Department of Physics

IIT Kanpur, Semester II, 2022-23

PHY114: Quantum Physics Solutions # 4

Solution 4.1: Uncertainty Principle

(a) We have
0.01
for electrons : ∆p = 0.01% of p = × 9.1 × 10−31 × 200 = 1.82 × 10−32 Kg − m/s.
100
h 6.6 × 10−34
Therefore, ∆x ≥ = = 0.23 × 10−2 m = 0.23 cm
4π∆p 4π × 1.82 × 10−32
0.01
for bullets : ∆p = 0.01% of p = × 60 × 10−3 × 200 = 1.2 × 10−3 Kg − m/s.
100
h 6.6 × 10−34
Therefore, ∆x ≥ = = 4.37 × 10−32 m
4π∆p 4π × 1.2 × 10−3

(b) We find that for macroscopic object the position uncertainly is too small to be noticeable; however, for microscopic
objects the uncertainty principle really dictates the precision with which one could do measurements.
(c)

h 6.6 × 10−34
∆E ≥ = = 0.525 × 10−26 J = 3.28 × 10−7 eV
4π∆t 4π × 10−9

(d)

∆E 0.525 × 10−26
∆ν = = ≈ 80 MHz.
h 6.6 × 10−34
∆ν ∆ν
Therefore, the laser contains frequencies between ν0 − and ν0 + .
2 2

Solution 4.2: Some Conceptual Questions

(a) |ψ(x, t)|2 dx represents the probability that the system is found at position x at time t within the interval dx.
(b) A wave-function represents
R ∞ the probability amplitude of a physical system and therefore a wave-function needs
to be continuous. Also, ∞ |ψ(x, t)|2 dx is the total probability that the system is found somewhere between −∞
and ∞.
R ∞ Now, since the system has to be somewhere between −∞ and ∞, we get the mathematical condition
that ∞ |ψ(x, t)|2 dx < ∞, which is the condition for square-integrability.
(c) We substitute Ψ(x, t) = AΨ1 (x, t) + BΨ2 (x, t) for the solution to the Schrödinger equation, we get

−~2 ∂ 2 ∂
2
[AΨ1 (x, t) + BΨ2 (x, t)] + V (x, t)[AΨ1 (x, t) + BΨ2 (x, t)] = i~ [AΨ1 (x, t) + BΨ2 (x, t)]
2m dx ∂t
Rearranging, we can write this as,
 2 2   2 2 
−~ ∂ ∂ −~ ∂ ∂
A Ψ1 (x, t) + V (x, t)Ψ1 (x, t) − i~ Ψ1 (x, t) + B Ψ2 (x, t) + V (x, t)Ψ2 (x, t) − i~ Ψ2 (x, t) = 0
2m dx2 ∂t 2m dx2 ∂t

Since Ψ1 (x, t) and Ψ2 (x, t) are the two solutions to the Schrödinger equation, the left hand side of the above
equation is identically equal to zero for any arbitrary A and B. Thus, we get that Ψ(x, t) = AΨ1 (x, t) + BΨ2 (x, t)
is a solution to the Schrödinger equation.

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(d) Since ψn (x) is a solution to the time-independent Schrödinger equation, we have

−~2 ∂ 2
ψn (x) + V (x, t)ψn (x) − Eψn (x) = 0
2m dx2
We now substitute Ψ(x, t) = n An ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ for the solution to the time-dependent Schrödinger equation.
P

" # " # " #

−~2 ∂ 2 X X ∂ X
An ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ + V (x, t) An ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ − i~ An ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ = 0.
2m dx2 n n
∂t n

Taking the time derivative, we get

" # " # " #
−~2 ∂ 2 X X X
An ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ + V (x, t) An ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ − i~ An (−iEn /~)ψn (x)e−iEn t/~ = 0.
2m dx2 n n n

Rearranging, we obtain:

−~2 ∂ 2
X  
An ψ n (x) + V (x, t)ψ n (x) − E ψ
n n (x) e−iEn t/~ = 0.
n
2m dx2

Since ψn (x) is solution to the time-independent Schrödinger equation, the left hand side of the above equation
is identically equal to zero for any value of An . Thus we have that Ψ(x, t) is a solution to the time-dependent
Schrödinger equation.
 
∂
(e) The expectation value of a general operator f x, −i~ is given by
∂x
   Z ∞  
∂ ∗ ∂
f x, −i~ = Ψ (x, t)f x, −i~ Ψ(x, t)dx
∂x −∞ ∂x
Z ∞ XX  
∗ ∗ ∂
= An ψn (x)e iEn t/~
f x, −i~ An0 ψn0 (x)e−iEn0 t/~ dx
−∞ n n0 ∂x
Z ∞  
XX
∗ i(En −En0 )t/~ ∗ ∂
= An An 0 e ψn (x)f x, −i~ ψn0 (x)dx
n 0 −∞ ∂x
n
  
∂
We note that the expectation value f x, −i~ can be time independent only for those operators for which
  ∂x
R∞ ∗ ∂
−∞ n
ψ (x)f x, −i~ ψn0 (x)dx = Kδnn0 , where K is a constant and δnn0 is the Kronecker delta function
∂x
defined
  as δnn0 = 1, for n = n0 ; otherwise = 0. So, we see that the expectation value of an arbitrary operator
∂ P −iEn t/~
f x, −i~ is not time-independent and thus that Ψ(x, t) = n An ψn (x)e is not a stationary
∂x
solution.
However, with Ψn (x, t) = [Aψn (x) + Bψn∗ (x)]e−iEn t/~ , the expectation value of an operator is given by
   Z ∞  
∂ ∗ ∂
f x, −i~ = Ψn (x, t)f x, −i~ Ψn (x, t)dx
∂x −∞ ∂x
Z ∞  
∗ ∗ ∗ ∂
= [A ψn (x) + B ψn (x)]e iEn t/~
f x, −i~ [Aψn (x) + Bψn∗ (x)]e−iEn t/~ dx
−∞ ∂x
Z ∞  
∗ ∗ ∗ ∂
= [A ψn (x) + B ψn (x)]f x, −i~ [Aψn (x) + Bψn∗ (x)]dx
−∞ ∂x

Since the above expectation value is independent of time, we have that Ψn (x, t) = [Aψn (x) + Bψn∗ (x)]e−iEn t/~ is
a stationary solution.
(f ) (i) ψ(x) = Ax2 is not a physical wave-function since it blows up as x → ∞ and thus does not satisfy the

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 finite-valuedness condition
(ii) ψ(x) = A is not a physical wave-function since it does not satisfy the sqaure-integrability.
A π
(iii) ψ(x) = is not a physical wave-function since it does not satisfy the continuity condition at x = ± nπ
cos x 2
−x2
(iv) ψ(x) = Ae is a physical wave-function since it satisfies all the necessary conditions.
(g) We first need to solve the Gaussian integral:
∞
(x − µ)2
Z  
I= exp − dx
−∞ 2σ 2

Substitute x − µ = x0 . We get,
" #
∞ 2 Z ∞
x0 x2
Z  
I= exp − 2 dx0 = exp − 2 dx
−∞ 2σ −∞ 2σ

And therefore,
∞ Z ∞ Z ∞Z ∞
x2 y2 (x2 + y 2 )
Z      
2
I =I ×I = exp − 2 dx × exp − 2 dy = exp − dxdy
−∞ 2σ −∞ 2σ −∞ −∞ 2σ 2

Switch to polar coordinate: x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, and

 
 ∂(x, y) 
dxdy = |J|drdθ =  ) drdθ = rdrdθ
∂(r, θ
   ∂x ∂x   
 ∂(x, y)  cos θ −r sin θ
where |J| =   ∂r
) = ∂y ∂y =
 ∂θ =r
∂(r, θ  ∂r ∂θ
sin θ r cos θ

Thus
2π ∞
r2
Z Z  
I2 = exp − 2 rdrdθ
0 0 2σ

Now substitute r2 = z so that dz = 2rdr and

Z ∞ ∞
exp[−z 2 /(2σ 2 )]
h z i 
2
I =π exp − 2 dz = π = 2πσ 2
0 2σ −1/(2σ 2 ) 0
Z ∞ √
(x − µ)2
 
⇒I= exp − 2
dx = 2πσ (1)
−∞ 2σ

Now we calculate the normalization constant using the normalization condition

Z ∞
ψ ∗ (x)ψ(x)dx = 1
−∞
Z ∞
(x − µ)2
 
2
A exp − dx = 1
−∞ 2σ 2

Using the above Gaussian integral, we get

√
A2 . 2πσ = 1
1
⇒A= 1
(2πσ 2 ) 4

⇒ The expectation value of position hxi is given by

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 ∞ ∞
(x − µ)2
Z Z  
1
hxi = ψ ∗ (x)xψ(x)dx = √ x exp − dx.
−∞ 2πσ −∞ 2σ 2

Substituting x − µ = x0 and using the result in Eq. (1), we get

Z ∞
x02
 
1
hxi = √ (x + µ) exp − 2 dx0
0
2πσ −∞ 2σ
Z ∞ 02 Z ∞
x02
    
1 0 x 0 0
=√ x exp − 2 dx + µ exp − 2 dx
2πσ −∞ 2σ −∞ 2σ
1 h √ i
=√ 0 (odd function) + µ 2πσ
2πσ
= µ.

⇒ The expectation value hx2 i is given by

∞ ∞
(x − µ)2
Z Z  
1
hx2 i = ψ ∗ (x)x2 ψ(x)dx = √ x2 exp − dx.
−∞ 2πσ −∞ 2σ 2

Substituting x − µ = x0 , we get
#"
∞ 2
x0
Z
1
2
hx i = √ (x + µ) exp − 2 dx0
0 2
2πσ −∞ 2σ
"Z " # " # " # #
∞ 2 Z ∞ 2 Z ∞ 2
1 02 x0 0 02 x0 0 0 x0 0
=√ x exp − 2 dx + µ exp − 2 dx + 2µ x exp − 2 dx
2πσ −∞ 2σ −∞ 2σ −∞ 2σ
1 h √ i
=√ I2 + µ2 2πσ + 0 (2)
2πσ

We now need to calculate I2 . Substituting α = 1/(2σ 2 ) and using Eq. (1), we get
" #
Z ∞ 02 Z ∞ Z ∞
02 x 0 02
h
02
i
0 d h
2
i
I2 ≡ x exp − 2 dx = x exp −αx dx = − exp −αx0 dx0
−∞ 2σ −∞ dα −∞
" r #
d √ 1 1  π 1/2 √
=− 2π × = = σ 2 .[2πσ 2 ]1/2 = 2πσ 3
dα 2α 2α α

Substituting for I2 in Eq. (2) gives

1 h√ √ i
hx2 i = √ 2πσ 3 + σµ2 2π
2πσ
= (σ 2 + µ2 )

⇒ The uncertainty in position can now be calculated in the following manner

p p p
∆x = h(x − hxi)2 i = hx2 i − hxi2 = σ 2 + µ2 − µ2 = σ

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Solution 4.3: Particle in a step potential (V0 > E)

(a) The probability density in region 1 is

P1 (x) = ψ1∗ (x)ψ1 (x) = (A∗ e−ik1 x + B ∗ eik1 x )(Aeik1 x + Be−ik1 x )

= |A|2 + |B|2 + A∗ Be−2ik1 x + AB ∗ e2ik1 x
|D|2 k22 |D|2 k22 |D|2 k22
     
2ik2 −2ik1 x 2ik2
= 1+ 2 + 1− 2 − e + 1− 2 + e+2ik1 x
2 k1 4 k1 k1 4 k1 k1

k22
   
2ik2 iθ

k22

iθ −1 2k2 /k1
We write 1 − 2 + = re = 1 + k2 e , where θ = tan 2 2 . (Note that when k2 > k1 ,
 k1 k1   (1 − k2 /k1 )
1

2k1 k2 2k1 k2
θ = π − tan−1 2 2 , but when k2 < k1 , θ = tan−1 ). We can now write the probability density
(k2 − k1 ) (k12 − k12 )
as

|D|2 k22 |D|2 k22 |D|2 k22

     
−i(2k1 x+θ)
P1 (x) = 1+ 2 + 1+ 2 e + 1 + 2 e+i(2k1 x+θ)
2 k1 4 k1 4 k1
|D|2 k22 |D|2 k22
   
= 1+ 2 + 1 + 2 2 cos(2k1 x + θ)
2 k1 4 k1
|D|2 k22
 
= 1 + 2 [1 + cos(2k1 x + θ)]
2 k1

The probability density in region 2 is

P2 (x) = ψ2∗ (x)ψ2 (x) = |D|2 e−2k2 x

(b) Yes, the solution above is stationary since the energy of the particle is fixed and the probability density does not
depend on time.
(c) Here we have E = 1 eV and take V0 = 5 eV and |D|2 = 1. This gives k1 = 5.1 × 109 m−1 and k2 = 10.2 × 109
m−1 . The probability density is shown as below.

ψ∗(x)ψ(x)

E=1eV; V0=5 eV

-2. µ10 -9 -1. µ10 -9 0 1. µ10 -9 2. µ10 -9

x (in meters)

(d) The penetration depth is ∆x = 1/k2 = 0.97Å

(e) Here we have E = 1 eV and take V0 = 1.25 eV and |D|2 = 1. This gives k1 = 5.1 × 109 m−1 and k2 = 2.55 × 109
m−1 . The probability density is shown as below.
(f ) The penetration depth is ∆x = 1/k2 = 3.9Å
(g) The oscillation seen in region 1 is same as the interference fringes seen in Young’s double slit experiment with
particles. In this case, the probability amplitudes of the left- and the right-going de-Broglie waves interfere to
give the oscillations in the probability density in region 1.

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 ψ∗(x)ψ(x)

E=1 eV; V0=1.25 eV

-2. µ10 -9 -1. µ10 -9 0 1. µ10 -9 2. µ10 -9

x (in meters)

(h) Yes, every particle in a step-potential will produce such oscillations in the probability density. However, for
macroscopic particle the de-Broglie wavelength is so small that one cannot resolve the oscillations.

Solution 4.4: Particle in a step potential (V0 < E)

(a) The probability density in region 1 is

P1 (x) = ψ1∗ (x)ψ1 (x) = (A∗ e−ik1 x + B ∗ eik1 x )(Aeik1 x + Be−ik1 x )

= |A|2 + |B|2 + A∗ Be−2ik1 x + AB ∗ e2ik1 x
"  2 #    
2 k1 − k2 2 k1 − k2 −2ik1 x 2 k1 − k2
= |A| 1 + + |A| e + |A| e2ik1 x
k1 + k2 k1 + k2 k1 + k2
2|A|2  2
k + k22 + (k12 − k22 ) cos(2k1 x)

=
(k1 + k2 )2 1

The probability density in region 2 is

4|A|2 k12
P2 (x) = ψ2∗ (x)ψ2 (x) =
(k1 + k2 )2

(b) Here we have E = 1 eV and take V0 = 0.75 eV and |A|2 = 1. This gives k1 = 5.1 × 109 m−1 and k2 = 2.55 × 109
m−1 . The probability density is shown as below.

ψ∗(x)ψ(x)

E=1eV; V0=0.75 eV

-2. µ10 -9 -1. µ10 -9 0 1. µ10 -9 2. µ10 -9

x (in meters)

(c) In Problem 5.3, the minima of the interference fringes go all the way to zero, whereas in this case the minima
of the probability density do not go all the way to zero. This is indicative of the fact that in Problem 3.2, the
probability that the electron is reflected back is one, whereas in this case the probability for transmission is finite

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and therefore the probability that the electron is reflected back is not equal to 1. As a result, the interference
fringes are of low contrast.