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 Chapter 1

Wave equation: Retarded and Advanced

Potentials

• Reference books: Jackson, V. Balakrishnan, Andrew Zangwill. Lecture notes by David Tong.

• In MKS units, Maxwell’s equations consist of a pair of inhomogeneous equations:

ρ(r, t)
∇ · E(r, t) = ,
ε0
1 ∂E(r, t)
∇ × B(r, t) − = µ0 j(r, t) (1.1)
c2 ∂t
which relates the fields E(r, t) and B(r, t) with their sources i.e., the charge density ρ(r, t) and the current density
j(r, t) and a pair of homogeneous equations:

∇ · B(r, t) = 0,
∂B(r, t)
∇ × E(r, t) + = 0. (1.2)
∂t

• Given the sources, ρ(r, t) and J(r, t), our goal is to solve for the fields E(r, t) and B(r, t).

• The homogeneous equations, (1.2), enable us to write

B(r, t) = ∇ × A(r, t),

∂A(r, t)
E(r, t) = −∇φ(r, t) − . (1.3)
∂t
where φ(r, t) is called the scalar potential and A(r, t) is called the vector potential.

• Inserting (1.3) into the inhomogeneous equations, we get a pair of coupled differential equations for φ and A given by

∂ ρ
(∇ · A) + ∇2 φ = − ,
∂t ε0
1 ∂2
   
1 ∂φ 2
∇ 2 +∇·A + −∇ A = µ0 j. (1.4)
c ∂t c2 ∂t2

• Thus, two scalar equations and two vector equations involving E and B are reduced to one scalar equation and one
vector equation involving φ and A. But even now, (1.4) are not easy to solve.

• Fortunately there is a way to simplify the Eqs.(1.4). To that end, note that if we make the transformations

A → A0 = A+∇θ,
∂θ
φ → φ0 = φ− , (1.5)
∂t
the fields E and B (and therefore, the Maxwell’s equations) remain unaffected i.e., E0 = E, B0 = B. Eqs.(1.5) are called
the gauge transformation of the electromagnetic potentials. This is known as the gauge invariance.

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4 CHAPTER 1. WAVE EQUATION: RETARDED AND ADVANCED POTENTIALS

• Gauge invariance means that there is a certain arbitrariness in defining the potentials φ and A. We can make a huge
class of transformations of the form (1.5) (with any θ that is at least twice differentiable) on φ and A, leaving the
physical fields E, B unaltered. This is called the gauge freedom.
• By choosing the scalar function θ(r, t), the gauge arbitrariness can be removed, at least partially. This is called gauge
fixing. You can think of the gauge transformation as a recipe for changing potentials (without changing the physical
fields) so as to simplify (1.4) (though it is more profound than that)! Below we describe to common choices of gauge (or
gauge fixing).
COULOMB GAUGE
• It is always possible to choose the vector potential A such that ∇ · A = 0. This is called the Coulomb gauge. Here is
an argument to show how this choice is always possible.

• Suppose we are given a vector potential such that ∇ · A = f (r, t) 6= 0 where f (r, t) is a scalar function that does not
vanish identically. Then we can define a new vector potential, A0 , by making a gauge transformation A0 = A + ∇θ,
which gives, ∇ · A0 = f + ∇2 θ. Therefore, if we choose θ to be a solution of the ∇2 θ(r, t) = −f (r, t), we see that the
new vector potential satisfies ∇ · A0 = 0! Thus, we can always make a gauge transformation to a vector potential that is
solenoidal.

• On setting ∇ · A = 0, (1.4) for φ gets simplified. The vector potential A disappears from this equation, which now
reduces to a well-studied equation of mathematical physics - namely, Poisson’s equation:

ρ(r, t)
∇2 φ(r, t) = − . (1.6)
ε0

• Once the solution to φ is obtained, we may substitute it in the second equation of (1.4) for A, and move the corresponding
term to the RHS of that equation. Then the equation for A in the Coulomb gauge then becomes

1 ∂2A 1 ∂φ
2 2
− ∇2 A = µ0 j − 2 ∇ (1.7)
c ∂t c ∂t
(1.7) is again a standard equation of mathematical physics, the inhomogeneous wave equation, which you probably have
solved while studying Green’s function technique of solving differential equations.

• Once φ and A are known by solving (1.6) and (1.7), the fields E and B are easily computed using (1.3).
LORENZ GAUGE
• It is always possible to choose the scalar potential φ and the vector potential A in such a way that

1 ∂φ
+∇·A=0 (1.8)
c2 ∂t

is satisfied. This is called the Lorenz gauge. Suppose you have been given a potential φ, A which doesn’t obey (1.8)
but, instead, satisfies c12 ∂φ 0 0
∂t + ∇ · A = g(r, t) for some function g. We can now define a new set of potentials φ , A , by a
0
gauge transformation (1.5), which gives c12 ∂φ ∂t + ∇ · A = g + 2θ. Therefore, if we choose θ to be the solution of the
0
0
inhomogeneous wave equation 2θ(r, t) = −g(r, t), we find that the new potentials satisfy c12 ∂φ 0
∂t + ∇ · A = 0. Therefore,
like the Coulomb gauge, it is always possible to achieve the Lorentz gauge condition.

• Clearly, in the Lorenz gauge, both φ, A satisfy inhomogeneous wave equations

1 ∂2φ ρ
2φ ≡ − ∇2 φ = ,
c2 ∂t2 ε0
1 ∂2A
A ≡ − ∇2 A = µ0 j (1.9)
c2 ∂t2

• In principle, therefore, the Lorenz gauge reduces the complete solution of Maxwell’s equations to the solution of
inhomogeneous wave equations for both φ and A.
• Once φ and A are known by solving (1.9), the fields E and B are easily computed using (1.3).
• Question 1 Why is the Coulomb gauge sometimes called the transverse gauge?

• Question 2 What is the advantage of using Loten(t)z gauge instead of the Coulomb gauge?
 5

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN FOUR-VECTOR NOTATION (MINIMAL DISCUSSION)

• The spacetime coordinates of an event, denoted by xµ = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) = (ct, r) and x0µ = (x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ) =
(ct0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) = (ct0 , r0 ) as measured by two inertial observers S and S 0 are related via a Lorentz tranformation:
x0µ = Λµν xν (1.10)
where the index ν is assumed to be summed over by Einstein’s summation convention. If the Cartesian axes of S and S 0
are parallel and if S 0 moves with a uniform velocity v relative to the S towards the common XX 0 axis, the matrix Λ is
given by
 
γ −γβ 0 0
−γβ γβ 0 0
Λ=  0
 (1.11)
0 1 0
0 0 0 1
p
where β = v/c and γ = 1/ 1 − β 2 .
• If any set of 4-tuples V µ = (V 0 , V 1 , V 2 , V 3 ) = (V 0 , V) transforms in the same manner as (1.10), it is called a four-
vector. It is very easy to verify that the four-velocity uµ = dxµ /dτ and four-acceleration aµ = d2 xµ /dτ 2 where τ is the
proper time also transform exactly as xµ does ((1.10)), and hence are also four-vectors. Similarly, it turns out that the
set of 4-tuples Aµ = (A0 , A) ≡ (φ/c, A), called the electromagnetic four-potential and j µ = (j 0 , j) ≡ (cρ, j), called the
four-current density, transform as in (1.10) under Lorentz transformations. These are examples of four-vectors.
• You should convince yourself that in this notation the continuity equation, the gauge transformation equations (1.5)
and the Lorentz gauge condition are respectively given by
∂µ J µ = 0,
Aµ → A0µ = Aµ − ∂ µ θ,
∂µ Aµ = 0 (1.12)
respectively.
• We’ll show that we can re-write the Maxwell’s equations in terms of Aµ and j µ . For that, we define an object F µν
(which is a tensor of rank two,1 ) as
F µν ≡ ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ (1.13)
∂
where ∂ µ = 1c ∂t


, −∇ . called the electromagnetic field tensor, or the field strength tensor . Clearly, F µν is
antisymmetric under the interchange µ ↔ ν and therefore it has only six independent components. The components of
F µν are related to the components of E and B. To see it, note that,
F 01 = −F 10 = ∂ 0 A1 − ∂ 1 A0
1 ∂ ∂
= Ax + (φ/c)
c ∂t
 ∂x 
1 ∂A
= + ∇φ = −Ex /c. (1.14)
c ∂t x

Similarly, F 02 = −F 20 = −Ey /c and F 03 = −F 30 = −Ez /c.

• Next, note that
F 12 = −F 21 = ∂ 1 A2 − ∂ 2 A1
∂Ay ∂Ax
= − +
∂x ∂y
= −(∇ × A)z = −Bz (1.15)
Similarly, F 13 = −F 31 = −By , F 23 = −F 32 = −Bx . Therefore, F µν is given by the following matrix:
 
0 −Ex /c −Ey /c −Ez /c
Ex /c 0 −Bz By 
F µν = −F νµ =  . (1.16)
Ey /c Bz 0 −Bx 
Ez /c −By Bx 0
Since this is a anti-symmetric tensor the diagonal entries, F 00 , F 11 , F 22 and F 33 are identically zero.
1 footnote A tensor of rank two with two contravariant indices is an object that transforms under Lorentz transformation as: T 0µν = Λµα Λνβ T αβ
or, in matrix notation, T 0 = ΛT ΛT . If you are interested, try to show that F 0µν = Λµα Λνβ F αβ using the transformation properties of xµ and ∂ µ .
6 CHAPTER 1. WAVE EQUATION: RETARDED AND ADVANCED POTENTIALS

• Now it is easy to verify that the inhomogeneous Maxwell’s equations (1.1) are equivalent to

∂µ F µν = µ0 j ν . (1.17)

• Using the antisymmetry of F µν , it is easy to verify that

∂ µ F νλ + ∂ λ F µν + ∂ ν F λµ = ∂ µ ∂ ν Aλ − ∂ λ Aν + ∂ λ (∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ ) + ∂ ν ∂ λ Aµ − ∂ µ Aλ = 0



(1.18)

which is basically an identity satisfied by F µν , called the Bianchi identity. In terms of (1.18) takes the simpler form

∂µ F̃ µν = 0. (1.19)

Verify that (1.18) leads to the homogeneous Maxwell’s equations.

1.1 Solution of Inhomogeneous Wave Equation: Retarded & Advanced

Potentials

• The inhomogeneous Maxwell’s equations

∂µ F µν = µ0 J ν (1.20)

can also be written as

Aν − ∂ ν (∂µ Aµ ) = µ0 J ν (1.21)

where  = ∂µ ∂ µ , called the wave operator or D’Alembertian.

• Using the gauge freedom, we can choose the Lorenz gauge condition ∂µ Aµ = 0, under which (1.21) reduces to the
standard wave equation for Aµ (r, t)

1 ∂2
 
µ
A = − ∇ Aµ (r, t) = µ0 J µ (r, t)
2
(1.22)
c2 ∂t2

which are identical to Eqs.(1.9).

• We’ll assume that J µ has compact spatial support, meaning that the source J µ i.e. charges and currents are localized to
some finite region of space and do not extend out to infinity.
• In the following, we’ll solve (1.22) in two slightly different ways.
Method 1: Green’s Function for the Helmholtz Equation
• Consider the temporal Fourier transforms of Aµ (r, t) and Jµ (r, t) defined as:
 +∞  +∞
dω dω ˜
Aµ (r, t) = õ (r, ω)e−iωt and Jµ (r, t) = Jµ (r, ω)e−iωt (1.23)
−∞ 2π −∞ 2π

With this convention, the inverse FTs will not involve factor of 2π. Substituting into (1.22), the Fourier amplitudes
õ (r, ω) and J˜µ (r, ω) are found to satisfy the equation

ω2
 
∇2r + 2 õ (r, ω) = −µ0 J˜µ (r, ω) (1.24)
c

where ∇r refers to the gradient w.r.t to the source coordinates . This is the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation with
source given by the current J˜µ . When ω = 0, (1.24) reduces to the Poisson’s equation that arose in electrostatics.
You’ve solved it using the method of Green’s functions. Here we’ll do the same for (1.24) with the boundary condition
(BC) that as |r − r0 | → 0 the solution Aµ (r, ω) → 0..
• The Green’s function for the Helmholtz equation obeys

ω2
 
∇2r + 2 G (r, r0 ; ω) = δ 3 (r − r0 ) (1.25)
c
1.1. SOLUTION OF INHOMOGENEOUS WAVE EQUATION: RETARDED & ADVANCED POTENTIALS 7

• With R = r − r0 , ∇r = ∇R ,

ω2
 
∇2R + 2 G (R; ω) = δ 3 (R) (1.26)
c

where the translational invariance of the operator ∇2R , the source and BC, ensures that G is a function of (r − r0 ) only
but not separately of r and r0 . Similarly, rotational invariance of the problem (i.e., the operator ∇2R , the source and BC)
ensure that the solutions to this equation are of the form G (R; ω) = Gω (R) where R = |r − r0 | . We can then write this
as the ODE,

ω2 1 d2 ω2
 
1 d 2 dGω
2
R + 2 Gω = 2
(RGω ) + 2 Gω = δ 3 (R). (1.27)
R dR dR c R dR c

• Show that (1.27) it can also be written as

1 d2 ω2
(RGω ) + Gω = δ 3 (R) (1.28)
R dR2 c2

• Away from the origin R 6= 0, the solutions take the form

eiωR/c e−iωR/c
Gω (R) = A +B (1.29)
R R
which is valid everywhere except R = 0.
• We must set B = 0 on physical grounds and will be justified shortly (explained at the end of the discussion). For the
time being, we set it equal to zero, as we are interested in outgoing solutions. To determine the unknown A, we integrate
both sides of (1.27) over a ball of radius R0 . We get
 R0
ω2
   
2 1 d 2 dGω
4π dRR R + 2 Gω = 1 (1.30)
0 R2 dR dR c

• Taking the limit R0 → 0, only the first term on the LHS survives to give

1 eiωR/c
Gω (R) = − (1.31)
4π R
which happily agrees with the Green’s function for the Poisson equation when ω = 0.
• The Green’s function Gω (R) allows us to write the Fourier components õ as

d3 r0 Gω (R) −µ0 J˜µ (r0 , ω)


õ (r, ω) =
 0
µ0 e+iω|r−r |/c ˜ 0
= d3 r0 Jµ (r , ω) (1.32)
4π |r − r0 |

• Taking the inverse FT, we get,

∞  0
µ0 dω e−iω(t−|r−r |/c) ˜ 0
Aµ (r, t) = d3 r0 Jµ (r , ω) (1.33)
4π 2π |r − r0 |
−∞

which is just the inverse Fourier transform with the difference that instead of the time variable t has we have the retarded
time, tret = t − |r − r0 | /c. Therefore, the final result is,

µ0 Jµ (r0 , tret )
Aµ (r, t) = d3 r0 (1.34)
4π |r − r0 |

or, using Aµ = (φ/c, A), we can write more explicitly,


1 ρ (r0 , tret )
φ(r, t) = d3 r0 ,
4πε0 |r − r0 |

µ0 J (r0 , tret )
A(r, t) = d3 r0 . (1.35)
4π |r − r0 |
8 CHAPTER 1. WAVE EQUATION: RETARDED AND ADVANCED POTENTIALS

• Eq.(1.34) or the pair of Eqs.(1.35) are called the retarded potentials. To determine the contribution at point r and
time t, we integrate the current over all of space, weighted with the Green’s function factor 1/ |r − r0 | which captures
the fact that points further away contribute more weakly. You can verify that this is indeed the solution by plugging it
into the wave equation (good practice).
• Thus, we’ve arrived at something very nice. The general form of the answer is very similar to the result for electrostatic
potential and magnetostatic vector potential. Recall that when the charge density and current were independent of time
(static limit), we found
 
1 3 0 ρ (r0 ) µ0 J (r0 )
V (r) = d r 0
, and A(r) = d3 r0 (1.36)
4πε0 |r − r | 4π |r − r0 |

which is simply the ω = 0 limit of (1.33).

• When the charge and current density depend on time, the potential Aµ at point r and at time t depends on the charge
and the current configuration at point r0 and the earlier time tret = t − |r − r0 | /c. Therefore, for any change in the
sources, the disturbance cannot propagate instantaneously. The difference, (t − tret ), is just the time it takes the signal
to propagate from r0 to r, travelling at the speed of light c. Since Maxwell’s equations are consistent with special
relativity, it prohibits instantaneous propagation of signals.

• If we assumed A = 0 and B = 6 0, it would have led to a solution in which Aµ at time t is determined by the behaviour of
the sources in future, rather than in the past. These solutions are typically thrown out as being unphysical because they
violate causality. How the potential behave at r at the present time t cannot depend on how the source will behave in
future at the advanced time tadv = t0 + |r − r0 |/c.