Unit-V

DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES
 Electric Dipole, Dipole Moment, Dielectric Constant,
Electric Susceptibility, Electronic and Ionic polarizabilities;
Orientation Polarization(qualitative), Internal fields in
Solids, Clausius-Mossotti equation, Frequency and
temperature effect on Dielectrics(qualitative), Piezo-
electricity, Pyro-electricity and Ferro- electricity,
Applications.
Introduction:
Dielectrics are insulating materials which do not contain free electrons
or the number of such electrons is too low to constitute the electric current.
The electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus of the atom in dielectrics.
Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permanently.
All dielectrics are electrical insulators and they are
mainly used to store electrical energy.
Ex: Mica, glass, plastic, water & polar molecules…

Insulating materials: Mica, Ceramics, Asbestos, Rubber,

PVC materials, transformer oil, vegetable oils, vaseline,
air, nitrogen, suphur hexafluoride
Electric Dipole:
A system of two equal and opposite charges separated
by a distance is called electric dipole.

+q -q
d
Dipole Moment(µ): The product of charge and distance
between two charges is called dipole moment.
µ = qd Units: Coulomb-meter or Debye
Permittivity(ε): Permittivity is a quantity which represents the
dielectric property of a medium. Permittivity of a material
indicates the easily polarizable nature of the material.
For Vacuum or free space, ε0=8.854X10-12F/m
Dielectric Constant(εr):
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium
is defined as the ratio between the permittivity of that medium
and the permittivity of free space.
 c
r  
0 c0

The characteristics of a dielectric material are determined by

the dielectric constant and it has no units.
 where ‘ε’ is permittivity of the medium, ‘ε0’ is
permittivity of the free space, ‘c’ is capacitance of a
capacitor with dielectric and ‘c0’ is the capacitance
of a capacitor without dielectric.
• Capacitance(c): The property of a conductor that
describes its ability to store electric charge is called
capacitance and is given by
q A
c 
V d

where ‘c’ is capacitance of the capacitor, ‘q’ is charge

on the capacitor plates, ‘V’ is potential difference
between the plates, ‘A’ is area of a capacitor plate, ‘ε’ is
permittivity of the medium and ‘d’ is distance between
capacitor plates.
Units: Farad
Electric Polarization:
The process of producing electric dipoles by influence of an
electric field is called electric polarization.
Polarizability(α ):
The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is called
Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment of a system is proportional to the
electric field(E) applied.
Therefore, µ α E
µ=αE
where ‘α’ is Polarizability
α=µ/E
Polarization Vector(P ):
The average dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material is called polarization vector.
P=Nµ=NαE
where ‘N’ is the number of atoms present per unit volume and ‘µ’ is
induced dipole moment.
Electric Flux Density (D):
Electric flux density is defined as charge per unit area
and it has same units of dielectric polarization.
Electric flux density ‘D’ at a point in a free space or air in
terms of Electric field strength is
D0   0E - -  (1)

At the same point in a medium is given by

D E - -  (2)

As the polarization measures the additional flux density

arising from the presence of material as compared to free
space
i.e, D   0 E  P - -  (3)
Using equations 2 & 3 we get

E   0 E  P
( -  0 ) E  P
(or) ( r . 0 -  0 ) E  P
( r  1) 0 E  P
Electric Susceptibility(χe):
The polarization vector P is proportional to the
total electric flux density and is in the same
direction of electric field.
Therefore, the polarization vector can be written
P   0 e E

P
e 
0E
 0 ( r  1) E

0E
e   r 1
Non-Polar molecule:
These molecules posses centre of symmetry. Here the centers of positive
& negative charges coincides. Therefore, the net charge & net dipole
moment of the molecules will be zero and non-polar molecules will not
possess any dipole moment in it.

Ex: N2 , H2 , O2 , CH3 , CO2 etc

Polar molecule:
These molecules will not have centre of symmetry. Here the centers of
positive & negative charges will not coincide and hence it possess a net
dipole moment in it.

Ex: H20 , N20, HCI, NH3 , CO, CH3OH etc

Various polarization processes:
When the specimen is placed inside a electric field,
polarization is due to four types of processes….
1). Electronic polarization
2). Ionic polarization
3). Orientation polarization
4). Space charge polarization.
1). Electronic Polarization
When an Electric field is applied to an atom, +vely charged
nucleus displaces in the direction of field and electron cloud in
opposite direction. This kind of displacement will produce an
electric dipole with in the atom.
i.e., dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field
strength and is given by
 eE
or
e   e E
where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability.
Where αe=4πε0R3 is called electronic Polarizability. Thus ‘αe’
is depending on the volume of the atom and is independent of
2). Ionic Polarization
The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form molecules and it is
mainly due to a relative displacement of the atomic components of the
molecule in the presence of an electric field.

When a Electric Field is applied to the molecule, the positive ions

displaced by x1 to the negative side electric field and negative ions
displaced by x2 to the positive side of field.

The resultant dipole moment µ = e ( x1 + x2)..

 2
e E
 ionic  e( x1  x2 )  m1  M1 
 2
0

ionic e 2
or  ionic    1
 1

E 0 2 m M

 This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz

(IR).
It is a slower process compared to electronic
polarization.
It is independent of temperature.
3). Orientation Polarization
It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The
molecules such as H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc., does not carry
any dipole because centre of positive charge and centre of
negative charge coincides. On the other hand molecules like
CH3Cl, H2O,HCl, ethyl acetate ( polar molecules) carries
dipoles even in the absence of electric field.

No Field With Field

However the net dipole moment is negligibly small since all

the molecular dipoles are oriented randomly when there is no
Electric Field. In the presence of the electric field these all
dipoles orient them selves in the direction of field as a result
the net dipole moment becomes enormous.
It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz
It is slow process compare to ionic polarization.
It greatly depends on temperature.

Expression for orientation polarization:

 N . ori
2
.E
Po  N . ori   N . ori .E
3kT
 2
 ori  ori
3kT

Thus the orientation polarization is inversely

proportional to absolute temperature.
Total Polarization:
Ptotal=Pe+Pi+Po
e 2
 2
   elec   ionic   ori  4 o R 3  2 M1  m1  ori
w0 3kT

This is called Langevin – Debye equation for total

Polarizability in dielectrics.
Different types of Dielectric Materials
Based on the applications we have two types of dielectric materials
1)Active dielectrics (Ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics and pyroelectrics)
2)Passive dielectrics (Electrical insulating materials)

1.Active dielectrics
Active dielectrics are the materials which can be adapted to generate, amplify,
modulate and convert electrical signals. These can store electrical energy.

2. Passive dielectrics
The function of the insulating materials is to obstruct the flow of electric current.

Classification of insulating materials:

Insulating materials are classified into three categories

a) Solid insulating materials: Mica, porcelain, asbestos, backelite, rubber,

pvc, glass, cotton, silk, wood, and ceramics.
b) Liquid insulating materials: Varnish, transformer oil, cable oil, silicon fluids
and fluoro organic fluids
c) Gaseous insulating materials: Air, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens and
sulphar hexa fluoride
Ferroelectricity
Ferroelectricity Materials Hysteresis Loop
In ferroelectric materials, the polarization P does not vary linearly
with electric field E.
Hysteresis curve: The plot of P versus E in which the material is
polarized in one direction and then in opposite direction is called
the hysteresis curve of the specimen.
When a piece of ferroelectric material initially un polarized, is
subjected to a gradually increasing electric field, the polarization P
varies with E.
Remanent polarization or retentivity or remanence: When E
reduces to zero, the material still remained polarized and P has a
certain value.

The polarization remaining in the material when the

polarization field is reduced to zero, is called the remanent
polarization.
The power of a material of retaining this polarization is called
the retentivity or remanence of the material.

 Therefore, the retentivity or remanence of a material is a

measure of the polarization remaining (residual polarization) in
the material when the electric field is totally removed.

Spontaneous Polarization: A material is said to be

spontaneously polarized when electric field E is zero but
polarization P is not zero. This phenomenon is called
spontaneous (by its own) polarization.

Coercivity: The coercivity of a material is a measure of the

strength of the reverse polarising field E required to wipe out the
remanent polarization of the specimen.
 Properties of ferroelectric materials
Ferroelectric materials can be easily polarized even by very
weak electric fields.
They exhibit dielectric hysteresis. Lagging of polarization
behind the applied electric field is called dielectric hysteresis.
Ferro electricity is a result of dielectric hysteresis. Ferroelectric
materials possess spontaneous polarization, which is a
polarization that persists when the applied field is zero
Ferroelectric materials exhibit ferro electricity when the
temperature T< Tc. Where Tc is ferroelectric curie temperature,
when T > Tc , they are converted into Para electric materials.
Ferroelectric materials exhibit Piezo electricity.
Applications:

 Ferroelectric materials can be used to make

capacitors to store electric charge.
 The spontaneous polarization of ferroelectric
materials implies a hysteresis effect which can be
used as a memory function, and ferroelectric
capacitors are indeed used to make ferroelectric
RAM for computers.
 Piezo- electricity:
The process of creating electric polarization by
mechanical stress is called as piezo electric effect.
This process is used in conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy and also electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
According to inverse piezo electric effect, when
an electric stress is applied, the material becomes
strained. This strain is directly proportional to the
applied field.
Examples: Quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc.,
Crystal Oscillators:
Inverse Piezoelectric Effect
A deformation of these materials that
results from the application of an electric
field.

The deformation could lead to either

tensile or compressive strains and stresses
in the material depending upon the
direction of the electric field, the
preferred direction of polarization in the
material, and how the material is
connected to other adjacent structures.

Dr T SREEKANTH
Applications:
 These crystals are used to build transducers.

By using these materials we can construct crystal

microphones, sound pick-ups etc.

 These are used to fabricate ultrasonic generators,

detectors, pressure transducers & in stabilizing radio
frequency oscillations.
 Pyro-electricity:
Pyro-electric effect is the change in spontaneous
polarization when the temperature of the specimen is
changed.

Examples: BaTiO3,LiNibO3,TGS,NaNO2 and

PZT ceramics etc.
Applications:
 The Pyro-electric materials such as BaTiO3,LiNibO3
are used to make very good infra-red detectors which
can operate at room temperature.
 Materials such as NaNO2 and PZT( lead zirconate
titanate) ceramics etc are used in the construction of
Pyro-electric image tubes.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
LCD consist of a cell formed between two glass plates each with an optically transparent
but electrically conductive coating.
The cell has a thickness of about 10 μm or less and is filled with a liquid crystal
material.
What is Liquid crystal state :
Liquid crystal state is a phase of matter exhibited by a large number of organic
materials (4-methoxybenzylidene-4-butylanaline (MBBA)) over a restricted temperature
range.
The material becomes a crystalline solid at the lower end of the temperature range.
It changes into a clear liquid at the upper end of the temperature.
With in this range it combines some of the optical properties of solids with the fluidity
of liquids.
When they are in liquid crystal phase the rod-like shape of their molecules can take up
certain orientations relative both to each other and to the liquid crystal surface.
In any small volume the time averaged preffered orientation of the molecules is
described in terms of a unit vector called a director.
There are 3 basic types of ordering in LCDs.
1.Nematic These two used in display devices
2.Cholesteric
3.Smectic
In Nematic the molecules are aligned parallel and free to move relative to each other
so that the phase has liquid properties.

4-methoxybenzylidene-4-butylanaline (MBBA)

 The MBBA exhibits liquid crystalline property over the

temperature range of 20 to 47 0C.
 In cholesteric phase the molecule arrange in a large
number of planes.
 There is progressive change in the director direction
from plane to plane. Thus director direction shows
helical path through the material.
P
 The distance between planes having the same director
direction is called the pitch P.
 When a nematic liquid crystal material comes into
contact with a solid surface the directors often become
aligned with perpendicular (homotropic) to the surface
or parallel (homogenious) to the surface.
 If the applied field is parallel to, or perpendicular to the molecular axis, they show
different dielectric constants, like εll, ε┴.
 If εll > ε┴, that material is called positive material. If the filed is applied to the this
material molecules align along the filed direction.
 If the filed applied is perpendicular to the surface, homogeneous type of ordering can
be changed into a homotropic type.
 This transition is found to occur above a critical field (E c).
 In twisted nematic cell, the opposite walls of the cell are treated to produce a
homogeneous arrangement but the molecular alignment directions at the walls are at
right angles to each other.
 If the filed across the cell is E>>E c the molecular alignment becomes parallel to the
filed.
Action of LCD devices:
 When it is used as display device , the twisted nematic cell is sandwiched between
two polaroids.
 Polaroid 1 is in front of the LCD cell and polaroid 2 is at its back.
 Beyond 2 polaroid a reflector is placed in reflective mode.
 The polarizing directions of these polaroids correspond to the molecular ordering
direction of the cell walls.
 After light passing through the 1 polaroid, plane polarized light rotates through 90 0
as it traverses the cell.
 When no filed is applied, then passes through the second polarizer which is held
perpendicular to the first and then reflects back at the mirror and the rays retrace
the path.
 When a filed is applied , the direction of polarization of the light travesrsing the
cell is not rotated and hence stop ped by the second polarizer. No light is reflected
back from the device and hence it is appears dark.
consumes least power of all common display devices. LCDs comes under passive
types of display since no light generation is required.
There are two types of basic LCDs available.
1.Reflective type---- requires front illumination
2.Transmissive type---- rear illumination
 Thus with no field applied the device reflects incident radiation and appears bright.
 When the field is applied the direction of polarization of the light traversing the cell
is not rotated and hence stopped by the second polarizer.
 No light is reflected from the device and hence it appears dark. This means that in
the absence of the field the incident light is reflected while it is blocked when the
filed is applied.
Advantages:
It is thin and compact
Low power consumption
Less heat is emitted during operation
Low cost
Disadvantages:
Speed of operation is low
Lifespan is less
Restricted viewing angles
Applications:
Used in digital wrist watch
Display images in digital cameras
Used in numerical counters
Display screen in calculators
Mainly used in television
Used in mobile screens
Used in video players
Used in image sensing circuits