Tutorial 1: Drude Model

Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 DC Drude Model in 2D 2
2.1 Magneto-Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 AC Drude Model 4
3.1 The Beauty of Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Plasma Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1 Introduction
Brain Teaser Allow me to mess with you for a second. Take a piece of conducting
metal and apply a constant voltage to it. This voltage applies a constant force on the
electrons in the metal and since F = ma they are accelerated at a constant rate. Since the
electric current is proportional to the velocity and since the acceleration is non-zero the
current will grow indefinitely. So a constant voltage causes a current that grows linearly
in time, correct?

The Basics of the Drude Model Although the majority of this course approaches
materials on the quantum level we begin with a classical description of a metal. In fact,
the model known as the Drude model, is a statistical description of the movement of
electrons in a conductor, i.e. the electrons are considered as a gas of free particles which
occasionally collide with impurities in the metal. As a result of an external force F~ (t),
the average momentum of an electron, which for simplicity we denote p~(t), is given by

d~p p~(t)
= F~ (t) − , (1)
dt τ
~
where τ is the average time between collisions. The electric current density J(t), so the
~
flow of charge resulting from p~, in the presence of an electric field E(t) is given by the
microscopic Ohm’s law:
2
~ , where σ0 = nq τ .
J~ = σ0 E (2)
m
Here, n is the electron density, q = −e the electron charge and m its mass. The quantity
σ0 is called the conductivity.

1
 Together, Eqs. (1) and (2) define the Drude model. They are connected via
~ = qn~v (t),
J(t) (3)

where ~v = p~/m is the average velocity.

Brain Teaser Solved Note how the introduction of τ in Eq. (1) solves our accelerating
electron problem. For a constant voltage, so F~ (t) = q E
~ is time independent, the solution
to the differential equation is
~
p~(t) = Ae−t/τ + q Eτ, (4)
where the constant A must be determined by initial conditions. If we choose p~(0) = 0 we
~ and hence
get A = −q Eτ
~ 1 − e−t/τ .


p~(t) = q Eτ (5)
We see that for long enough times t  τ , the momentum p~(t) approaches a constant,
namely
~
p~(t → ∞) = q Eτ. (6)
This result may also be obtained by setting d~p/dt = 0 in Eq. (1), which is equivalent to
searching for a steady-state solution (no t-dependence). Also, since τ for a typical metal is
on the order of 10−14 s, the constant value is reached very quickly. On the other hand if τ
were so large that any realistic t would remain t  τ , i.e. if collisions wouldn’t occur, we
would obtain the “classical” result of a linearly accelerating electron. To see this expand
e−t/τ to first order in the small quantity t/τ :
  
~ t ~
p~(t) = q Eτ 1− 1− = q Et (7)
τ

One sees that for τ → ∞, p~(t) ∼ t.

2 DC Drude Model in 2D
2.1 Magneto-Resistance
Statement of the Problem The expression for σ0 in Eq. (2) is true when there is no
magnetic field. Now, consider a metal (filled with free electrons) on which a magnetic
~ = Bz ẑ and an electric field E
field B ~ = Ex x̂ + Ey ŷ are applied. Both fields are constant
and uniform. Find the conductivity in this case.

Drude Equations The force exerted by the fields is

F~ = −eE
~ − e~v × B.
~ (8)

Plugging this into Eq. (1) and looking for a steady state solution1 (d~p/dt = 0) one obtains:
m~v ~ − e~v × B.
~
= −eE (9)
τ
1
Solution of the full time-dependent problem reveals an exponential decay towards the steady state
solution. We note that this decay is due to the collisions while the non-zero steady state is driven by the
electric and magnetic forces.

2
The z-component of this equation is vz = 0 which implies that the average motion is in
the x − y plane. The x and y-components are:

mvx /τ = −eEx − evy Bz Ex = −mvx /eτ − vy Bz

→ . (10)
mvy /τ = −eEy + evx Bz Ey = +vx Bz − mvy /eτ

These are the Drude equations of the system at hand. For later convenience we have
~ components.
eliminated the E

Current Density The conductivity is by definition the proportionality coefficient of J~

~ Therefore Eq. (3) must be used to make the replacement ~v → J~ in Eq. (10):
and E.

Bz
m
Ex = Jy Jx +
e2 nτ
en
Bz m
Ey = − Jx + 2 Jy (11)
en e nτ

Conductivity Tensor This can be written in matrix form as follows:

   m Bz
 
Ex 2 Jx
= e nτ en . (12)
Ey − Benz e2mnτ Jy

We thus see that the addition of a magnetic field, which, note, is perpendicular to the
applied electric field, causes the proportionality factor to be a tensor. This, in fact, is the
~ = ρ̂J.
resistivity tensor ρ̂: E ~ In terms of the cyclotron frequency ωc = eBz /m and σ0 it is
 
1 1 ωc τ
ρ̂ = . (13)
σ0 −ωc τ 1

The conductivity tensor σ̂ is given by its inverse2 :

 
−1 σ0 1 −ωc τ
σ̂ = ρ̂ = . (14)
1 + (ωc τ )2 ωc τ 1

The dependence of the conduction properties on the strength of a magnetic field as found
here is in general called magneto-resistance.

2.2 Hall Effect

Statement of the Problem A voltage is applied to a metal such that the current
J~ = Jx x̂ only flows in the x̂ direction. While the x dimension may be considered infinite,
the y dimension of the metal is w. What is the voltage VH generated by a transverse
magnetic field B ~ = Bz ẑ?

Hall Voltage and Hall Resistance The setup described here is identical to the pre-
vious question with Jy = 0. Eq. (12) thus implies

m Bz
Ex = Jx and Ey = − Jx . (15)
ne2 τ ne
2
Remember: The inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix is given by the transpose divided by the determinant.

3
While the first equation is Jx = σ0 Ex , the second equation holds the physics of the Hall
effect. The x-component of the current (Jx ) and the z-component of the magnetic field
(Bz ) give rise to a current in the ŷ direction. Since the metal is finite in this direction (no
closed loop) a voltage difference will build up between the two edges:
ˆ w
wBz Jx
VH = Ey dy = Ey w = − . (16)
0 en
This is the so-called Hall voltage. One may also define the Hall resistance as the amount
of electric field Ey generated per current Jx and per magnetic field Bz , i.e.

Ey 1
RH = =− . (17)
Jx Bz ne

3 AC Drude Model
Here we deal with the Drude model given a time-dependent force F~ (t) (AC) and explore
how the reaction of the metal differs from the DC case discussed above.

3.1 The Beauty of Frequencies

Before talking about metals, lets consider Maxwell’s equations:

~ = ρ
∇·E (18)
0
~ = 0
∇·B (19)
∂B~
~ = −
∇×E (20)
∂t
~
~ = 0 µ0 ∂ E + µ0 J~
∇×B (21)
∂t

Here, E~ =E ~ (~r, t) and B

~ =B ~ (~r, t) are space- and time-dependent. The fact that spatial
(∇·, ∇×) and temporal (∂/∂t) derivatives appear in Maxwell’s equations means that in
order to know the field at position ~r and time t, one must know the field [and also the
charge ρ (~r, t) and current J~ = J~ (~r, t) density] in its vicinity ~r + d~r (in all directions) and
just before in time (at t − dt). In other words, the field at time t is determined by the
charge and density that were present in the past.
In the frequency domain this becomes much simpler. Taking the Fourier transform
~r → ~k and t → ω, Maxwell’s Equations become

~ = ρ̃
−i~k · Ẽ (22)
0
~ = 0
−i~k · B̃ (23)
~ = iω B̃
−i~k × Ẽ ~ (24)
~ = i µ ω Ẽ
−i~k × B̃ ~ + µ J~˜ (25)
0 0 0

~ = Ẽ~ ~k, ω , depend on ~k and ω. The beauty is that there

 
Know all functions, such as Ẽ
are no more derivatives. In other words, an electric field (or current density or charge

4
density) at a specific frequency ω cannot generate a field at a different frequency! If a
radio antenna is broadcasting at 101 MHz the current running through it has a frequency
of exactly 101 MHz and the radio waves generated are at exactly 101 MHz. No other
frequencies are possible! In the space and time domain on the other hand, the radio wave
that reaches us know was transmitted a minute ago.
In space and time everything mixes. In the frequency domain one may consider each
ω individually.

3.2 Plasma Frequency

Statement of the Problem A time-dependent electric field E(t) ~ is applied to a metal.
~
In virtue of the discussion above we will consider a field with a single frequency E(t) =
~
Ee −iωt
.

a) Use the Drude model to find the equation of motion for p~(t).
~
b) Use the frequency domain equation3 J(ω) ~
= σ(ω)E(ω) to find an expression for the
conductivity σ(ω).

c) From Maxwell’s equations and σ(ω) find an expression for the dielectric coefficient
r (ω). You may assume a uniform material (ρ = const.) and that the oscillation
frequency is much larger than the electron-impurity collision frequency (ω  1/τ ).

d) p
Deduce that r (ω) shows critical behavior at the so-called plasma frequency ωp =
σ0 /0 τ . Characterize its behavior in the different regimes: ω < ωp and ω > ωp .

a) Plugging the force F~ (t) = −eE(t)

~ into Eq. (1) gives

d~p ~ −iωt − p~(t) .

= −eEe (26)
dt τ

b) To go to the frequency domain the equation is Fourier transformed. The simplest

way of doing so is by plugging in p~(t) = p~e−iωt (again, because a force at frequency ω can
only give rise to a reaction at frequency ω):

−iωt ~ −iωt p~e−iωt

− iω~pe = −eEe − . (27)
τ

After canceling e−iωt and using J~ = −en~v = −en~p/m → p~ = −mJ/en

~ we obtain

mJ~ ~ − mJ
~ ne2 τ 1
− iω = −eE → J~ = ~
E. (28)
en enτ m 1 − iωτ
Hence, the frequency domain conductivity is
σ0
σ(ω) = , (29)
1 − iωτ
3
As discussed, the underlying principle of this equation is that different frequencies do not mix. In
the time domain, J(t) and E(t) are related through a much more complicated equation (a convolution
integral) because previous events effect the present.

5
where σ0 was defined in Eq. (2). As can be seen it is a complex number, so as well as an
~
amplitude it also has a phase, implying that the current J(ω) is retarded. This retardation
is quite easy to understand. When the electric field changes the electrons accelerate and
the current changes. Since the material takes some time to react to the change of the
electric field the current is slightly retarded. To clarify: the current depends on time
exactly the same way as the field (same frequency), it just does all changes a little later.

c) To find r (ω) we need to consider Maxwell’s equations. We act with ∇× on Eq. (20).
On the left-hand-side we make use of the identity ∇×(∇× E)~ = ∇(∇· E)−∇
~ 2~
E, Eq. (18)
and the assumption ρ = const. On the right-hand-side, Eq. (21) is plugged in. This leads
to
2~ ~
~ − 1 ∂ E = µ0 ∂ J ,
∇2 E (30)
c2 ∂t2 ∂t
where we have used the speed of light c2 = 1/0 µ0
We have obtained an inhomogeneous wave equation for E. ~ Ultimately, what we want
though is a homogeneous wave equation of the form
1 ∂ 2E~
~−
∇2 E = 0. (31)
v 2 ∂t2
Then, from the factor 1/v 2 = 0 r µ0 = r /c2 (assuming µr = 1) r can be found. We thus
have find a way to incorporate the source term ∂t J~ into the coefficient.
To this end we take the temporal Fourier transform of Eq. (30) and plug in J(ω) ~ =
~
σ(ω)E(ω):
2
 
2~ 1 2~ ~ → ∇E 2 ~+ ω σ ~ = 0.
∇ E + 2 ω E = −iωµ0 σ E 1+i E (32)
c c2 0 ω
On the other hand, the Fourier transform of Eq. (31) is

~+ ω2 ~
∇2 E E = 0. (33)
v2
By comparing the two we find
σ i σ0
r = 1 + i =1+ . (34)
0 ω 0 ω 1 − iωτ
Assuming ωτ  1, the 1 in the denominator is neglected and we obtain
i σ0 ωp2
r = 1 − = 1 − 2. (35)
0 ω iωτ ω

d) To show that the system behaves very differently for ω > ωp and ω < ωp , consider
a plane wave with electric field component E(~ ~ r, t) = E ~ 0 ei~k·~r−iωt , where ω = vk. This
~ r, t) into Eq. (30) or (31). Solving it for
dispersion relation can be verified by plugging E(~
√
k and using v = c/ r as well as Eq. (35), we obtain the expression
r
ω ω ωp2
ω = vk → k = = 1 − 2. (36)
v c ω
Hence, if ω < ωp , k is purely imaginary and the plane wave decays exponentially on a
length scale ∼ 1/|~k|. As long as ω > ωp though, the plane wave can propagate freely.

6
Numerical Example Consider an optical wavelength (400 − 700 nm). If it is incident
on silver, for which ωp ≈ 2.3 THz (corresponds to ∼ 130 nm), the wave cannot exist inside
the material and must therefore be reflected (energy must be conserved). For this reason
silver is used on high-performance mirrors.