Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media

PYL100: Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics

The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

September 18, 2018

Outline
References

I Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

I Chapter IX. Electromagnetic Waves
I Optics, A. K. Ghatak [OAKG]
I Chapter IX. Vibrations and Waves
Wave Propogation in Vacuum or Insulating Materials

I We assumed that the free charge density ρf and the free

current density Jf ,

ρf = 0 and, Jf = 0

for wave propagation through a vacuum or through insulating

materials.
I . . . these are obviously materials with zero, or low conductivity.
I But what happens when the conductivity σ of a material is
relatively high?
I In a metal, for example, we do not control the flow of the free
charge!
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media
I Problem: Given a conducting medium (σ 6= 0), and a piece
of free charge embedded inside it. What happens to that
charge when an electric field E is incident on it?
I For a conducting medium we may write Maxwell’s equations
as,

∇·D = ρf ,
∇·B = 0,
∂B
−∇ × E = ,
∂t
∂D
∇×H = Jf + .
∂t
I Since we are now dealing with a conductor we invoke Ohm’s
Law (Jf = σE ) which is usually a good phenomenological
description of material behaviour particularly at small values
of electric field E .
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media
In linear media,
ρf
∇·E = .

∇·B = 0,
∂B
−∇ × E = ,
∂t
∂E
∇×B = µ(σE +  ).
∂t
Using the equation of continuity for free charge,

∂ρf
∇ · Jf + = 0,
∂t
and Ohm’s Law we get for a linear, homogenous material,

∂ρf σ
= −σ(∇ · E ) = − ρf ,
∂t 
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media

I from which it follows,

ρf (t) = ρf (0)e −(σ/)t

which states that the free charge density ρf (t) vanishes at an
exponential rate with a time-constant τ = σ .
I For a good conductor, its conductivity σ may be considered
extremely large, and taking the limit σ −→ ∞, τ −→ 0, i.e.,
ρf (t) nearly instantly diminishes to zero in the bulk of the
material1 .

1
The free charge must go somewhere; it goes to the surface.
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media
In the steady-state2 where all the free charges have reached the
surface of the conductor we can again rewrite Maxwell’s
equations for the bulk as,

∇·E = 0,
∇·B = 0,
∂B
−∇ × E = ,
∂t
∂E
∇×B = µ(σE +  ).
∂t

I Problem: Why is J 6= 0 in the above analysis if, J = ρf v ?

I Ans: In steady-state we model the bulk of the conductor to
be macroscopically electrically neutral at time scales
t >> τ , just like we did while modelling the field due to a wire
carrying a steady current in the lecture on Magnetostatics.
2
We choose to gloss over the transient regime ∼ τ .
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media

After applying the curl operator to Ampere’s and Faraday’s Law

above we get a modified wave equation for E and B:

∂2E ∂E
∇2 E = µ 2
+µσ ,
∂t ∂t
∂2B ∂B
∇2 B = µ 2 +µσ .
∂t ∂t
Fortunately, these equations still admit plane wave solutions of
the form:

E (z, t) = E0 e i(kz−ωt) ,
e

B(z, t) = B0 e i(kz−ωt) ,
e
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media
I where3 ,

ke = k + iκ,
r r !1/2
µ  σ 2
k(ω) = ω 1+ +1
2 ω
r r !1/2
µ  σ 2
κ(ω) = ω 1+ −1 .
2 ω

I The above two relations clearly show the frequency

dependence of both the real and imaginary components of the
complex wavenumber k.e
I It means that EM wave propagation in a conductor is
dispersive!

3
What do k and κ look like for very good, and poor conductors?
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media

The imaginary part of k,

e or κ leads to the exponential
attenuation of the wave as,

E (z, t) = E0 e −κz e i(kz−ωt) ,

B(z, t) = B0 e −κz e i(kz−ωt) ,
where E0 = E0 e iδE and B0 = B0 e iδB are the complex amplitudes.
The imaginary part of k̃
The skin depth

I The skin depth

d = 1/κ
denotes the distance required to attenuate the amplitude to
1/e of its original value, a measure of how far the wave
penetrates into the conductor.
The real part of k̃

I The real part of k,

e or k determines wavelength, the phase
velocity, the group velocity, and the index of refraction as:
2π ω
λ= , v= ,
k(ω) k(ω)
∂k(ω) ck(ω)
vg = 1/ , n= .
∂ω ω

I All these quantities are dispersive!

I Both the fields E and B remain transverse4 to the direction
of wave propagation k̂.

4
Can you reason why E and B remain transverse?
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media
I The complex amplitudes E0 and B0 do not remain in phase
with each other, i.e., δE − δB = φ 6= 0

Expressing ke as a complex number ke = Ke iφ we can show that,

s r
p  σ 2
K =| ke |= k 2 + κ2 = ω µ 1 + .
ω
φ = arctan(κ/k).
Absorption and Dispersion in Conducting Media

The complex amplitudes E0 and B0 turn out to be related via,

Ke iφ
B0 e iδB = E0 e iδE , (1)
ω
and comparing the imaginary part we find that,

δB − δE = φ (2)
The real part implies that unlike in the vacuum or, linear dielectric,
s r
B0 K  σ 2 1
= = µ 1+ 6= (3)
E0 ω ω v
Phenomenological Description of Forces Acting on an
Electron
I To this point we have assumed the conductivity σ to be
constant. However, this is not a good approximation, as we
will see below. . .
I The force acting F on an electron in a material can be
decomposed into:

d 2x
F = me = Fbinding + Fdamping + Fdriving ,
dt 2 (4)
dx
= −me ω02 x + −me γ − eE0 e −iωt .
dt
I For a conductor the electrons may be considered free and
may be considered very weakly bound so that Fbinding −→ 0.
Rewriting Eq. ?? we get,

d 2x dx e
2
+γ + E0 e −iωt = 0. (5)
dt dt me
Phenomenological Description of Forces Acting on an
Electron

I Trying oscillatory solutions of the form x(t) = x0 e −iωt we

find that the system oscillates at the driving frequency ω such
that the amplitude,

−e/me
x0 = E0 . (6)
ω 2 + iγω

I We are interested in the current density,

dx
J = Nfe
dt
where f represents the number of free electrons per molecule
and, N in the number of molecules per unit volume. This
gives us:
Ohm's Law Is Modified

 
d −e/me
Jf = Nfe E0
dt ω 2 + iγω
  (7)
2 E
= Nfe /me
γ − iω

I Since Jf is a physical quantity, it must be equal to the real

part of the above equation. The imaginary term represents
the phase of Jf relative to E .
I Significance: The current Jf is not simply proportional to the
field, and this material does not strictly obey Ohm’s law since
there is an extra dependence on ω.
Conductivity

I Comparing with the constitutive equation Jf = σE we get,

Nfe 2 /me
 
σ= (8)
γ − iω

I The conductivity σ obtained above can be used directly in the

expression of the complex wave vector k,
e

ke2 = µω 2 + iµσω (9)

Conductivity In Metals

I If we neglect damping, i.e., (γ −→ 0), σ is purely imaginary,

Nfe 2
 
σ=i . (10)
me ω

I Thus ke is given by:

Nfe 2
 
2 2
k = µ0 0 ω − µ0
e
me (11)
1 2 2


= 2 ω − ωp ,
c
q
where ωp is the plasma frequency ωp = e mNf e 0
, and describe
rapid oscillations of the electron density in conducting media
such as plasmas or metals in the ultraviolet region.
EM Wave Propagation in a Plasma
I For frequencies above plasma frequency, the wave number is
real and the wave propagates without attenuation with a
phase velocity,
ω c
v= = s ,
ke  2 2 
ωp (12)
1 − ω2

which is greater than c!5

I For frequencies below plasma frequency, the propagation
constant is purely imaginary and the waves are attenuated:
√ 2 2
E = E0 e −(1/c) ωp −ω z e −iωt , (13)
with a low-frequency skin depth of (c/ωp ).
5
A plane EM wave carries no information. Actually, the theory of relativity
only stipulates that the rate at which information travels is limited to c. In
order to convey information, we would need to construct a wave packet, and
look at its overall motion –you guessed it, its group velocity. Thus relativity
requires that vg ≤ c which is satisfied above.
Reflection and Transmission From A Plasma

I Light of frequencies below the plasma frequency is reflected

by a material because the electrons in the material screen the
electric field of the light.
I Light of frequencies above the plasma frequency is
transmitted by a material because the electrons in the
material cannot respond fast enough to screen it.
Reflection and Transmission From A Plasma

I In most metals, the plasma frequency is in the ultraviolet,

making them shiny (reflective) in the visible range.
I Some metals, such as copper and gold have electronic
interband transitions in the visible range, whereby specific
light energies (colors) are absorbed, yielding their distinct
color.
Charge Dissipation Times for Glass

I Problem: Suppose you embedded some free charge in a piece

of glass (n ≈ 1.5). About how long would it take for the
charge to flow to the surface? Assume the conductivity of
glass 10−12 S/m.
I (a) Using the exponential decline of charge density ρ in the
bulk of a conducting medium,
σ
ρ(t) = ρ(0)e −  t ,

we get the time-constant τ = σ , which after plugging in the

values6 gives us: τ ≈ 20 s.

6 √
Use v = 1/ µ
Designing a Microwave Oven Coating
I Problem: Silver is an excellent conductor, but it’s expensive.
Suppose you were designing a microwave oven7 to operate
at 1 × 1010 Hz. How thick would you make the silver coating?
Assume the resistivity of silver is 1.59 × 10−8 Ωm.
q q 1/2
1 µ σ 2


I The skin-depth d = κ = ω 2 1 + ω − 1 ≈
q
2 −7 m. We’ve invoked the approximation
ωσµ = 6.4 × 10
that σ >> ω.
Thus, one could construct the silver plating with a thickness
of about ∼ 1 µm.
7
A microwave oven heats food due to dielectric heating, i.e., the electric
field in the EM wave exerts a torque on the water dipoles in the food, causing
them to rotate in order to align with the field. There is a popular myth that
explains microwave ovens as operating at a special resonance of water
molecules. The first resonant peak occurs above 1THz, and the highest loss
occurs well into the infrared. There is no special significance of 2.45 GHz,
except that it is allocated by the FCC as being allowable for microwave oven
usage.
Phase Velocity of Radio Waves in Copper

I Problem: Find the wavelength and propagation speed in

copper for radio waves at 1 MHz. Compare the corresponding
values in air (or vacuum). Take the conductivity of copper to
be 6 × 107 S/m.
I Since σ >> ω,
q q 1/2 q
σ 2
k = ω µ ωσµ


2 1+ ω +1 ≈ 2 = 2π/λ.
λ = 4 × 10−4 m
And using, v = λν = 400 m/s.
Skin Depth of an Insulator

I Problem: Showpthat the skin depth in a poor conductor

(σ << ω) is σ2 /µ (independent of frequency). Find the
skin depth (in meters) for (pure) water which has a relative
permittivity r ≈ 80 at 20◦ C, and conductivity σ = 5.5 µS/m.
I We begin with,
r r !1/2
µ  σ 2
κ=ω 1+ −1 ,
2 ω
and applying the binomial approximation, i.e.,
(1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx + . . . where x is small (x −→ 0),
r  1/2 r
µ 1  σ 2 σ µ
κ=ω 1+ −1 = ,
2 2 ω 2 
q
2 
So d = σ µ = 8.9 × 103 m, or roughly 9 km!
Skin Depth of a Good Conductor
I Problem: Show that the skin depth in a good conductor
(σ >> ω) is λ/2π (where λ is the wavelength in the
conductor). Find the skin depth (in nanometers) for a typical
metal σ = 1 × 107 S/m in the visible range
(ω = 1 × 1015 s−1 ), assuming  ≈ 0 and µ = µ0 . Why are
metals opaque?
σ 2


I In this case ω dominates, and thus,
r r !1/2
µ  σ 2
k =ω 1+ +1 ≈ κ.
2 ω

So, λ = 2π λ
κ = 2πd or d = 2π .
Plugging in the numbers for κ we get d = 13 nm. And thus
such fields hardly penetrate into a metal, which is what
accounts for their opacity.
Comparing E and B in a Good Conductor

I Problem: Show that in a good conductor the magnetic field

lags the electric field by 45◦ , and find the ratio of their
amplitudes. For a numerical example, use the ”typical metal”
in the previous problem.
I Since k ≈ κ as we found in part (b) above and
φ = tan−1 (κ/k) = 45◦ .
Using the ratio of the magnitudes B0 and E0 ,

s r r
B0 K  σ 2 r σµ 107 × 4π × 10−7
= = µ 1+ ≈ =
E0 ω ω ω 1015
= 1 × 10−7 s/m

which is 30 times larger than in vacuum8 !

8 B0
What’s the unit for E
?
Energy Density of an EM Wave In A Conducting Medium
(a) The energy stored per unit volume in an electromagnetic field u is given by the familiar expression,

1 2 1 2
u(z, t) = ( | E | + | B | ), (14)
2 µ

and plugging in,

−κz
E (z, t) = E0 e cos(kz − ωt + δE ),
(15)
−κz
B(z, t) = B0 e cos(kz − ωt + δB ),
s r
B σ 2,
 
K =
we get using hcosi = 1/2 and E0 = ω µ
1 + ω
0
1 −2κz  2 1 2
 
hui = e E0 + B0
2 2 2µ
 s  (16)
1 −2κz 2 σ 2
 
= e E0 1 + 1 + 
4 ω

Now using,
s 1/2
2
µ σ
r 
k =ω  1+ + 1 (17)
2 ω

we obtain,

k2 2 −2κz
hui = E0 e (18)
2µω 2
Energy Density of an EM Wave In A Conducting Medium
The ratio of the magnetic to the electric contribution is:
s
B02 /µ
2
humag i 1 σ

= = µ 1+ >> 1. (19)
huelec i E02  µ ω

and so the vast majority of EM wave energy is carried by the magnetic field in a good conductor!
(b) The Poynting vector,

1
S = (Re[E ] × Re[B])
µ
1 −2κz
= E0 B0 e cos(kz − ωt + δE ) cos(kz − ωt + δB )ẑ (20)
µ
1 −2κz
= E0 B0 e cos(kz − ωt + δE ) cos(kz − ωt + δE + φ)ẑ
µ

1 R 2π cos(θ) cos(θ + φ)dθ = (1/2) cos φ gives us,

and using 2π 0
1 −2κz
hSi = I ẑ = E0 B0 e cos φẑ (21)
2µ

Using cos φ = k/K and using B0 /E0 = K /ω we finally get the intensity,

k 2 −2κz
I = E0 e (22)
2µω