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1 Derivation of the Wave Equation from Maxwell’s
Equations
~ D
(i)∇. ~ = ρf , (1)
~ B
(ii)∇. ~ = 0, (2)
~
~ ×E
(iii)∇ ~ = − ∂B , (3)
∂t
~
~ ×H
(iii)∇ ~ = J~f + ∂ D , (4)
∂t
~ = 0 E
where in an optical medium, D ~ + P~ and B
~ = µ0 H
~ +M
~ . Here, we
will only consider non-magnetic media with no free charges, which reduces
the Maxwell equations to,
~ D
(i)∇. ~ = 0, (5)
~ B
(ii)∇. ~ = 0, (6)
~
~ ×E
(iii)∇ ~ = − ∂B , (7)
∂t
~
~ ×B
(iii)∇ ~ = µ0 D ,
∂
(8)
∂t
2
These coupled equations describe the time evolution of the electric and the
~ and extract an equation for E
magnetic fields. It is possible to eliminate B ~
~ = 0 E
only. Using equation (iv) and the relation D ~ + P~ , we obtain,
~ ~
∇ ~ = µ0 0 ∂ E + µ0 ∂ P .
~ ×B (9)
∂t ∂t
By taking the curl of both sides of equation (iii) given above and using the
~ ×∇
mathematical identity, ∇ ~ ×E
~ = ∇(
~ ∇.
~ E)
~ −∇
~ 2 E,
~ we obtain
~ ∇.
∇( ~ E)
~ −∇ ~ = − ∂ (∇
~ 2E ~ × B).
~ (10)
∂t
~ only:
Using equation 9, we get an equation containing E
2~ 2~
~ ∇.
∇( ~ E)
~ −∇ ~ = −µ0 0 ∂ E − µ0 ∂ P .
~ 2E (11)
∂t2 ∂t2
~ E
For a homogenous media, we have ∇. ~ = 0 and recalling 0 µ0 = 1/c2 , the
This concludes the derivation of the wave equation. Keep in mind that so far
we only assumed that the material is non-magnetic and it is homogenous.
Now we will work with this equation and begin to write out what P~ is. As
a first step, we will assume that the polarization response of the material
is instantaneous, i.e., P~ is determined only by the present conditions, there
is no delayed response or memory effect in the system. This is valid for a
nonlinear response that is electronic in origin, since the reconfiguration time
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of the electron cloud is in order of 0.1 fs. This can be seen to correspond
roughly to the travel time of the electron around the nucleus in the Bohr
atom model. For almost all pulses, this is as good as instantaneous. Other
material responses, for example, deriving from the nucleus can be much
slower, but they are also typically weaker and we ignore them for now.
The second important assumption we will make is that although P~ is in
general nonlinear with respect to the electric field, the nonlinearity is weak
enough that it can be treated perturbatively. In other words,
For the linear part of the polarization, the precise value depends on the
frequency. Expressed in the frequency domain, P~linear (ω) = 0 χ(1) (ω)E(ω),
~
∂
the wave equation can be written in the f-domain as follows (recall ∂t → iω),
~2+ ω2 ~
(∇ (1 + χ(1) ))E(ω) = −µ0 ω 2 P~nonlin . (14)
c2
You might have noticed that for sake of simplicity we are being a little
sloppy with the nonlinear polarization term on the right side. This amounts
to assuming that the nonlinear contribution is dispersionless, i.e., does not
depend on ω, among other mathematical complications. However, this is
sufficient for our purposes. Note that everything that will be considered
here is non-dissipative (energy is constant, no amplification, no loss).
It should be recognized that the electric field has a time structure that
has a slow and a fast varying component. The fast time scale corresponds
to the optical cycle, which is order of λ/c ∼ 3 fs. The slow time scale
~
corresponds to the width of the pulse, which is proportional to |E(t)|2,
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Let us incorporate these two scales into our mathematical formulation,
because we will make use of this separation later:
~ r, t) = A(~
E(~ ~ r, t)exp(ik0 z − iω0 t) + c.c., (15)
Let us continue from equation (14), recall from linear optics that n2 (ω) =
ω c2 2
1 + χ(1) (ω) and k(ω) = c n(ω), so χ(1) (ω) = ω2
k (ω) − 1. Then, we obtain,
~ 2 + k 2 (ω))E(ω)
(∇ ~ = −µ0 ω 2 P~nonlin . (19)
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the vector signs from now on, assuming that the field is polarized in a fixed
direction in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂
( + + + 2ik0 − k02 )A(x, y, t) + k 2 (ω)A(x, y, t) (20)
∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
0
= −µ0 ω 2 Pnonlin (21)
The first parenthesis groups all the space terms, the next term incorporates
dispersion and the term on the right describes the nonlinear corrections to
this otherwise linear equation.
We make the usually very well justified approximation that k(ω) is a
reasonably slowly varying function of ω, such that it can expanded in powers
of ω,
1 1
k(ω) = k0 + k1 (ω − ω0 ) + k2 (ω − ω0 )2 + k3 (ω − ω0 )3 + ... (22)
2! 3!
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂
( 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2ik0 − k02 )A(x, y, t) (23)
∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 1 ∂2
+(k0 + ik1 − k2 2 + ...)A(x, y, t) (24)
∂t 2 ∂t
∂ 0
= −µ0 (ω0 + i )2 Pnonlin . (25)
∂t
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A(x, y, t). The chain rule of differentiation yields
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂τ ∂ ∂
= + = − k1 , (26)
∂z ∂z ∂τ ∂z ∂z ∂τ
∂ ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂τ ∂
= + = , (27)
∂t ∂z ∂t ∂τ ∂t ∂τ
∂2 ∂2 ∂ ∂ 2 ∂2
and similarly, we have, ∂z 2
= ∂z 2
− 2k1 ∂z ∂τ + k1 ∂τ 2 . We collect all second
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
+ + ( )A0 (x, y, τ ) (28)
∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2
k1 ∂ ∂ 0 k1 ∂
+i2k0 (1 − ) A (x, y, τ ) + (2k0 (1 + i )D + D2 )A0 (x, y, τ ) (29)
k0 ∂τ ∂z k0 ∂τ
1 ∂ 2 0
= −µ0 ω02 (1 + i ) Pnonlin . (30)
ω0 ∂τ
We will make several important approximations, (i) the slowly varying enve-
lope approximation (SVEA) in time and (ii) SVEA in space and (iii) ignore
∂4
D2 , since the leading term is ∂τ 4
, which is already too weak to be of interest
to us.
1 vp 1
The SVEA in time relates to k1 /k0 = c/(n0 ω0 vg ) = ω vg ∼ ω. Therefore,
k1 ∂ Toptical
k0 ∂τ ∼ Tpulse 1. Physically speaking, this approximation is valid when
the pulse is long enough to contain more than just a few optical cycles within
the envelope. The SVEA in space is very similar in its nature, namely it is
∂ 2 A0 0
valid when the beam is wider than just a few wavelengths: ∂z 2
k0 ∂A
∂z .
∂A0 ∂2 ∂2
i2k0 + ( 2 + 2 )A0 + 2k0 DA0 = −µ0 ω02 Pnonlin
0
, or (31)
∂z ∂x ∂y
∂A0 1 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂ 2 A0 µ0 ω02 0
−i ( 2 + 2 )A0 + i k2 = i P . (32)
∂z 2k0 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂τ 2 2k0 nonlin
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3 The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation (NLSE)
In this section, we will write out the nonlinear polarization term but we will
keep only the χ(3) term, derive the NLSE. In general, Pnonlin = 0 (χ(2) E~2 +
~ 3 + ...). All higher order contributions are extremely weak and need
χ(3) E
not be considered in the great majority of the time. χ(2) can be significant,
however it requires proper phase-matching and it is also zero for centro-
symmetric and most amorphous materials. It will be considered later on in
parametric processes, second-harmonic generation, etc. For now, we con-
centrate on χ(3) . Thus, we have Pnonlin = 34 0 χ(3) |a|2 , where the units are
2n0 Z0
such that |a|2 is the optical intensity. Note that, I = 2
Z0 |E| , so A0 = a 2n0
.
3 (3)
Rewriting in terms of a, with n2 ≡ 8n0 χ .
This brings us to the NLSE in space and time. This is a ubiquitous equa-
tion, which appears in many branches of physics and engineering, describing
extremely different phenomena, from laser beams to Bose-Einstein conden-
sates (see Özgür Öktel of the Physics Department for more information).
∂a 1 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2a 2πn2 2
−i ( 2 + 2 )a + i k2 2 = i |a| a. (35)
∂z 2k0 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂τ λ0
Of special relevance to ultrafast optics is the NLSE in time only. Often times,
the spatial dynamics is either trivial (as in propagation in optical fiber, or
a large enough beam for which diffraction is negligible) or it is not coupled
strongly to the temporal dynamics, so it can be analyzed separately. In fact,
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either of these two cases is overwhelmingly more common. Then, ignoring
diffraction, we have only dispersion and nonlinearity. This corresponds to
making the plane wave approximation. A more common way to write the
equation is such that the absolute square of the field gives power, instead
of intensity. Let us give it a new name, u, to avoid confusion, if we have
√
a = u/ Aeff , with Aeff being the effective area of the beam, also introducing
γ = 2πn2 /(λ0 Aeff ), we have the following rather simple looking equation,
∂u 1 ∂2u
+ i k2 2 = iγ|u|2 u. (36)
∂z 2 ∂τ
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p
following transformations, τ → τ τ0 , and u → u Pp and finally z → z/L,
∂u 1 L ∂2u L
+i 2
=i |u|2 u. (37)
∂z 2 Lds ∂τ Lnl
All we have done is to choose our time, amplitude and length units such that
now z goes from 0 to 1, the initial peak power is 1 and the pulse width is also
1. This normalization is completely arbitrary, there is an infinitely many
other ways to do it. However, it is intuitive and simple to keep in mind.
Importantly, now all the quantities are order of 1, this makes it convenient
to see which effect dominates and it is especially convenient for numerical
simulations on the computer. In fact, this is what I do in my simulations.
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