. Charaka tells us: "Be truthful, avoid

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anger, be not attached to liquor and women, follow the path of
peace, be good, do good, speak good. These rules would keep you on
right path. Then follow the spiritually elevating yoga practices. To
keep your mind purified, repeat names of the Lord sometime in the
day. Always be helpful to others and earn goodwill of others. These
acts give you menial happiness. Then cultivate the habits of taking
good and wholesome food in right quantities, take adequate rest and
sleep, do noi overindulge in them. Do not try to grab what belongs to
others. Respect the elders and the learned. Have control over the
waywardness of your senses." This is the best medicine for man. This
way man lives a happy, contented and a long life.

It is not always possible for man in his work-a-day life to follow all
these rules scrupulously. Even if there is some slight disturbance in
the working of the body, Charak and Sushruta the great teachersin
medicine and surgery advise to keep your intestines clean and
observe fast for some time. This is the best medicine for the body to
regain its natural equilibrium.

In Astang-Hridaya-Samhita we have a very penetrating analysis of

what is good to the body. It saysAdharamagnih pacati, dosamdhdra-
varjitah, The digestive fire in your body will digest the food in-take. In
bodily disequilibrium avoid food, the digestive fire in your body will
eat away the faults developed in your body."
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Along with the fasting purging body of faults developed in stomach is
another remedy suggested.

So eat what is wholesome and digestible food in right quanitiles.

Keep your mind steady and free from anger. Practice some spiritual
practices (yoga-sadhana). When sick, purge body of poisonous
elements by taking enema and drink sufficient quantity of clean
water. These are the rules for good health and long life.

The Authors of Ayurveda :

Ayurveda or the science of life has its source in Atharvaveda. It deals

not only with the cure of diseases but also prescribes recipes for
prolongation of life. It is a branch of Atharvaveda, and so can be
regarded as a revealed literature.

Charaka's and Susruta's treatises are just detailed and systematic

codification of the knowledge about Ayurveda contained in
Atharvaveda.

This science of medicine is as old as the hills. In Astanga Hridaya we

have its origin noted thus :

brahma smritva, dvuso vedam prajdpatimajigrahan

so asvinau tau sahasraksam so atriputradikan munin.

- Brahma, the creator, at the time of creation remembered this

science of medicine and gave it to his mind -born son the Prajapati
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the father of mankind. Prajapati in turn imparted it to the
Asvinikumaras who in turn passed it on to sage Indra. The son of Atri
and others leamt it from Indra."

Indra is the seventh Vyasa according to the Puranas. His period works
out to 1 1600 year B.C. (Please see our Vol.11), It is said that this
knowledge was passed on to the sage Bharadvaja by him.

Atri's son Punarvasu obtained it from Bhardvaja. For the benefit of

the growing population, Punarvasu taught this science in detail tohis
six disciples, namely, Agnivesa, Bheda, Jatukarnya, Parashara, Harita
and Ksharapani. Charaka showers praise on Atreya i.e. Punarvasu. He
calls him the greatest amongst the teachers of Ayurvada. He can
truly be called the first purveyor of the knowledge of medicine."
However all the treatises of earlier Acharyas-teachers-are not now
available. Agni-veshatantra, it is stated to be the oldest extant
treatise now.

Sage Bharadvaga :The Father of Ayurveda :

Sage Bharadvaja is stated to be the father of Ayurveda. He obtained

it from Lord Indra - the King of heavens: Indra is thus a mythological
figure. But the sage Bharadvaja is a historical figure. The whole of the
sixth Book of Rgveda is attributed to him and to the members of his
family. His descent is from the well-known sage Atharvana alias

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Angirasa. We do not have any record about the name of the sage
earlier to Atharvana, the author - the seer of Atharvaveda.

Bharadvaja is a family name - The founder of this family or some

descendant of this family would thus be the founder of this science
of life-Ayurveda.

From Charaka Samhita we get the acount of a seminar held in the

regions of the Himalayas and its participants (Charaka samhita,
chapter 48 A 1-6,7). This account is summarised here.

"The seminar was called 'The Quest of Longevity' Bharadvaja the

presiding expert is stated to have approached Indra and sought his
blessings.

"The great sages, the doers of good (punya-karmana) who attended

amongest others, Angirasa, Vasishtha, Jamadagni, Kashyapa, Bhrigu,
Atreya, Narada, Agastya, Markandeya, Chyavana and so many
others. They were all veritable mines of Vedic lore.

They said - Dharmamatrtha -kamamoksanam arogyam mulam

uttamum.

Health is the supreme foundation of virtue, wealth, enjoyment and

salvation."

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"The diseases are the destroyers of health, good life and the life
itself. With this thought the sage Bharadvaja approached Lord Indra
and requested him to give them the remedy to cure the maladies.

Bharadvaja was given this knowledge by lord Indra."

Its Branches :

Ayurveda has two main branches viz. (1) Medicine and (2) Surgery.
Ayurveda is also studied and discussed inthe following eight ways
called 'Ashtanga Hridaya.' They are 1)body, 2) children's diseases3)
parapsychology 4) diseases of body, from neck above. It is also called
Shalakya, ENT - ear, nose, throat of the modern days. 5) Surgery 6)
Administration of poison or analystical study of the poisons of
different animal bite, 7) old age treatment 8)gainting Strength
Science of how to gain strength.

Let us first deal with the main divisions : Medicine and Surgery.

Charak-samhita is now the main treatise available on Medicine.

There is yet a separate Samhita going by the name Kashyapa. It deals
mainly with Children's diseases. This Samhita was not available in
India. Its manuscript was found in Tibet. The Indian copies appear to
have been destroyed by the Muslim invaders. This Tibetan
manuscript has now been edited by the Purohit of Nepal king. Tibet

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is now under Chinese occupation. This source for our ancient
Manuscripts is for the time being closed.

The third limb is graha stars or bhuta\idya. These are some magical
rites to ward off unforeseen and inexplicable dangers to life and cure
diseases caused by these shocks. When somebody is affected
psychologically and does behave as one possessed by a ghost, some
Mantras are chanted and such persons are cured. This science later
on fell into the hands of Shaktas - believers in secret science of
gaining power through chanting of mantres. This was not developed
by the medicine men later. It fell into disuse. No treatise is now
available on this branch. Some Mantras are given in older
compilations for use in treating of such diseases. But generally the
practitioners of Medicine do not deal with these. On ear, nose,
throat diseases no treatise is now available, there was one by one
sage Nimi. But it is now lost.

Dealing with cure from poisonous bites was a separate science. This
was called Agada Tantra-Poison-technology. The doctors in this
science are called poison treating doctors. These arefound even now,
but rarely.

Old age or Rasayan Chikitsa - Rasayan here does not mean some
chemical mixture. It is preparation of some herbal medicinal mixture

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lo be given to a man to ward off the approaching old age. Today :he
medicine popularly known as Chyavan-prash is one such Rasayan. it
is supposed to delay the advance of old age.

Vajikarana is to increase the strength of a person who has become

impotent. In olden days, this technology was used to produce the
desired progeny. There was ample literature on these eight limbs or
branchesof Ayurveda. Unfortunately now the whole of it is not
available. Intensive search in Tibetan monasteries may yield certain
useful finds in this science.

Charak :

Charak had developed the science of Ayurveda taught by Agnivesha

and had brought it uptodate. It is further developed by Drdhabala. It
then began to be called ------------ agnivesakrte tantre
carakapratisamskrite drdhabdlasampurite. This science of medicine
was complied by Agnivesha from earllier sources coming down from
the Vedas. It was further brought uptodate by Charaka. To this
additions were made by Dradhabala."

Agnivesha was the disciple of Punarvasu. Bheda his another disciple

notes that Punarvasu hailed from Gandhara country.

It is clear that Punarvasu was the physician to the king Nagnajit the
king of Gandhara-modern Afghanistan. From Rigveda we come to

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know that the sage Atri hailed from Babylon. So -this family had later
on settled near Kandahara. From the Buddhist scriptures it is known
that Atreya-son of Atri or some one from Atri family was a teacher of
Ayurveda at Takshashila University prior to Buddha's birth, according
to Dr. Hoernele. In Mahabharata there is a mention of Krishna -
Atreya. Mahabharata has been originally composed by Veda Vyasa
around 3100 B.C. So Punarvasu's date is prior to 3100 B.C. Even
though the final rescension of Mahabharata has been completed in
the Gupta-period i.e. around 300 B.C. the date of Atreya can be
taken as an earlier one. The adjective Svarna-margadah of the king
Nagnajit is significant. Dr. Vadodkar interperts this to mean showing
the way to the Emperor Darius of Persia who was to receive gold -
coins from his Indian possessions. No writer who is under the
patronage of the king would refer to his patron in such a
derogatory way, that his patron is subordinate to someone else.
Here Survarnamargadah means 'one who shows the medicinal
teacher the way to obtain gold.' Any-way, Punarvasu cannot be the
contemporary of Darius of 521 B.C. (See our Volume n). So
Punarvasu's date may be much earlier to 3100 B.C. We have
determined dale of Lord Buddha at 1 885 B.C.

Charaka is a very venerated name in the Indian annals. Charak

cannot mean one who moves from place to place curing patients and

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selling medicines. Charaka of the Ayurveda Samhita has to be taken
as a renowned and venerated teacher of Ayurveda. Charaka is
associated with the name of one branch of Krishna Yajurveda.
Vaishampayana one of the disciples of Vedavyasa is also associated
with Krishna Yajurveda. It is possible that the name of Charaka is
associated with Krishna Yajurveda as he must be the prominent
person of the time who compiledthis science of life and thus
performed a great Yajna in the form of recording knowledge about
how to prolong one's life, and enjoy it. This was also the aim of
Yajurveda. Or some Charak a great sage from that family must have
been associated with the compilation of that Veda, and Charaka of
Ayurveda must also be from that family. Charaka's date may be a
little earlier than Bharata war fought in 3139-38 B.C. say 3300 B.C.
the date of compilation of the Vedas.

Charak and Patanjali :

Vijnanbhikshu in his Yogavartika offers his homage to the sage

Patanjali thus:

Yogen Cittasya paden vdcdm-malam sdrirasya ca vaidyakenn

Yo apdkarottam pravaram munindm -Patanjalim prdnjlirdnato asmill

Ibow down before that great sage Patanjali who taught us to purify
the mind by preaching the practice of yoga, and the speech by his

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commentaries on Vyakarana and the body by removing the faults in
it by the science of medicine.' This Patanjali was the contemporary of
Gaudapada the Guru of Govindayati, the Guru of Adya
Shankaracharya. We have determined the date of Adi shankara at
509 B.C. So Gaudapada's date would be around 600 B.C. and Pa tan
jail's around 650 B.C. Charaka is far removed from Patanjali and so
on no account can we equate Patanjali with Charaka. The confusion
has arisen, for Patanjali as well as Charaka are considered to be the
incarnations of the cobra king Shesha-naga.

In Bauddha scriptures 'Ratna pitakasutra' and 'Shri Dharmapitaka

Sampradaya' Charakacharya is mentioned as the physician to the
king Kanishka of Kashmira. We have determined the period of the
king Kanishka as around 1200 B.C. This Charakacharya noted must be
some one bearing the title of that name. He cannot be the author of
Charak Samhita.

Vaisheshika system is dated at 3000 B.C. or earlier. In it 'Abhava, non

existene is noted as one of the articles. But Charaka notes only the
first six articles, and does not note the seventh, 'abhava.' This would
show that Charak had flourished much before 3000 B.C.

In Panini we do not find any reference to Buddha or Mahavira or

their systems. This according to Dr. Bhandarkar is the proof that

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Panini flourished before Buddha, whose period we have determined
at 1885-1805 B.C. Panini' s period would be around 2200 B.C. Panini
notes Kathacharakaluka sutra. So charaka must be before 2200 B.C.

Charaka refers to Chaturvarnya as being based on education and the

profession. Sushruta refers to varna as based on birth. Charaka does
not deal with surgery. He saystatradhanvantariyanam adhikarah. In
that Branch the disciples of Dhanvantari are the authorities." This
shows that Charaka Samhita is very ancient. Nowadays Dhanvantari-
Samhita is not available. In Charaka's time man's life span was a little
over 120 years. The chapters of all the three compilations oi" the
major branches of Aryurveda, namely, Charaka, Sushruta and
Ashtanga Samgraha have 120 chapters. Kashyapa Samhita dealing
with children's diseases has also 120 chapters. In Aitareya
Upanishad, the author Mahidas notes man's life to be of 116 years.
In Charaka's days a man leading his life according to the precepts of
Ayurveda must be expecting to live till 120 years. Ayuh = life is
defined as eti gachati iti ayuh. Which passes from moment to
moment is life." The science dealing with it is Ayurveda. The
physicians dealing with this veda are the Vaidyas. They were mostly
Brahmanas in the earlier days. But this was not confined to the aryas
alone. This was practised by the mlenchhas also (foreigners).

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Ayurveda is called Upaveda as this was also an important and vital
science dealing with the life of the man. It is stated to be the
subordinate Veda allied to the Atharva-veda.

Dhrdhabala who made further additions to Charaka Samhita hailed

from Panchanadapur, modern-Panjanore on the confluence of the
rivers Vitasta-Zelum and Sindhu. He is staled to have flourished in the
days of the Gupta -period. We have determined that the
contemporary of Alexander was Chandragupta I of the Imperial
Gupta dynasty. Dhrdhabala therefore belongs to third of fourth
century B.C. Gupta-dynasty ruled as Emperors of India from
Magadha between 327 B.C. to 82 B.C.

Sushruta :

'Su' = Very good or the best and 'Shruta' = heard. He who has
listened very carefully to what his teacher had taught, and compiled
it into a system is Sushruta. He is said to be the son of Vishwamitra
and was taught directly by Dhanvantari the founder of the science of
Surgery. However Dhanvanlari is a legendary figure and cannot be
the direct teacher of Sushruta. He must be a later exponent of the
science of surgery and Sushruta must have taken lessons from him.
As Charaka does not note Sushruta in his works, his date can be later
than Charaka.

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Dhanuh salyam tasya pdram antam iyarti gachati iti dhanvantary.

Dhanvantari is one who removes the pain from the wounds caused
by incisions in the body for curing certain ailments.

We have noted earlier Charaka's dictum in the branch of surgery

the disciples of Dahuvantari are authoritative exponents.

Sushruta Samhita :

The treatise on Surgery has been written by Sushruta who was the
disciple of the king of Kashi (Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh India) by name
Divodas. Sushruta calls this Divodasa as Dhanvantari himself
(Kashirajam Divodasam dhanvantarim Sushruta sutra 1-3).

Dhanvantari :

Dhanvantari is a legendary founder of this science of life, Ayurveda.

His name is not found in the Vedas or the Brahmanas. But in the
Puranas and Mahabharata and Ramayana, he is very wellknown. In
the Puranas these is a story of churnings of the Ocean - samudra
manthan.'

The Devas and Danavas - the gods and demons -decided to churn the
ocean and obtain the wealth hidden in its waters. During this act the
famous 14 jewels were discovered and recovered. One of these was
Dhanvantari the founder of the science of life. In Vayu and
Brahmanda Puranas this version is slightly modified. Dhanvantari is
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the son of the king of Kashi, by name Dhanva. He propitiated the
Goddess called Abja born from water. Through her boon, the king
Dhanva got a son, and this son is called Dhanvantari who obtained
the knowledge of Ayurveda from the 'sage Bharadvaj. He divided the
Ayurveda into eight limbs and taught it to his son Ketumana. This
science was transmited to Bhimarath from his father Ketumana.
Divodasa learnt it from Bhimaratha (also called Bhimasena) his
father. Dhanvanlari being the founder of this science, Divodasa is
also called Dhanvantari by Sushruta who was his diciple.

In Kaushitaki Brahmana, Divodasa is mentioned. In Mahabharata also

Divodasa-Dhanvantari is noted. The date of Kaushitaki is around
2900 B.C. according to the modern Astronomer Shankara Balakrishna
Dixit. . Panini notes Kaushilaka connecled with Kaushalaki Brahman.
We have seen that Panini flourished around 2200 B.C. This way
Divodasa's date works out to some period prior to 2200 B.C.
Mahabharata war was fought around 3139 - 38 B.C. So the Jaya - the
earliest version was compiledby Vedavyasa around 3100 B.C. The
period of Divodasa and his pupil Sushruta may be around 3000 B.C. a
little later than Charaka.

We have determined Charaka's period around 3300 B.C. Dhanvantari

the son of the king of Kashi would have therefore to be placed
around 3500 B.C. about 200 years earlier than Charaka. For the
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Sampradaya reputed tradition to be established, it would take a
century or two. Sushruta notes the name of Krishna

This would also indicate Sushrula's date as 3000 B.C. For Krishna had
discarded his mortal coil in 3102 B.C. Krishna had been regarded as
an incarnation even during his life-time.

The Westerners want to belittle everything Indian. This attitude is

born out of their imperial arrogance and ignorance. One Herbert
Gowan is on record stating that there was no such figure as Sushruta.
The real person is Socrates the Greek philosopher. Socrates is
however not known for his erudition in Ayurveda. This simple fact
had escaped this scholar's notice.

Sushruta as the author of treatise on Surgery had become ,so famous

that in Shalihotra treatise on horses and their ailments, Sushruta is
stated to be its author too. But this Sushruta appears to be different
from Sushruta of the treatise on surgery as the Sushruta's teacher
Divodasa is not mentioned, when other teachers as Agnivesha,
Harita, Jatukarnya etc. are noted.

Sushruta is noted in an inscription of eighth century A.D. found in

Cambodia. Sushruta's treatise was translated in Arabic in eighth
century A.D.

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It appears that Sushruta was known to the Westerners. In their
medical system we have words from Sushruta, like Asthiyam =
austiyam (concerning bones) pari-asthiyam = peri-austiyam,
paritaniyam = peritoniyam, danta = danla, antram = enterum janu-
jenu, shirobrahma = cerebram etc.

Charaka, Sushrula, Madhavanidan all these treatises on Ayurveda

were translated, in Arabic around 773 A.D. in the reign of the
Khalipha Harun-al-Rashid. These treatises on Ayurveda were also
taught in western countries till alleast 1500A.D.

These were transited into Chinese loo, prior to Seventh century A.D.

Kashyapa-Samhita :

On the diseases of children - Kaumarabhritya in Ayurveda, Kashyapa

Samhita is available. However it has lost its importance with the
AshtangaHridya of Vagbhata becoming popular later on. It being a
lucid exposition of Ayurveda by presenting Charaka, Sushruta and
Kashyapa in a poetic form, Kashyapa treatise went out of use by the
Vaidyas, the physicians.

Kashyapa-Samhita is an ancient one. It was not much in use. One

Physician, Vriddha Jivak revised it. Another physician Ravana
rejuvenated it. Later Vatsya got it from some Yaksha - A sort of a
magician named 'Anayasa.' It is as old as Charaka, if not earlier.

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However we need not discuss it, as it is rarely referred to in current
Ayurvedic literature.

Other Samhitas by Bheda and Harita are available. But they are also
not much in vogue now.

Vagbhata himself refers to his A-Hridaya in the following eulogistic

terms.

hrdayamiva hrdaymetat sarvdyurdavangmayapayodheh. It is like the

heart. It is the heart of all the ocean of literature on Ayurveda.' And
this is not an idle boast. It is true to its character.

Vagbhata :

Vagbhata the author of this treatise is the son of Vaidya Simhagupta.

His grand -father was also named Vagbhata and he was also a
renowned physician. In his A-Samgraha he notes one Avalokita as his
Guru. From this it looks that he was a follower of Buddha. At the
start he has offered prayers to Buddha. He says: I bow down before
Bhuddha. He hailed from Sindha- region.

One commentator, Bhatta-Narahari states that Vagbhata was not a

Bauddha as he has written A-Hridaya a treatise on Vedic Science. He,
therefore, translated Buddha as Jagadishwara - the Lord of the
Universe. It is true that Vagbhat also bows before Brahma.Here

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Pitamaha is Brahma thecreator. He has also accepted OTTO or
3<a4iHiu«i i.e. the authority of the Vedas. He also says :

Here the last line clearly shows that he offers his Namaskars to
Lord Hara (Shiva) as well as Lord Hari (Vishnu).

It is clear that though he had respect for Buddha he had shown

similar respect to the gods of his forefathers. There is one current of
thought that the use of the word Buddha may only mean 'learned.'
But it is so clear in meaning that there should not be any doubt left
that he was a devotee of Buddha. It only shows that although a
follower of Buddha, he had not lost his roots. He hadno disrespect
for ' Vedic Sanatana Dharma. When we see even today that at the
Buddha-temple at Gaya (Bihar) Brahmanas are the priests, h should
not surprise any that Vagbhata had not ceased to be a follower of
Vedas by developing love and veneration for Buddha the Enlightened
one. Buddha had not founded a separate religion. He was himself the
follower of Vedic Sanatana Dharma and had love for the Vedas.
Buddha is also regarded as the ninth incarnation of Lord Visnu.

Susruta : The father of Surgery

We have shown earlier that Susruta flourished around 3 100 B.C.

Obviously Charak and Susruta are venerated names in the field of
medicine and surgery not only in India but also abroad.

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The Encyclopedia Britannica (1887) notes: "In both branches of the
Aryan stock, surgical practice as well as medical, reached a high
degree of perfection at a very early period." This period is atleast
3000 years before Alexander (327 B.C.) Dr. Wise in his History of
Medicine among the Asiatics (London 1868) notes that the
"elaborate and lofty ethical code (quoted in Enyclopaedia noted
above) appears to be of pure Brahmanic origin and very copious
materia medica-which included arsenic, mercury, zinc and many
other substances of permanent value, does not contain a single
article of foreign source. There is also evidence in Arrian, Strabo and
other writers that "the East enjoyed a proverbial reputation for
medical and surgical wisdom at the time of Alexander's invasion."

According to Susruta both these branches medicinal as well as

surgical were handled by a single class 6f practitioners. There were
no specialists as such in only one branch. However the experience,
skill and reputations did matter. Even lilhoplaxy which at Alexandria
was assigned to specialists, could be done by any medical
practitioner in India. After the advent of Buddha, surgery which
involved cutting of limbs, incision drawing blood, was considered to
be an impure profession and Brahmanas generally shunned it. This
was done by trained barbers, nail trimmers, ear borers, tooth
drawers and phlebotomists (letting out blood from veins)

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Susruta notes more than one hundred surgical instruments made of
steel. These should have good handles and should be well-polished.
They were to be kept in a flannel in wooden box. They included
various types of. scalpels, lancets, scissors, needles, forceps, syringes,
and so on. There were fourteen varieties of bandages. Splints for use
in surgery were made from thin slips of bamboo bound together with
string and cut to the length required. Dr. Wise had used this
admirable-'splint' frequently. The English army had begun using it
subsequently.

Wide Applications of Surgery :

"Fractures were diagnosed, among other signs, by crtpitus.

Dislocations were elaborately classified, and the differential
diagnosis given; the treatment was by traction and counter-traction,
circumlocution, and other dexterous manipulation. Wounds were
divided into incised, punctured, lacerated, confused, etc. Cuts of the
head and face were sewed. Skill in extracting foreign bodies was
carried to a great height, the magnet being used for iron particles
under certain specified circumstances. Inflammations were treated
by the usual antiphlogistic regimen and appliances; section was
practised at several other points besides the bend of the elbow,
leeches were more often resorted to than the lancet; cupping was
also in general use. Poulticing, fomenting and the" like were done as
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at present. Amputation was done now. and then, notwithstanding
the want of good control over the haemorrhage; boiling oil was
applied to the stump, with pressure by means of a cup-formed
bandage, pilch being sometimes added. Tumours and enlarged
lymphatic glands were cut out, and an arsenical salve applied to the
raw surfaces to prevent recurrence. Abdominal dropsy and hydrocele
were treated by tapping with a trocar, and varieties of hernia were
understood : omental hernia being removed by operation on the
scrotum : Aneurisms were known, but not treated; the use of
ligature on the continuity of an artery, as well as on the cut end of it
in a flap, is the one thing that a modern surgeon will miss somewhat
noticeably in the ancient surgery of the Hindus; and the reason of
their backwardness in thatmatter was doubtless their want of
familiarity with the course of the arteries and the arterial
circulation. Besides the operation already mentioned, the
abdomen was opened by a short incision below the umbilicus
slightly to the left of the middle line, for the purpose of removing
intestinal concretions or other obstruction (laparotomy). Only a small
segment of the bowel was exposed at one time; the concretion when
found was removed, the intestine stitched together again, anointed
with ghee and honey, and returned into the cavity. Lithotomy
was practised, without the staff. There was a plastic operation for

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the restoration of the nose, the skin being taken from the cheek
adjoining, and the vascularity kept up by a bridge of tissue. The
ophthalmic surgery included extraction of cataract. Obstetric
operations were various, including caesarean section and
crushing the foetus."

Medical treatment was a perfected art, knowledge of anatomy was

considered essential. Book learning had to be supplemented by
practice under an experienced practitioner.

Chinese had no developed surgery then. However their distinctive

surgical invention was acupuncture, or the insertion of five needles
or hardened silver or gold rods for an inch or more with a testing
motion into the seats of pain or inflammation. Wise says that the
needle is allowed to remain in that part for several minutes, or in
some cases of neuralgia for days with great advantage. Rheumatism
and chronic gout were among the localised pains so treated. 367
points in the body were noted for such treatment.

The Arabians, the Egyptians, the Greeks had learnt this science
from the Indians.

Plastic operations :

Doctor Hirschberg of Berlin says, "the whole plastic surgery in Europe

look a new flight when these cunning devices of Indian workmen

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became known to us." The transplanting of sensible skin-flaps is also
an entirely Indian method (Susruta, Sutrasthanam, Ch.CVI). It is
Susruta who first successfully demonstrated the feasibility of
mending a clipt earlobe with a patch of sensible skin flap scraped
from the neck or the adjoining part.

To Susruta is attributed the glory of discovering the art of

cataract-crouching which was unknown to the surgeons of the
ancient Greece and Egypt. Limbs were amputated, abdominal
operations were performed, fractures were set, dislocations, hernia
and ruptures were reduced, haemorrhoids and fistula were removed,
and we take pride in saying that the methods recommended in the
Susruta Samhita sometimes prove more successful than those
adopted by the surgeons of modern times.

The skill in surgery exhibited in those remote days was comparable

to any in modern days. Even the highly experienced Dr. Charles, the
then Principal of the medical college Calcutta has highly praised the
process of delivery in difficult cases and even confessed that, "with
all his great experience in midwifery and surgery he never had any
idea of the like being found in all the medical works that came under
his observation."

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In the case of amputations medicated wines were given to the
patients as anaesthetics.

Susruta himself an expert surgeon had advocated dissection of dead

bodies as indispensable for a successful student of surgery.

Each sacrifice where animals were killed was a place where anatomy
of different animals was studied by the students of medicine and
surgery. Similarly each hermitage of a sage was a school not only of
philosophy and other sciences but also of medicine.

There are detailed instructions about the use of the different surgical
instruments.

There is also a chapter on the uses of leeches where the patient is

old or imbecile or a woman who is afraid of surgical operations. This
mode of letting out of blood is the gentlest possible.

There is a special chapter or rhinoplastic surgery and other topics.

General principles of Indian Medical system :

Ayurveda has before it the twofold objective, namely to preserve

health and to cure the disease.It would, therefore, impress upon one
and all the desirability of observing healthy rules and regulations in
daily routine of life, daily intake of food so as not to fall a prey to any
disease whatsoever.

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It, therefore, insisted on everybody to be his own doctor and advised
him to observe simple rules of control over food intake and keeping
the bowels clean. In case of illness also the prescription was the
same namely fasting and taking only such food as would maintain
bodily strength to fight the disease. The rule was :

Vinapi bhesajairyyadhih pathyadeva nivartaie |

na tu pathyavihinanam bhesajanam saiairapi |
Any ailment will get cured without medicine, if proper rules of food
intake and behaviour are observed. If these rules are not observed,
hundreds of medicines would not be of any avail."

It is because of this dictum that Ayurveda has

developedPanch-karma-Chikitsa treatment based an five basic
methods :

use of ghee, sweating the body, act of vomiting, use of purgatives

and cleansing the nasal cavities. Similarly there should be proper
food intake suitable to the constitution of the body of the particular
individual. For example milk is nectar on earth, but it is not suitable
to persons suffering from indigestion. Similarly curds are very good
for body, but to those suffering from breathing or couth troubles,
they are just poison. Similarly ghee or sugar though very essential for
body, have to be shunned when the body develops obesity.

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Mind is after all the master of all the sense organs. It should be
trained to follow the rules of healthy life. For sound mind in a sound
body is a lime worn adage, a useful guide to healthy living.

For keeping mind under control, yoga practices are necessary.

Similarly mind should be made fearless by imbibing spiritual
teaching. Even autosuggestion, that 1 have to remain always fearless
is useful. Atharvaveda emphasises the importance of repeating the
following recipe in this connection. It exhorts us to repeat the
following mantra (verse) atleast twenty times a day.

"Abhayam Mitradababhyamamitrada
Abhayam jnatadabhayam puro yah
abhayam naktamabhayam diva nah
sarvah asah mama mitram bhavantu" (A. V.19-2- 15)

- Let us be free from fear of friends. Similarly let us be free from fear
of the enemies. Let us be free from the known as well as from the
unknown. Let us be free from fear during night or day. Let all
quarters be friendly to us. Let us be totally fearless."

Dhanvanlari the founder of the science of surgery has told us :

acyutdnanta govinda namoccarana bhesajam

nasyanti sakalah rogah satyam satyam vadami aham

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- O friends, the best medicine is to repeat the name of the lord, O
Acyuta, Ananta or Govinda. By this repetition all your ailments get
destroyed.

This is the truth, donl disbelieve, this is the truth." Other rule was :

prayogah samayed vyadhim naivanymudirayet

nasau visudhah suddhastu samayed yo na kopayet

- That medicine should be prescribed which lessens the effects of

disease and would not aggravate it. Not only this but the medicine
prescribed should have no side effect."

There is a folk tale current in Ayurvedic circles.

Once the sage Jaimini was just sitting in his hermitage. A bird
perched on the branch of a tree asked: who is healthy?" Jaimini
replied : he who takes wholesome, nutritious and strength giving-
food." The bird again shouted: "who is healthy?" Jaimini shot back:
he who does not overeat but takes limited quantities of good food."
The bird anain blurted: who is healthy?" Jaimini replied with
confidence: He who lakes good food in limited but adequate
quantity." The bird got its complete answer and kept his silence.

The aim in life is, to lead life maintaining harmony between temporal
and spiritual aspects -an integrated vision of life. It has therefore
beenwell said : .

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 tatrapi bharatam srestham jambudvipe mahamune

yato hi karmabhuresa tato anya bhogabhumayah

-In this world this land of Bharata is the greatest, O sage. For this
land is where the ideal is to perform duty in life with equanimity of
mind and not to indulge in wanton satisfaction of the flesh."

Such a great land which had maintained its greatness and integrity
for thousands of years, came under the heels of the barbarian
Muslim hordes and the wily and utterly selfish British. For we forgot
the injunction of the sages eko ball satam vijnanavatamakampayate
-One terrorist can supplant hundreds of the learned." So observe
integral vision of life - increase your spiritual strength but do not'
neglect temporal aspects of wealth. Increase your material welfare
with sufficient armed strength to ward of wanton attacks from the
mindless bullies. In a world armed with nuclear-powered weapons,
India should have the topmost place, for in her hands such weapons
would be for deterrence and not for wanton attacks.

Metals as medicines

Charaka the first systematic writer on the science of medicine notes

six metals, namely, gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron and their
oxides as medicines in the cure of diseases affecting man. He takes

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all objects as the chemical transformations of the Panch
Mahabhutas.

Similarly five salts -1) nitre (KNO3) - potassium nitrate or (NaNo3) in

Sanskrit - Sauvarchula 2) rock salt - Saindhava. 3) black salt 4)
vegetable salt and 5)Samudra-sea salt, are noted by him as
medicines in use in treating of diseases.

Minerals like sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, realgar - arsenic

disulphide (AS2S3), and Sulpher in combination with vegetable
products are being used as medicines for external application in
many skin diseases.

Kshara-preparation of alkali potash carbonate is prescribed as

medicine by Charaka.

Rust of iron and pyrites (FeS2) - iron disulphide are used in the
medicinal pills.

Ashes of conch-shells, coral, lapis lazuli, oxide of iron and copper,

and sulphide of antimony have been described as ingredients of
collyrium.

All the metals are used after being roasted with sulpher under the
recipe of a pearl, powder of iron, copper and sulpher. Thin sheets of
iron, silver and gold are treated with hot solution of salts and alkalis
to produce medicines for use.

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The preparation of spirituous liquors, fermented drinks, was known.
These are prepared from cereals, fruits, roots, flowers stalks, leaves,
barks of plants and sugar from various sugar yielding canes. From
these 84 kinds of asavas (mild wines) were prepared.

Medicines are of two kinds, one type is what increases vitality and
strength without causing any side effects. The other is for curing the
diseases. These are also free from any side or after effects. Those
which act as vital elixirs are called Rasayana. These promote
longevity retentive memory, health, vitality, etc.

Susruta deals with surgery. Charaka belongs to the period a little

before the Bharata war fought in 3139-38 B.C. Sustruta has come
after this war, around 3000 B.C. So whatever was know." to Charaka
in the matter of preparations of medicines was also the common
property of all those who have come after him.

As Susruta was concerned with surgery, he advocated the use of

caustics in place of cutting instruments and their accessories. The
caustic-substances burn or destroy a living tissue. So they perform
the work of incision, puncture and sacrifications, relieve
derangement of three humors and uniformly affect the diseased part
to which they are applied. In Sanskrit they are called Ksharas for they

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remove diseased parts and destroy the skin and flesh They are acrid,
hot and pungent and possess lacerating properties.

Alkalies are used both for external application as well as internal

administration. They can be given in different strengths, weak,
moderate and strong. '

Susruta gives detailed outlines of how to prepare them. The process

is elaborate and complicated. Neutralization process of alkalies is
also given in Susruta.

The Charaka and Susruta Samhitas record developments from the

earliest times. This science of medicine is a very developed one.
Susruta describes the process of making fermented drinks from fruits
like grapes, raisins and date palm, as well as from rice-paste and
barley, from sugar-cane juice, treacle and honey as well as from
flowers and barks of trees.

The Bower manuscript has been discovered by the British Lt. A.

Bower in 1890 in Buddhist monument at Kutcha in the Chinese
Turkestan. It is the oldest manuscript on medical science. It is dated
fourth century A.D. But it contains the wisdom of several centuries
earlier. It gives several methods of preparation of Pharmaceutical
products. The manuscript notes Susruta as the great Acharya of
medicine and surgery.

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The manuscript notes yavakshara carbonate of potash and
sarjikakshara - soda.

Yagbhatta of early Christian era is the modern leading light on the

science of Ayurveda. His Ashtanga Hridaya (heart or the kernel of the
eight limbs or divisions of medicine) is considered as the authority in
that Science.

Its particular contribution appears to be the knowledge of mercury

as a metal used in medicinal preparations for external use.

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 10. Metallurgy

The discoveries from the excavations at Mohenjodaro, Harappa,

Baluchistan and other areas depicting the Indus valley (we have
designated it as Sarasvati Sindhu S.S. for short) civilization reveal that
the people there were acquainted with the art of making potteries of
burnt clay and painting them with many intricate designs in various
colours. (For S.S.Civilization please see our Vol.1)

The houses were built with stone and mud bricks with white plaster
over the inner faces of walls. A flat copper axe and some copper
implements have also been discovered at these sites.

The axe found in the Net Cemetery (Baluchistan) gave the analysis of
its contents as :

Copper 93.5 percent + Lead -2.14+ Nickel 4.50 and Arsenic-trace.44

The other objects found were beads made of agate, cornelian and
lapis lazuli. At Mehi-kulligon in South Baluchistan copper mirrors
were discovered. Even a fragment of sheet of gold was discovered in
this region.

These discoveries indicate the high level of scientific knowledge

these people of the ancient age (5000 B.C. and earlier) possessed.
Making baked or burnt clay pottery implied the construction of open
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and closed kilns. The find of copper axe implies the art of extracting
copper ore and purifying it and making different articles from it for
everyday use. They had discovered copper ore deposits. They
extracted gold from mines. The art of purifying these metals they
knew. The science of metallurgy was also developed as the mixing of
copper with nickel would indicate.

For closed kilns the temperature of about 600° C, 700° C was

required. The Vedic age is prior to this S.S.age. The Vedas note the
use of iron. If in the archaeological remains iron articles are not
found, it is because the rate of oxidation for iron is high and so no
article of iron would retain its identity for such a long period of over
6000 years. This sort of negative evidence would not be the criterion
to decide that this S.S.civilization was pre-Vedic.

Anyway we find that in this remote age, the sciences of metallurgy

and chemistry were in a highly developed state.

Again at many S.S.sites, the colours of the bricks, pottery and other
terra-cola objects are light red or salmon. Sana Ullah (archaeological
chemist) in his analyses of these, remarks that "the colours are due
to the iron compounds in the clay, which develop a red shade in the
oxidising atmosphere of the kiln.

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According to Sana Ullah's analysis of the earthen-ware bangles found
at Harappa, the percentage of Ferrous oxide in the bangles was 7.10.
In Greenish pottery found at Mohenjo-daro site, Ferrous oxide was
2.29%. This would show that even during that period, iron was found
and its use was made in making the articles of daily use.

Al both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro sites, in many more such

articles, Ferrous oxide and Ferric oxide are detected in percentages
ranging from 1.82 to 6.31.

Lime and Mortar :

For buildings gypsum cement with considerable quantities of clay

and sand, a trace of calcium carbonate has been used at these
S.S.sites. A high percentage of lime has been found in an
exceptionally well constructed drain of the intermediate period at
Mohenjodaro."4* Gypsum, sand and lime has been used in the
preparation of the mortars. Use of bronze :

At S.S.sites particularly in the Mohenjo-daro and Harappa region

large quantities of copper, gold and silver were available. Copper
alloyed with tin, the form of bronze, was largely used in the making
of the articles of every day household use. They were also used in
making of weapons like daggers, knives, lance heads, arrow heads
and sickles. Iron was also mixed in copper to make bronze. But iron

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weapons have not been found. This is probably due to the process of
rusting, these articles must have been reduced to dust. As compared
to copper, bronze was found to be stiffen and it was used extensively
in making weapons and implements with extra sharp cutting edges.
Tin and arsenic wa< mixed in copper to turn it into bronze, a very
hard metal.

As copper was in plentiful supply and as iron was scarce at these

sites, copper mixed with tin, nickel and arsenic in the form of bronze
was largely in use. The technique of making bronze was highly
developed. Gold and silver was used in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.
These metals of high value were of course used in making fine
articles of jewellery. Silver was also used in ornamenting vessels.
Silver is stated to have been extracted from smelting argentiferous
lead ore associated with cuprite. Cerussic was found in Baluchistan. It
is coupled with cuprite. And this was the source of silver. Gold might
have been obtained from Afghanistan and Persia.

Gold And Silver :

Gold has been known to the Indians from the Vedic times. And the
Vedas are co-eval with the creation of the universe. In short gold is
the metal known to the Indians from hoary antiquity.

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Its chief attraction is its ornamental value. Its colour is alluring. It is
rustproof. Its malleability and ductility adds to its fascination. Itis a
good conductor of electricity and is chemically inactive. It can be
beaten into very thin leaves. The gold content is measured in carats.
A carat is 1/24th of its mass. Its purity is 24 carat fine.

Because of its scarcity and value, it is a favoured metal for the

backing of currency. Its chief producers are South Africa, Russia, USA
and Canada.

In Rgveda gold is called Hiranya. Large number of references are

found in it. The sages offer prayers to gods to obtain gold in plenty.
The earrings and gold necklaces are the most favoured ornaments of
the Vedic seers (I-124-14). Gold was so much in demand, that the
gold mines in India soon got exhausted. India of the olden days used
to produce surplus foodgrains and high quality of cotton cloth. These
were exported and gold and silver vere imported in lieu of them.'

The colour of gold being alluring the sages considered the gods to be
of golden colour. The bright sun in the sky is considered to possess
the visage of gold. So do the gods Indra, Mitra, Varuna and others.
Their chariots are also gold (hiranya-ratha I-30-16). The seats in these
are also of gold (IV-46-4). Their poles and other parts are also made
of gold. They wear golden crowns (II-35-3)

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Gold was found in river sands (VI-61-7). It is said that the wheels of
the chariot of the river Saraswati were made of gold. The river
Sindhu is also said to have gold in its stream (VII-26-18-
hiranyavartani). Atharva-Veda (XII-1.20) notes that gold can be
obtained from gold mines.

Rgveda knows the use of gold coins (I-126-2 niska). They were called
niskas. Atharvaveda, Satapatha Brahmana and others mention these
(AV.XX-127-3). Hiranyapinda is the other name of the gold coin (VI-
47-23). D.R. Bhandarkar (1921) notes that gold coins have been in
use since Vedic times. The other names are sata krsnala and
satamana. One mSna is equal to one Gunja. One Krsnala is equal to 3
Yavas. Five KrsnSlas are equal to one masa. 8 Gunjas are also eqal to
one masa. 16masas are one suvarna. 14 suvarnas is equal to one
niska. Agni Purana (227-3) states that 4 suvarnas are equal to one
Niska. It shows that Niska and suvarna were the coins in circulation
since the Vedic times. Their relative values have been changed from
time to time.

Silver :

Like gold, silver is also chemically inactive. Its colour is nearly white.
It is lustrous, soft, ductile, malleable, and a good conductor of heat
and electricity. It easily combines with sulphur at ordinary

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temperatures. Its compounds are used in Photography because of
their light sensitivity. It is used in medicine also. Gold and silver
bhasma-burnt and powdered gold and silver substance is used as
tonic for regaining lost health. It is also used in silvering mirors. Its
use in Jewelleryand making pots and utensils is well-known. Silver is
also used in making coins. Silver coins had 68.75% silver 25% copper
and 6.25% other base metals. Gold sheets were used to cover tops of
temple towers.

It occurs combined in ores and is obtained while refining lead and

copper. Silver is present in large quantities in the silver-bearing ores
of lead.

Very thin wires of gold and silver were used in embroidering cloth.
These and their other uses were well-known to Indians since very
early times. Images of gods are made of gold and silver metals.

References to these metals are available in the Vedas as well as later

literature.

Gold of pale yellow and white colour is impure, It is purified by

heating it and melting it. Lead, bismuth, antimony, nickel, iron and
calcium oxide are the minor alloying elements. These are insoluble in
solid silver. When, therefore, by melting the ore, pure and solid silver
is obtained these impurites are removed, more than two thirds of

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world's silver is from sulphide ores, lead, copper, and zinc, though
hardly .5% of silver is present in these ores. Electrum is another
source of this metal. It is the natural alloy of gold and silver. It is
found in Kolar gold fields in Mysore. Silver from the zinc-blend
argentiferous galona (silver-bearing lead sulphide) was obtained in
ancient mines of Zewar, 15 miles south of Udaipur in the Aravalli
region of Rajasthan. The main supply, however, came from
'bawdwin' silver mines from Burma. In district of Bellary (Karnatak)
lumps of galena were met at Metri some 25 miles from it. The
technology to obtain them was developed.

In R.V.VIII-25-22 we have reference to rajata-white in colour. It is

silver. In Taittiriya Brahmana, (3-9-6) there is a reference to silver, to
later literature also, there are quite a few references to silver.

Glass :

Glass is a hard but transparent substance. It is available since remote

antiquity. It is commonly made chiefly of silicates, an alkali-usually
soda or potash-and lime, as stabiliser. These become fused at high
temperatures. Materials are boiled down, skimmed, and cooled. This
molten glass is ladled or poured into moulds and pressed.
Manufactured glass dates from prehistoric times in India, far East
and Egypt.

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It is one of the commonest materials now in use. Bharadwaja
observes - "It may be called as the fourth state of matter that
combines the rigidity of a crystal with a largely random molecular
structure of a liquid." It is a mixture of silicates of calcium, sodium or
other metals. It is a generic term like metals, ceramics and plastics.

It is mentioned in Vedic literature. It is mentioned in Shatapath

Brahmana (2900B.C.). It is known as Kacha (glass). In Ramayana, the
producer of Kacha is known as Kachakara (11-90-27). Kacha is known
but its technological details are not available in any literary record.

Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro have yielded a large

variety of ceramic material, which has been described as faience,
vitreous paste, frit, composition; glaze and mosaic glass. Vitreous
paste and frit are similar in nature. Faience is a class by itself. Glaze is
a thin layer of glass (Bharadvaj, ibid p.28).

Iron-age :

It is a belief with the archaeologists to state that, though iron is the

commonest ore in the earth's crust, yet it came to be used on a
commercial use around 1300R.C. in India. So Iron Age is said to have
ushered here around this period.

Yet beads of meteoric iron shaped by rubbing are discovered in Egypt

around 4000B.C. Again oldest known hammered dagger is discovered

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in Egypt before this date. So the general impression created by these
archaeologists that in India iron age came around 1000B.C. is
incorrect. Further in India meteoric iron objects have come to the
notice around 1900 B.C. as Dr. S. B. Deo - Director of Archaeology
Deccan college Pune-Maharashtra in a personal letter to me in 1987,
has informed.

It is said that the Hittites in twelfth century B.C. found Kizwadana a

barbarian tribe somewhere in Armenian mountains producing iron of
good quality in bulk. So this is the earliest known use of meteoric
iron in producing the present quality of iron. But when a dagger has
been found in use earlier to this date, and a bead of this type of iron
is said to be in use around 4000 B.C. to say thai iron of good quality
in bulk was not produced before 1200 B.C. is wider of the mark. Even
before this period iron in sufficient quantity and quality was being
produced and used.

There are umpteen number of references of the use of iron in the

earliest written records of mankind, namely, the Vedas. In RV.IV-37-4
a steel helmet (ayahsipra) is mentioned. In RV.VII-90-3 we have
another reference to a steel helmet (ayahsirasa). Sword (asi) is noted
in 1-162-20. Reference to swords occur at many places. The sword is
strong and sharp. It can sever the head of a sacrificial horse at one
stroke. A razor (ksura) is mentioned in Rgveda X-28-9. The term
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sharp edge of the sword (tejah ayasah no dharam) occurs in VI-3-5.
Ayasah meant iron. Ayasah is thus the sword of iron. A child when
bom is decorated with khadi-a ring. It is said thai it is of iron. The idea
is that the child would grow with iron constitution - he would
become a man of strength (VI-16-40, VII-56-13).

The arrows are called Ayomukh i.e. with sharp iron heads (VI-V5-15).
The other weapon is ayah agnaya -with hot iron points. Indra is said
to crush the irreligious enemies with the weapon with iron claws (X-
99-8). The sages while living in forests use axes to cut wood (VI 3-5).
The Maruls use Pavi a sharp weapon (1-166-10).

Karmara is blacksmith. The Lord creator forges different objects like a

blacksmith (X-72-2). In different Brahmanas we have a note about
the bellows for kindling fire in a fire kiln. Purification of iron ore is
mentioned in Satapatha Brahmana (XX-6-1-3-5). In RV.X-81-3 Act of
welding is mentioned (SamdhamatiAs to weld).

The difficulty with wrought iron finds is their poor oxidation

resistance. To get pure iron objects of ancient times is well-nigh
imposible. And it is a tradition with the archaeologists to deny the
existence of an object unless it is found to exist in some excavated
remains. Because of high oxidation rate of iron, chances of these
earlier finds are almost impossible. The records like the Vedas and

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258
allied literature should therefore be considered good evidence. In
fact the prejudice of the Western Indologists that the Indian literary
evidence should not be believed unless it is backed by foreign literary
sources or traveller's accounts, or epigraphical or archaeological
records has caused untold damage to the proper construction or our
earlier history including our Purunas. Why the evidence revealed by
the Vedic literature is to be discarded is not stated anywhere. Our
British masters said so and our Pandits accepted, that is all.

One unfortunate aspect of our literary record is the near total

absence of the technological details of the procedure adopted to get
a particular result. The final result is noted, but how that result was
reached, steps leading to it are not recorded. This is very true in
mathematical sciences. But in the case of chemicals and metallurgy,
the chemical and scientific practices and techniques can be studied
by analytical method.

Excavations at Rajaghat (Varanasi) have yielded six iron objects

namely, 1) Blade, 2) Arrow head, 3) Broken nail 4) Piece of a rod, 5)
Fragmentary piece, and 6) Bent nali, Chonologically these objects are
dated 600 B.C. Except arrowhead all other objects had about 91%
(fe) iron content. The arrow beau had some glass-like substance
about 3.8%. Besides these silica, alumina, lime and magnesia were
present as impurities.
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These were not meteoric iron objects. Meteoric iron invariably
contains nickel from about 3 to 3.5% often together with small
amount of cobalt.48

The iron-smiths were able to raise the temperature from 800° C. to

about 1100°C. The melting point of iron is 1540°C. Except for slag the
metal obtained then was quite pure. As the metal could not be
liquefied as the melting point temperature was not generated,
negligible quantities of impurities remained entrapped.

The 'bent nali', the sixth object noted above, had higher content of
carbon. Its content was 1.10% when it was less than 42% in others.
This extra quantity was incorporated into it by heating the object at
high temperatures in contact with carbon.

The following types of iron ores are available in plenty in India.

1)Magnetite, 2)Haematite, 3)Lomonite, 4)Siderite, 5)Iron, 6)Pysrolite.

The main site of deposits of iron ore in India, are :

1) Singhbhum - Mayurabhanj in Biharand Orissa,

2)Salem-Tiruchirapally in Madras, 3)Bellary, Kemangundi and Harihar

in Mysore and Bailadila and Rowghat in Madhya Pradesh.

The minor sites are in Rajasthan - Rajagarh in the district of Alwar.

The others are Mandi (H.P.) Patiala (Punjab) and Kumaon Hills (U.P.).

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Acharya P.C.Ray and the Vedic Period :

P.C.Ray the Editor of 'History of Hindu Chemistry' following the lead

of the speculative historians and archaeologists places the start of
the Vedic Period at about 1700 B.C., and dubs the Aryans as
constituting war-like nomadic tribes. He adds that they subdued and
derisively termed the earlier inhabitants of this land as 'Dasyus or
Dasas.' According to him the earlier inhabitants were Dravidians. He
describes the Aryans who first came to India as 'mostly pastoral
communities, and compared to the earlier Indus valley people much
less advanced in cultural achievements.' He discards the view of
P.Neogi (Iron in Ancient India, Calcutta) and others that the word
ayas (iron) refers to iron and avers that ayas was used as a generic
name for metals in the Vedic age. He again states 'that no article of
iron has been discovered in the excavations at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro.'

As we have seen P.Ray (in his Volume p.31) finds pottery, iron and
copper implements there' i.e. at the Indus vally sites of Chanho Daro
and Jhukar in the Southern Baluchistan. Again he has shown in the
analysis of 'bronze' implements found at Harappa and other places
indications of the presence of 8.70% ferrous oxide. This clearly
indicates that when Indus valley (4000B.C.-2000B.C.) sites show the
knowledge of iron, the Vedic people the successors of Indus valley
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people (according to Ray and others their period is 1700 B.C.)
knewabout the use of iron extensively. In these circumstances there
is no scope to draw the inference that the S.S. valley people were
unaware of the use of iron or its implements.

Further on p.36 of his magnum opus, he notes that the Vedic texts
show 'that the cloths were mainly made of wool.' It is the general
speculation of the historians of this school that kapas (cotton) was
not known to the Rgvedic people. But the Acharya himself mentions
on p.30 that the Indus valley people were acquainted with the art of
'dyeing cotton'.

If Indus valley people knew the art of dyeing cotton, how is it that
Vedic people their successors were unaware of the use of cotton or
the clothes made from it ?

The point is that for the Vedic Age the latest date is 7200 B.C., the
earliest is surrounded in mystery. Indus valley civilization is S.S.
civilization and is very much the continuation the Vedic civilization.

The chemical compounds are of two types: (1) those composed of

the atoms of same bhuta, and (2) those which are composed of
atoms of different classes of the bhutas. The process is interesting.
For example in the fruit juices water-particle or atom is the nucleus
round which different earth-subtances act and bring in the

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development of new objects with different qualities-different fruits
or grains with different tastes.

The Science of Ayurveda found the efficacy of certain chemical

compounds in the cure of certain diseases. Thus they developed both
organic and inorganic chemical compounds-iso-Bhautic as well as
hetero-Bhautic.

Charak the most famous physician of ancient India enumerates the

physical characteristics of different Bhutas thus:

(1) earth substances: Heavy, rough, hard, inert, dense* opaque,

exciting the sense of smell.

(2)Ap-substances: Liquid, viscous, cold, soft, slippery, fluid, exciting

the sense of taste.

(3)Tejas substances: Hot, penetrative, subtle, light, dry, transparent,

rarefied, classic, capable of sound and form vibrations.

(4)Vayu substances: Light, cold, dry, transparent, rarefied,

impingement, capable of touch vibrations.

(5) Akasha substances: Imponderable (or light), rarefied, classic,

capable of sound vibrations.

Susruta classifies the following as earth subastances: gold, the five

Lohas or hard metals such as silver, copper, iron, lead and tin,

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andtheir 'rust',-arsenic, orpiment, various mineral earths and salts,
sand, precious stones. Salts include common salt, salt petre etc.

Ap-substances are, waters, acids, milks, curds, butters, oils, fats,

honeys, molasses, alocoholic liquors, urines etc.

As we have shown in the chapter on Ayurveda, Charaka and Susutra

the medical teachers themselves were indebted to the earlier
acharyas for their treatises on chemical substances used by them.
Their dates are prior to 3000 B.C. The great metallurgist Patanjali
flourished in sixth century B.C. In his treatise on metallurgy and
chemical processes, he has mentioned the preparation of metallic
salts, alloys and amalgams, and the extraction, purification and
assaying of metals. Another metallurgist Nagarjuna of the twelfilh
century B.C. has given us preparation of mercury.

Varahamihira one of the jewels in Shakari Vikramaditya's court (82

B.C. to 18A.D.) has given several preparations of cement-powders
called vajra-lep-cements as strong as thunderbolt. He has also given
the various recipes for artificial imitations of natural flower-scents.

India was also the leader in the preparation of fast dyes for textile
fabrics by the treatment of natural dyes like Manjishtha with alum
and other chemicals. From indigo-plant indigo colour was prepared
by chemical treatment.

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The treatise on Rasa-shastra (chemistry) called Rasamava (1200A.D.)
gives colours of flames of different metals, namely copper gives blue
flame, tin-pigeon colour, lead-pale, iron-tawny, blue vitrioired.

The various metallurgical processes known to our ancients were:

extraction, purification and killing i.e. formation of oxides, chlorides
and oxy-chlorides, incineration, powdering, solution, distillation,
precipitation, rinsing (or washing) drying, steaming, melting, casting,
filling, etc.

In Sanskrit treatises on organic compounds, vegetable or animal

substances were called Sthavara-jangam-bhuta. The molasses,
fermented liqours, the saps and juices of plants, vegetable ashes and
alkalies are vegetable compounds. While honey, milk, curd,butter,
fat, bile, urine, and other excreta, together with the organs and
tissues of animals, are animal substances. Vegetable oil as well as
animal oils are also classed under these. The viscous or oily
substances are - butters, oils, fats and marrows.

Chemistry of colour: The three gunas-Sattva-essence (colour-white)

Rajas-energy (colour-red) and Tamas-mass (colour black), when the
substances have these as constituents in different proportions, the
predominance of one guna determines the colour of the substance.
Predominance of tamas in a substance gives it black colour.

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 11. Civil Engineering

Villages and cities

As the Vedas testify, man in a civilised state has been the resident of
the mother earth since the beginning of Life on this earth. Darwin
himself acknowledges, he had very serious doubts about the theory
of evolution he had built up on his observation and the study of the
rocks. It is usual with the scientists to suggest that this theory of
evolution is scientifically proved and no doubt now remains about it.
Its basic premise is that life or consciousness has arisen from simple
primordial protoplasmic mass, probably in sea. There is no positive
evidence to suggest that life has evolved over millions of years by
.slow process. Darwin had stated: "If it could be demonstrated that
any complex organism existed which could not possibly have been
formed by numerous, successive slight modifications, my theory
would absolutely break down."

Nowadays the scientists rely on the negative argument "Odd

arrangements and funny solutions are proof of evolution-paths that
a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process,
constrained by history, follows perforce."145 The argument is that all
knowing sensible God would not produce by design such an odd limb

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as the Panda's Thumb. Thus this evolution is the result of chance and
natural selection. This would show that these scientists have no
positive proof for the Darwinian or any other theory of evolution.
Their whole argument is based on their conception of an all
powerful, intelligent and perfect God.

The defect in such a line of argument is that the scientists have

certain notions about this physical universe. They have not complete
grasp of the non-mechanistic spiritual 'science. The basic premise is
that the Lord creator is perfect and complete whole and his creation
partakes -of this character.

When once we accept that there is no evolution, we have to take it

that man was born with the intellect as he possesses now. Because
of some new technological developments his fund of information has
increased and his mode of living has changed. But to say that
originally he lived by hunting and that he did not know the art of
house building, then he entered the pastoral stage and domesticated
the horse, the cow and the dog, and thereafter he became an
agriculturist and had settled life living in a stone built house and so
on, is only an imaginative and specalative version, now goes in the
name of evolutionary science. These speculative scientists say that
man entered this Neolithic period evolving from the Paleolithic or
the old stone age, does not stand to reason.
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This Neolithic period or New stone age, they say is a period of early
industrial development and is characterised by new sources of food
and use of polished stone tools, pottery making, carpentary, and
weaving. They also state that no new species other than the earlier
domesticated animals added to the list. Sheep and goat were
domesticated along with the cow, the horse and the dog.

The point is that the man knew the art of house building and
agriculture from times immemorial. We have no archaeological
evidence to suggest the time when he began staying in a well-built
stone house. For due to the ravages of time and fury of the
elements, that evidence is now lost. Yet the oldest evidence of town
planning and building of houses is available in the ruins of Sarasvati-
<li
Sindhu civilisation. These remains show that the people en knew
the art of town planning very well. They had broad roads, and
drainage system. The houses were architecturally well-planned and
well designed. The use of mortar as a joining material was known to
them. These remains show that they had fire altar, school buildings,
temples and palaces. Protective walls were also built around a village
or a settlement. Granaries for storing grains and multistoreyed
buildings have been located in these ruins. Industrial houses were
also built around a village or a settlement, and industries like
spinning, weaving, jewellery making were conducted.

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It is now established that this civilisation covered a vast region from
Afghanistan to South India. The age of this civilisation on the basis
c/14 Carbon-method of dating has been determined at 6500B.C. to
1750 B.C.

Vedas are the heritage of mankind. The Hindu view of their period is
co-eval with the creation. It cannot be said that they were composed
in the first or second millennium B.C. They were there when the S.S.
civilisation flourished. This would show that Civil Engineering is an
old art practised in India. In Rgveda we get many references to
puras-towns, castles or barricades. Similarly there are references in
the Rgveda to fertile lands (urvara) (1-12') (IV-41-6-V-33-4) cultivable
land (Kshetraja) (I-33-15). In VII 49-2 we get a reference to the
digging of a well, from where water is obtained either for cultivation
or for the purpose of drinking. There is also a reference to fertile
cultivable land (X-142-3).

In Rgveda, we find the number of cows as the measure of one's

wealth. The oldest sage Angirasa had maintained a very large
number of cows which were stolen by the Panis - the traders and
cow lifters. To house them large cattle sheds were also constructed.

The location of the public sacrificial place of a village or of a town is

on the high ground, square in shape. The idea is that there should be

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a natural drainage and the sacrificial fire be seen from far and near.
The villages' sites were also selected on the same principle.

A fortified city is also noted in the Sat-Br. (6-3-3-24-25). It is called

Tripur. It was fortified on three sides by a rampart. The houses of
priests and the gramani, the village chief, were located at centre of
the village. Around these were the houses of the farmers and
craftsmen. A funeral place is away from the village or the town. It
was located near nala or a river or a place where water for bath was
easily available. South direction of the village, settlement is taken to
belong to Yama-the presiding deity over the departed souls. This
place thus was selected at the southern tip of the village. It was not
easily seen by the residents of the village or the town.

The houses were arranged around the streets. Each house was easily
available from the other. There were broad roads and small lanes. A
cart or two could pass through the road.

In A. V. 10-2-31 we have the description of the city of gods called

Ayodhya-astavakrd. This city has eight roads • crossing each other
with nine gates. In Gita 5-13 the man's body is said to have nine
gates, (two eyes, two outlets of nose, two ears, mouth, an anus and a
penis). In this city dwells the jlvatma (an individual soul). A village or

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town with the network of eight roads and nine gates appears to have
been considered as an ideal one, on the analogy of the human body.

The ramparts of the city (pura) have to be strong with iron gates not
easily assailable (A.V.I9-58-4 Purah ayasi adhmusva). The main doors
of the houses opened on the east or the north, south being
cousidered inauspicious as in that direction reside the departed
souls.

Around the villages were the cultivable lands. Beyond these were
pastures and forests. In Rgveda besides pura, a word nagara is also
a\uilable. In Taittiriya samhita we have a statement,
'naitamrsimviditva nagaram praviset (1.2-18-31) For new
settlements lands along rivers were cleared and made habitable (S.B.
1-4-1-15). There were different types of roads mentioned in
Yajurveda - (Y.V.-16-43, 16-60). Prapatha - is a highway, Vipalha (Y.V
5.36, 3.23) is an ordinary road, Supatha is well-prepared road. There
were specially trained persons who surveyed the land and laid down
the roads; they were called Pathikrtah- Road - Engineers.

Prasada is a palace and prdkara is a city rampart. From all these

details it becomes clear that townplanning and house - construction
science was in an advanced state since early Vedic times.

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Panini (2200 B.C.) notes, nagara, grama, ghosa, and Kheta. These are
cities and villages - city is big in size and village is small, with a limited
number of hamlets. In the city elaborate arrangements for water
supply and drainage were made. A village is called sthala e.g.
Kapisthala. Marusthana is dry region. The place of confluence of sea
and river is called Kaccha-the city of Bhrigukaccha - it is
modernBharucha - city established by the sage Bhrigu, where the
river Narmada meets the Arabian sea. A city is called Kantha, like
Cittankantha, Samarkanda in Central Asia. A region entirely
dependent on rain is called Indravaktra. A hilly land is Trigarta.
Prastha is a land reclaimed from forest, like Indra-prastha. (modern-
New Delhi).

Besides crops, timber trees were grown on forest lands. Bamboo,

Shara (reeds), Munja grass, fruit-bearing trees were grown.
Medicinal plants were also grown. The best quality timber was
available from trees called Simsapa, Sami, Plaksha, Mango, were
some of these trees.

Thus building materials, like stone and timber were available in

plenty. Art of brickmaking has been there since Vedic times.
Sacrificial fire-altars were made of fire-brie-' s. Big buildings like
palaces, council halls, granaries, store houses, theatres were built.

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This art has continued till modern times right from the earliest Vedic
times.

Parts of a big town, were a fishing village, a smiths village, hunter's,

village, carpenters' village, basket-makers' village, a Brahmana village
etc. We come across names of big cities, Ujjaini, Varanasi, Vaishali,
Hastinapura, Rajagriha, Pataliputra, Mithila, Ayodhya, Mathura,
Kanchi etc. Nalanda, Taxila, Kanchi, Shrinagara in Kashmir were
university towns. In these big libraries were maintained in good
condition with all the volumes on all arts, crafts and sciences. These
were available for ready references. The teacher in the art and
science,of building was called Vdstuvidyacharya. The guild of
architects was called Silpa-sangha. (Raghuvansha-XVI-38). This
science was very well-developed. The model city was Shakrapuri-the
city of Indra, the Lord of the heavens. The chief architect was called
vishwakarma. In Harivamsha 57-III, we have the statement-
'dvarakavrtam ramyam. Visvakarmana -The harbour around the city
of Dwaraka was very well laid out.'

Every medium-sized village had bn`andashala-a potters' house

(where earthen - ware pottery was made and kept for sale) and a
smithy, (Iron-smith's shed). Each village had a temple which had a
guest house to entertain passersby. They were provided with food
and shelter. An assembly hall was also attached to the temple. It had
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a covered watershed and a closed well. Each village had a distinctly
marked boundary.

In villages we find even now big houses with open courtyard and on
all the four sides of it are living rooms. The rich persons have such
houses. This style is now fast disappearing with modern ideas of
town planning. Nowadays the custom is to have large number of
windows in the walls facing the street and open to the skys. The
rooms alongside the chowk or court-yard of the old houses were
living rooms, bed rooms, kitchen, store houses etc.

In Jain Brhat-Kalpa-bhasya we have a lot of information about the

types of villages in ancient India, at one place (1100-1106). A village
called Ultan-Mallakara had a village-well at a central point. It works
like a open bowl-shaped om (1104). Another village is Avanmukha
with a temple or a big banyan tree at the central place (1105). Yet in
another type called Khanda, houses are arranged in a semicircle.
Trees and village wells are in the middle. There is another type called
Bhith samsthita or houses arranged along the rampart wall and the
trees running parallal to the rows of houses.

Other types are a Patalika having many avenues, a Valabhi with trees
planted on four corners and a Ruchaka is again another type ringed
with trees. A village is called Kashyapa in which houses are arranged

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in a triangnlar fashion (1103). Akara is where mines are located,
while a Gosha is a village, where cowherds reside with their cattle.
Samradha is situated in a hilly tract.

A capital town called pura is well protected with a moat running

around it. There is a bridge connecting it with outer-region and it is
well guarded. These towns are marked by their gopuras, high towers.
There were multi storeyed houses with supporting beams and
columns.

In Kautilya's Arthashastra we have further information about town

planning. An officer called Samaharta used to plan the settlement of
the villages and towns (1-19). The village usually consisted of 100 to
500 families. There were officers called Sangrahana attending to the
problems of villages. Above these were Karvatika over the 200
villages, Dronamukha over 400 villagers and a Sthaniya over 800
villages.

There are further elaborate rules regarding the location of the Royal
palace and other quarters. Treatises on Silpasastra written around
400 A.D. to 1600 A.D. are available.

There were five types of settlements called villages or towns. Their

lengths extended from 192 dandas (a Danda= 1.824m.) to 960

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dandas. They were called: Grama, Kheta, Kharvata, Durga and
Nagara. The smallest grama was 64 dandas in length.

The Samarangana Sutradhara (8.40-43) lays down rules for choosing

a site for settlement of a village or town. The soil should have low
sand content. Underground water should be available in plenty. It
should be full of trees. If the growth of Durva-Munja grass is seen
growing in abundance, such a site for a location of a village is
considered auspicious.

The soil should give pleasant small. It should have uniform colour.
Ground that is warm in winter and cool in summer is considered
suitable for settlement.

The site chosen for a village or a town should be square, circular,

rectangular or a triangular like a rabor (Mrdanga-a musical intrument
broader in the middle and tapering on sides. Samarangana Sutradhar
lays down that, a site of any other size like chinnakarna an ear with
cuts in sides or like thunderbolt or like needle i.e. elongated with
narrow breadth should not be chosen. The idea is that the villagers
should have easy access to one another, and well protected from
robbers and wildbeasts.

The site chosen should be near the tank or it should be on the bank
of the river flowing towards the south. If the river flows to the east,

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the site should be little away from the river bed. In India the rivers
flow mostly to the east and so the flood waters would spread along
with the banks far o both sides. If there is heavy rain-fall, even the
water would flow breaking the traditional boundary. If the river flows
to the south that danger is likely to be less. According to Yukti-
Kalpataru of king Bhoja of Malwa, the site square, rectangular,
circular and traingular brings prosperity to the king i.e. to the
populace in general. For under the Indian political system, king's
prosperity lies in the prosperity of his subjects.

There are also detailed regulations about the length and width of a
rampart or a moat. About roads the principle is susanchara - easy
movements of the villagers or the towns folk. The width of the roads,
in the villages is generally not less than 4 meters and in the cities it is
always about 8 to 10 metres. A chariot to and fro should easily pass
through these. This is the test.

There is a treatise known as Vishvakarma Vastushastra, a treatise on

layout of roads and buildings. In the city there are central squares -
very broad, able to accommodate vehicles coming from different
directions. Again if there are multi-storeyed apartment-houses, the
width of the road in front has to be minimium twice the height.

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Lime and mortar was used no. only in the construction of the houses
but also in the building of the roads. Plastering of walls was also in
vogue.

Besides the capital city-a Rajadhani where king's palace is located,

there are port-towns called pattanam i.e. the place where goods
from all directions are brought for sale or export to other places -
patanti asmin pattanam. Naturally this town would have
preponderance of merchants in the population. We have
Masulipattan and Vishahkapattan, in AndhraPradesh, Kaveripattan in
Tamil Nadu.

From what goes before, one can have a very fair idea how advanced
was the science of Town planning, construction of buildings
and road-building. DataiJed treatises on this science under the titles,
Mayamata Manasar, Samarangana-Sutradhar, Vishvakarma
Vastushastra are available.

Rajatarangini (3450 B.C. To 1150 A.D.)

The historical treatise entitled Rajatarangini written by the great

poet Kaihana is justly famous for giving quite an accurate account of
the reigns of different kings who ruled the beautiful Kashmir valley or
Mandala as it was called. The history of the period from almost the
beginning of Kaliyuga (c.3450 B.C. to 1150 A.D.) is given in this work.

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It is mentioned in taranga VIE, sloka 340 that Kaihana began writing
this treatise in 1148-49 A.D. and completed it by the next year.
Jonaraja has also confirmed this date.

Kaihana was the son of Chief Minister (mahamatya) Campaka who

served King Harsa of Kashmir during the period 1089-1110 A.D.
Kaihana, therefore, must have had direct access to the materials in
the royal archives and other sources from which he could write such
a detailed and almost accurate history of Kashmir. Sir Aurel Stein,
who had translated the treatise into English with ample notes and a
scholarly introduction, appears to be very much impressed by the
painstaking and accurate accounting of the history of the above
period by Kaihana. According to him, Kaihana was a scholar, poet,
and pandit and in addition could be called an able archaeologist who
made use of stone inscriptions, copper plate grants, and other
papers to write the history of Kashmir. The place names, the
structures, etc. that are mentioned in this treatise can be found even
these days indicating the accuracy of the history described by
Kaihana. Stein opines that there is some discrepancy regarding the
reign periods of different Kings, particularly, upto 5th century B.C.
According to Kaihana the great Buddhist emperor Asoka ruled much
before 1182 B.C.-i.e. around 1448 B.C. whereas Western scholars
hold that Asoka ruled in the middle of the third century B.C. Kalhan's

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account is more trustworthy. Western historians are speculative and
biassed.

The value of this historical work is considerably enhanced by the

accuracy of the reporting of the historical events without any bias,
and by the sense of responsibility of the author regarding the
importance of the periods of different kings he has given. I have,
therefore, chosen this treatise for collecting information regarding
the development of Civil Engineering in India during that time.
Another reason for this choice is the availability of a considerable
volume of information on this aspect in this treatise. It may be noted
further that the information given in this treatise can be confirmed
from available archaeological and geographical information. It is,
therefore, thought that this is one of the best ways to describe the
history of advancement of Civil Engineering as far as Kashmir is
concerned. It can be presumed that engineering as a science and
practice of it had prevailed in other parts of India as well.

Geomorphoiogical Information

Regarding the formation of the Kashmir valley, it is mentioned (1.20-

30) that at first it was a very large lake called Satisara. During the
Vaivasvata Manvantara, Prajapati Kasyapa breached this reservoir
with the help of the gods Drhina, Upendra, and Rudra. The lake was

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drained away and thus Kashmir Mandala was formed. It is wellknown
that the flow of rivers within the Himalayan ranges gets many times
obstructed because of the natural bunds formed across the river
either due to the formation of ice or due to the large slips
(avalanches) of the hill slopes, the material of which gets deposited
in the river bed. There is a likelihood that a large lake called Satisara
might have been developed because of the natural obstructions
formed across the bed of the river Vitasta. Such instances are
mentioned in -nie treatise as well and are described later in the
paragraph on irrigation. When this natural obstruction was cleared
manually, as stated above, a large tract of land was made available.
The Kashmir valley, because of the great fertility of this lacustrine
deposit, soon attracted a large population. The Kashmir valley is
within the Himalayan ranges, and it is naturally surrounded on all
sides by high mountain ranges which serve as prakara (ramparts) and
protects the whole of Kashmir, making it safe against invasion by
outside powers. This was another attraction for its occupation.

It is stated in Taranga IV (sloka 480-490) that sage Kasyapa had also

discovered the once vanished river Vitasta in Kashmir. This again
could be explained by the fact that the river Vitasta had almost
vanished into its own lake called Satisara. The river was discovered
again when its flow from the lake was revived by the removal of the

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natural obstruction. In the Rgveda it is mentioned many times thai
Indra had removed obstructions of rivers and let them flow along
their courses (R.V.VTI. 18.8, VII 18.9, etc.). The formation of the
Kashmir country and the rediscovery of the river Vistasta is explained
by the poet following this old idea emanating from the Vedas.

A good example of the ancient way of explaining a geomorphological

phenomenon in a mythological form is provided by the following
account. The river Rembyara meets the river Vitasta at the
confluence called GambhTra, which is located 4 km. from the village
Cakradhara. The bed width of this river is nearly 3.1/2 km. of
boulders. This is a clear case of deposition of sediment by the river
because of the decrease in the velocity of its water where it meets
another bigger river. The velocity o!" river water in a mountainous
country is very high and the water .carries large boulders during
floods. When a river meets another river, its velocity decreases
considerably and as a consequence it deposits its sediment, largely
boulders, near the confluence.Thepresence of such a large number
of boulders for the great length of the river Rembyara is explained in
a mythological story that these boulders were brought by the she-
cobra Ramanya" "who came to help her brother Cobra Susr fighting
against King Nara (1.260-270).

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In the Himalayan region," the flow of a river gets many times
suddenly obstructed by accumulation of materials in the river bed
due to large slips along the slopes of the mountains located along its
bank and a lake gets formed. Such formation of lake is also explained
by a mythological story. It is stated (1.260-270) that Cobra Susravasa
had formed a big tank for his residence. The colour of the water of
this tank was as white as milk. This tank (lake) still exists near the
source of the river Lidar and it is known as Sesanaga. It is also called
as Susravasanag. The idea of obstructing the flow of a river by a
serpent is as old as the Vedas, wherein Vrtra is said to have
obstructed the path of the river Parusni. The same mythological
tradition is used here to explain the formation of a lake201.

Large stretches of wind-blown dust of sandy to clayey constitution

called loess are found in Kashmir (Krishnan, 1960). Heavy dust
storms, as a result of which the atmosphere remains dusty for a
prolonged period, are responsible for this phenomenon.

Construction Of Towns, Cities And Monuments

While studying this historical treatise it is noted that almost every

king built a town to commemorate the beginning of his reign or to
mark an important event in his life like the annihilation of an
important foe, performance of a grand sacrifice, etc. Sometimes the

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construction of a town is the only achievement mentioned of a king.
Given below are few examples of the construction of towns, cities
and monuments which denote the status of advancement in Civil
Engineering with the passage of time.

It is stated that king Lava 1752-1713 B.C. (according to Kalhana) had

constructeed 84 lakh temples of stones. He had also constructed a
town called Lolera (1.80-90).

King Surendra (1635-1596 B.C.) constructed a city called Soraka. This

might be the present day town called Surasa in the Nagoma district,
along the bank of the river Sangasafeda. He had also constructed two
viharas called Narendrabhuvana and Saurasa (1.90-100).

Asoka (1448-1400 B.C.) of Gonandiya dynasty of Kashmir and not the

Emperor Asoka Maurya had also constructed a very large, rich and
flourishing city called Srinagara. There were 96 lakh houses in this
city (1.100-110), This very old city might be the town
calledPandethana - Puranadhisthana located on the right bank of
river Vitasta. This emperor constructed a number of edifices like
stupas, viharas, caityas, etc. as he was a devoted Buddhhist. He
constructed stupas at Suskaletra (now called Hakalitra) and at
Vitastatra (now a village called Vidha-ventura). The caitya built in the

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vihara located in Vitastatra was very tall and its height could not be
judged by a mere look at it.

King Jaloka (1400-1344 B.C.), son of Asoka, also constructed a vihara

called Krtyakama (1.140-150). This vihara is the one called as Kitace
as quoted by the Chinese traveller Ukong in 750 A.D. It is located in
the village Kitage Kitasoma which is seven km. from the town
Varahamula located on the left ^ank of river Vitasta. The
archaeological findings bear testimony to the correctness of the
information given by Kalhana.

King Nara or Kinnara (990 B.C.) had constructed a city called

Kinnarapura on the bank of Vitasta. It was a very beautiful and large
city. There were many long and wide royal roads, streets and
bazaars. There were many gardens and parks (1.200-210).
Kinnarapura was located near Vijabhura. The construction of the city
along the bank of Vitasta indicates that the practice of taking
advantage of the protection of a river around the city, so as to use it
as a moat, was probably prevalent from very ancient time in India. It
is clearly mentioned (VIII. 1051) that the city of Srinagara was
encircled by the river Vitasta which functioned also as a moat. This
city was established, according to Kalhana, before 1182 B.C.

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Lalitapida (468-525 A.D.) had constructed a large and beautiful
temple of Martarida. It was built of stone. It is still standing but is in a
very dilapidated condition. This is probably one of the evidences that
temples in stones, as large as thai of Martanda, used to be
constructed in India by 431 A.D. In fact it could be said that where
stone was available in abundance it was used for construction of
houses etc. (even in ancient times). It is a case of the availability of
material that determined the choice of material for the construction
of structures rather than the ignorance about its use.

Jayapida was the grandson of King Lalitaditya and he built the city of
Jayapura Kotta. It is stated (IV.550-560) that this king had taken the
help of SriLankans (engineers) for the construction of a large lake.
This city was provided with two fortification walls in addition to the
moat (formed by way of construction of the lake). The present village
Andrakotta (inner fortification) is located as a small island in the lake
Sambal. The outer fortification wall was called Dvaravati. This may be
called a water fort (jaladurga). The king had constructed alarge
vihara and established in it three idols of Buddha. In the Andrakotta
island remains of a number of old temples have been discovered. It
seems that Sri Lankans were famous at that time for their skill in
construction of high and long dams so as to form very large lakes.
This observation is substantiated from the description of large tanks

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in the well-known historical record of Sri Lanka called Mahavamsa
and also from archaeological findings in that country.

Queen Didda, in the reign of King Nandigupta, (972-973 A.D.) is said

to have constructed a fortified town named Kankanapura. She not
only built 64 large stone temples but also had constructed stone built
rampart walls of old temples whose rampart walls were burnt down
(VI.300-310). This statement may indicate that before the 9th or 10th
century A.D. the rampart walls of temples used to be constructed of
wood which might have been available in abundance, and stone
rampart walls became popular later as the advantages of stone walls
came to be understood. It seems that wood was the predominant
material used for the construction of houses and other stuctures in
towns and cities. It is described that during the reign of king
Abhimanyu (958-972 A.D.) a fire started at the bazaar near the
temple of Tungesvara and burnt down almost the whole of the
stately city. The fire was so widespread and wrought such a
destruction of the city that it was thought worthwhile to mention it
in this treatise (VI. 190-200). Even by the eleventh century A.D. wood
was the chief material for the construction of towns as it is stated
that King Jayasimha had donated wood from the forest, free of
charge, to the citizens and thus built a new city (Vm.2390).

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King Jayasimha, (Kalhana was contemporary to him), had
constructed the temples of Vijaya Siva and other gods. These were
plastered with lime. These temples were very large and white in
colour because of lime plaster, and hence looked so beautiful that
they were compared with Kailasa mountain which is covered by
snow. This thus marks a further advance in building construction. The
practice of the use of lime plaster for temples seems to have become
popular by eleventh century A.D. The king also very wisely made
provision of funds for repairs so that the monuments constructed by
him as well as old monuments could be maintained properly and
perpetually. (VIII.2370-2380).

Roads And Other Foms Of Transport

The poet mentions (IH.220-230) that when Matrgupta was travelling

in Kashmir, his journey was very comfortable as the passes were not
very steep and there were rest houses along the road. It appears that
the roads in the valley were not only aligned with intelligence and
imagination but they were also properly maintained and well
provided with rest houses, located along the road possibly at a
distance of one day's ride, for the comfort of travellers. Matrgupta
was stated to be a commissary of king Shakari Vikramaditya who
reigned (82 B.C.-19 A.D.). Thus it may be stated that roads in Kashmir
were in good shape at the beginning of the Christian Era.
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It is stated that king Pravarasena (16-14 A.D.) constructed a bridge
called Brhatsetu across the river Vitasta and it is further stated that
the practice of constructing bridges started from his time (in.350-
360).

Khanka, Satrughna and Malava, ministers of the king Baladitsa

(III.480-490) had constructed many bridges. Mention of many
bridges throughout the Rajatararigini and most of them in tarangas
VD and VIII, indicated that the art of building of bridges was in a very
developed state in India since very early times. (VII.900-910: VII.
1070-1080, VII.1560-1570;) A boat bridge is mentioned in VII. 1540-
1550; hanging bridge or rope bridge is mentioned in VII.400-410;
bridge on Vitasta is mentioned in VIII.710-730; VIII. 1050-1070;
VIII.2409; VIII.2420-2430;VIII.2890-2900). It seems that a number of
bridges were constructed across the river Vitasta in the city of
Srlnagara. At least two bridges are mentioned in VIII.930-940. Two
additional bridges over Vitasta in this city are further mentioned; a
bridge near Maksika SvamI temple and another called Brhatsetu are
also mentioned (VIII.1171).

Construction of bridges seems to be the usual procedure to crossa

river by the army, specially if a bridge was not already existingat
the crossing. It is stated (VII. 1499-1501) that when it was foundthat
the river Gambhira could not be crossed as there was no bridge, a
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boat bridge was formed and the army crossed the river. It seems that
construction of boat bridges was a common practice, then.

The construction of a culvert across the river might have been

known. It is mentioned that at Kasyapagara, where the river Vitasta
turned to flow towards the east, a bridge was constructed so that the
river could be crossed by cattle (VHI.3350-3360). This seems to be a
submersible bridge, say a culvert. It, therefore, seems that bridges
made of boats, mesonry as well as of ropes used to be constructed
not only across nullahs and small rivers but also across large rivers
like Gamblra and Vitasta.

Architecture : A Traditional Education In Ancient India

The education in the branch of architecture from early Vedic period

to medieval period i.e. to 15th century A.D., is the topic of discussion
in this section.

According to modern concept of science of education, education

means: Progressive change in the behaviour, i.e. learn to walk, play,
ride a bicycle, cook etc. in short, using our different senses so as to
increase our efficiency in daily routine and learn to act. On the
emotional or affective plane it means to evolve the various
emotional moods like love, anger, likes, dislikes etc. On the
intellectual or cognative plane, it is to learn to think, adopt skills, to

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have one's own ideas, opinions etc. This view-point suggests that
education is a continuous natural process during the existence of
human life since birth to death in all stages of life. It not only
removes limits to acquiring knowledge of external objects but also
analysing, understanding and disciplining one's own experience in
the world, in family, in society etc. Education therefore, is an integral
part of human progression. Real success of human life lies in the
entire development of personality.

The word education is derived from the latin word. Educare: means
to rear, to nourish, to bring up, and to lead out, to draw out.
Education thus means to bring up a man through drawing, culturing
the abilities, potentialities. The definition of education according to
Plato is "Education is giving to the body and soul, all perfection they
are susceptible." The aim of education is a successful progress in
whole personality of a man. It includes knowledge, understanding
skills, application, interests, attitude and appreciation. This is the side
of life to which the knowledge of philosophy is also added to enable
the man to use properly, the dynamic side of philosophy; it is the
active aspect of philosophical belief; the practical means of realising
ideals of life."

This is what is meant by Samskaras, holistic training in all aspects of

life.
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In India Dharma is the base of life. Dharma is the ethical conduct and
it is based on the fundamental nature of man i.e. live happily and
enable others to live happily, Philosophy includes religion i.e. mode
of worship. But in India Dharma has various aspects and is not
confined to the ritualistic one alone. It holds all the aspects of human
personality and its evolution upto the highest i.e. emancipation:
Moksa. Education is therefore, treated as part of religion in its
broadest sense. This aspect of education is one step ahead of
modern aim of education. It is expected that a man should progress
through this devotion to Dharma and should educate himself
accordingly. Therefore, in Indian thought a philosopher, a precepter
and a teacher himself are not considered as distinct personalities. A
teacher himself is a philosopher and a precepter. Therefore we do
not find separate schools of acaryas for different faculties of
education. All types of education were provided under one roof by a
single acarya in the hermitage. The teacher was conversant with all
the faculties and students could get all types of educationthere.
Specialised knowledge of certain arts, crafts and sciences was also
available with teachers proficient in them.

Engineering along with Architecture was thus taught in the

hermitage of acaryas as one of the subjects along with others. The
interested students could make the future progress in this subject

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during their further life. The development i.e. propagation of
an/science of architecture from generation to generation was
handed over by fathers to sons or by a master to the junior who
worked with him.

The architecture was known t / the term Vastuvidya. Vastuvidya

contains the topics as follows:

i) Building construction - Residential buildings, palaces, government

buildings such as Nyayasala: court buildings (Visvakarma
Vastusastra), Natyamandapa (Bharata's Natyasastra), recreation halls
(Samarangana Sutradhara), temple buildings (Agama literature).

ii) Interior decoration - The architect knows about the decoration of

the building which he constructs. Some of the chapters of
Samarangana Sutradhara refer to the instructions about what should
be the type of furniture, what picture should be painted, which was
to be avoided etc. The Visvakarme Vastusastra teaches how the seats
of the respected authorities in the court should be prepared while
constructing the building, as a part of building construction. The
image-making i.e. Iconography was taught with the construction of
temple, various Agamas, for example, the books like Brhat Samhita,
explain the icons of the Sun in detail.

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iii)Town planning-The plan of the capital city, plan of a town, the
houses of the people of four varnas along with their exact location in
the cit), the residence of the teachers of fine arts, the location of the
palace, location of court buildings, roads, highways, bridges come
under town planning.

Water-supply

Water-works and Irrigation

The main source of water for crops, of course, was rain. A regular
term for rain-dependent land seems to have become current from
times of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. It was devamatrka.
Monier Williams defines it as "having the god (Indra) or clouds as
foster-mother." Amarakosa defines it with nadimatrka. In the
description of the preferable terrain for a king's territory,
Kamandakiya Nitisara remarks, inter-alia, that land is preferable
which does not depend upon rain-water only. The most-repeated
mythological and spiritual symbol in the Rgveda is the release of
pent-up waters by Indra. Though the Rgveda has not coined the
terms devamatrka and nadimatrka. The concepts and functions
conveyed by them are definitely found in it.

In one Indra-hymn, three gods vitally connected with the

phenomena of rain, growth of vegetation, moisture and evaporation

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viz. parjanya, Vayu and Aditya are together called anupa. At
R.V.9.107.9 anupa is, by implication, just a vat in which Soma flows.
So these three gods are designated receptacles of water. Yaksa's
perception was that they were so called because they favour people
with their action, they scatter favours on mankind; or because they
were like a pond or drinking place, saturated with water, or they
indicate sowing in succession. "The three rich in water" warm the
earth. This warming cannot be taken in the literal sense because, as
Sayana explains, "they warm, the earth by rain, cold and heat
respectively, and hence 'warm' means 'sanctify, purify' i.e. make the
earth ready, season after season, to give good crops. The deva-
dependence i.e. rain-dependence as an express mention would have
been non-existent, but fortunately the Rgveda uses the very word
Devanam here. 'In the Gods' mansion (ace. to Griffith) or at the
creation of gods (ace. to Wilson) stood the first-created." And these
first-created are undoubtedly clouds. When they are out, (Krntatrat)
waters arise or rather alight on the earth.

Nadi, river, is so wrapped up in metaphor and mythology that its

obvious connection with agriculture does not find mention in the
Rgveda. That river-water was channelised into canals and led to
thirsty fields is patent enough. 'Siras stands for off-currents diverted
from the main stream. The phonetic connection with Slra (plough)

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would add to the temptation, but Sira cannot be canal. Sirah are
qualified by Sravantlh and in the classification of waters 'yah
srvantlh' are natural springs. Sravanti appears even as a noun, when
Indra is said to have crossed ninety-nine of them. They are just
flowing rivers. Irrigation seems, somehow, to be fixated in the minds
of historians, as channelising river-water in off-currents to lead it to
fields, groves etc. whereas irrigation means artificial supply of water
to land to assist in the production of crops.

There is no need to restrict the meaning to diverting water-courses

or Hooding only, making the process dependent on rivers alone.
Irrigation, -in a very broad sense, is succinctly but lucidly classified by
Kautilya and there is no reason why it should not be projected back
to the Rgvedic times. With regard to the farmer's water-tax, Kautilya
says, "the tanners shall pay water-rate of one fifth in the case of
water set in motion by the hand from their own water-works, one-
fourth when set in motion by shoulders and one-third when set
flowing in channels by a mechanism, one-fourth when lifted from
rivers, lakes, tanks, wells." One need not enter here into the
intricacies and controversies about the Kautilyan water-cess; what is
pertinent for our purpose is various ways of watering fields noted by
him.

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Irrigation

Rgveda notes four sources of water viz, rain, wells, rivers and sea.
(VII 49-1). Sea or ocean is~ of course the main source. The water
vapour caused by the heat of the sun goes up in the sky, it is cooled
there, and falls on all the regions of the globe in the form of rains.
When rain water from the hills and the mountains runs down from
their slopes, it forms a canal-a river till it meets the sea. Rain water
which sinks in the fields gets collected down in the underground
rocks and it is again lifted up by digging the wells deep enough to
reach the sources in the rocks. Formerly it used to be lifted through
bullock power. It. is now done through electricity-run pumps.
Another source is the ice collected on mountain tops. It melts in the
summer and flows down along the mountain slopes. The mighty river
Ganga has floods in the summer. For the ice-caps on the mountains
get melted in summer and fill the river beds.

Rain water is also collected in reservoirs and dams and tanks

specially buili for the purpose. Through canals dug connecting these
reservoirs, fields are fed with water. In RV X-101-1 a stone or
wooden wheel is mentioned to draw water from the well. Canals are
mentioned in RVIII.33-12.

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Kautilya also talks of constructions of dams, canals and management
of canals and levy of irrigation cess. He had brought out the
importance of the use of irrigation in the matter of growing food
crops in abundance. A small area under irrigation is better than a
large unirrigated area. He prefers to grow trees for timber in
unirrigated land which is dependent on rain water.

The king had at his disposal, stones, bricks, earth and timber for
construction. He used labour which was paid in food grains. He notes
that from irrigated lands, flower gardens, fruit orchards, vegetable
gardens wet crop fields can be raised and sowings of roots and
harvest from these can be obtained (2-6-5). The king encouraged the
farmers todig wells and build small dams to form reservoirs and
obtain water .for their farm lands (2.1 and others). The king himself
undertook to build big dams for irrigation purposes, with the help of
the farmers. Construction of dams was one of the common activities
of the farmers in cooperation with each other or providing labour to
the king who undertook such work. It was the duty of the
superintendent of pasture lands to construct small dams and wells in
waterless regions (2.34-8).

To gauge the potential in a particular region, rainfall was measured

and possible sources in underground water were surveyed. A rain
guage was devised and used to measure the precipitation. Before the
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construction of a big reservoir, available quantity of water was
worked out on the basis of the average rain fall. The quantity of
water stored should have to be large enough to meet the demand of
the fanners in eight dry months.

Large masonry dams with rubble and lime-mortar were constructed.

So also earth dams or earth including masonry work were other
types of dams then constructed. Bullocks, and elephants were used
to compact the soil. Land measurement and levels were also
ascertained. Before deciding on the construction of the dams, the
engineers were able to draw contour maps to ascertain the
comparative levels of the ground at different locations. As many
dams were taken for construction, care was taken to avoid
overlapping of command area of dams under construction.

The Director of Agriculture was to be an expert in the art and science

of agriculture. The selection of the dam- site was very carefully done
taking into consideration the hydrodynamics of the river basin. The
agriculture scientists then had the knowledge of the hydrodynamics
and erosion properties of the soil. It has been stated that there
should not be any damage to the property because of the flood due
to the release of the reservoir water14*.

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Four methods of irrigation are:

1) "Water set in motion by hand" (hastapravartima) which means

drawing water with hands and carrying it to the fields in pitchers etc.

2) "Water set in motion by shoulders" (skandhapravartima) which

means water drawn by the strength of bullocks' shoulders.

3) "Water set flowing in channels by some mechanism (srotoyantra-

pravartima); and

4) Water lifted from rivers, lakes, tanks and wells (nadi-sarastataka-

kupodghatam).

The Rgveda furnishes, such as it can in its own way, sufficient

indications that all the methods were used.

The first method was used in the case of Avata, an artificaially made
well in contrast to spring (utsa) though the latter expression -is also
applied to an artificial .well, as we shall see. The wells were covered,
they were full of water and unfailing i.e. with an inexhaustible supply
of water from natural springs. Water was raised from Avatas,
possibly also by all other methods. When it was to be taken to the
fields by hand after being raised, it was poured into buckets made of
wood. That wheels were used for raising water is undoubted. Other
indication of hand-supplied water is when pouring of Soma for Indra
is likened to a sprinkler pouring out from a pail. An expression which

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lends substantial support to this indication is Krivi which undoubtedly
means a "Well", secondarily, from its primary sense of a leather-bag
for carrying water. Krivi also becomes metaphorically a cloud that
steals away i.e. takes away, raises, lifts the waters' name i.e. waters
themselves from low-lying places. Indra and Soma are identified with
Krivi, the point of similarity being fullness. In keeping with the
symbolical vein of the Rgveda, Indra is said to "kill" or "overcome"
krivi, and it is quite characterisitic of Sayana to take this Krivi to be
some demon (asura). It is primarily a watering leather-bag. On the
macrocosmic level it is a cloud. When it does not do its destined
function, Indra pierces it and lets waters flow.

Other artifical water-work was Hrada, a pond or tank filled by

artificial canals or small rivulets, possibly tataka of later times. Along
with dug-in Kupas (well) and natural sources of water like rivers
(nadl) and lakes (saras), it would anticipate the third category of
Kautilya viz. (nadlsaras)-tataka - (Kupodghatam).

Water Supply

From the Vedas we find that the man had developed the art of
fabrication of small as well as large utensils, pots, jars, pitchers, all
made of copper as well other metals. We find earthen ware also
mentioned in the Vedas. And the Vedas are atleast 8000 years old

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301
B.C. This may have helped in increasing quantity of storage water,
but this development has not helped in making any progress in the
method of bringing water from river to his house. With time, he may
have begun transporting water by the use of two water containers
suspended at two ends of pole that is being carried by him on his
shoulder. He may have also used tamed animals like horse and
bullock for transporting water. A figurine of horse was found at
Mohenjo-daro according to Mackey Sewel and Guha. They have also
found bones of horse at Mohenjo-daro. Alur has also provided
evidence that around 4000 B.C. horse was present at Hallur in south
India. Ox and horse are tamed animals since the Vedic period.

At the time of the Sarasvati-Sindhu (S.S.) Civilization, water was

made available in the compound of a house by digging a well. Thus at
that time not only surface water but ground water was also utilised.
It is found that in the compound of each of the house of a rich
person there used to be a well which has brick lining, bricks being
wedge-shaped for strong and good masonry construction. A small
well meant for two or three families was available in the area where
residences of poor citizens were located. To use ground water by
digging a well is a step towards progress in water supply
arrangement, in comparison to that of bringing water from the local
source of surface water as problem of transport of water was

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302
partially solved. It may, however, be noted thai facility of obtaining
water from well was available in cities only and that loo in very few
of them. In villages public well may have been provided. In the
excavations of the university town of Taxila, at Bhir mound and at
Sirkap, wells have not been found. It seems that people of Taxila
depended on Tamra nalla flowing near the town, as the source of
water supply. Taxila was established in 25th century B.C. and
continued to be populated upto 2nd century A.D.170.

From the information given above it could be stated that progress in

water supply arrangement upto the period of the SS Civilization
(B.C.3500-1700) was to transport water from a river or nalla flowing
nearby, by means of men and animals, like horse and ox, using
copper containers, or to avail of ground water by digging a well. But
for people from majority of cities, towns and villages the nearest
source of surface water like river or nalla and transporting water
from it to one's house by means of men or beasts of burden, was the
only way of getting water supply.

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 12. Temple Architecture

I
Shikara
The subject of tower provided above the sanctum sanctorum
(garbhagrha) is of very wide scope and is difficult to understand too.
Tower of a temple is difficult to design strucurally and also its
construction has to be executed very carefully, as it is fraught with
danger of collapse earlier or later, if there is any flaw in its
construction. A tower of a temple is seen from a very long distance,
being tall and topmost component of it. It is, therefore, decorated
profusely with great ingenuity. The skill of the engineer is tested by it
as a designer as well as an architect. A tower above a garbhagrha is
decorated from outside, but its inside is rather simple and is without
any ornamentation. On the other hand, a tower of a pavilion is
profusely decorated outside as well as inside also. Probably, inside of
a tower above a garbhagrha is not ornamented as it is in dark and
also attention of a devotee entering a sanctum should be
concentrated towards the idol and must not be distracted from it.

Towers of temples, according-to their designs and decorations, are of

innumerable types, but the main styles are three: Nagara, Dravida
and Orissan. In all these styles of towers their width decreases from

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bottom to top and when the gap is narrow enough it is covered by a
single big stone. Generally, sizes of stones used for construction of a
tower are the largest possible that could be procured from a stone
quarry and could be carried directly from it to the site of a temple.
For transporting these heavy stones from quarry to the site, if the
quarry is located nearby, bullock carts are used. But when a huge
temple like Sun temple at Konaraka is to be constructed then
quantity of stone required is so large and if location of quarries
having stones of suitable quality are distributed at long distances
from the temple site then it was the practice of Indian engineers to
construct canals from quarry site to that of a temple. By this method
heavy stones could be carried to long distances, cheaply, by boats.
This has been mentioned in the manuscript which gives as account of
expences for the construction of the temple at Konaraka.

The stone slab that is used to cover the topmost gap of the tower has
to be very large and consequently very heavy too. It is called
'murddhestaka' need stone or brick. To carry such a huge slab to the
top of the spire and to fit it properly so as to close the gap is a very
difficult assignment, requiring all the ingenuity and skill ofthe
engineer in charge of its construction. It is a great responsibility too.
In the above mentioned reference it is stated that the chief engineer
who was old, could not dare to undertake such a hazardous job

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himself. His confidence, because of his old age as well as the great
task he had to undertake, was shaken and finally his young son
undertook the job and accomplished it successfully. The importance
of this fact was understood by the accountant writing this account so
that although the incident has no relevance to his account, he
purposely mentioned it.

Tower Of Nagara Style

That part of a temple that is above top of walls and bottom of the
amalasara, is called a tower of a Nagara type, temple. The lowest
part of the tower is called sikharamula, whereas its topmost part is
named skandha (shoulder). Dimensions of tower depend upon width
of the temple. Height of a tower is 1 1/4, 1 1/3, 1 1/2 or 13/4 times
its width at bottom i.e. at sikharamOla. When width of bottom of
tower is divided in ten parts then width at its top shall be equal to
five or six parts. It should not be more than six parts no smaller than
five parts, as otherwise such tower does not look beautiful
(Diparnava 9.22-23, 1/2).

Vertical divisions (phalana like bhadra, uparatha, etc., that begin

from adhisthana are carried right upto top of tower. A common
specification in this respect is that width at bottom of tower shall be
divided in ten parts, then width of karna (corner) shall be two parts,

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that of uparatha 1.1/2 parts and bhadra shall have width of three
parts. Similarly, width at top of tower shall be divided into nine parts
and then karna and bhadra shall be of 1.1/2 and two parts,
respectively (Diparnava 9.24-251/2).

Height of Sikhara is sometimes determined from height of wall.

Height of a temple from bottom moulding (khura) of wall to top of
pinnacle shall be divided into 20 parts. Height of wall may be 8,
8.1/2, or 9 parts. Wall having smallest height is said to be the best
and of height of 8.1/2 and 9 parts are said to be medium and inferior
types. Height of tower is equal to remaining parts. A temple having
wall 8 parts height and tower 12 parts is of the best type, the
remaining two types are medium and inferior, respectively (P. 9.26-
27).

Once height of a tower, its widths at bottom and at top are fixed,
then in order to decrease uniformly its width with increase in its
height a simple geometric construction is followed. Width of tower
at bottom (sikharamula) is, say x and its height shall be 1.1/4x, then
draw a segment of a circle having radius equal to four times width at
bttom of siktiara (i.e. 4x), joining the sikharamula and the skandha.
Such a .tower looks like a bud of lotus flower and is, therefore,
called'padmakosa. If height of tower is 1.1/3 times its width at
bottom then curvilinear part of a tower shall be drawn by joining its
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bottom and top by a segment of a circle having radius equal to
4.1/2x. If height of tower is l.l/2x or 1.3/4x then a padmakosa is
drawn having a radius of 5x and 6.3/4x, respectively. This is one of
the simplest methods used to obtain shape of a tower of Nagara type
temple. If bottom of tower and amalasara or top of pinnacle are
connected by the segment of a circle, and it is not limited to the
skandha of a tower, then one gets shape of towers of Virata, Valabhi
and Bhumija class of temples (DR. 9.41-43).

Thakkura Peru in his treatise (Vastusara prakaranam), gives clear

information regarding dimensions of towers of temples. Widths of
temples range between one and fifty hastas. Height of wall in
relation to width of temple is also carefully noted. A prasada one
hast broad shall have a wall of height one hasta and nine angulas.
Height of wall shall be equal to width of a temple that is ranging
between two and five hastas with the modifications that two angulas
are to be subtracted from one hasta and nine angulas of height of
prasada of one hasta width with each increase of width by one hasta.
Thus a temple, two hastas broad, shall have a wall two hastas and
seven angulas high. Similarly height of wall shall be three hastas and
five angulas for a prasada three hastas broad. This method of
obtaining height of wall is followed for a temple whose width ranges
between two and five hastas. For a temple having width more than

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five hastas, height of wall shall be calculated by decreasing it by 14
angulas with each increase of one hasta in width. Say, width of a
garbhagrha is 20 hastas. This width being more by 15 hastas, height
of wall shall be equal to 5 hastas, I angula+15 hastas, 18 arigulas, i.e.
equal to 11 hastas, 7 angulas (8 hastas, 18 angulas = 15x14 = 210
angulas).

Thakkura Peru further gives an interesting information that in case of

Nagara temple height of tower is 1.1/4, 1.1/3 or 1.1/2 times height
of wall, whereas in Bhumija temple height of tower is 1.3/4 times
height of wall (VSP. 3.21-23).

It seems that minimum heights of towers are of temples from

Pancala and Videha, ratio of height of tower and width of prasada
being only 0.4. In order to check the information given above, the
only way is to take measurements of number of temples from each
region. But unfortunately, although there are any number of
photographs, from different angles, of many temples, data of their
measurement is very meagre. This state has to be improved by
taking dimensions of different components of temples from different
regions of India.

It may be noted that most of the treatises on Silpasastra give this

ratio more than one, as stated above, but this ratio quoted above for

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temples from different regions is less than one. Further temples of
Kalinga region are known for their lofty towers but here the ratio of
height of spire and width of temple is as small as 0.552.

Decorations of Towers of Nagara Prasadas

At front of a lower a Sukanasa is provided. Above it, an image of lion

is placed. The image of lion and pinnacle of dome of pavilion, located
in front of Garbhagrha, shall be at one level. Two pillars are provided
in front of the block of Sukanasa. They form a pada-mandapa
(DP.9.53-54). Height of tower from chiadya shall be 9, 10, 11, 12 or
13 parts. Top of sukanasa should never be above the level of
pinnacle of dome of the pavilion, that is to say that level of pinnacle
of a pavilion shall never be above that of top of sukanasa (DP. 9.54-
57).

On sides of tower, other than the front, two niches, placed one over
the other and profusely decorated are provided, their heights
together being equal to that of sukanasa. These niches are called
rathikas.

The main tower above the garbhagrha is called, 'mula-manjari. On

all four sides of this tower there are facsimilies of it that are of small
thickness and are called urusringas. Corners of these urusrngas are
also shaped like quarter portions of the tower. These are called

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'pratyarigas.' Height of the spire (mulamanjari) shall be divided in
13.1/2 parts then height of urusrnga shall be equal to that of lower
7.1/2 parts. Next urusrnga above this one shall be of height equal to
lower 7.1/2 parts when height of the first urusrnga is divided into
13.1/2 parts. In this manner depending upon width of tower, number
of urusrngas on each side of the main spire,, could be three, five,
seven or maximum nine (PM4.10.4.25-26).

At the level of rathikas, other ornamental objects like karnakutas,

tilakas are placed on each side of the tower. Rathikd, Karnakuta and
tilaka shall be at the same level.

Pinnacle or Kalasa

Pinnacle is the topmost component of a temple. Pinnacle should be

made of the same material of which temple is built. If prasada is of
wood its pinnacle would also be made of wood. If prasada is built of
brick or stone, pinnacle should also be of brick or stone. A temple
made of metal should have a metallic pinnacle. But a golden pinnacle
is the best and may by affixed to a temple irrespective of the
material it is made of.

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 II

Gateways Of South Indian Temples (Gopuras)

Definition of 'gopura' is given in the Amarakosa as 'puradvdram tu

gopuram.' It is a gateway of fortified city. Temple cities of south India
are always encircled by one, three, five, or seven number of rampart
walls (prakaras). These walls are pierced by gateways which would
be closed by means of wooden shutters. Eaeh wall is provided with
one gate towards each direction. Generally, these are located at the
middle of a wall, but that does not necessarily mean that they are in
one line. These are tall, multistoreyed structures, maximum number
of floors being twelve.

Gopuras provided at the Kailasanatha temple at Kanjeevaram and

Virupaksa temple at Pattadakal are said to be the earliest
constructions of this kind of structure. Art of building gopuras rose to
its highest pinnacle during the reign of Pandya kings. Gopuras round
the temple of Nataraja at Chidambaram were built during the reigns
of kings of this dynasty (i.e. 1100 to 1350 A.D.). The eastern
gopura of this temple built in the year 1250 has seven storeys. Its
width is 20m, length 30m. and height 45m. These dimensions of the
gateway give some idea of the grandeur of this type of structure.
Nine number of very large gopuras are provided round the

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temple of Minaksi at Madurai. These are built by the king Tirumala
Nayaka in 1623-1659 A.D. The gateway piercing its seventh wall is
very beautiful and grand; its height being 45.47 m. This is said to
be the tallest gateway in south India. There are 21 number of
gopuras in five rampart walls round the temple of Sri-Rangam,
located near Tiruchirapalli. The temple of Jambukesvara, in the same
city also has large number of tall gopuras. Gopuras provided round
temples at Chidambaram, Tiruvannamalai, Kanchipuram,
Kumbhakonam, etc., are famous for their large size and highly ornate
decorations. One of the gopuras of Saraiigapani temple at
Kumbhakonam have 12 storeys. Parasuramabhau Patwardhan,
one of the eminent knights of Peshvas, was so much impressed by
these imposing structures which he must have seen at the time of his
many inroads in the territory of Nizam, that he constructed a
gopura as a gateway of the temple of Gariesa that he built at
Tasgaon, Dist. Sangli, Maharashtra.

General Information

High and thick walls,, called prakaras, are many times constructed
round a palace, a mansion, for protection of structure from assault of
an enemy. These are one, three or five in number. Large gateways;
so as to allow a procession of a king, sitting on an elephanteasily pass
througn them, are constructed, generally, at middle of these walls.
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These gates are called gopuras. It is stated that gopuras should be
constructed in front of temples of Siva, Visnu and other gods, in front
of a palace of an emperor, as gateways of large cities like Padmaka,
Sarvatobhadra etc. and also as gateways of forts. According to the
Visvakarma Vastusastra (38.1) gopuras are constructed, not only in
front of these structures, but in addition they should be built in front
of large buildings, like hall of justice, dance hall, theatres as well as
stables for elephants.

Number of gopuras depends on number of walls round a temple.

Commonly gopuras at middle of each wall towards each direction are
constructed. Prakara which is the nearest round a temple is called
antarmandala. A wall next to it is called antarhara. Some space is left
between the temple walls and antarmandala, similarly between
walls of beyond the second wall are called madhyahdra, bdhyahdra
and marydda (S.r.40.2). According to the Kasyapa Silpa (43.2-4) these
prakaras, from the innermost to the outermost, are called
antermandala, antarhara, madhyahara, maryada and
mahamaryada. Distances between these prakaras are specified. They
are related to width of the MQla-prasada. Width of garbhgrha is, say,
x. Then distance between walls of prasada and antarmandala shall be
1/2, 1/3 or I/4th width of the prasada, i.e. 1/2x, 1/3x or 1/4x.
Distance between antarmandala and antarhara shall be x, 2/3x or

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1/2x. Distance between second and third, third and fourth and
fourth and fifth walls shall be 3/2x, x or 3/4x; 2x. 2/3x or x and 5/3x
or 5/4x respectively. It seems that if distance between walls of a
prasada and first prakara is l/2x, distance between other walls shall
be x, 3/2x, 2x and 5/2x. similarly, if distance between walls of a
temple and first wall is l/3x, distances between other walls shall be
2/3x, x, 2/3x respectively. Similar is the case for third alternative
dimensions (K.S. 43.2-4).

A gopura at the innermost wall, i.e., antarmandala, is called

'dvarasala, dvaraprasada, dvaraharmya and dvaragopura (K.S.45.2).

Either all gopuras may have same height or heights of gopuras as one
goes away from the temple increase successively. Height of
dvarasobha gopura nearest the sanctum, is comparatively the
smallest and that of dvaragopura is the greatest. Commonly, a
dvarasobha has one, two or three storeys. Dvarasala has two, three
or four storeys; dvaraprasada three, four or five storeys;
dvaraharmya four, five and six storeys and dvaragopura five, six or
seven storeys (K.S.45.3-5). It may be noted that if the innermost
gopura has only one storey, other gopuras have two, three, four and
five storeys respectively. Onthe other hand if dvarasobha has two
storeys then dv8ras3lS to dvaragopura have three, four, five and six
storeys respectively. Similar is the case for the third alternative.
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Dimensions of Gopuras

Width of a gopura is always in some proportion to that of a sanctum.

This is available from the treatises of Silpasastra like Kasyapa Silpa,
Mayamata, Vimanaracana Kalpa and Silparatna. There is not much
difference in ratios of widths of gopura and that of a garbhagrha as
gopuras in hasta measures, as suggested by different acaryas, are
also given. Width of the smallest dvarasobha shall be two hastas
(approximately 1 m) and that of the largest one shall be 13 hastas
(6.1/2m).

Lengths of gopuras are given in proportion to their respective widths.

According to the Kasyapa Silpa (45.25-29) and Silparatna (41.22-24),
length of a gopura shall be 1.1/4, 1.1/3, 1/1/2, 1.2/3, 1.3/4 or two
times its width. Mayamata (24.18) states that length-width ratio of a
gopura shall be 1.1/2, 1.3/4, 2, 1.1/3 or 1.2/3. Here again, it seems
that length-width ratios given above are meant for gateways from
dvarasobha to dvaragopura respectively.

Height of a gopura is measured from ground level to top of stupi.

Height-width ratios of gopuras from dvarasobha to dvaragopura are
not the same but vary. Height of Dvarasobha is 1.4/7 times its width.
This ratio goes on increasing from dvarasobha to dvaraprasada.
Height-width ratios of dvarasala are 1.1/2 and 1.5/7 respectively. But

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height width ratio of dvaraharmya is stated to be lesser than that of
dvaraprasada, it being 1.5/9. Height of dvaragopura shall be twice its
width. These ratios are as given in the Kasyapa Silpa (45.30-33).
According to the Mayamala (24.19-201/2) these ratios increase
successively from dvarasobha, dvarasala to dvaraprasada as 1.3/7,
1.1/2 and 1.3/4 respectively. But height-width ratio of dvaraharmya
is lesser than that of Dvaraprasada, it being 1.2/3. Height of
dvaragopura shall be twice its width.

Roads in India

Man needs facility of roads for two purposes: to transport food

grains and similar heavy goods (like ores etc.) from one place to
another, the so-called trade routes, and for speedy movements of
military personnel and the materials. Types and status of roads
depend on these two purposes for which they are utilized. Indian
villagers from the period of Indus Civilisation to Maratha period used
to be self-sufficient. Whatever food grains were required by villagers
for their sustenance were grown in fields located nearby. Materials
like stone and wood required forconstructing houses and huts were
readily available from nearby hills and jungles. Cotton for clothes was
grown in the fields and weaving of its yern was a village industry.
Common people were, therefore, not in need of good roads for the
purpose of transportation of village goods from village to village and
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to cities. The Indian bullock cart is such a versatile and strong vehicle
that transport of crop from fields to village could be easily done on a
road which is very rough and full of mud. Need to develop good
roads from fields to village as well as in the village itself was never
felt. Same was the case of roads going from one village to another.

Probably roads that were important from military point of view

might be in some better shape. But right upto the 17th century A.D.,
men and materials were transported throughtout India by bullock
carts and in case of heavy goods by bullocks only. Further, battles
were not commonly fought in rainy season. After the end of rainy
season, when land was getting somewhat dry fond floods of rivers
were receding so that they became fordable, then only armies used
to go out for conquering other territories. Military was comprised of
foot soldiers and cavalry and in few instances elephant riders.
Chariot was the fourth arm but was abolished after about third
century B.C. There were no heavy weapons like guns and other arms.
Thus military of that time was not in need of good roads that were
properly maintained.

There were trade routes covering length and breadth of India. But
precious materials like gold, silver, gems etc., clothes like woolen
blankets, ivory, animal hides, as well as the forest produce, used to

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be transported by bullock carts and bulls. Trade routes, therefore,
were neither built as permanent ways nor were maintained properly.

Streets in cities, towns and villages were built according to their

utility. Streets in villages (palli or khetaka) used to be mere lanes
between rows of huts on their two sides. These were never built as
such. On the other hand, in cities, in temple-towns or at a pilgrim
centre, where large number of people would gather for festivities,
roads were prepared by using flat stones. Where good stone was not
available, road pavements, sometimes, used to be constructed by
using baked bricks. It is observed that in the cities of S.S. Valley
Civilization, streets were built of bricks. It may be stated that except
in very important cities, capitals, and those that were commercially
important, streets in majority of cities, towns in India, were never
built nor were maintained properly. Similarly, permanent roads
connecting cities, towns and villages may not have been constructed,
even at the time of Indus Valley Civilization to the Buddhist period.

Literary Evidence

Rgveda mentions four kinds or roads: anupatha, antaspatha,

vipathaand apatha (1.106.1). A good road may be called anupatha.
(anukulamdrgah). Meaning of the term antaspatha is not clear, but
probablystreets of towns may be indicated by this word. A difficult

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road, fullof calamities, is vipatha, and apatha may be a long road
connectingmany villages and towns. Rgveda (X. 7.4-6) mentions
prapatha whichmay be like apatha. In the Yajurveda (XVI. 3.7) more
kinds of roadsare mentioned. Probably their names indicate their
types. Footpathsused by men and by small beasts like goat, sheep
etc., are ksudramargas.Streets in villages and cities are pathos. A
road passing through forestwhere predatory animals as well as
thieves reside is a durgama marga.Nipa marga means ghat roads
passings through hilly and rolling country.

In the Atharvaveda (XD.1.47) two different kinds of roads, one

forcarts and another for chariots, are mentioned. The terms are
'rathasyavartma' and 'anasah yatave' and the term 'pantha' for
roads is alsomentioned. Chariots were mainly used to travel long
distances. Thisis comparatively a high speed vehicle as horses
used to be yokedto it. It is light weight and may not be used to carry
heavy luggage.That is the prerogative of a cart pulled by bullocks.
Roads connectingvillages and towns and used for travelling by
chariots might be smallerin length having relatively steep slopes, in
comparison to roads meantfor carts.

In the Astadhyayi, Panini mentions ajapatha, hastipatha and

rathapatha. Paninl's period is supposed to be c. 2200.B.C.

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From Jataka stories, one may get .some idea of state of roads in ihe
Buddhist period. In the Apannaka jataka (No.1) Bhagavan Buddha in
his previous birth was a rich merchant. Condition of roads (trade
routes), immediately after the end of the rainy season, is described
in this Jataka story. All roads are in damaged condition because of
heavy rains. They have to be repaired after they are dried. Rivers
were in spate and they may have changed their courses at many
places. New locations where rivers are fordable have to be searched
out and roads constructed to approach these places of crossings of
rivers.

In the Kulavaka Jataka (No.31), a brief description of preparing of

roads is given. Men have removed big stones that were lying along
the road alignment, by means of crow bars, shovels etc. Creepers
and shrubs that were having height more than that of the axle of a
cart were removed. Large pits and high mounds were filled in and cut
down respectively so as to make level roads. A bridge was
constructed across a river. This description of road construction
indicates that at that time, permanent roads were not constructed,
but that every year, after the rainy season is over and the land dried
out then a temporary fair weather road used to be constructed.

In the Anusasaka Jataka (No. 115) cart roads, that is, trade routes,
are mentioned. Roads for chariots used to be so narrow that only
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one chariot could move along it. In the Rajovada Jataka (No.151) it is
stated that two kings, in their chariots, coming from opposite
directions quarrelled for the right of way, as the road was not wide
enough for crossing of chariots. In the Sattigumba Jataka (No.503) a
king, hunting deer while sitting in his chariot, is described. In the
famous drama Abhijnana Sakuhtala by Kalidasa, king Dusyarila is
shown hunting deer from his chariot. This might be because chariots
were sturdy enough as not to require specially prepared roads.

There is a possibility that trade routes used by bullock carts, being

important for easy and quick transportation of heavy luggage for
trade purposes might have been kept under good repair, at least
during fair weather seasons. It is mentioned in the Gumbiya Jataka
(No.366) that Bodhisattva arrived, with his five hundred loaded carts,
to the gateway of the mahamarga (mahagattani dvara).

It seems that roads used to be full of mud and deep ruts, so much
that it was not possible to move a chariot across the road quickly. In
the Bhaddasala jataka (No.465), it is stated that commander-in chief
of Sravasti was being pursued by Licchavi warriors in five hundred
chariots. When the commander-in-chief found that his own chariot is
immersed in mud upto hubs of wheels, so that it cannot move
further and noting that five hundred chariots of Licchavis were in one
file, he shot an arrow that killed all warriors of the Licchavi clan. This
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happened because chariots in which Licchavi warriors were sitting
could not be moved quickly across the road because of deep ruts.

Even streets in towns and cities were not maintained properly. In the
third act of the drama 'Pratijria Yougandharayana,' by Bhasa, it is
stated that palanquin of Vasavadatta, king Mahasena's daughter, had
to be diverted from the royal street (rajamarga) of the capital city as
it was full of mud, and taken to a street on which the jail, in which
king Udayana was in captivity, was located. It, therefore, seems that
even important streets that too of capital city were not maintained
properly.

Ramayana mentions different silpis that may have special knowledge

of road construction. They are called ' 'vartrnakarmani kovidah'
and'margakarah' (in the Sukraniti, Ch. 2, line 396). Some of them
were surveyors giving alignment of roads 'sutrakarma visaradah',
diggers'khanakah', engineer 'sthapati', carpenters 'vardhaki', tree-
cutters to clear the road margino vrksataksakah', well diggers
'kupakdrah', and others (Ayodhya kanda, 80.1-4). A good description
of road making operations is given in the Ramayana. Prince Bharata
wants to see crown prince Rama and for this purpose he prepared a
road from the capital city,

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Ayodhya, to the forest residence of Sri Rama. Journey was not long
and a good road might be existing it was necessary to improve it in
view of the royal travellers (both princes, their wives and their three
mothers), as well as, for large number of citizens that were to
accompany them. In order to widen the road, creepers, herbs,
shrubs, trees, thorns and big boulders were removed. Trees were not
only cut down but their roots were also dug out. On the other hand,
where there were no trees along the route, they were planted. Wells
were constructed to facilitate 'water supply to large number of
travellers. Bridges were constructed across rivers. Ground was made
level as far as possible, by filling low lying areas and by removing
those at high level. Along the road, where there was scarcity of
water, large tanks having ghats of lime stone masonry were
constructed. Camping sites at suitable distances were also
developed. Poet has compared the beautiful road with sky studded
with stars and the moon (Ayodhya-kanda, 80.5-12 and 22).

Regarding road construction, good specifications are given in the

Sukranltisara. These specifications are almost similar to those that
are applied for modern road making. It is stated that surface of road
should be convex upward like that of the back of a tortoise. Road
should always be constructed on banks so that its level shall be
always above that of ground. Gutters along both sides of road should

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be provided for drainge of water. It is further stated that surface
should be made of flag stones or of lime and sand mixture. It should
be noted that these specifications are meant for streets in a city or
town and not for roads going from village to village or town (531-2 to
585-6-1).

Kurmaprsthd mdrgabhumih kdrydh grdmmyaih sasetukah

kuryanmargan parsvakhatan nirgamartham jalasya coll 1.lines 531-2
pahktidvayagatanam hi gehdnam karayet tatha
Morgan sudhasarkarairva ghatitan prativatsaram ||1. lines 585-6

Informations of Roads from the Kauttiliya Arthasastra

Kaulilya, the prime minister of emperor Candragupta, has very good

idea of importance of roads for flourishing trade and consequently in
increasing wealth of a nation. He has grouped roads in three
categories: a) Roads based on vehicles plying on them and purpose
for which they are utilised; b) roads that are built for facilitating
transport of goods by means of different kinds of beasts of burden;
and c) roads that lead to a definite place.

Roads of the first kind are rajamarga (2.4.4), rathya (2.4,3), ratha
patha (2.4.5), cakrapatha (7.12.27) and amsapatha (7.12.28).
Rajamarga is the principal street of a town or a city. It originates

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from the king's palace which is generally located towards the west of
the heart of the city (i.e. on the Mitra kostha of the
Vastupadamandala), and passesthrough important trade centres,
bazaars, main squares etc. Other streets, lesser in importance than
the rajamarga, pass through other divisions of the city that are of
secondary importance. Widths of these streets are one half that of
the principal streets. These streets are called rathya. Streets meant
for chariots are rathapathas, and those for carts are cakrapathas.
Small lanes which are short cuts and useful for men carrying head
(shoulder) load are called amsapathas.

From the above description, it appears that there were separate

streets in a city for vehicles having different speeds. This is, of
course, ideal arrangement of streets. In a capital city or a port city
whose population is very large and where goods traffic is
concentrated, this arrangement of separate streets for vehicles of
different speeds would facilitate easy and speedy movement of
them. In order that speed of a chariot carrying important person on
important errand should not be slowed down by slow heavily laden
bullock carts or by men carrying head loads and walking slowly, this
arrangement of streets is a correct solution. At the same time, such
an arrangement of streets decreases considerably possibility of any
accidents as men walking on amsapathas have no danger from fast

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moving traffic on rathapathas. It may be noted that this arrangement
of roads is mentioned in as old a treatise as the Kautfflya Arthasastra.
Kautilya generally records an hoary tradition - so this description can
be taken to be the faithful presentation of roads in India since
antiquarian days.

Second kind of streets are padapatha, manusyapatha, pasupatham,

mahapasupatha, ksudrapasupatha (3.10.5) and kharostrapatha
(7.12.26). Padapatha, that is, footpath is provided along one or both
sides of important streets like rajamarga, rathya, rathapalha etc. This
facility is again meant for the protection of pedestrians from any
accident because of fast moving vehicles. Padapathas are different
from manusyapatha, as the latter is constructed for pedestrains only
and has separate identity, unlike that of the former. Manusyapatha is
a road between villages for men carrying head loads. This is, of
course, a shortest route between villages.

Alignment of road depends upon animals using it. Pasupatha is

meant for beasts of burden like asses, bullocks etc. A road leading to
villages and towns and used by small animals like goats, sheep etc., is
ksudrapasupatha. Road that is mainly used by big animals like
elephants, carrying heavy loads, is mahapasupatha, whereas one
meant for mules and camels is kharostrapatha. All these beasts of
burden carry heavy loads like food grains, ores, woollen clothes, etc.
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It seems that there were different routes followed by different
animals carrying goods. Animals like goats, sheep and the like may
carry their light loads along routes that have sleep slopes, upgrading
as well as downgrading. Length of such a road joining two towns or
villages might be the shortest. Onthe other hand, roads used by
bullocks and asses would have to be so aligned that they can carry
their load with ease. Such a route would be longer than a
ksudrapasupatha. Elephants carrying heavy load, of course, cannot
use this route as they require a road having gentle slopes and,
therefore, this mahapasupatha, joining two villages have to be
longer than a pasupatha. Increase in length of road is compensated
by increase in the heavy load carried by elephants. Kharostrapatha is
an ideal route because mules and camels can carry heavy loads, that
too on a road that has comparatively steep slopes. A camel can carry
much heavy load in comparison to that carried by a bullock at much
greater speed and that too on a shorter route. Thus length of a
kharostrapatha is comparatively smaller than that of the
mahapasupatha or of the pasupatha. Load carried by a camel is quite
heavy and the speed with which it is carried is quite high.

The third kind of roads is: rastrapatha, vivitapatha,

dronamukhapatha, sthaniyapatha, (3.10.5), samyamyapatha,
vyuhapatha, smasdnapatha, gramapatha(2.4.5), vanaptha,

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hastiksetrapatha and setupatha (2.4.5). These roads are given names
depending upon the place where they lead. A road leading to pasture
ground (Vivita) is a vivitapatha. A town which is protected by
ramparts and accommodates a cantonment is called Dronamukha. A
road leading to it is called a dronamukhapatha. Sthaniya is a town
where treasury is located, a road leading to it is a sthaniyapatha. A
road leading to a port city is samyamyapatha. In similar way other
roads are named.

There are other kinds of streets that are mentioned in the

Arthasastra. These are roads in fort. Top of ramparts are so wide that
a chariot may run along it. It is called rathacarya sancdu (2.3.14).
Small lanes one or two dandas in width are called carya. A path
which is narrow and men and animals could use it by walking in a file
is called skaiidha (12.4.20). Name of another street is given. A street
in a city passing through shops of jewellery is called Visikaha(2.14.1).

Widths of different streets and roads in the Kautillya Arlhasastra

(2.4.2-5) are given below:

1. Rajapatha, Dronamukhapatha, Sthaniyapatha, Rastapatha,

Vivitapatha, Samyanlyapatha 8 dandas

2. Vanapatha, selupatha, Rathya 4 dandas

3. Hastiksetrapatha 2 dandas

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4. Cakrapatha, Rathapatha 5 aratnis

5. Pasupatha 4 aratnis

6. Ksudrapasupatha, Padapatha 2 aratnis

7. Devapatha 2 aratnis
(1 dandas = 2 metres, 1 aratni = 1/2 metre.)

Trade routes are of two kinds; sthalapatha and varipatha. Roads are
sthalapathas whereas water routes are varipathas. Rivers on which
trade goods are carried by boats and ship routes on sea are examples
of water routes. It cannot be ascertained from the Arthasastra that
there were canals large enough to carry boats. Such canals also could
be termed as water routes. Varipathas are essentially trade routes
and it was known that transport of heavy luggage by this route is
cheaper than by roads. Cakrapalha. Kharostrapatha and amsapatha
are the main trade routes.

Kautilya states that a site preferred for establisheing a town is one

which could be approached by sthalapathas as well as by varipathas
(2.3.3). According to him roads are preferred to water routes. Water
route is calamitous. It cannot be used when river is in spate or in
case water in it is not deep enough to carry boat traffic in summer
season. On the other hand roads could be used in all seasons
(7.12.18 and 7.11.17). It may be noted lhal kharostrapatha, that is,

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roads for transporting load by means of asses and camels are
operative in all seasons. It is with this context, it is mentioned that
roads are useful irrespective of seasons. A cart track may become
useless in rainy season.

Kaulilya gives guidelines regarding profitability of a trade route. He

states (7.12.22-26) that a trade route is profitable on which traffic is
heavy, which requires least expense by way of repairs and
maintenance and which is less calamitous. Similarly a trade route
passing through mining districts, rich garden crops, to places where
valuables like gems, pearls etc. can be purchased cheaply, is said to
be the best.

At the lime of Kaulilya, two highways were very famous. They are
Uttarapatha and daksinapatha. Valuables like gold, ivory, animals
like elephants and horses and hides used to be obtained from the
north along ihe Uttarapaiha which began from Tamralipti in West
Bengal and going right upto Kabul Kandahar. Woollen blankets,
hides, horses, conch shells, diamonds, gems, pearls etc., were
available from south India.

Road management at the Buddhist period is also described in the

Kauliliya Arthasastra. It is the duty of the officer of ihe status of
samaharta to keep record of all roads throughout the empire. He

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should collect road mainlenance lax from iradesrrien al ihe border of
ihe nalion. This lax money is expecied lo be expended for ihe very
purpose for differenl kinds of roads are menlioned in the Arthasasira.
(2.21.24). To consiruct new road and lo keep exisling roads in good
shape were also the duties of this officer (2,35.3, 2.6.1). Fines used to
be levied if road is damged by any one, say by way of encroachmenl
or because of spilling of drainage water on a road and for other such
offences. Magnitude of fine depended upon importance of road and
type ofoffence. Amount of fine was 12 panas if a ksudrapasupatha
was encroached, whereas fine for encroachment of a principal street
(rajapatha) was as heavy as 1000 panas. If road surface was damaged
by forming a furrow by a plough, then also the offender was fined
(30.10.4-7). As a fine is fixed for the offence of making a furrow
across a road-, it appears that roads at the time of Kautilya were not
prepared by using stones for soling and murram for surface, that is,
roads were not permanent in nature.

Activities of construction of road consisted of felling trees, removing

shrubs and creepers, big boulders and any similar obstructions and
levelling of land so that a cart or-a chariot can use it without much
difficulty. Such roads became slushy and full of deep ruts during rainy
season and became impassable. Comparison between a cart road
(cakrapatha) and one meant for beasts of burden like mules and

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camels is given in the Arthasasira, Kharostrapalha is staled to be
preferable to a cart track as length of the former is lesser than that of
the latter. Luggage cannot be transported by cart road in the rainy
season for the reasons mentioned above. On the other hand, a mule
or camel can comfortably walk on such a road or even on a track
which is not made for the purpose. Further, in rainy season, if a
bridge is not provided across a river, it is difficult if not impossible lo
cross t hat river by a heavily loaded cart, whereas a mule or camel
carrying load may swim across a river.

Information of making a road for military purpose is also given in the

Arthasastra (10.4.17). Culling of jungle and removal of heavy logs and
boulders was the main activity for making a road. Generally, this
operation was carried with the help of elephants. Roads used to be
maintained in proper shape by a special squad of labourers. Military
for transport of its goods and men may use trade routes also. But,
although, Kautilya knew importance of trade routes, these were,
perhaps, not of permanent nature. Dry pumpkins were lied to boats
in crossing a river (10.2.14). One of them is to construct a wooden
bridge. But it appears that bridges were not constructed in large
numbers as movement of military as well as of tradesman along
roads was negligibly small in rainy season, and in case of perennial
rivers, these were crossed by river boats.

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Description of Roads by Foreign Travellers

One may get some idea of condition of Indian roads in the 5th and
7th century A.D. from their descriptions given in the travelogues of
Chinese iravellers.

Sih-a-fahian (c.400 A.D.) writes that streets and lanes of cities of

India used to be plane and without any use of broken stones, theso
called macadamisation. Roads joining towns and cities were,
however, in very bad condition. For special occasions new roads
have to be constructed as permanent and good roads were not
available. He states that for bringing a tooth of Buddha, new roads
had to be constructed.

For crossing mountain valleys, iron chains used to be provided.

Sungyin (c.518 A.D.) states that, in order to go the Udayana country
from that of Bolor, iron chains were provided to cross river gorges.
These chain bridges were chains hanging between two mountains
across a river gorge and one has to go by hanging oneself on these
chains. If the grip of hands loosened then there was no other
alternative but to fall in the river and die. Hue-en-lsang (c.629 A.D.)
writes in the travelogue that there used to be wooden bridges to
cross rivers. There was no alternative to walking in hilly country. In
order to climb up or down a mountain steps carved in stones were

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provided. He informs that when king Bimbisara wanted to visit
Buddha, he had to build a road in the hilly tract for this purpose. To
achieve this he built a road along mountain sides, valleys were filled
and-levelled, constructed bridges across rivers (these might be boat
bridges of temporary nature) and in order to climb mountains steps
were carved.

Road going to north India from Tamralipti (near Calcutta) was the
most famous because of its commercial importance. It was called
Uttarapatha in the Astadhyayi (5.1.77) and Uttarapatha in the Jataka
stories. It began from the port town Tamralipti to Puskalavati in the
north-east. It was further extended to Balhika beyond Puskalavati.
This route joining Puskalavati to Balhika may, perhaps, be what was
called as 'haimavanta patha'by Kautilya. Big and important cities like
Taksasila, Sakala, Hastinapura, Kanyakubja, Prayaga, Varanasi,
Vaisali, Gaya, Rajagrha, Pataliputra and Campa were located along
this national trunk route.

Another national highway joined Patala on western sea coast to

Mathura located in the central-east region and then it joined
Utlarapatha. Thus the western port was connected to eastern port of
Tamralipti. The route called 'pubbafua-apemnta' (east-west), often
mentioned in the Pali literature is the one joining Patala to
Tamralipti.
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335
The third national route was from Pratisthana in the south to the city
of Sravasti in the north. This long route may be called north-south
route of India. Cities Mahismati, Ujjaini, Gunaddhya, Vidisa and
Kausambi were located along this route. That part of the road that
was passing through the forest of the Vihdhya range is called
'karitarapatha' by Panini ?

One of the important and long routes was< from Bhrgukaccha i

Mathura. Ujjaini was one of the famous cities on this road. The
routjoining Hastinapura and Musalipattan was called Daksinapatha.
It used to pass through Mathura, Ujjaini, Pratisthana and other cities.
The route parallall to the western sea coast from Broach to Belinda is
mentioned by Periplus. The road shown along the west coast is
quoted by Ptolemy in his Geography. In north India, road going along
the bank of the river Gaiiga is deciphered from the information given
in the Jataka stories. Road coming from Kabul in the north-western
region, is the one followed by Alexander at the time of his invasion of
India. Roads shown in the Maharashtra state are those mentioned in
epigraph of the Salivahana period.

Sea routes were along sea shores. Dvaraka, Prabhasa, and Surparaka
were some of the ports on the western coast, whereras
Nagapattana, Kaveripattana, Musalipattana and Visakhapattana

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336
were some of the famous port cities on the east coast. Periplus has
mentioned many of them.

After the reign of Harsa (7th century A.D.), conditions of roads

deteriorated and this state of having bad roads continued upto the
12th century A.D. In the 13th century A.D. .during the reigns of
Pathan dynasty, condition of roads improved somewhat. Shershah
Suri had construted road from Sonargaon in Bengal to Rohtak in
Punjab. Thus part of the old Uttarapatha was revived again. He also
built roads joining Agra to Burhanpur in Deccan and Chitore to
Jodhpur in western India. These roads, were of semi-permanent
nature, that is, they were constructed of murum. He provided wells
and sarais along these roads and also planted trees for shade.
Condition of roads improved during the imperial administration of
Akbar and Jehangir, with a miliiary point of view as well as for
flourishing trade. Some of the roads of this period were:

Patna - Benaras - Delhi - Karnal - Lahore - Pesavur,

Delhi - Ajmer - Ahmedabad - Surat;
Delhi - Agra - Gwalior - Golkonda - Bijapur,
Bejapur - Aurangabad - Ujjain;
Lahore - Srinagar.

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In south India, Kings of Satavahana, Cola and Cera dynasties
constructed roads along western and eastern sea coasts. Condition
of roads is said to be better during the reigns of Calukya kings. Main
roads in south India were:

Pune - Pratislhana - Vijayavada - ports on western coast;

Kalicut - Rameshvaram;
From Pune, along western coast right upto south tip of India.

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338
 13. Agriculture

India, we were declaring till the middle of the twentieth century, is

an agricultural country and forbidding, theoretically, a vast chunk of
Indian population - Brahmaṇas and Kṣatriyas (because it was
allegedly below their dignity) and Sūdras (because it was above their
dignity and "the upper varnas would not countenance Sūdras
possessing land, being SLAVES," (Marxists have been dinning into our
ears) - from engaging in agriculture. Throwing the socio-economic
reality into oblivion, our historians and sociologists exult in
presenting the Rgvedic to be a freer Society than the 'rigid' system of
later times. That the Rgveda did not know the "division" of society
into occupational Varnas is patent enough, but even when the
Varna-framework allegedly became "fixed and rigid," one sure
measure of respectability (Arya-tva) was possession of arable land by
all the alleged Varnas. Otherwise Kautilya's assertion, "there is no
slavery for Arya" and Megasthenes' impression, "In India all are free
men," would be devoid of content.

The Revedic allusions to agriculture are innumerable, but factual

'information is scanty owing to the essential nature of the Rgvedic
poerty - spirituo-mystical and its needs-symbolism, imagery. Another
reason for the lack of detailed information is that, agriculture was
such an integral part of the Vedic man's life that mere mention was
sufficient to conjure up all the associated ideas, conceptions and
images.

A primary activity in agriculture is sowing of the seed. The Rgveda

mentions "Seed" (bijam) only four times. Only one passage refers to

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sowing by itself in a general benediction from Maruts "to give seed
of corn, that does not waste away, for child and progeny."

All the other references are in similes, "Soma-pressers press Soma

like tillers of the soil sowing seed;" or in metaphors in the marriage
hymn - "Pusan is besought to send a bride in whom men sow seed,"
and in a hymn to Visvedevas where sacrificial rites are spoken of as
agricultural acivities of ploughing, sowing, reaping. Let us call
whatever information we can about agriculture as a standard of
comparison for sacrifice.

Grains Cultivated and Wild

Lay on the yokes (Sīrä) and fasten well the traces (Yuga), formed is
the furrow (Yoni i.e. Sitä), sow the seed (Bījam) here." Säyana refers
to seven types of seeds growing on ploughed land and seven others
growing wildly, are meant here. They are; (i) sesame (tila), beans
(måsa), rice (Vrihi), barley (yava), panic (priyangu), panicum
miliaceum (anü) and wheat (godhuma) and (ii)bamboo (Veņu), (a)
millet (Syāmaka) wild rice (nīvāra), wild sesame (Jartila), coix barbata
(gave-dhukā), (b) wild-grain (markataka) and wild-bean (gurmuta).

Out of these ritually stereo-typed grains and plants the Rgveda

mentions only barley and Venu. The former is rather a generic term
for any kind of grain than only barley, for the Reveda needed not to
specify them for its purpose. The more mundane and ritual later
Samhitas and Brāhmanas mention all the other types and many more
like Amba, Upavāka, Kulmāṣa, Khalakula, Khalva, Tandula, Pläuka,
Masūra, Sāli etc. Even though, even according to the Vedic Index, in
the Rgveda mentions of the stage next sowing viz, sprouting

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(tokman) is only once and that too in a simile where it is desired that
Manu (Sävarni) may grow like a young shoot of grain.

But to continue with the Rgvedic allegory: "The wise and skilful, out
of desire for bliss from Gods, bind the traces fast and lay the yokes
on either sides" "Arrange", exhorts Somaputra Budha, "the buckets
in their places, securely fasten on the straps, oh friends! We will pour
forth the well that has copious stream, fairflowing well that never
fails." Desire to perpetuate the Soma sacrifice finds an unmistakable
parallel in an inexhaustible irrigation-well. As it happens with great
poets ever so often, Somaputra Budha, as if, forgets the object of
comparison and dilates on the standard (upamāna), "I pour the
water with pails prepared and good straps - the pails that are
unfailing, full with plenteous stream." "Pour forth the well with
stone-wheel, the wooden buckets, the drink of heroes with the
trough for armour." Here again there is a vivid description of
irrigation with well-water, water being drawn with a water-wheel.
Sowing, ploughing, irrigation, all combine in this tiny verse to make a
grand but mixed metaphor. Sacrifice is a race, it is a battle, it is
agriculture.

That agriculture is not a recent phenomenon is being established and

reinforced by archaeologist like Colin Renfrew. It was well-
entrenched as the economic ba of society in non-desert lands of
Eurasia in the 8th millenium B.C. Agriculture goes back much beyond
the so called Indo-Iranian period and the Avestan statement that
"one who reaps Yavo reaps the Highest Truth" does not just show
the prevalence of agriculture but related popular wisdom being
crystalized over centuries.

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Eulogy of Agriculture

The Satapatha Brhhmana glorifies the very foremost means of

agriculture viz. plough with its characteristic folk-etymology. "The
food is the plough (Sira), for sira is the same as sera (i.e. Sa ira, with
draught or food). This plough was made of Udumbara wood and
supplied with cordage of Munja-grass, triply twisted. Though the
Brāhmana has ceremonialised the ploughing, we get a very good
inkling of the process. The plough is addressed by a priest in the
Rgvedic verses quoted above. So far as ploughing the sacrificial
ground was concerned the Satapatha 2.8 asserts again.

The Satapatha affirms that agriculture was the foundation of Aryas'

material life, "The shear-shod plough throws up the cow, the sheep,
the lusty wife, the swift-wheeled wagon, adding to confirm that "the
furrow throws up all this" and "that husbandry is beneficial to all
deities." It is, indeed, the ploughshare that makes (the land-owner)
foodful, while tilling. "With plough, Aśvins sow corn (yava), give light
to Arya, blasting away Dasyu. In the context of agriculture, Dasyu is
not a racial foe of Aryans, but a concept standing for whatever
disrupts the life of an agricultural society, drought, say, and its
consequences like hunger and want. Sowing of Yava, milking of food
(i.e. the cause of food i.e. rain-water) and blowing away Dasyus are
interconnected activities resulting into "wide sunlilght," which stands
for long, contented life for an agriculturist (äryāya) or the agricultural
society. Atharvaveda speaks of a six-yoked plough. Speculations
about the Vrlla, Lāngala, Sira types of ploughs are, scholastically very
interesting, but they have little bearing on the Rgvedic civilization. A
search for even vague chronological sequence with the help of these
words, in the Rgveda, is futile.
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342
If a hoe-like Vrka, a pointed, handled Längala and six-yoked, eight-
yoked Sira, as if, show a chronological sequence, we would expect
Vrka to occur in the "earliest" portions of the Rgveda which, as all
western scholars have averred, is the family-mandalas. But lângala
occurs at 4.57.4 and Dr. S. A.dange is constrained to refer to a
solitary opinion that the most agricultural hymn is believed to be a
late one. The fact of the matter, overlooked for ideological
compulsions by Marxists, is that even when a 24-OX plough came to
be used, all farmers did not possess land that would require its
employment. Owners of small, very small, pieces of land continued
the use of hoe-like Vrka or a spear-tipped Längala."

The fact, which needs no corroboration really, is indicated by the

hymn (10.101) most informative about agriculture. It states that
there were ploughs drawn by only one bullock having creeking poles
attached to the yoke on both sides (10.101.11). If we go by
occurrence in the Rgveda as evidence of knowledge or use of
agricultural instruments, out of hundreds of Rsis, a Vāmadeva (4.57)
had heard of Längala, a Kakṣīvān Deerghatamasa (1.117) and a
Sobhari Kanva had known Vrka and a Budha Saumya speaks of Sira.
The illustrious families of Visvamitra, Angirasa, Ucatha, Agastya,
Grisamada, Atri, Bharadvāja, Vasiştha, apparently never heard of this
most basic of the agricultural implements and yet they speak of
barley (or corn in general). The ploughman must have used some
means to urge the bullocks on, like a whip (kaśä) or a toda (astră,
toda, pratoda) not to mention just sticks. No human farmer is
described as using the astra, it being wielded by Půşan, it being
lightly moving, furnished with leather-thongs, having a thorny tip; or
by Indra or Vayu or by the legendary Mudgala not for ploughing but

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for urging his old bull yoked at the wagon. And, as is patent, astră is
'the badge of agriculture'. Toda is wielded by Väyu, occurring just
once more in a simile. This further reinforces the argument that the
Rgveda is essentially spiritual and as its external part, ritual- in
content and takes the mundane, material, socio-economic life only
as a backdrop, seldom needing to bring it in any sharp cocus.

Food-grains

As noted earlier, not less than fourteen varieties of cultivated and

non-cultivated corns were known in the Vedic times, though all are
not mentioned by the Reveda. It brings them all under one rubric,
Yava, or other less frequent Dhanya. Safety afforded by Agni is like a
pleasant home and ripened corn. Ripe yava is also mentioned at
other places. There is beautiful symbolism when the Adhvaryu priest
is likened to Yava that delights at the coming of a rain-shower. One
who ploughs with the help of oxen brings corn. A Rgvedic poet, while
giving Indra credit for bringing corn (year after year) does not forget
to play upon one of his epithets - Vrsa, showers or bull. The rain
swells the corn by moisture sent from the sky. requested to grant are
described as sending yava for man. Atharvaveda speaks of teams of
eight or six with which people grow yava. There is a prayer for
plentiful harvest and Yava is deified and addressed "Oh Barley, spring
up high, become much through your own magnificence. Burst all the
vessels. May not the bolt from heaven strike you, Oh Barley, you are
a God that hears us, we invite and call you, raise yourself like Heaven
and be exhaustless like the ocean. Oh Barley, let your output be
exhaustless, let the gathered heaps be exhaustless. May your givers
be exhaustless and also the eaters."

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The Atharvaveda gives some details about the barley crop. Straw of
barley is tawny-brown, ears are silvery. There is a charm against
vermins infesting standing crops accompanied, of course, by killing
the pests. It is quite proper that Aśvins are invoked to do the task, for
they are credited with introducing agriculture. "Kill the tarda,
samarika and the mole. Cut off their heads and crush their ribs. Shut
their mouths so that they will not eat barley. Oh borer, locust, a
snapper, get out, not eating this barley, without causing injury. We
crush all the rodents of the forest."

The Reveda credits Asvins with the origination of agriculture quite

explicitly, "you with your plough, while favouring Manu ploughed the
first harvest in the sky." It was Aśvins who first ploughed the ground,
sowed the seed and reaped the harvest teaching Manu i.e. mankind,
by example, to do so. In various contexts, Atharvaveda speaks of rice
and barley together. Best of Vrihi and Yava grains are selected when
guests are feasted. Rice and barley are healing balms. They form one
of the seven kinds of honey in Aśvins' Madhukaśā, the honey-whip
with which they imparted sweetness to sacrifice. The all-powerful
amulet is supposed to bring stores of barely and rice. The two grains
also figure in the reviving (Sanjivani or punarujjivani) spell and so
they are called the vital breaths (prāna and apāna).

Tandula, so common later, is not mentioned in the Rgveda but is of

fairly frequent occurrence in the Atharvaveda. In the hymn glorifying
Sataudană i.e. a cow accompanied by hundred odanas (varieties of
rice-preparations), or masses of boiled rice mashed and cooked in
milk, each separate grain of rice in the mortar, on the pestle, on the
skin or in the winnowing basket is mentioned and it is desired that
Hotr Agni may convert each one into an acceptable oblation.
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Rice-grains and Soma-fibres enter water of the cauldron in the
preparation and preservation of Brahmaudana (a mass of rice pulp
boiled in milk). A graphic description of cooking rice is given by the
Atharvaveda, "the boiling waters rise and splutter, cast up foam and
many bubbles. Oh waters, unite with the grains (tandula). Stir up the
grains as they settle at the bottom. Let them blend and mingle with
water. I have measured this water in the vessel."

Dhānās or Dhanya (parched barley, rice etc.) are mentioned mainly in

connection with offerings to Indra. The dhānās were also sometimes
accompanied by cakes (apūpa or purodāśa) or gruel (Karambha) or
Soma. Agni grants dhanya to his worshippers.

When crop was ready it was cut with sickles (dātra or sṛni). "Trusting
in Indra," a poet says, "I have taken a sickle in hand." Agni's flames
are said to be sickles with which he cuts down (burns) dry wood.
Direct reference to harvesting is found only once where a sickle is
said to approach the ripened grain. Indra is then symbolically
requested, "to fill my hand with all it can hold of barley cut and
gathered up."

After cutting the sheaves were taken to the threshing ground (Khala).
The Reveda refers to it only once and appears in a simile put in the
mouth of Indra. According to Sãyana it refers to the preparation on
the threshing ground. "As while beating the ground level the old
stalks of rice etc. get crushed, so does Indra crush his enemies."
Perhaps oxen were tied to a post (medhi) and made to go round
treading on the husked grain on the threshing floor. In a metaphor in
glorification of Odana, the Atharvaveda 7-2 likens the threshing
ground to a dish, pointing out to its shape and expanse. As Khala was

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an important link in the agricultural process, the farmers worry about
the safety of the harvested grain that takes the form of demons born
on the threshing floor, for whose removal 7-3 Brahmanaspati's help
is sought.

After threshing, husk was removed and grains 'purified' in cribbles

(titau) or winnowing baskets. The word that has remained in many
Indo-Aryan languages, however, is Sürpa (suppa, sūpa, supu, sūpo,
sūp etc.) and was current from the Atharvaveda onwards. It occurs in
the ritual context and not in a secular activity. In the hymn of
hospitality, winnowing basket is the (Soma) - purifier. In the Odana
ritual Diti is the winnowing basket and Aditi the one who holds it,
Văta being the sifter. In the Sataudanã rite mention is made of a
grain of rice sticking to the winnowing basket. Winnowing baskets
were made of dead, dry wood or fresh reed as the special adjective -
varsavṛddha (grown due to rain)-shows. The sacrificer and wife take
hold of the winnowing basket, sift chaff and grain, throw the chaff
and pour the grain again in the winnowing basket.

Agricultural Land

That the Rgveda contrasts fertile land (urvara) with the infertile,
waste land (ärtanä) is patent enough, but one cannot ignore kśetra
altogether as Mr.S.A. Dange has done. Even the Vedic Index counts it
with Urvară as a 'regular expression for 'ploughland.' Urvarā has
vanished, but Kśetra has remained in many a form in modern Indo-
Aryan languages over the last eight thousand and more years (e.g.,
Khetta, Chetta, Chetr, Chetur, Khetar, Khet, Set, Seta). Whereas
Urvará occurs twelve times in the Rgveda, Kṣetra occurs more than
thirty times. Western and/ or Marxist scholars are still bandying

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about their preposterous theories arising out of the basic
misconception of the "Aryan conquest". The term urvară (with
derivatives) occurs exactly six times in the family Mandalas (only II,
IV, V, VI) considered to be the oldest part of the Reveda and six times
in the later (1, VIII, X) Mandalas. It does not occur at all in Mandalas
III, VII, IX. Are we to suppose that the great illustrious families of
Visvämitra (Mandala III) and Vasiştha (Mandala VII) had never heard
of Urvara? Must we not learn, even now, that the simplest
explanation of such phenomena is that the poets referred to their
material surroundings and objects if their spiritual-poetical
experiences needed them for expression? With Grisamadas mention
to no Kṣetra at all and urvarã only once where Indra is called the
"Winner of fertile land" are we to conclude that the Grisamada
family knew the earth, the rivers, the flowering plants, but had never
heard of Kṣetra? Where consistent, we must supplement the Rgvedic
information by later Vedic as well as Sūtra literature wherefrom
ritual or civilizational lacunae are to be filled, knowing the nature of
poetry the Rgveda consists of.

Indra, being the winner and lord of fertile fields 82 among other
things, is requested to fight for and grant fertile fields to the
worshippers. Indra-Varuna grant a warrior that wins fertile fields 84
or they work marvels for the worshippers and grant them fertile
lands. Possibly there is a reference to danger to fertile fields by
burning because a poet hopes not to rouse Agni's anger which will
result in laying the fields waste. There is one place where the real
nature of Indra's 'fight' becomes apparent. He is described as being
active warring in the fertile fields for 'go'.5 Warring in fertile fields for
the sake of "a cow" makes little sense or no sense at all. Indra's wars

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are patently for rain-water. Translation by Western scholars of the
word 'urvarăsu' here appear to be deliberately misleading, 'in the
fields' keeps scope open for "in the battle-fields, whereas urvarās are
plughed, fertile lands. Here the usual sense of the locative case in
such contexts viz. 'for the sake of (as in goşu yudh - fighting for the
sake of 'go') also cannot be taken, for it is there, legitimately, in the
form of "gave" (a Sanskrit Word).

Urvară moreover, where not taken ritually in the sense of ground for
altars, is consistently parapharased by Sayana as 'land with standing
crops' or 'land rich in all kinds of crops.' So 'urvarasu' is neither 'in the
(battle) fields' Nor, 'for the sake of fertile lands,' but in the lands with
standing crops and hence 'gave' is Vṛṣti-udakāya - for the sake of
rain-water, Indra brings the much-needed rain-water for standing
crops in the fields.

Coming to the more common terms Kṣetra, Indra, Agni,89 Indra-

Varuna, Asvins¹ Mitrā Varuna,2 Soma, 93 Mitra,94 Visnu,95 Rbhus,"
97 96 and the River Sindhu" are variously described as winning.
granting or prospering Kṣetra for man. There is no doubt that
requests are for cultivable land or just thanks-giving for the
possession of such lands. Men, desirous of prosperity of the fields lift
the ladles for offering oblations.

The Vedic Index notes "The use of this word (Ksetra) in the Rgveda
points clearly to the existence of separate fields carefully measured
off." It was the Rbhus, the humans who attained immortality, that
are said to have as if measured out a field with a rod. Mythologically,
this is a measuring out into four parts of the year created by Tvastr.
For us it is dividing the year in four seasons from the point of view of

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agriculture. While dwelling, mythologically, in the house of the Sun
for twelve days (likened by Sayaņa to twelve rainy constellations
starting from Ardrä) the Rbhus caused the fields to prosper and
rivers to flow. While they were so sojourning, the plants covered the
dry regions and water filled the cavities." By their work they are said
to have spread grass over the heights and water over the plains.

Apart from these, the Aryans i.e. agriculturists had evolved a deity
presiding over each field rather than over the entire arable land. He
was Kṣetrasya pati, 'Lord of the field.' Though traditionally only three
verses of a hymn are dedicated to this tutelary deity of the field,
there are two more verses where the deity is name Kṣetrasya Pati,
though identified with Agni or Aditya. Sayana notes that some call
Rudra the Lord of the Field, some others describe Agni to be so. Or
the Lord of the field may be described as an independent (deity).
Though in the spiritual realm, the distinction between deities arising
out of a hieraric tradition or a popular tradition is obnoxious, when
we are encountering a highly symbolised and stylised poetry like that
of the Rgveda, it is noteworthy that, with respect to the Kṣetrapati,
inter alia, Keith has remarked, We should gravely err in setting the
choice of deities down to priests... (i.e. Kṣetrapati with Västospati)
are no abstract deities. They are... the spirit that dwells in the field...
and neither conception can be asserted with any plausibility to be
later than the period of growth of belief in great gods."

According to him they are the "the deities who imply settled life and
agriculture." It may be further noted that all, but one, references to
the deity derive from the family Mandalas, the oldest core of the
Revedic collection. The Lord of the Field is invoked thus, "We,
through the Master of the Field, even as through a friend, obtain
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what nourishes our horses and cattle. May the God be gracious to us
in such (gifts)." This clearly brings out the economic perception of the
Vedic people. There is no prior-posterior relationship between
pastoralism and agriculturism in a linear development, but a co-
existence of both, go-rakṣa ie. cattle-keeping being subservient to
Krşi, agriculture. That is why Vamadeva requests the Lord of the Field
to grant nourishment for cows and horses, which, impliedly, will help
produce nourishment for man. The next verse makes it quite clear
"As the cow yields milk, pour for us, Oh Lord of the field! the wave
that bears honey." Without entering into the metaphysics and
spirituality of Madhuvidya of the old Chhändogya and
Brhadaranyaka-Upanisads, the honey-wave, on the mundane plane,
is abundance of everything, basic to which is abundance of crops.

In that majestic metaphor of Madhu of the Chhändogya, 109 the Sun

is honey, the heaven is the beam on which the honeycombs hang,
aerial space forms honey-combs, light elements are the brood (of
bees), 'the solar rays are the honey-cells, the entire Vedic literature
along with Itihasa and Purāṇas are the flowers from which honey is
gathered etc. What is pertinent in our context is, from this cosmic
honeycomb issues forth food, inter alia. That is why Vāmadeva of the
Rgveda asks wave of honey of the Lord of the field! In the last verse
of the triplet also, the poet desires the Lord of the Field to be full of
honey for him. Paramount importance of agriculture can not be
made any more explicit by the symbolic language of the Rgveda. In
the famous Santi Sükta, the Lord of the field is just desired to be
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propitious among many other deities. Whereas the Kṣetrasya pati
hymn, having spoken of the honey wave and nourishment for cows
and horses, invokes lords of Cosmic Order (Rta) to be gracious. It has
been suggested,112 not without justification, that Bhadra and Svasti,
which terms the Reveda introduces in the very first hymn, are
equivalent to Madhu. The Reveda often employs broader concepts
like these than the narrow, specific one. Bhadra is "blessedness' and
Svasti, "an honourable existence," "Well-being." Both these states, in
the meterial sphere, depend upon agriculture.

End of the eBook.

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