Dielectrics

Dielectric Materials

• Dielectric materials are also called as insulators.

• In dielectric materials, all the electrons are tightly bound to their parent molecules
and there are no free charges. In addition, the forbidden energy band gap (e.g.) for
dielectric materials is more than 3eV.
• Not possible for the electrons in the valence band to excite to the conduction band,
by crossing the energy gap, even with normal voltage or thermal energy.
• Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance and negative
temperature coefficient of resistance

•Examples: Mica, Asbestos, ceramics, glass, Resins, plastic, water & polar molecules…,
nitrogen, hydrogen etc.
Dipole: A dipole is an entity in which equal positive and negative
charges are separated by a small distance..

DIPOLE moment (µele ):The product of magnitude of either of the

charges and separation distance between them is called Dipole
moment.
µe = q . x  C.m
All dielectrics are electrical insulators and they are mainly used to store
electrical energy.
q -q
X
 Polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is
called polarization in dielectrics.

Polarizability:

The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is called

Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the
electric field.

E
  E
  polarizability constant
Polarization

 Consider an atom. We know that it is electrically neutral.

Furthermore, the centre of the negative charge of the electrons
coincides with the positive nuclear charge, which means that the atom
has no net dipole moment.
 However, when this atom is placed in an external electric field, the
centre of the positive charge is displaced along the field direction while
the centre of the negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction.
 When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field, such
dipoles are created in all the atoms inside.
Polarization :
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material is called polarization.

q x i i
P i 1
V
Electric flux Density (D):
Electric flux density is defined as charge per unit area and it has
same units of dielectric polarization.
Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of
Electric field strength is

D0   0 E - -  (1)

At the same point in a medium is given by

D  E - -  (2)
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising
from the presence of material as compared to free space

i.e, D   0 E  P - -  (3)
 Using equations 2 & 3 we get

E   0 E  P
( -  0 ) E  P
(or) ( r . 0 -  0 ) E  P
( r  1) 0 .E  P
Electric susceptibility:

The polarization vector P is proportional to the total

electric flux density and direction of electric field.
Therefore the polarization vector can be written

P  0eE
P
e 
0E
 0 ( r  1) E

0E
e  r 1
 Various Polarization mechanisms in Dielectrics

Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under the action

of the external electric field. Several microscopic mechanisms are responsible
for electric polarization.

Four types of microscopic polarization mechanisms:

Electronic polarization
Ionic polarization
Orientation polarization
Space-charge polarization.
Electronic Polarization:
When an electric field is applied to an atom, +vely charged
nucleus displaces in the direction of field and ẽ cloud in
opposite direction. This kind of displacement will produce an
electric dipole with in the atom.
i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field
strength and is given by

 e E
or
e   eE
where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability constant
 Nucleus Displaced
Nucleus
Equilibrium
position

x
Sphere of electronic +Ze -Ze Field direction
charge Original Position

Fig. (a) Position of +ve and –ve charges in an atom without field (b)
Position of +ve and –ve charges in an atom with field
 ii. Ionic Polarization

Ionic polarization arises due to the displacement of -ve ions and +

ve ions in opposite directions and it occurs in ionic solids, in the
presence of electric field. The displacement is independent of
temperature. Example : NaCl crystal
iii. Orientation Polarization

The orientation polarization arises due to the presence of polar

molecule in the dielectric medium.

Fig. (a) Without electric field (b) With electric field

 Space-Charge Polarization

The space-charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions,

along the field direction, thereby giving rise to redistribution of charges in
the dielectrics

Fig. (a) Without electric field (b) With electric field

 Ferroelectricity
Development of spontaneous polarization in absence of an
electric field is known as Ferroelectricity. Ferroelectrics are
those dielectric materials which can exhibit “spontaneous”
electric polarization. This polarization can be reversed by
applying a suitable electric field.

This process is known as “switching”, and is followed by “hysteresis”.

Ferroelectrics are electrical analogues of “ferromagnetics” (P-E and M-H

relations).
Ferroelectricity:

• Ferroelectric crystals exhibit spontaneous polarization

i.e. electric polarization without electric field.
• Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric constant.
• Each unit cell of a Ferroelectric crystal carries
a reversible electric dipole moment.

Examples: Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) , Sodium nitrate

(NaNO3) ,Rochelle salt etc..
 Ferroelectric Ceramics

Spontaneous polarization in BaTiO3

BaTiO3 -- ferroelectric below

its Curie temperature (120ºC)

Fig. 18.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.
17
Problem
Calculate the polarization of BaTiO3 crystal from the following data:

The shift of titanium ion from the body centre = 0.06 Å

The shift of oxygen anion from face centre (side faces) = 0.06 Å
The shift of oxygen anion from face centre (top and bottom faces) = 0.08 Å
 Ferroelectric Hysteresis Loop
D

Starting from very small E-field  Linear P-E relationship (OA)

E  leads to domain re-alignment in the positive direction along E
rapid increase in P (OB) until it reaches the saturation value (P sat)
E  results in  P, but NOT all to Zero P as E = 0 (BD) because some domains remain aligned in positive
direction
 OD Remanent Polarization (Pr) 
Certain opposite E is needed to completely depolarize the domain  Coercive Field (Ec)
As E  in negative direction  direction of domains flip
Þ Hysteresis Loop 
Þ Spontaneous Polarization (Ps) is obtained through extrapolation 
Domain Movement
 Piezoelectricity
• Discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie
during studies into the effect of pressure on the
generation of electrical charge by crystals (such
as quartz).
• Piezoelectricity is defined as a change in
electric polarization with a change in applied
stress (direct piezoelectric effect).
• The converse piezoelectric effect is the change
of strain or stress in a material due to an
applied electric field.
 Piezo-electricity
The process of creating electric polarization by mechanical stress
is called as piezo electric effect.

This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy into

electrical energy and also electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric stress

is applied, the material becomes strained. This strain is directly
proportional to the applied field.

Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc.,

Piezo electric materials or peizo electric semiconductors such as

GaAs, CdS have extensive applications in various fields of
science and technology.
 Direct Piezoelectric Effect

Piezoelectric Material will generate electric

potential when subjected to some kind of
mechanical stress.
The direct Effect : Generator
• Compression
F
Effect: Decrease in volume
and it has a voltage with the
same polarity as the material

• Tension
F
Effect: Increase in volume
and it has a voltage with
opposite polarity as the
material
 Inverse Piezoelectric Effect

If the piezoelectric material is exposed to an

electric field (voltage) it consequently
lengthens or shortens proportional to the
voltage.
The Inverse Piezoelectric Effect

• If the applied voltage has

the same polarity then the
material expands.

• If the applied voltage has

the opposite polarity then
the material contracts.
 How are piezoelectric
ceramics made?
• A traditional piezoelectric ceramic is
perovskite crystal, each consisting of a
small, tetravalent metal ion, usually
titanium or zirconium, in a lattice of
larger, divalent metal ions, usually lead
or barium, and O2- ions.
• Under conditions that confer
tetragonal or rhombohedral symmetry
on the crystals, each crystal has a
dipole moment.
 Crystal Structure and Dipole
Moments

• A traditional piezoelectric ceramic is a

mass of perovskite crystals. Each crystal
consists of a small tetravalent metal ion,
usually titanium or zirconium, in a lattice
of larger divalent metal ions, usually lead
or barium, and O2- ions
• At temperatures below the Curie point,
however, each crystal has tetragonal or
rhombohedral symmetry and a dipole
moment. Above the Curie point each
perovskite crystal in the fired ceramic
element exhibits a cubic symmetry with
no dipole moment.
 Polarization of piezoelectric
• Above a critical temperature, the Curie point, each perovskite
crystal exhibits a simple cubic symmetry with no dipole
moment.
• At temperatures below the Curie point, however, each crystal
has tetragonal or rhombohedral symmetry and a dipole
moment.
• Adjoining dipoles form regions of local alignment called
domains.
• The alignment gives a net dipole moment to the domain, and
thus a net polarization.
• The direction of polarization among neighboring domains is
random, however, so the ceramic element has no overall
polarization.
 Polarization of piezoelectric
• The domains in a ceramic element are aligned by exposing the
element to a strong, direct current electric field, usually at a
temperature slightly below the Curie point.
• Through this polarizing (poling) treatment, domains most nearly
aligned with the electric field expand at the expense of domains
that are not aligned with the field, and the element lengthens in
the direction of the field.
• When the electric field is removed most of the dipoles are locked
into a configuration of near alignment.
• The element now has a permanent polarization, the remanent
polarization, and is permanently elongated.
 Polarizing Piezoelectric Material
• Adjoining dipoles form regions of local alignment called domains. The
alignment gives a net dipole moment to the domain, and thus a net
polarization. The direction of polarization among neighboring domains is
random, however, so the ceramic element has no overall polarization.
• The domains in a ceramic element are aligned by exposing the element to
a strong, direct current electric field, usually at a temperature slightly
below the Curie point
• When the electric field is removed most of the dipoles are locked into a
configuration of near alignment
Electric dipoles in Weiss
domains; (1) unpoled
ferroelectric ceramic,
(2) during and (3) after
poling (piezoelectric
ceramic)
 Types of Piezoelectric Materials
• Naturally occurring crystals:
Berlinite (AlPO4), cane sugar, Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline
Group Minerals, and dry bone (apatite crystals)

• Man-made crystals:
Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14)

• Man-made ceramics:
Barium titanate (BaTiO3), Lead titanate (PbTiO3), Lead zirconate titanate
(Pb[ZrxTi1-x]O3 0<x<1) - More commonly known as PZT, Potassium
niobate (KNbO3), Lithium niobate (LiNbO3), Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3),
Sodium tungstate (NaxWO3), Ba2NaNb5O5, Pb2KNb5O15

• Polymers:
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
 Piezo Materials
• Some examples of practical piezo materials
are barium titanate, lithium niobate,
polyvinyledene difluoride (PVDF), and lead
zirconate titanate (PZT). 

• There are several different formulations of

the PZT compound, each with different
electromechanical properties.
 Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity
– application of stress induces voltage
– application of voltage induces dimensional change

stress-free with applied

stress
Adapted from Fig. 18.36, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.36 from Van Vlack, Lawrence H., Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering, 1989, p.482, Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.)
35
Numerical problems on piezoelectricity
 Piezoelectric ceramics- applications

• The principle is adapted to piezoelectric motors, sound or

ultrasound generating devices, and many other products.

• Generator action is used in fuel-igniting devices, solid state

batteries, and other products;

• Motor action is adapted to piezoelectric motors, sound or

ultrasound generating devices, and many other products.
 What can piezoelectric ceramics do?
• Mechanical compression or tension on a poled piezoelectric ceramic element
changes the dipole moment, creating a voltage.
• Compression along the direction of polarization, or tension perpendicular to
the direction of polarization, generates voltage of the same polarity as the
poling voltage.

Generator and motor actions of a piezoelectric element

 Sonic and Ultrasonic Applications
• Sonar with Ultrasonic time-
domain reflectometers
• Materials testing to detect
flaws inside cast metals and
stone objects as well as
measure elasticity or
viscosity in gases and liquids
• Compact sensitive
microphones and guitar
pickups.
• Loudspeakers
 Pressure Applications
• Transient pressure measurement to study
explosives, internal combustion engines
(knock sensors), and any other vibrations,
accelerations, or impacts.
• Piezoelectric microbalances are used as
very sensitive chemical and biological
sensors.
• Transducers are used in electronic drum
pads to detect the impact of the
drummer's sticks.
• Energy Harvesting from impact on the
ground
• Atomic force and scanning tunneling
microscopes.
• Electric igniters and cigarette lighters
Consumer Electronics Applications
• Quartz crystals resonators as
frequency stabilizers for
oscillators in all computers.
• Phonograph pick-ups
• Accelerometers: In a
piezoelectric accelerometer a
mass is attached to a spring that
is attached to a piezoelectric
crystal. When subjected to
vibration the mass compresses
and stretches the piezo electric
crystal. (iPhone)
Motor Applications

• Piezoelectric elements can be used in

laser mirror alignment, where their
ability to move a large mass (the
mirror mount) over microscopic
distances is exploited. By
electronically vibrating the mirror it
gives the light reflected off it a
Doppler shift to fine tune the laser's
frequency.
• The piezo motor is viewed as a high-
precision replacement for the
stepper motor.
• Traveling-wave motors used for auto-
focus in cameras.