Module I: Electromagnetic waves

Lectures 10-11: Multipole radiation

Amol Dighe
TIFR, Mumbai
Outline

1 Multipole expansion

2 Electric dipole radiation

3 Magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole radiation

Coming up...

1 Multipole expansion

2 Electric dipole radiation

3 Magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole radiation

 ~ 0 for monochromatic sources
Vector potential A
We are interested in calculating the radiative components of EM
fields and related quantities (like radiated power) for a charge /
current distribution that is oscillating with a frequency ω. The
results for a general time dependence can be obtained by
integrating over all frequencies (inverse Fourier transform).
We have already seen that it is enough to know about the
current distribution (we are interested only in radiative parts),
since the charge distribution is related to it by continuity. In such
a case, with ~J(~x0 , t) = ~J0 (~x0 )e−iωt , we get
Z ik |~x−~x0 |
~ ~x, t) = µ0 e−iωt
A( ~J0 (~x0 ) e d 3x 0 (1)
4π |~x − ~x0 |

Given A(~ ~x, t) = A~ 0 (~x)e−iωt , the rest of the quantities can be

easily calculated in terms of it. We shall omit the “rad” label in
this lecture, it is assumed to be everywhere except when
specified.
~ rad and E
B ~ rad for monochromatic sources
At large distances,
Z ~ 0
−i k·~x
~ ~x, t) = µ0 ei(k |x|−ωt)
A( ~J0 (~x0 ) e d 3x 0 (2)
4π |~x − ~x0 |

Taking ~x = r r̂ and neglecting terms that go as (1/r 2 ), the

radiative part of the magnetic field is
~ ~x, t) = ∇ × A(
B( ~ ~x, t) = ik r̂ × A
~ 0 (~x)e−iωt (3)

The radiative part of the electric field can be obtained in this

monochromatic case by using (1/c 2 )∂ E( ~ ~x, t)/∂t = ∇ × B(
~ ~x, t)
~
(there is no current at large |x|):

~ ~x, t) = c2 ~ ~x, t) = c B
~ 0 (~x) × r̂e−iωt
E( ∇ × B( (4)
(−iω)

~ ~x, t) and B(
Thus, E( ~ ~x, t) fields are orthogonal to r̂, orthogonal to
each other, and their magnitudes differ simply by a factor of c.
Long-distance, long-wavelength approximation
For wavelength large compared to the source size, |~k · ~x0 |  1,
~ 0
and we can expand the e−i k·~x term (note that ~k = k r̂):
X (−ik )n Z ~0 n
~ 0 (~x) = µ0 eikr
A ~J0 (~x0 ) (r̂ · x ) d 3 x 0 (5)
4π n! |~x − ~x0 |

If we approximate |~x − ~x0 | ≈ r , i.e. neglect the corrections

proportional to (d/r ) where d is the source size, we get a
simpler form
ikr X
(−ik )n ~ 0
Z
~ 0 (~x) = µ0 e
A J0 (~x )(r̂ · ~x0 )n d 3 x 0 (6)
4π r n!
This is the approximate form of the “multipole expansion”, and
works for a few lower-order multipoles. Note that this
approximation is fine as long as the expansion parameter in
|~x − ~x0 | is much smaller than the expansion parameter in
0
eik |~x−~x | , i.e. d/r << kd, or r  λ.
The complete expression for multipole expansion, valid even for
intermediate distances, is given on the next page.
Radiation potential at intermediate distances
0
An expansion for eik |~x−~x | /|~x − ~x0 | exists in terms of Legendre
polynomials, spherical Bessel functions and Hankel functions,
which we give here without proof:
0
eik |~x−~x | X
= ik (2n + 1)Pn (cos θ0 )jn (k |~x0 |)hn (kr ) (7)
|~x − ~x0 |
At k |~x0 | << 1, we have
2n n!
jn (k |~x0 |) = (k |~x0 |)n (8)
(2n + 1)!
For kr >> 1, we have
eikr
hn (kr ) = (−i)n+1 (9)
kr
Using these two, the long-distance approximation gives
0
eik |~x−~x | ne
ikr X n
2 n! 0 n
= (−ik ) |~x | Pn (cos θ0 ) (10)
|~x − ~x0 | r (2n)!
which matches our expansion to the two leading orders (check).
Coming up...

1 Multipole expansion

2 Electric dipole radiation

3 Magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole radiation

The n = 0 term in the multipole expansion
The leading (n = 0) term in the multipole expansion is

µ0 eikr
Z
~ (0) ~J0 (~x0 )d 3 x 0
A0 = (11)
4π r

The integral may be written in a more familiar form through the

steps Z Z
~J0 (~x0 )d 3 x 0 = − ~x0 [∇0 · ~J0 (~x0 )]d 3 x 0 (12)

and using the continuity equation ∇0 · ~J0 (~x0 ) == −iωρ0 (~x0 ):

Z Z
~J0 (~x0 )d 3 x 0 = −iω ~x0 ρ0 (~x0 )d 3~x0 = −iω~p (13)

where ~p is the electric dipole moment.

The n = 0 term thus represents the electric dipole radiation:

µ0 eikr
AED ~
0 (x) = (−iω)~p (14)
4π r
 ~ E
Electric dipole: B, ~ and radiated power
The magnetic and electric fields can immediately be written as
ikr
~ ED (~x)
B ~ ED (~x) = µ0 e (ck 2 )r̂ × ~p
= ik r̂ × A (15)
0 0
4π r
ikr
~ ED (~x) × r̂ = µ0 e (c 2 k 2 )(r̂ × ~p) × r̂ (16)
~ ED (~x) = c B
E 0 0
4π r

The Poynting vector N( ~ ~x, t) = E(~ ~x, t) × H(

~ ~x, t) is normal to both,
(r̂ × ~p) and [(r̂ × p) × r̂], i.e. along r̂, as expected.

~ ~x)i = 1 µ0 1 4 3
hN( k c |r̂ × ~p|2 r̂ (17)
2 (4π)2 r 2
µ0
= k 4 c 3 |~p|2 sin2 θ r̂ (18)
32π 2 r 2

The average power radiated per solid angle is then

dP ~ · r 2 r̂ = µ0 k 4 c 3 |~p|2 sin2 θ
= hNi (19)
dΩ 32π 2
Electric dipole radiation: salient features

The radiated power is proportional to the fourth power of

frequency. This results in the blue colour of the sky: the sunlight
induces dipoles in the air molecules, which then radiate, giving
out more light at high frequencies, i.e. near the blue end of the
spectrum.
The angular dependance is sin2 θ, i.e. there is no radiation in the
direction of the dipole, most of the radiation is in the equatorial
plane.
At large wavelengths (λ  L), antennas (discussed in the last
lecture) also emit dipole radiation.
Coming up...

1 Multipole expansion

2 Electric dipole radiation

3 Magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole radiation

n = 1 term in the multipole expansion
The n = 1 term in the expansion is

µ0 eikr
Z
(1)
~
A0 (x) = (−ik ) ~J0 (~x0 )(r̂ · ~x0 )d 3 x 0 (20)
4π r

Using (~x0 × ~J) × r̂ = (r̂ · ~x0 )~J − (r̂ · ~J)~x0 , the integral may be
separated into two parts:
Z
~J0 (~x0 )(r̂ · ~x0 )d 3 x 0 = IMD + IEQ (21)

where
Z
1 0 ~ 0
IMD = [~x × J0 (~x )] × r̂ d 3 x 0 (22)
2
Z
1
IEQ = [(r̂ · ~x0 )~J0 (~x0 ) + (r̂ · ~J0 (~x0 ))~x0 ]d 3 x 0 (23)
2

These two terms correspond to the magnetic dipole and the

electric quadrupole components, respectively, as we shall see.
Magnetic dipole radiation
Since the magnetic dipole moment is defined as
Z
1 0 ~ 0 3 0
m~ = [~x × J0 (~x )]d x (24)
2
~ 0 corresponding to IMD becomes
the component of A
ikr
~ MD (~x) = µ0 e (−ik )(m
A ~ × r̂) (25)
0
4π r
This immediately leads to
ikr
~ MD (~x)
B = ~ MD (~x) = µ0 e k 2 r̂ × (m
(ik )r̂ × A ~ × r̂) (26)
0 0
4π r
ikr
~ MD (~x)
E = cB~ MD (~x) × r̂ = µ0 e k 2 [r̂ × (m
~ × r̂)] × r̂ (27)
0 0
4π r
And the average power radiated per unit area is
~ ~x)i = 1 µ0 1 4 3 2 2
hN( ~ sin θ r̂
k c |m| (28)
2 (4π)2 r 2
~ and r̂.
where θ is the angle between m
Electric quadrupole radiation
(1)
The remaining component of A0 is the electric quadrupole part
(as will be clear soon):

µ0 eikr
Z
1
AEQ
0 = (−ik ) [(r̂ · ~x0 )~J0 (~x0 ) + (r̂ · ~J0 (~x0 ))~x0 ]d 3 x (29)
0
4π r 2
µ0 eikr (−k 2 c)
Z
= ~x0 (r̂ · ~x0 )ρ0 (~x0 )d 3 x 0 (30)
4π r 2
µ0 eikr (−k 2 c) 1 ~
 Z 
= Q(r̂) + r̂ r 02 ρ0 (~x0 )d 3 x 0 (31)
4π r 2 3

~ r̂) is the component of the electric quadrupole moment

Here, Q(
along r̂, i.e.
~α =
X
Q Qαβ r̂β , (32)
with Z
Qαβ ≡ (3xα0 xβ0 − r 02 δαβ )ρ0 (~x0 )d 3 x 0 , (33)

the electric quadrupole moment.

 ~ E
Electric quadrupole: B, ~ and power radiated

~ 0 (~x) and E
Now we can calculate B ~ 0 (~x):

µ0 eikr −ik 3 c ~ r̂)

B0EQ (~x) = r̂ × Q( (34)
4π r 6
µ0 eikr −ik 3 c 2 ~ r̂)) × r̂
E0EQ (~x) = (r̂ × Q( (35)
4π r 6

The average Poynting vector is

~ ~x)i = 1 µ0 1 k 6 c 3 ~ r̂)|2 r̂
hN( |r̂ × Q( (36)
2 (4π)2 r 2 36

The average power radiated per unit solid angle is

dP µ0 k 6 c 3 ~ r̂)|2
= |r̂ × Q( (37)
dΩ 4π 288
Comment on Electric quadrupole radiation

If the charge distribution is azimuthally symmetric, and has a

reflection symmetry about z axis (spheroidal distribution is a
special case of this), then

Qxy = Qyz = Qxz = 0 , Qxx = Qyy = Q0 Qzz = −2Q0 (38)

In such a case, it can be shown that the power radiated is

dP µ0 k 6 c 3
= |Q0 |2 sin2 θ cos2 θ (39)
dΩ 4π 32
~ r̂).
where θ is the angle between r̂ and Q(
The gravitational radiation has a similar form to the electric
quadrupole radiation, except one has to deal with
time-dependent mass distribution rather than time-dependent
charge distribution.
Recap of topics covered in this lecture

~ and E
Calculating radiative components of B ~ from A
~

Multipole expansion when |~x0 | < λ < |~x|

Electric dipole radiation as the leading term in multipole
expansion
Separating magnetic dipole moment and electric quadrupole
moment contributions from the subleading term
~ B,
E, ~ Poynting vector, average rate of radiated power, and the
angular distribution of radiated power for first few multipoles