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Lecture 2
Waves in Free Space
Waves in Materials
Waves in Bounded Regions
Generation of Electromagnetic Waves
Andy Wolski
University of Liverpool, and the Cockcroft Institute
Maxwell’s Equations
∇·D ~ = ρ, (1)
∇·B~ = 0, (2)
~
∇×E ~ = −∂B , (3)
∂t
~
∇×H ~ = J~ + ∂ D , (4)
∂t
and looked at some applications in accelerators, involving static
(time independent) fields.
In free space, Maxwell’s equations (3) and (4) take the form:
~
∂B
~
∇×E = − , (7)
∂t
~
∇×B ~ = µ0ε0 ∂ E , (8)
∂t
where µ0 and ε0 are respectively the permeability and
permittivity of free space (fundamental physical constants).
~ = − ∂ ∇ × B.
~ − ∇2 E
~ ≡∇ ∇·E
∇×∇×E ~ (9)
∂t
Equation (12)
gives a relationship between the wavelength
~
λ = 2π/ k and frequency f = ω/2π of the wave; such an
equation is known as a dispersion relation.
~ = µ0ε0 ∂ ∇ × E.
~ − ∇2 B
~ ≡∇ ∇·B
∇×∇×B ~ (15)
∂t
We also have to verify that our solutions for the electric and
magnetic fields simultaneously satisfy Maxwell’s equations. We
find:
~
∂B
~
∇×E =− ⇒ ~k × E
~ 0 = ωB
~ 0, (19)
∂t
~
∂E
~ = µ0ε0
∇×B ~0 = ω E
⇒ ~k × B ~ 0. (20)
∂t c2
These results tell us that the electric and magnetic fields and
the wave vector must be mutually perpendicular...
Electromagnetism 7 Lecture 2: Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space
~0 = B
In terms of the magnetic intensity H ~ 0/µ0:
~
E0
s
µ0
= µ0 c = , (22)
~ ε0
H0
where we have used:
1
c=√ . (23)
µ0ε0
∂E~
~ ~
∇ × B = µσ E + µε . (28)
∂t
Proceeding as before, we take the curl, and then substitute for
∇×E ~ from (3), to find:
~
∂B ~
∂ 2B
2 ~
∇ B − µσ − µε 2 = 0. (29)
∂t ∂t
2~ ~ = µσω,
α·β (33)
~2 + β
α ~ 2 = µεω 2. (34)
Electromagnetism 12 Lecture 2: Electromagnetic Waves
σ ωε. (36)
(Note that this condition depends on the frequency of the
wave). Then, we can make the approximation for the phase
velocity:
|~
α| µσ
r
≈ . (37)
ω 2ω
In a good conductor:
• the wave amplitude decays exponentially over a distance
shorter than the wavelength;
• the electric and magnetic fields are out of phase by
approximately 45◦.
~
Boundary Conditions 2: Parallel Component of E
~
Boundary Conditions 4: Parallel Component of H
Finally, consider the magnetic inten-
~ at a boundary. The field must
sity H
satisfy Maxwell’s equation, in integral
form:
~
!
∂D
Z Z
~ · d~
H `= J~ + ~
· dS. (49)
∂S S ∂t
If we take the area S with boundary
∂S to be a thin strip just crossing the
boundary, then, taking the limit that
the width of the strip approaches zero,
we find the boundary condition:
B1⊥ = 0 B2⊥ = 0
E1k = 0 E2k = 0
D1⊥ = −ρs D2⊥ = 0
H1k = Js H2k = 0
The appropriate solutions for the electric field take the form of
standing waves:
RF Cavities in Accelerators
Waves in Waveguides
dk dω
= 2 cos (k + )z − (ω + )t cos(dk z − dω t). (76)
2 2
q
With dispersion: ω = vp k2 + α2
To satisfy the
boundary conditions,
we need, as well as
the incident wave, a
transmitted and a
reflected wave.
EI0 i(kz−ωt)
EI = EI0 ei(kz−ωt) HI = e
Z1
ER0 i(kz+ωt)
ER = ER0ei(kz+ωt) HR = e
Z1
ET 0 i(kz−ωt)
ET = ET 0 ei(kz−ωt) HT = e
Z2
Here, we have used the fact that the amplitudes of the electric
and magnetic fields in plane wave are related by:
E0 µ
r
= = Z. (80)
H0 ε
Z is the impedance of the medium through which the wave is
travelling.
Electromagnetism 40 Lecture 2: Electromagnetic Waves
ET = EI + ER , and HT = HI − HR , (81)
where the minus sign in the equation for the magnetic intensity
takes into account the direction of the field in the reflected
wave.