Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

In this first experiment we want to study the relationship between heat and work.

The term heat is used in two slightly different ways.

In one sense, when two bodies are placed in thermal contact heat is the amount of thermal
energy which flows from one body to the other. The flow results only if there is a temperature
difference between the bodies. It is only as it flows that the energy is called heat. Heat is not a special
substance in the body. Heat is not a special energy in the body. It is meaningless to speak of the heat in
a body. However, at any time the internal (or thermal) energy of a body is a proper expression and is a
property of the body.

Used in another sense, the term heat refers to the process of transfer of thermal energy from
one body to another, e.g., a body has been heated if it has had its temperature increased by having been
in contact with a body of higher temperature. In either case, the temperature of a body determines the
direction of energy flow. We say that one body has a higher temperature than the other, when thermal
energy flows from the former to the latter.

Under ordinary circumstances the temperature is an adequate indicator of changes of the

thermal energy contained by a solid or liquid. Thus there should be a relationship between the amount
of heat and temperature. The specific heat is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of
a unit of mass of material by one degree. One unit of heat is the calorie which is defined as the amount
of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water, one degree celsius. The amount of
heat which flows into a body is given by the expression ∆Q = cM∆T where c is the specific heat, M is
the mass of the body, and ∆T is the temperature change. The specific heat of material may have many
different values, depending on the conditions under which the heat is added, for example, at constant
pressure cp or the constant volume cv, etc. Below we give the average specific heat capacities at constant
pressure of some solids applicable in the temperature range of approximately 10 to 100°C.

In this experiment, assume Cp is independent of temperature.

Selected Specific Heats

Substance Atomic Weight Cp in cal/gm-°C
Aluminum 27.0 0.219
Brass --- 0.094
Copper 63.5 0.093
Glass --- 0.118
Iron 55.8 0.119
Lead 207.2 0.0310
Mercury 200.6 0.033
Silver 107.9 0.056
Wood --- 0.42

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Notice that the specific heat of water, 1.00 cal/gm⋅°C, made equal to one by the choice of the calorie as
the unit of heat is very large compared to that of most other substances.

You have observed in your daily brushes with nature that when work is done against frictional
forces heat results. What we want to know is how much heat is produced when a given amount of
work is done. Is it always the same quantity of heat, or does it vary in some way with the circumstances
involved in its production? It was established about the middle of the 19th century in a series of
experiments performed by J. P. Joule, an English brewer, that there is a direct proportion between the
thermal energy produced and the mechanical energy dissipated in frictional resistance. It is in keeping
with principle of conservation of energy that there must be a constant conversion ratio when
mechanical energy is converted into heat. The relationship is expressed by the equation

∆W = J∆Q
Counter
where

∆W = number of units of work converted into heat

∆Q = number of units of heat resulting Screw

plug
J = constant of proportionality called the mechanical
equivalent of heat. Its numerical value depends on the Drum
units of ∆W and ∆Q.
Thermometer
The apparatus provided is to be used for quantitative
determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. (See Fig.
5 kg
1) During the experiment, mechanical (work) is continually Mass
converted into heat which flows into a water filled copper
drum. The constant frictional force is provided using nylon
cord wound 3 to 5 times around the copper drum in such a
manner that each winding of the nylon cord is in direct frictional contact with the drum. On rotating
the drum, the total friction of the stationary nylon cord and drum is so great that the weight of a 5 kg
mass is necessary to counterbalance it. The other end of the nylon cord is held by a 50 gm weight which
exerts a very small force. This force may be neglected.

The base plate should be screwed on the left-hand of a table. The copper calorimeter is fitted
with three pivots, and should be placed on the flange made of insulating material which is connected to
the handle, and secured in position by turning it.

The copper drum which should be in an exactly horizontal position must be kept clean and
polished. If dirty it should be cleaned. The calorimeter is sealed at the front end by the thermometer
together with the rubber gasket inserted in a screw plug. (DO NOT insert the thermometer at this
stage, however.) The nylon cord should be wound 3 to 5 times around the calorimeter drum in such a
way that each winding is located alongside the other. The cord should be suspended with the end of
the cord hanging downwards. The length of the cord should be adjusted so that the weight fasten to it
is on the floor when the cord is taut.

After carrying out these preparations, when the handle is turned, the weight should be lifted
only slightly. On turning the handle farther it is seen that the frictional force counterbalances the
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weight of the load. If the weight is lifted too high or not high enough, the small weight on the other
end of the cord should be adjusted to minimize the movement of the 5 kg mass. Remove the
calorimeter drum and determine its mass without the thermometer, but with the screw plug. Ignore the
effect of the nylon cord. Fill the calorimeter with about 50 to 60 grams of tap water and determine its
mass. Insert the thermometer, and then seal by fastening the screw in plug.

Secure the calorimeter to the insulating flange and rewind the nylon cord.

BE CAREFUL NOT TO BUMP OR BREAK THE THERMOMETER WHEN WRAPPING THE

CORD AROUND THE DRUM

The cord should be even and not twisted. The drum and nylon cord must be dry. Secure the 5
kg mass as described above.

The work done, i.e., the mechanical energy expended for each revolution of the calorimeter,
will be equal to the frictional force times the circumference of the drum. (Show why this is true.) If the
total number of revolutions made during the experiment is n, the total mechanical energy expended will
be

∆W = (Mg)(πD)n

where D is the diameter of the calorimeter drum.

The heat produced by the conversion of mechanical energy can be determined by using the definition
of specific heat as follows

∆Q = (CwMw + CMD)(Tf - Ti)

where Mw is the mass of the water, MD the mass of the copper drum, C the specific heat of copper, Cw
the specific heat of water, Tf the final temperature of the system, and Ti the initial temperature. The
cord will be neglected in this analysis. In what direction do you think this will bias your result?

Thus both the work done and heat produced may be determined experimentally and J
computed.

Turn the handle until the tap water (which is probably colder) in the calorimeter has reached a
temperature approximately 3°C below room temperature; or better, pour water of this temperature into
the calorimeter. Use ice to cool the water, if necessary.

Read and record the initial temperature as exactly as possible (be careful to understand the scale
divisions). Commence turning the handle immediately with the weight off the floor and counting the
number of turns. After about 50 turns, stop, record the temperature, and then, continue turning. This
should be repeated in 50 turn intervals until the temperature is off the thermometer scale. A plot
should then be made of the temperature versus work done.

Measure the diameter of the calorimeter drum.

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 Compute J, the mechanical equivalent of heat from the slope on the graph, and estimate the
uncertainty in your determination of J. Compare to the accepted value. Be careful to be consistent in
the units you use.

If your graph is not a straight line, what is the probable reason? At what part of the curve
should you take the slope, to minimize this error?

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