Engineering Physics

Dr. Rajesh Cheruku

​ ssistant Professor
A
Department of Physics
Central University of Karnataka
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Free Electron Theory

Conduction Electrons

➢Each electrons is spread through out the solid rather than being attached to any
particular atom.

➢Well localized electrons don't carry any current

➢Conduction electrons are responsible for all chemical properties and most of the
properties of metals.

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➢If the density of the substance is ρm then atomic concentration is
N= ρm NA /M’
Where NA Avogadro’s number; M’ is the atomic weight

➢The atomic valence by Zv, then the electron concentration is,

N= Zv ρm NA /M’

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Free Electron gas

➢ The behavior free electrons moves in side the metals is considered to be

similar to the atoms or molecules moves in the ideal gas.

➢ These free electron in the metal referred to free electron gas.

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5
➢Ideal gas at STP
1 Mole=22.4 liters

➢But 1 Mole gives the Avogadro number atoms=6.023x1023 atoms

➢Therefore number density is 6.023x1023/ 22.4x10-3= 3x1025

➢Consider the Silver metal (Ag)

Density =10.5 gm/cm3 = 10.5x106 gm/m3
Atomic weight 107
➢Therefore number density =
(10.5x106)(6.023x1023)/107=6x1028

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Free Electron Theory for Metals
➢Electrons are collide with each other, which are instantaneous, and these
leads to scattering.

➢Between collisions, interactions with other electrons and ionic cores is

neglected.

➢There is mean free time between the collisions and represented by τ. It is

independent of velocity and position of the electron.

➢Electrons attain the equilibrium position with these collisions with other
electrons.
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Drude Model
According to Ohm’s law
V=IR
R=ρ l/A
Resistivity ρ =1/σ
σ =conductivity
V= Iρ l/A
V=J l /σ Where J=I/A
V/l= J /σ =E
Therefore, J= σ E

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Drude and Lorentz Model
Force exerts by the electron F= e E
Actually force m dv/dt=e E
m dv/dt=e E-γ v-------(1)
At equilibrium e E-γ vf=0
Therefore, γ=e E/ vf
Substitute these value in the above equation (1),
m dv/dt=e E-e E/ vf v
𝑣
m dv/dt =e E(1- )
vf

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 𝑣
m dv/dt =e E(1- )
vf
Therefore,
𝑣
1/ (1- ) dv=e E/m dt
vf
Integrate the above equation,
𝑣
-vf ln((1- ) )= e E t/m
vf
Therefore,
𝑣
ln((1- ) )= -e E t/m vf= -t/τ
vf
where τ =1/( e E /m vf)= Mean free time is order of 10-14 for a metals
Then,
𝑣
1- = exp(-t/τ)
vf
Therefore, v= vf (1-exp(-t/τ))
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v/vf

Mean free time (τ)

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Conductivity
Normal current density J= N vf e
N= no. of free electrons
vf= velocity of the electrons

Where τ =1/( e E /m vf), then vf= e E τ/m

Therefore, J= (N e2 τ/m) E

Then J = σ E
Where σ = N e2 τ/m

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Find the conductivity of Ag

σ = N e2 τ/m
N=1028
e=1.6x10-19 C
τ=10-14
m= 9.1x10-31
σ = 3x 106 S

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The study state velocity
Mean free time,
τ =1/( e E /m vf)
The study state velocity is
v= - e τ E/m
It is always opposite to applied field E because the charge on the electron is negative.
But here, two types of velocities are associate with the electrons.

1. Drift velocity

2. Random velocity

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Random velocity: The velocity acquired by the free electrons in the
absence of electric field. Average random velocity=0.
Drift velocity: The average velocity acquired by the free electrons in
presence of the electric field. Average drift velocity is non zero Drift
speed is nearly 10-5 times smaller than random velocity.

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Power
➢The power dissipated as joule heat must be equal to the power absorbed by
the electron system from the field.
➢The power observed by a particle from force F is F. v, where v is the velocity
of the particle.
➢The power observed by the electron system per unit volume is
P=N F vd
= N (-e E) (-e τ E/m)
= N e2 τ E/m

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Electrical Resistivity vs Temperature

Figure shows the observed curve for Na, At T= 0 K, ρ has a small constant value, above
that, ρ increases with T, Slowly at first, but afterward ρ increases linearly with T.

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The resistivity
ρ=m/ N e2 τ
➢ Here, 1/τ is actually equal to the probability of the electron suffering a scattering per
unit time with lattice.

➢ But the electron undergo collision with lattice and imperfection present in the material or
crystal. Therefore, electrons scatter from

1. Lattice vibrations (phonons) of the ions around their equilibrium position due to thermal
excitation of the ions.
2. All static imperfections, such as foreign impurities or crystal defects.

These two mechanisms are assumed to act independently. Therefore,

1 1 1
= +
τ τ𝑃ℎ τ𝑖
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 ρ= ρi +ρph (T)
m m
= +
N e τi N e2 τph
2

➢This is called the Matthiessen rule.

➢ρi is due to scattering by impurities, called the residual resistivity.

➢ρph (T) is due to scattering by phonons, it is temperature dependent, and is

called the ideal resistivity.

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At very low temperature (T), the scattering by phonons is negligible because the
amplitudes of oscillation are small

Then, τph → infinity then ρph (T) → zero and hence,

ρ= ρi

At very high temperature (T),

ρ≈ρph (T)

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Expression for τi 𝐚𝐧𝐝 τph
Consider first the collision of electrons with impurities, then
𝐥𝒊
τi=
𝐯𝒓
where li is the mean free path for collision with impurities.
Using the argument familiar with kinetic theory of gases.
Ni and σi is the concentration of the impurity and actual gematrical area of the impurity atoms,
then
1
li=
𝑁𝑖 𝜎𝑖
According to quantum scattering theory, 𝜎i~ 1𝐴°2 then τi ∝ 1/ 𝑁𝑖
Therefore, ρi ∝ 𝑵𝒊
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calculations for τph is more difficult,
1
lph=
𝑁𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜎𝑖𝑜𝑛

➢Where Nion is the concentration of the metallic ions in the lattice and 𝝈𝒊𝒐𝒏 is the
scattering cross section per ion.

➢Here we note that 𝝈𝒊𝒐𝒏 is not belongs to the geometric cross section of ion, rather it is
the presented by the thermal fluctuating ion to the pass electron.

➢Suppose the distance of deviation from the equilibrium is x, then the average scattering
cross section is about
𝛔𝐢𝐨𝐧=𝛑 < 𝐱𝟐 >

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 where < x2 > is average of x2. The value of < x2 > can be estimated as follows.

➢Since the ion moves like a harmonic oscillator.

➢The average of its potential energy is equal to half the total energy. Thus,

ħω
½α< x2 >=<E>=
𝑒ħω/𝑘𝑇−1

This energy of the quantum oscillator, where 𝝎 is the Einstein or the Debye
frequency.

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Heat capacity of conduction electrons

➢In free-electron model the conduction electrons are treated as free particles which obey the
classical laws of mechanics, electromagnetism, and statistical mechanics.
➢According to Drude-Lorentz model electrons are behave like a gas molecules and then the
kinetic theory of gases, a free particle in equilibrium at temperature T has NA average
energy of 3/2 kT.
➢Therefore the average energy per mole is,
< 𝐄 > = NA (3/2 kT)= 3/2 RT

Then the electronic heat capacity

𝒅<𝑬>
Ce = = 3/2 R≈ 𝟑 cal/mole K
𝒅𝑻

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The total heat capacity in the metal is
C= Cph + Ce
At high temperatures,
C= 3R+ 3/2 R= 4.5 R ≈ 9 cal/mole K

➢But experimentally at temperatures, the heat capacity is 3R, as is the case for insulators.

➢Here, experimentally the heat capacity of electrons is not 3/2 R and it is 10-2 order smaller
than the free electron model.

➢To explain this discrepancy, we have use the quantum concepts.

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Explanation with Quantum Mechanics
➢ Figure (a) shows the quantum energy levels of electrons in the metal occupy these levels.

➢ Here, it should fellow Pauli exclusion principle, according to which an energy level can
accommodate at most two electrons.

➢ The energy of the highest occupied level is called the Fermi energy level. A typical value
for the Fermi energy in metals is about 5 eV.

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The distribution of electrons among the levels is usually described by the distribution
function, f(E), which is defined as the probability that the level E is occupied by an
electron.
1, 𝐸 < 𝐸𝑓
𝑓 𝐸 =ቊ
0, 𝐸𝑓 < 𝐸

All the levels below Ef are completely filled, and all those above Ef are completely empty.

Figure (b) shows the discontinuity at the Fermi level.

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The distribution function f(E) at temperature T≠ 0 K is given by

1
f(E)= (E−Ef)/kT
e +1

This is known as the Fermi-Dirac distribution.

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Electronic Specific Heat

➢The electrons within the range KT of the Fermi level are excited, then only the fraction of
kT/EF of the Fermi level is affected.

➢Therefore, the no. of electrons effect per mole is about NA(kT/EF) and each electron
absorbs an energy kT, on the average, the thermal energy per mole is given approximately
by

𝟐
𝐍𝐀 𝐊𝐓
ത
𝐄=
𝐄𝐅

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Then the specific heat,
𝛛𝐄ത
Ce=
𝛛𝐓
𝒌𝑻
=2R
𝑬𝑭

Therefore, the specific heat of the electrons is reduced from its

classical value, which of the order of R, by the factor

kT/EF

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For EF = 5 eV and T=300 K

➢This is the factor is equal to 1/200 and the great reduction is in agreement with experiment.

➢The infesting conclusion from the above is that the heat capacity Ce of the electrons is linear
function of temperature.

➢The exact evolution of the electron heat capacity yields the value is,

𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝑻
Ce= R
𝟐 𝑬𝑭

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