Applied Physics

Unit – V
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties
of Materials
Mr. D. Isaac, M.Sc.
Assistant Professor
DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Contents
• Introduction to Dielectrics
• Basic definitions
• Types of polarization
• Internal fields in a solid MRECW

• Clausius-Mossotti equation
• Ferroelectrics
• Piezo electrics
• Pyro electrics
• Applications of dielectrics
Introduction
 A dielectric is an Insulator.
 A dielectric has no free electrons available for conduction.
 The electrons in a dielectric are bound to their respective
nucleus of the atoms. 
 When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges slightly
shift from their average equilibrium positions, causing dielectric
polarization

 When a dielectric material is placed in between the plates of a

capacitor, it’s capacitance increases due to the polarization of dielectric
materials.
 If the main function of non-conducting material is to provide electrical
insulation, then it is called as insulator. On the other hand, if the main
function of non-conducting material is to store electrical charges then it is
called as dielectric.
 Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance.
 Dielectrics have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 Examples: Mica, glass, plastic, liquids such as pure water,
methyl chloride, gases such as hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur hexafluoride etc.

Mica porcelain glass plastic water

 Basic Definitions
Electric dipole: A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges
(+q, -q) separated by a distance (d) is called an electric dipole.
Dipole Moment (μ): The product of the magnitude of one of the charges
(q) and distance between two charges (d) is called as dipole moment.
dipole moment (μ) = q * d

Fig. Electric Dipole

It is a vector quantity pointing from a negative charge towards positive

charge. It’s unit is Coulomb – meter (C-m) or debye.
1 debye = 3.3 x 10-30 C-m
Types of Dielectrics
A dielectric is made up of either polar molecules or non-polar molecules.
Non - polar Dielectrics:
 These are made of non-polar molecules.
 The center of mass of positive charges coincides with the center of mass of
the negative charges, in the molecule.
 The non polar molecule do not have permanent dipole moment in the absence
of an electric field and has a symmetric shape.
 E.g. Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2 etc.
Polar Dielectrics:
 These are made of polar molecules.
 The center of mass of positive charges does not coincide with the center of
mass of the negative charges in the molecule.
 In the absence of electric field each molecule has permanent dipole and has
an asymmetric shape.
 E.g. H2O, N2O, NH3 , HCl etc.

No Field
E=0
Dielectric Polarization:
The process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along
the field direction is called polarization in dielectrics.
Eo = 0
+σ
  f Eo –σ f
 
 – Ei  

E = Eo - E i
Electric intensity or Electric field strength
The force per unit charge “dq” is known as electric field strength (E).
Where “dq” is point charge, E is electric field, F is force applied on point
charge “dq”. E= F/dq = Q / 4πεr2
where “ε” is permittivity.
Permittivity It is a measure of resistance that is encountered when
forming an electric field in a medium.
It is the ability of the medium to oppose Electric field.
for vacuum, permittivity is ε = εo it is a small value.
for a dielectric, permittivity is ε = kεo where k is any value.
It’s unit is Farad/meter.

ε = εo
ε = kεo
Permittivity of Medium (ε): It is a measure of how much electric field
generated per unit charge in that medium.

Permittivity of free space (εo): The electric field generated in vacuum.

It is constant value.
εo = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m. 
Dielectric constant or Relative permittivity (εr or k): It is defined as
the ratio of permittivity of medium (ε) to the permittivity of free space
(εo).
ε r = ε / εo
Dielectric constant has no units.
 
Polarization vector (P)
The induced dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric in the presence of an
electric field is called Polarization vector.
If μ is the induced dipole moment and V is the volume of the dielectric then
polarization..
P=
For V = 1, P = μ.

The unit of polarization is Cm-2. It is a vector quantity and pointing from negative
charge to positive charge. If μ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the
number of molecules per unit volume then
P= Nμ
Relation between Polarization vector P and Eo
surface charge density σi

Ei

d
 Let+qi and – qi be the induced charges on the two surfaces separated by a distance d,
which is equal to the thickness of the slab. The dipole moment of the induced
surface charge, μ = qid. The volume of the dielectric is Ad, where A is the surface
area. The induced dipole moment per unit volume is called as polarization.
P= =
P = = σi
Where σi is the induced surface charge density. So induced electric field,
Ei = = ( Gauss law Ei = )
 
Polarizability(α):
Polarizability is the net dipole moment induced per unit applied electric field.

Induced dipole moment ‘μ’ is directly proportional to the strength of the applied field.

where the constant of proportionality α is known as the Polarizability.

when E = 1, α = μ.
The unit of polarizability is Fm2. The total polarization of the dielectric containing N
atoms is given by,
P = Nμ = NαE
 
Dielectric Susceptibility (χ): 
It measures the amount of polarization in a given electric field produced in
a dielectric. Polarization is proportional to the product of εo and applied
electric field E.

Where the proportionality constant is known as dielectric susceptibility

( χ has no units).
 
Electric flux density or Electric displacement vector (D)
It is defined as the total number of electric lines of force passing through
the dielectric material is known as electric flux density (D).
Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of
Electric field strength is
At the same point in a medium is given by
Relation between three vectors D, E and P

 When a dielectric material is placed between the plates of a charged capacitor

then the charges are induced on the surface of dielectric. The resultant electric
field between plates is
E = Eo - Ei  As
E= – ε r = Eo / E
E= – E = Eo / ε r
 From (1) and (2)
E+ D=εE
E = / εr
E+P and
= D ----------- (1) E= /
D=E+P
εE = ----------- (2)
 
Relation between dielectric constant (εr) and electric
susceptibility (χ)
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from
the presence of material as compared to free space, it has the same unit as
D and is related to it as

but D =

( ε =)

= 
= {}
Types of polarization
Polarization is the displacement of charged particles under
the action of the external electric field.
The macroscopic polarization vector P arises due to the
following four types of microscopic polarization mechanisms.

1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization
4. Space charge polarization
Electronic polarization
When an electric field is applied to an atom, positively charged nucleus
displaces in the direction of field and electron cloud in opposite direction.

This kind of displacement will produce an electric dipole with in the atom
i.e. dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field strength.

This displacement between electron and nucleus produces induced dipole

moment & hence polarization. This is called electronic polarization.
Expression for Electronic polarization:
Consider an atom in an electric field of intensity ‘E’ since the nucleus
(+ze) and electron cloud (-ze) of the atom have opposite charges and
acted upon by Lorentz force (FL).

Subsequently nucleus moves in the direction of field and electron

cloud in opposite direction.
When electron cloud and nucleus get shifted from their normal
positions, an attractive force b/w them is created and the separation
continuous until columbic force FC is balanced with Lorentz force FL,
Finally a new equilibriums state is established.
 No Field Field applied
E=0 E

+ Ze
R

Nucleus
Fig. Displacement of nucleus in an atom when placed in an electric field E
The negative charge density of an atom of radius R will be
 

ρ =
(1)
Lorentz force = -Ze E
Coulomb force = [] (2)
Charge enclosed = ρ (3)
= []
=
Substitute (4) in (3)
Coulomb force =
(4)
=

(5)
In the equilibrium position (2) = (5) i.e., Coulomb force and
 
Lorentz force must be equal
- Ze E =
E=
x=
Induced dipole moment
(6)
μe = Ze .x
= Ze .
=
μe = αeE
Where αe = is the Electronic polarizability
Thus, the electronic polarizability αe, depends
(7) on the volume of the
atom and is independent of temperature
 

The induced dipole moment per unit volume is electronic polarization

Pe = N μe = N αe E (8)
Where N = Number of atoms per unit volume
Pe = E (9)

From (8) and (9)

E = N αe E

αe =

Electronic polarization takes place in time period of 10-14 to 10-15 s.

Ionic polarization
Ionic polarization occurs in ionic crystals. It occurs due to the elastic
displacement of positive and negative ions from their equilibrium
positions.

When an Electric Field is applied to the molecule, the positive ions

displaced by x1 to the negative side electric field and negative ions
displaced by x2 to the positive side of field.

The resultant dipole momentµ = q ( x1+ x2)

 Fig. Displacement of ions when placed in an electric field E
When ions are displaced in their respective directions from the mean positions, then a
restoring force appears on the ions. β1 and β2 are restoring force constants of cation and anion and
F newtons is the force due to the applied field
F α x1 F α x2
F = β1 x1 F = β 2 x2
x1 = F/ β1 x2 = F/ β2
At equilibrium the Lorentz force and restoring force will be equal and opposite, i.e., F = eE
 Restoring force constants are depending on the mass of the ion and angular frequency of the
molecule in which ions are present
 
β1 = M  β
 
x1+x2 =[+]
2 = m
x1 = x2 = and μ = e(x1+x1)

x1 = =e*[+]
x2 =

 
αi =
αi

Thus the ionic polarizability is inversely proportional to the square of the natural
frequency of the ionic molecule and directly proportional to reduced mass.
Ionic polarization takes place in time period of 10-11 to 10-14 s.
Orientation polarization
It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The molecules such as
H2,N2,O2,Cl2,CH4,CCl4 etc. does not carry any dipole because center of
positive charge and center of negative charge coincides. On the other hand
molecules like CH3Cl, H2O, HCl, ethyl acetate (polar molecules) carries
dipoles even in the absence of electric field.
How ever the net dipole moment is negligibly small since all the
molecular dipoles are oriented randomly when there is no EF. In the presence
of the electric field these all dipoles orient them selves in the direction of field
as a result the net dipole moment becomes enormous.
a) It is slow process compare to ionic polarization.
b) It greatly depends on temperature.
 Field Applied
No Field
E=0
E

Fig. Orientation of molecules when placed in an electric field E

 
Orientation polarizability expression:
Po = N μ = N αo E
αo = (1)
From Langevin’s theory, orientation polarization is given by
Po =
(2)
substituting (2) in (1)
αo =
αo =
Orientation polarizability αo is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature and proportional to the square of the dipole moment.
Orientation polarization built-up time is of the order of 10-10 s or more.
Space-charge polarization
Space charge polarization is due to the accumulation of charges at the
electrodes or at the interphase in the multiphase material. The ions diffuse
over appreciable distance in response to the applied field, gives raise to a
redistribution of charges in the dielectric medium. This type is known as
Space-charge polarization.

The space-charge polarization is not a significant factor in most common

dielectrics. Hence, we take the space-charge polarizability αs as
αs= 0
Hence the total polarizability α due to all types of polarizations can be
 

written as,
α = αe + αi+ αo + αs
α= + + + 0

α= + +

We know total polarization P = NEα

 

P = NE [ + + ]
This equation is called as Langevin – Debye equation.
Internal fields in a solid
Local field or internal field in a dielectric is the average electric field
intensity acting on a particular molecule in the dielectric material.
In other words, the field acting at the location of an atom is known as
local or internal field “Ei”.
The internal field Ei must be equal to the sum of applied field plus
the field produced at the location of the atom by the dipoles of all other
atoms.

Ei = E + the field due to all other dipoles

Evaluation of internal field
Consider a dielectric be placed between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor and let there be an imaginary spherical cavity around the atom A
inside the dielectric.
The internal field at the atom site ‘A’ can be made up of four components
E1, E2, E3 & E4.

Fig. A dielectric
material placed in
the electric field
of intensity E
 dE4
P
Fig. Representation of a
spherical cavity
 R
dA
Q
P
 dA = circumference x width
dA = (2 x π x PQ ) x QR

dθ
θ

E
2) The total charge present on the surface area dA is
dq = (normal component of polarization x surface area)

3) The field due to this charge at A denoted by dE4 is given by dE4 = dECosθ
4) Thus the total field E4 due to the charges on the surface of the
entire cavity is
 𝜋
E4 =∫ 𝑑𝐸 4
0
Clausius-Mossotti equation
Clausius-Mossotti relation connects the relative permittivity εr of a dielectric to
the polarizability α of the atoms or molecules constituting the dielectric. The
relative permittivity is a bulk (macroscopic) property and polarizability is a
microscopic property of matter; hence the relation bridges the gap between a
directly-observable macroscopic property with a microscopic molecular property.
This is Clausius – Mossotti relation, relates the dielectric constant and
polarizability of atoms in a dielectric material.
 Dielectrics (32 symmetry classes)

11 Centro symmetric 20 Non - Centro symmetric

+1 Centro symmetric (Piezoelectric)
(in combination)

10 Polar axis 10 No Polar axis

(Pyroelectric) (Non - Pyroelectric)

Hysteresis Non - Hysteresis

(Ferroelectric) (Non - Ferroelectric)
Ferroelectrics
Ferro-electrics are the materials which exhibit spontaneous polarization, i.e. they
exhibit polarization even in the absence of external electric field.
Examples: Rochelle salt, Potassium niobate, Lithium tentalate, Ammonium
dihydrogen phosphate, Potassium dihydrogen phosphate, Barium titanate.
Properties
 

 The dielectric constant of Ferroelectric materials is very high and is of the

order of 1000 to 10,000.
 The dielectric constant(ε) changes with temperature according to Curie-Weiss
law.
ε = (T>Tc)
where C is called the Curie constant
and Tc is the Curie temperature.
 Ferro-electric materials posses spontaneous
polarization within a definite temperature
range and up to the Curie temperature Tc, the
variation is as shown in the below figure.

 The polarization does not varies linearly

with respect to electric field and hence these
materials are also called as non-linear
dielectrics.
 Ferro-electric materials also exhibit
hysteresis, similar to that of ferromagnetic
materials.
 Piezoelectrics

 Piezoelectrics are the materials which acquires electric polarization due to external mechanical
pressure. This property of materials is called Piezo-electricity.
 This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and also electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
 According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric field is applied, the material becomes
strained. This strain is directly proportional to the applied field. That is when voltage is applied on
two opposite surfaces of a piezoelectric material shows expansion or contraction.
Examples: Quartz crystal, Rochelle salt etc.
 ‘Piezo electric materials or piezo electric semiconductors such as GaS, ZnO and CdS are finding
applications in ultrasonic amplifiers’.
Pyroelectrics
  Pyroelectrics are the materials which acquire electric
polarization due to thermal energy applied externally.
This property of materials is called pyro-electricity.
The pyroelectric coefficient λ is defined as the change
in polarization per unit temperature change of the
specimen.
λ=

Applications of pyroelectric materials:

 The pyro electric materials such as BaTiO3, LiNiBO3 etc. are used to
make very good infrared detectors which can operate at room
temperature.
 Materials such as TGS, NaNO2 and PZT ceramics are used in the
construction of pyroelectric image tubes.
Applications of Dielectrics
Dielectrics are widely used in fields of industry, medicine, engineering, research
etc.
Dielectrics as insulators:
• Electric conductors made up of aluminum or copper which are used for electric
wiring are insulated with outer jacket of plastic or rubber.
• In heater coils ceramic beads are used to avoid short circuiting as well as to
insulate the outer body from electric current.
• In electric iron, mica or asbestos insulation is provided to prevent the flow of
electric current to the outer body of the iron.
• In transformers as well as in motor and generator windings
varnished cotton is used as insulator.
• In electricity distribution lines, porcelain structures are used as
insulators between points of different potential.
Dielectrics in capacitors:
Depending on the application and type of dielectric used, the capacitor
may be grouped into the following four categories:
• Capacitors with vacuum, air, or inert gas as dielectrics: In this type of
capacitors dielectric losses are very less. The value of the capacitance is
not very large. Therefore there are used in radio frequency circuits and
in low frequency measuring circuits.
• Capacitors with mineral oils as dielectrics: In this type of capacitors
dielectric losses are not very small. The value of the capacitances are
very large. Hence these are used in high voltage applications.
• Capacitors with solids as dielectrics: Glass mica etc. are used in these
capacitors. This type of capacitors are used in laboratories as standard
capacitors. They have high value of dielectric constant and high
insulator resistance. The dielectric constant does not vary with
temperature.
• Capacitors with both solid and liquid dielectrics: In this type of
capacitors, combination of solids such as papers, films of synthetic
materials, glass, mica etc. and liquids such as mineral oil, castor oil,
silicon oil etc. are used. These capacitors provide high value of
capacitance. These are very useful for power factor correction in
electric power distribution systems.
Applications Piezo electric materials:
• Single crystal of quartz is very widely used for filter, resonator and
delay line applications.
• Rochelle salt is used as transducer in gramophone pick-ups, ear
phones, hearing aids, microphones etc.
• The commercial ceramic materials are based on barium titanate, lead
zirconate and lead titanate. They are used for high voltage generation
(gas lighters), accelerometers, transducers etc.
• Piezo electric semiconductors such as GaS, ZnO, and CdS are finding
applications as ampilifiers of ultrasonic waves.
• Piezoelectric ceramics used to detect fault detection, internal
cracks in solid bodies like bars, rods, plates etc. using ultrasounds
• Piezoelectric ceramics used in generation and reception of sound
waves used in ultrasonic cleaners, SONAR and under water detectors.
Applications of Ferro electric materials:
• Ferro electric materials exhibit piezo electricity and pyro electricity. Making
use of piezo electric property, ferroelectric materials such as quartz, lithium
niobate, barium titanate, lead zirconium titanate, calcium barium titanate and
barium niobate are used to make pressure transducer, ultrasonic transducers
and micro phones.
• BaTiO3 based Ferro electric ceramics are used in the manufacture of
capacitors to store electric charge in electrical/electronic circuitry.
• Ferroelectric memories - Ferroelectric materials polarize on cooling below Tc.
Data is stored by localized polarization switching in the microscopic regions
of ferroelectric thin film in FRAMs.

• Ferro electric semiconductors such as BaTiO3-SrTiO3, BaTiO3-PbTiO3 and

SrTiO3-PbTiO3 are used to make posistors. Posistors are used to measure and
control temperature.
 • Generation of ultrasonic waves – Piezoelectric crystals provide a
coupling between electric and mechanical forces hence used as
transducers to detect electrical or mechanical signals.
• Vibratos – when an alternating voltage is applied across a
piezoelectric element, it vibrates at particular frequency it resonates.
Applications of Pyroelectric materials

Heat sensors
Very small changes in temperature can produce a pyroelectric
potential. Passive infrared sensors are often designed around pyroelectric
materials, as the heat of a human or animal from several feet away is
enough to generate a voltage.
Infrared Thermometers
The infrared thermometers or
pyrometers are used for non-contact
temperature measurements. They are
used for temperature measurement in
the areas where physical contact is not
possible. Such as moving objects,
extremely heated substances, etc.
Laser Energy Sensors
Pyroelectric sensors are most commonly
used sensor type, for measuring the Power
and Energy of Lasers. 
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Contents
Magnetization
Field intensity
Magnetic field induction
Permeability and susceptibility
Bohr Magneton
Classification of magnetic materials on the basis of
Magnetic moment
Hysteresis curve based on domain theory
Soft and hard magnetic materials
Applications of magnetic materials
Introduction
 Magnetism is a property of materials by which materials bring either
attraction or repulsive forces on other substances.
 Magnetic material: A material which gets magnetized under the application
of magnetic field.
 Magnetism arises from the Magnetic Moment (μ) or Magnetic dipole of
Magnetic Materials.
 When the electrons revolves around the nucleus Orbital magnetic moment
arises, similarly when the electron spins, spin Magnetic moment arises.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Magnetic Dipole A system in which two equal and opposite magnetic poles
separated by a distance is called as a Magnetic dipole.
Magnetic Moment (µm) In case of a bar magnet is defined as the product of
pole strength (m) and the distance (2l) between them. µm = 2l * m

In case of atom, it is the product of current (i) developed by orbital motion of

electron and the area covered by the orbit (A), i.e., µm = i*A
In case of current carrying conductor, it is the product of current (i) and cross
section area (A) of the conductor. µm = i*A
It is a vector quantity. Its direction is from south pole to the north pole.
Its SI unit is A m2 .
 Magnetic flux (ϕ): The number of magnetic lines of force passing through a
point is called magnetic flux. Units: weber

 Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux density (B): The magnetic induction

or magnetic flux density is the number of lines of magnetic force passing
through unit area perpendicularly. Where Φ is the magnetic flux and A is the
area of cross section. Units: Weber/m2 or Tesla. B=
 Magnetic Field Intensity( H) or Magnetizing field:
Magnetic Field Intensity at any point in the magnetic field is the force experienced
by a unit north pole placed at that point. It is a vector quantity. Units: A/m.
H=

The magnetic induction B due to a magnetic field of intensity H applied in vacuum is

given by
B= µo H
Where, µo = permeability of free space (vacuum)
µo = 4πx10 - 7 Henry/meter
If the field is applied in a medium then the magnetic induction in the solid is given
by B= µH
where µ = Permeability of the material through which the magnetic lines of force
pass.
Magnetic Permeability (µ): It is the ease with which the material allows magnetic
lines of force to pass through it or the degree to which magnetic field can penetrate
a given medium. Mathematically it is equal to the ratio of magnetic induction B
inside a material to the applied magnetic field intensity H. Units: H/m. µ = B/H

Relative Permeability (µ r ) :
It is the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space
µ r = µ/µo
µr is only a number and has no units. Its value for air or vacuum is equal to unity.
Thus, µr = 1.
Magnetization: Process of converting a nonmagnetic material into Magnetic
sample.
Intensity of Magnetization (M): It is a material property. It is defined as magnetic
moment per unit volume in a material. Units: A/m.
M= µm /V A/m
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ):
It is the measure of the ease with which the material can be magnetized.
It is the ratio of intensity of magnetization produced in the sample to the
magnetic field intensity. No units.
χ = M/H -------- (1)
 
Relationship between B and H: When a material is kept in a magnetic field,
two types of induction arises, one due to magnetizing field, H and the other
as a consequence of the magnetization, M of the material itself. The
magnetic induction, B, produced inside the material is given by
B= µo (H+M) -------- (2)
Where µo is known as permeability of free space.
It’s value is µo = 4πx10 - 7 Henry/meter
If the field is applied in a medium then the magnetic induction in the solid is
given by, from (1) and (2)
B= µo (1+χ) H ------- (3)
B= µH ------- (4)
where µ = Permeability of the material through which the magnetic lines of
force pass. In case of free space, M = 0 and eq. (2) reduces to
B= µo H
Relation between µr and χ:
We know from equations (3) and (4)
B= µo (1+χ) H and B= µH
then µ = µo (1 + χ)
µr = (1 + χ) using µr = µ/µo
the above equation relates permeability and susceptibility of the
Origin of Magnetic Moment
The permanent Magnetic Moments can arise due to the
1. The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons µo
2. The spin magnetic moment of the electrons µs, and
3. The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus µns
µ = µo + µs + µns

The orbital motion of the electron produces a magnetic field with a

direction dependent on the quantum number ml
The spin of the electron produces a magnetic field with a direction dependent
on the quantum number ms.
CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 By the application of magnetic field some materials will not show
any effect that are called nonmagnetic materials and those which
show some effects are called magnetic materials.
 All magnetic materials magnetized in the presence of external magnetic
field.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Diamagnetism:
 The number of orientations of electronic orbits in an atom be such that vector sum
of magnetic moment μo is zero
 Similarly all the spin moments are almost paired i.e. they have even number of
electrons and has equal number of electrons spinning in two opposite directions as
shown below. i.e. μs=0

Hence the net magnetic moment in the diamagnetic material is zero.

 The external field will cause a rotation action on the individual electronic orbits this
produces an induced magnetic moment which is in the direction opposite to the field and
hence tends to decrease the magnetic induction present in the substance.
 Thus the diamagnetism is the phenomena by which the induced magnetic moment is
always in the opposite direction of the applied field.
Properties of diamagnetic
materials:
 
 Diamagnetic material gets magnetized in a direction
opposite to the magnetic field.
Para magnetism:
 
 In case of paramagnetic materials, the spins in the two opposite directions will not
be equal. There exist some unpaired electrons which give raise to spin magnetic
moments. Hence the resultant magnetic moment will not be equal to zero.
 The number of orientations of orbital and spin magnetic moments be such that the
vector sum of magnetic moment is not zero and there is a resultant magnetic moment
in each atom even in the absence of applied field.
 The net magnetic moments of the atoms are arranged in random directions because of
thermal fluctuations, in the absence of external magnetic field. Hence there is no
magnetization.
 If we apply the external magnetic field there is an enormous magnetic moment along
the field direction and the magnetic induction will be increase. Thus induced
magnetism is the source of par magnetism.
Properties of paramagnetic
materials:
 
 Paramagnetic materials get magnetized in the
direction of the magnetic field.
 Ferromagnetism:
 Ferromagnetism arises when the magnetic
moments of adjacent atoms are arranged in a
regular order i.e all pointing in the same
direction.
Properties of ferromagnetic
materials:
 
 In ferromagnetic materials, large magnetization occurs
in the direction of the field.
Induced Dipole Moment (M) is a Induced Dipole Moment Induced Dipole Moment
Small – ve value. (M) is a small + ve value. (M) is a large + ve value.
Intensity of Intensity of Magnetisation Intensity of Magnetisation
Magnetisation (I) has a (I) has a small + ve value. (I) has a large + ve value.
small – ve value.

Magnetic permeability Magnetic permeability μ Magnetic permeability μ

μ is always less than is more than unity. is large i.e. much more
unity. than unity.

Magnetic susceptibility χ Magnetic susceptibility χ Magnetic susceptibility χ

has a small – ve value. has a small + ve value. has a large + ve value.

They do not obey They obey Curie’s Law. They obey Curie’s Law. At
Curie’s Law. i.e. their They lose their magnetic a certain temperature called
properties do not change properties with rise in Curie Point, they lose
with temperature. temperature. Ferromagnetic properties and
Behave like paramagnetic substances.
Dia magnetic materials do not
obey Curie’s Law.
Antiferro magnetic materials
The materials with antiparallel magnetic moments are known as antiferromagnetic materials and their magnetic
moments are shown in the figure.
Properties:
1. Susceptibility is small and positive for these materials.
2. Spin alignment is systematic, but in anti parallel manner.
3. Initially, the susceptibility increases slightly as the temperature increases, and beyond a particular
temperature known as Neel temperature the susceptibility decreases with temperature.
4. The temperature above which anti ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material is known as
Neel`s temperature.
5. Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature. The variation of susceptibility with temperature
is expressed as

where ‘c’ is the curie constant and the 𝑇𝑁 is Neel temperature.

Ex: FeO, MnO, Cr2O3
Ferrimagnetic materials
The substances which consists of antiparallel magnetic moments of different
magnitudes are known as Ferrimagnetic substances.
The Curie temperature, or Curie point, is the temperature above which certain
materials lose their permanent magnetic properties, which can be replaced by
induced magnetism.

Properties:
1. Susceptibility is positive and very large for these materials.
2. Spin alignment is systematic, but in anti parallel of different magnitudes.
3. Ferrimagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.
4. Above curie temperature becomes paramagnetic while below it behaves as
ferrimagnetic material.
5. Ferrimagnetic domains become magnetic bubbles to act as memory
elements.
6. Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature.
The variation of susceptibility with temperature is

Where, C is curie constant and 𝑇𝑁 is Neel temperature.

7. Ferrites are the best examples of ferrimagnetic materials.
8. General formula of ferrites are Me2+OFe2O3 or Me2+OFe2O4
Examples: Zn2+Fe2O4, Cu Fe2O4.......
 Domain theory of ferromagnetism:
 According to Weiss, the specimen of ferromagnetic material having
number regions or domains which are spontaneously magnetized. In
each domain spontaneous magnetization is due to parallel alignment of
all magnetic dipoles.
 The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to domain.
 The resultant magnetization may hence be zero or nearly zero.
 When an external field is applied there are two possible ways for the
alignment of domains.
By motion of domain walls: The volume of domains that are favorably
oriented with respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost of those that
are unfavorably oriented.
By rotation of domains: when the applied magnetic field is strong, rotation of
the direction of magnetization occurs in the direction of the field.
Hysteresis
 Hysteresis
It means retardation. [or] Lagging of an effect behind the cause of the effect [or] The
phenomenon of B lagging H. [or] It is also defined as a phenomenon of flux density (B)
with the change in magnetic field strength (H) in a ferromagnetic material.

Explanation: When the magnetic field H is applied

on an un magnetized ferromagnetic material the
magnetic induction increases first rapidly and then
slowly from o to a. The increase is non linear, after
that the rate of induction slows down and attaining
a saturation value Bsat, with further increase in H ,
there is no increase in B.If applied magnetic field H
on the material is decreased at this stage, naturally
B decreases and B will not travel in that initial path,
creates a new path.
When H is reduced to zero, B does not vanish , the value of B that
remains in the material is called as retentivity Br or reduce
magnetization. To remove retentivity in the material sufficient
negative magnetic field –Hc or Hc is applied in opposite direction
then the retentivity Br becomes zero .This is (field) known as
coerceive field. On increasing H further B reaches saturation in the
opposite direction denoted by ’c’. Then reducing H to zero B
reaches ‘d’ and then increasing H in the positive direction B reaches
again to Bsat and a curve is obtained. This completes a closed loop
called hysteresis loop. It includes some area. This area indicates the
amount of energy wasted in one cycle of operation.
• The complete cycle of operation is discussed as follows:
• When the magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic material the magnetization increases slowly and
reaches a constant Ms called saturation magnetization
• In fig. from point O to A, the displacement of domain walls takes place. When the field is suddenly
off, the domains again go for original position.
• From point A to B, as the field is further increased, the magnetization also increases. Here when the
field is made off the domain displacement does not return back to original condition.
• For higher fields the magnetization reaches maximum ie saturation magnetization Ms due to rotation
of domain walls.
• In this case at the region B to P, if the field is suddenly made off, the domains does not return back to
original direction. But there is some magnetic field remained inside the specimen.
• The point Ms is called saturation of magnetization. When the field is off, the curve does not go back to
‘O’[as shown in fig] but creates a new path to a point Mr called “retentivity” (or) residual (or)
remanence Magnetization
• To reduce the residual magnetism to zero, a negative field ‘Hc’ has to be applied. When the sufficient
negative field is applied, the residual; magnetization becomes zero and this field is known as “negative
coercive field” (-Hc) or coercively. Further again if the negative field is applied then magnetization
increases but in negative direction. This is known as negative saturation magnetization (-Ms).
• If the negative field is decreased back to zero the negative saturation of
magnetization will not reach the initial path at ‘0’ but creates a new path and reaches
a point called negative residual magnetism ‘-Mr’ know as negative receptivity.
• To decrease the negative residual magnetism to zero some positive field is applied.
The amount of magnetic field required to bring residual magnetization to zero is
known as positive coercive field (Hc). Further the increase of positive magnetic field
the magnetization reaches again to positive saturation (Ms) and this is a cyclic
process.
• The final conclusion is that when the magnetization vector is started from origin ‘O’
will not reach back to that point. “The magnetization lags behind H”. This is called
magnetic hysteresis loss measured in the area of the loop (or) curve. If the loop area
of a ferromagnetic material is large, more energy is wasted. This is also called as
“dielectric loss” for one complete cyclic operation.
 Hard and Soft magnetic materials:
 
 The process of magnetization of a Ferro or Ferri magnetic material
consist of moving domains walls so that favorably oriented domains grow
and shrink. If the domain walls are easy to move and coercive field is low
and the material is easy to magnetize. Such a material is called soft
magnetic material.
 If it is difficult to move the domain walls, the coercive field is large then
the material is magnetically hard .These are called hard magnetic
material.
Applications of Magnetic Materials:
1) Magnetic recording.
2) Magnetic memories Ferrite core memories and bubble memories.
3) Permanent magnets and electromagnets
4) Microwave ferrites – microwave ferrites are those ferrites which are used in
the frequency range 1 to 500GHz.
5) When a plane polarized electromagnetic wave travels through a ferrite kept
in a magnet field, the plane polarization of the wave rotates along the applied
magnetic field direction. This is known as Faraday rotation.
6) For the production of Magnetic ceramics.
 Magnetic are used to operate such things as electrical motors, generators, and transformers
 Much of the data storage technology (computer hard disk..etc) is based on magnetic properties.
 Magnetic properties are also used in loudspeakers, telephones, CD players , TV, and Video recorders
 Can also be viewed as magnetic materials
 Magnetic materials are such as iron oxide are used to bind DNA molecules cells and proteins

Ferro magnetic materials : Materials are used in magnetic recording devices such as for cassette tapes,
floppy discs for computers and the magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards
Diamagnetic materials are used for a magnetic levitation where an object will be made to float in are
above a strong magnet.
 
Soft magnetic materials:
i) soft magnetic materials are mainly used in electromagnetic machinery and transformer cores
ii) They are also used in switching circuits microwave isolators and matrix storage of computers
 
Hard magnetic materials:
iii) Used in the production of magnets which are used in magnetic detect-ors, microphones, flux meters,
voltage regulators , damping devices and magnetic separators