CHAPTER 3

- CONDUCTIVE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS -

Conductivity & Ohm’s Law

Conductivity – the ease with which a material is capable of conducting an
electric current (σ).
According to this property, there are 3 types of materials:
- conductors;
- semiconductors;
- insulators;

Metals are the best conductors, typically having

σ =105 ¿

Insulators have the conductivity low

σ =10−7 →10−20 ¿

Semiconductors have intermediate conductivity

σ =10−7 →10−3 ¿

U
Ohm’s Law: I
=constant states that the ratio of U to I remains constant

independent of the magnitude or direction of I.

Some ceramic materials called varistors (thermistors) do not obey Ohm’s law.
Any material with a non-linear U(I) characteristic is called non-ohmic.

ρl
R=
A

V
E=
l

I
J= density of current ( A/m2 ¿
A

V ρl El E
⃗ 1 ⃗
E
R= =ct → = → ρ= =ct → = → ⃗J =σ ⃗
E
I A AJ J σ J
Where:
l – length of the sample
A – cross section area of the sample, perpendicular on the direction of I

This form of Ohm’s law has the following advantages:

1
 E
⃗
ρ=
J
1. It is expressed in terms of a material parameter ( ρ ) that, unlike R, doesn’t
depend on sample dimensions.
2. It’s a local expression (i.e. its valid in every point of the material)
3. It’s a vector relation, showing that 2 vectors quantities ( ⃗ E , ⃗J ) are parallel and
proportional everywhere in the material.

In anisotropic material (usually in non-cubic crystal structure) σ is a 9-

component tensor.

J 1=σ 11 E1+ σ 12 E 2+ σ 13 E3
J 2=σ 21 E1 +σ 22 E2 +σ 23 E3
J 3=σ 31 E1 +σ 32 E2 +σ 33 E3

Conductivity in metals. Classical free electrons theory

The first model: the electrons have a particle nature.

We can explain the resistance of a material by means of collision of the drifting

electrons and certain lattice atoms. The more collisions we encounter, the
greater the resistance is.

The second model: the electrons have a wave nature.

This model considers that the matter waves are scattered by lattice atoms.

scattering – process of radiation (dissipation on small particles in all directions).

It can be coherent or un-coherent.

Coherent scattering: the scattering senders are periodically arranged and there
is a slight phase relationship between the scattered waves.

The first theory is the classical free electron theory of conductivity in metals.
The idea on which Drude theory is based is that many electrons in metals are
nearly free. That’s why he postulated the existence of a free electron gas or
plasma, composed of the valence electrons of the individual atoms in a crystal.
If we have a monovalent element (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr), it is assumed that each
atom contains 1 electron to this plasma.
m N NA m
= →N=
μ NA μ

2
 dv
F=ma↔ m =eE
dt

dv
m +γv=eE
dt

γ - friction (damping force)

Due to this 2 forces, the electrons will be accelerated until the velocity will be
saturated.
v

vd

vd=μeE

m2
μ= → σ=N e μe
vs

dv eE
v=v d =constant → =0 → γ v d =eE → γ =
dt vd

dv eE
m + γ=eE
dt v d

[ ( )]
v=v d 1−exp
−eE
mv d
t

m vd
τ=
eE

The relation time can be interpreted as the average time between 2

consecutive collisions.
τeE
v d=
m

vd 1 τeE
σ =Neμe=Ne =Ne
E E m

3
 N e2 τ
σ=
m

This equation shows that conductivity is large for large number of free
electrons in a large relaxation time.
The relaxation time is proportional to the average time between 2 consecutive
collisions.

l v th τ - mean free path

Advantages
- for metals is in very good accordance with experimental results
- for insulators and semiconductors we need more precise theory (quantic)

Conductivity in metals and non-metals

- in equilibrium – no electric field

- when an electric field is applied

At equilibrium the valence electrons perform random motions with no

preferred velocity in any direction.

V(k)x

If an electric field is applied

V(k)x

The Fermi sphere/circle is displaced in a direction opposite to the electric field.

This displacement takes place because some electrons propagating in opposite
4
direction to the field E receive from it a maximum increase in their energy,
that’s represented by the electrons in the double shaded crescent in the right
part having higher energy.

These electrons are those which contribute to the electric conductor.

Therefore, the Drude classical theory of conduction must be modified.

The main difference between Drude’s theory and quantum theory is that Drude
assumed that all electrons drift under the influence of an electric field with a
relatively modest velocity.

Quantum mechanics shows instead that only specific electrons participate in

conduction and these electrons drift with a higher velocity, named Fermi
velocity v f .

The conductivity in quantum mechanics

1
σ = v f 2 e2 N ( E F )τ
3

This equation shows that the conductivity depends according to the quantum
mechanical model on the Fermi velocity v f , the population density per unit
volume and relaxation time.

This equation is more meaningful than the one in classical theory, showing that
not all free electrons are responsible for conduction (shown by the fact that σ
depends on v f and not merely on any v) and instead the conductivity in metals
depends to a large extend on the population density of the electrons near the
Fermi surface (or sphere in 3D).

Electrical resistivity in metals and alloys

Metal Electrical Conductivity ( Ωm)−1

Silver 6.8 ∙10 7
Copper 6.0 ∙10 7
Gold 4.3 ∙ 107
Aluminum 3.8 ∙10 7
Iron 1.0 ∙10 7

Alloy Electrical Conductivity ( Ωm)−1

5
 Brass (70% Cu, 30% Zn) 1.6 ∙10 7
Platinum 0.98 ∙ 107
Plain steel 0.6 ∙ 107
Stainless Steel 0.2 ∙10 7

Mothiessen’s Rule

ρtotal = ρthermal + ρimpurity + ρdeformation

1. ρT =ρ0 +aT - where ρ0 , a constants

2. Influences of the temperature

ρi= A ci (1−ci)
A – constant; function of both impurity and host metal.

CHAPTER 4
- SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS -

Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between the

conductivity of a conductor and the conductivity of an insulator ¿.

The electric properties of these materials are extremely sensitive to the

presence of even small concentration of impurities.

Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electric behavior is based on

the electronic structure inherent to the pure material. When the electric charge
is dictated by impurity atoms the semiconductor is said to be doped or
extrinsic.
Intrinsic semiconductor

Structure
At 0 K it has a completely filled valence band, separated from an empty
conduction band by a relatively narrow band gap (smaller than 2 eV).

Elemental semiconductors
Si (1.1 eV)
Ge (0. eV)

Compound semiconductor materials having intrinsic behavior can be:

6
- III-V compounds: GaAs, InSb
- II-VI compounds: CdS, ZnTe
- ternary compounds: HgCdTe, GaAsP

Band Gap Electron Hole

Material σ (Ωm)−1
(eV) Density ¿ Mobility ¿
Si 1.11 4 ∙10−4 0.14 0.05
Elemental
Ge 0.67 2.2 0.38 0.18
GaP 2.25 - 0.05 0.002
III-IV
GeAs 1.42 10−6 0.85 0.45
Compounds
InSb 0.17 2 ∙10 4 7.7 0.07
II-VI CdS 2.40 - 0.03 -
Compounds ZnTe 2.26 - 0.03 0.01

Ternary elements don’t have a precise value of the band gap because the
proportion of the elements may differ (x = 0.2…0.4) so the properties differ too.

Intrinsic semiconductors, for every electron excited into the conduction band a
missing electron is left behind in the valence band. This missing electron is
treated as a positively charged particle called hole. The charge of a hole is
+1.6 ∙ 10−19 C .

Intrinsic conductivity

σ =N |e| μ e + P∨e∨μh
N, P – concentration of electrons/holes
μe ,h – mobility of electrons/holes

The mobility of holes is smaller than the mobility of electrons in a

semiconductor.
In intrinsic semiconductors if an electron jumps in conduction band, a hole
remains in valence band.
In extrinsic semiconductors if an electron jumps to the impurity level, number
of electrons will be smaller than the number of holes.

Extrinsic semiconductors

The electrical behavior of an extrinsic semiconductor is determined by

impurities. These impurities, when they are present (even in small
concentration) introduce excess electrons or holes.

7
Doping means addition of controlled amount of impurities in order to increase
the number of charge carriers in a semiconductor.

There are 2 types:

n-type extrinsic semiconductor

In order to obtain a n-type semiconductor we need an impurity atom with a
valence of V to be added as a substitution impurity (P, As, Sb).
Only 4 of the 5 valence electrons of impurity atom can participate in the
bounding. The 5th electron is loosely bound and therefore it can be easily
removed from the impurity atom, becoming a free electron (conduction
electron). For each of these loosely bounded electrons there exists a single
energy level or energy state located within the forbidden band gap just below
the bottom of the conduction band.
For each excitation event a single electron is supplied or donated to the
conduction band. Since each electron is excited from an impurity level, no
corresponding hole is created within the valence band.
N ≫ P → σ ≅ N∨e∨μ e
The electrons in a n-type extrinsic semiconductor are majority carriers and the
holes are minority carriers.

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

An opposite effect is produced by the addition to Si or Ge of trivalent
substitution impurity (group III – Al, Br, Ga).
One of the covalent bands around each of these atoms is deficient in an
electron. Such a deficiency can be viewed as a hole that is weakly bound to the
impurity atom. This hole can be illustrated from the impurity atom by the
transfer of an electron from adjacent band.
Each impurity atom of this type introduces an energy level within the band gap
alone, but very close to the top of the valence band.
A hole is created within valence band by the thermal excitation of an electron
from the valence band into this impurity electron state. With such a transition
only one carrier is produced, a hole in the valence band, a free electron is not
created in either impurity level or conduction band. The impurity of this type is
called acceptor because is capable of accepting electrons from valence band,
leaving behind holes.
P ≫ N → σ=P∨e∨μh
Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

8
 CHAPTER 5
- DIELECTRIC MATERIALS -

Dielectric materials are insulators, as they have a large energy gap between the
valence and conduction band. Thus, the electrons in the valence band can’t
jump in the conduction band. Therefore the resistivities for these materials are
very high. Dielectric materials exhibit or can be made to exhibit an electric
dipole structure, that is a separation between positive and negative electrically
charged entities on a molecular/atomic level.

The 2 important applications are:

- capacitors for the storage of electrical charges
- electrical insulators for preventing electricity transfer

The most important properties

- Relative permittivity – ε r (dielectric constant)
- tangent of loss angle – tg δ

Other important properties:

- feroelectricity
- piezoelectricity
- electrostriction
- piroelectricity;

Capacitors
When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate becomes positively
charged, the other one negatively charged with a corresponding electric field
directed from the positive to negative.

The capacity C is related to the quantity of charge stored in each plate and V is
the voltage applied across the capacitor.
Q
C=
V
1C
¿ C> ¿SI = =1 F ¿
1V
For the case of the plane capacitor with vacuum between the plates the
capacity will be
ε0 A
C=
l
A – the area of the plates
l – distance between the plates

9
ε 0=8.856 ∙ 10−12 F /m - permittivity of vacuum

When introducing a dielectric between the plates, the capacity will become
εA
C=
l
where ε is the material permittivity.
ε =ε 0 ε r
ε r represents the increase in charge storing capacity by insertion of the
dielectric medium between the plates.

Field vectors and polarization

For each dipole an electric dipole moment is associated.

p=qd
q – magnitude of each dipole charge
d – the distance between charges

In the presence of the electric field ⃗E a force will act on the dielectric dipole in
order to orient it in the direction of the field.

+
- +
-

The surface charge density D or the quantity of charge per unit area of capacity
plates
Q
D=
A
D 0=ε 0 ⃗
⃗ E

D=ε ⃗
⃗ E

D =ε ⃗
⃗ E +⃗
P

Polarization
The increase of charge density above the value of vacuum because of the
presence of dielectric
C
P≥
¿⃗
m2

DQ
P=
A
10
P=ε 0 ( ε r −1 ) ⃗
⃗ E

Types of polarization

Polarization – the alignment of permanent or induced atomic or molecular

dipole moments with an externally applied electric field.
There are 3 types of induced polarization:
- electronic displacement
- ionic displacement
- bipolar orientation

Dielectrics are materials characterized by states of electric polarization.

The state of electric polarization can be:
a) temporary (induced) – depends on local ⃗E
b) permanent – does not depend on ⃗E

A.
1. Electronic displacement polarization
The limited and elastic motion the electron shells on the dielectric atoms

-
+
-
-

It is a general property of materials. Generally materials which show only

electronic displacement polarization are called non-polar materials.

2. Ionic displacement polarization

The limited and elastic motions of the ions of the dielectric under the action of
the electric field.

This polarization mechanism is specific for dielectrics with prevailing ionic

bonds.

3. Bipolar orientation
The orientation of the existing electric moments on the direction of the applied
field.

11
When ⃗E =0, only under the influence of thermal energy, the electric moments
are random.
The dipolar orientation polarization is specific for materials which have electric
moments, polar materials.

Total polarization
P=P electronic + Pionic + P orientation

Not all three mechanisms are present in a material. For example, Pi won’t exist
in a material with covalent bonds (no ions are present).

B.
1. Spontaneous (Pyroelectric)
Represents the ordering of the electric moments of the dielectric on
temperature domains in the absence of the electrical external field.

2. Piezoelectric
Represents the phenomenon that appears under the action of the mechanical
strains applied on the structure.

Complex relative permittivity and tangent of loss angle

Complex relative permittivity can be expressed as

D
ε r=ε 'r− j ε 'r' =
εr E

D – complex representation of the electric flux density

E – complex electric field intensity

The real part of the complex relative permittivity ε 'r characterizes the dielectric
from the point of view of polarization ability whereas the imaginary part ε 'r'
characterizes the dielectric from the point of view of energy losses in the
material.

Tangent of loss angle

12
 ε 'r'
tg δ= '
εr

The inverse of tg δ is called the quality factor of the dielectric

1 ε 'r
Qε = = ''
tgδ ε r

Frequency dependence of the dielectric constants

In many practical situations the current is alternatively, that is an applied

voltage on electric field changes direction with time. With each direction
reversal the dipoles attempt to reorient with the field.
This process requires some finite time. For each polarization type a minimum
reorientation time exists, which depends on the ease with which the dipoles
are capable of realignment.

A relaxation frequency is the reciprocal of this minimum reorientation time.

When a polarization mechanism ceases to function there is an abrupt drop in

the dielectric constant. Otherwise for each polarization mechanism ε r is
virtually frequency independent.
The absorption of electric energy by the dielectric material under an alternating
field is called dielectric loss. This loss can be significant for electric field
frequencies close to the relaxation frequency.
At the frequency of utilization a low dielectric loss is desired.

Dielectric material types

A number of ceramics and polymers are used as insulators or in capacitors.

Many of the ceramics including mica, porcelain, have the electric constants
within range of 6 … 10. These materials also exhibit a high degree of
dimensional stability and mechanical strength.

Typical applications
- power line and electric insulation
- switches
- light receivers

13
The titanate ceramics such as barium titanate ( BaTi O3) can be made to have
extremely high dielectric constants which render them especially useful for
some capacitors applications.

The magnitude of the dielectric constant for most polymers is smaller than for
ceramics, generally between 2 and 5. These materials are commonly used for
insulation of wires, cables and motors, and in addition for some capacitors.

Other electrical charge of dielectric materials

Dielectrics can be classified according to their properties in the following

categories:
1. ε r <12 - insulating materials
2. ε r >12 - capacitor materials, electricity storage
3. Ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics, piroelectrics and electrostriction – used for
their special functions

a) Ferroelectricity
Some dielectrics present a behavior of polarization vs. applied electric field very
similar to the behavior of B vs. H for ferromagnetic materials. This type of PE
graph is called ferroelectric hysteresis loop.
Ferroelectricity takes place in this material below a temperature called Curie
temperature.
Examples of materials displaying ferroelectricity:
- barium titanate - BaTi O3
- Rochelle salt
- potassium di-hydrogen-phosphate
- potassium niobate
- lead zirconate-titanate (PZT)

Ferroelectrics have extremely high dielectric constants, even at relatively low

applied field frequencies (at room temperature for BaT i O3 is almost 5000).
Consequently capacitors made from these materials can be significantly smaller
compared to capacitors made from other materials.

b) Piezoelectricity and electrostriction

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material, the polarization may
modify the dimensions of the material. This dimension change is called
electrostriction.

14
On the other hand when a dimensional change (mechanical strains) is imposed
on some dielectrics polarization occurs and a voltage field is created.
Dielectric materials displaying this type of behavior are called piezoelectric,
which means pressure electricity.
Piezoelectric materials are used in transducers which are devices that convert
electrical energy into mechanical strains or vice versa. Familiar applications
include microphones, pick-ups, ultrasounds generators, sonar detectors.
(the pick-up cartridge, as the stylus traverses the grooves on a record, a
pressure variation is imposed on a piezoelectric material located inside the
cartridge which is then transformed into an electric signal and amplified before
going to the speaker)
Examples of piezoelectric materials
- lead zirconate
- ammonium di-hydrogen-phosphate
- quartz

Generally this property is characteristic for materials having crystal structures

with a low degree of symmetry.

c) Piroelectricity
Piroelectric materials are a special class of piezoelectric materials. By heating
the material, external expansion creates a deformation which produces a
change in the extend of polarization and thus, a voltage results across the
sample.

PROPERTY CAUSE EFFECT

Ferroelectricity Physical property of a material plus
Polarization that remains
electrical field applied and after the electric field is
removed removed
Electrostriction Electric field Dimensional change
Piezoelectricity Dimensional change Electric field plus
polarization
Piroelectricity Temperature change, dimensional Polarization plus electric
change field

CHAPTER 6
- MAGNETIC MATERIALS -

15
Magnetism is the phenomenon by which the materials assert an attractive or
repulsive influence on other materials.

Examples of materials:
- iron
- steel

All substances are influenced to a certain degree by the presence of the

magnetic field. The externally applied magnetic field is designated by H. If the
magnetic field is generated by means of a solenoid or a cylindrical coil
consisting of N closely spaced turns having the length l and carrying a current of
magnitude I

H= ¿ ¿
l

The magnetic induction denoted by B represents the magnitude of the internal

field strength within a substance that is subjected to an H field.
H: applied field
B: internal field induced by applied field

B=μH

μ is called permeability, which is a property of a specific moment through

which the H field passes and in which B is measured.

¿ μ≥H /m

μ0=4 π ×10−7 H /m
The relative permeability of a material is a measure of the degree through
which the material can be magnetized or the ease with which a B field can be
induced in the presence of an external H field.

The magnetic moment (magnetic dipole moment) is a vector that characterizes

the magnets over all the magnetic properties.
For a bar magnet the direction of a magnetic moment points from the magnet’s
north pole to its south pole.

Magnetization is another magnetic quantity and is defined

B=μ0 H + μ0 M

16
The magnetization of the magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic
moment per unit volume. It is a vector field rather than just a vector (like the
magnetic moment) because different areas in the magnet can be magnetized
with different directions and strengths.

In the presence of an H field, the magnetic moments tend to become aligned to

the field and to reinforce it because of the magnetic field. The term μ0 M is a
measure of this contribution.

M= χmH

χ m is called magnetic susceptibility

χ m =μr −1

Analogy between electric and magnetic parameters

B…D
H…E
μ ... ε
M…P

Origins of magnetic moments

Each electron in an atom has magnetic moments that originate from 2 sources:
- one is related to the orbital motion around the nucleus
- the second one: the electron may also be thought of a spinning around an axis

This second magnetic moment originates from this electron spin. Spin magnetic
moments may be only in up direction (spin up) or in down direction (spin
down).
The fundamental magnetic moment is the Bohr-Procopiu magnet μ B

eh
μ B= =9.27 ×10−24 A /m 2
4 πm

For each electron in an atom the spin magnetic moment is ± μ B.

The first orbital magnetic moment is me μB

Magnets

17
Description of magnet behavior

Ferro and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought as magnets.
They are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt.
They are the only ones that can retain the magnetization and become magnets.
Ferrimagnetic materials are similar, but weaker. The susceptibility χ is very
large: 10 … 1015.

Paramagnetic materials (Al, Pt) are weakly attracted to a magnet. This effect is
hundreds of thousands weaker and it can only be determined by using very
sensitive instruments or by using very strong magnets.

Diamagnetic materials are the ones that are repelled weakly by both poles of a
magnet. Compared to para and ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic
substances Ca, Cu and plastic are even more weakly repelled by magnets.
The permeability of diamagnets is smaller than μ0.

All substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetization are
diamagnetic. This includes most substances. χ – −10−6 …−10−15

In order to emphasize this weak repulsion force one must use extremely strong
super conducting magnets.

Diamagnetism

Is a very weak form of magnetism that is not permanent and persists only while
an external field is being applied. The magnitude of the induced magnetic
moments is extremely small and in a direction opposite to that of the applied
field. Thus the relative permeability μr is less than 1 (slightly) and the magnetic
susceptibility is less than 0.

It was found bay Lenz that a current is induced in a wire loop whenever a bar
magnet is moved towards or from this loop.

The current thus induced causes in turn a magnetic moment which is opposite
to the current one.

Diamagnetism may be explained by postulating that the external magnetic field

induces a change in the magnitude of the inner atomic currents, that is the
external field accelerates (decelerates) the orbital electron so that their

18
magnetic moment is in the opposite direction to that of the external magnetic
field.

In other words, the responses of the orbit electron counteract the external
field.
So far, we considered only electrons that are bounded to the ?. However
metals also have free electrons, which are forced to move in a magnetic field in
a circular path. This leads to a ? contribution to the diamagnetic moment – the
circulating free electrons cause a magnetic moment.

Paramagnetism

In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, that is atomic or

molecular orbitals with exactly 1 electron in them. The unpaired electron is free
to align its magnetic moment in any direction. Where an external magnetic
field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the
same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.

For a diamagnetic material, in the absence of the magnetic field no dipoles

exist. In the presence of a field, dipoles are induced and there are aligned
opposite to the field direction.
For a paramagnetic material, in the absence of a paramagnetic field, the
orientations of diatomic magnetic moments are random, such that the material
as a whole presents no net macroscopic magnetization. When an external field
is applied the dipoles align themselves with the external field; they enhance it
giving rise to a relative permeability μr >1 and to a relatively small but positively
magnetic susceptibility.
Both (dia and para) are considered to be non-magnetic because they exhibit
magnetization only in the presence of the external field.

Ferromagnetism

Certain metallic materials posses a permanent magnetic moment, in the

absence of an electric external field and have very large and permanent
magnetization. These are the characteristics of ferromagnetism and they are
displayed by the transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni) and by the rare earth metals (Gd
– Gadolinium).

Magnetic susceptibility can be as high as 106 and we can write

B=μ0 M

19
because H ≪ M

No net magnetic moment is associated with the O2−¿¿ ions. However, each
Mn2 +¿¿ ion possesses a non-zero magnetic moment predominantly of spin origin.
These Mn2 +¿¿ ions are arranged in the crystal structure in such way that the
moments of adjacent ions are antiparallel and thus cancel one another. As a
consequence the solid as a whole possesses no net magnetic moments.

Ferrimagnetism

Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent magnetization called ferrimagnetism.

The macroscopic magnetic characteristics of ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic
are similar.
The distinction lies in the source of the net magnetic moments.

Cubic ferrites - M Fe 2 O4

The O2−¿¿ ions are magnetically neutral. The spin moments of all Fe3 +¿¿ ions are
antiparallel as in ferromagnetic so they cancel one another and have no net
contribution to the magnetization of the solid. All the Fe2−¿¿ ions have their
moments aligned in the same direction and this total moment is responsible for
the net magnetization.

Cubic ferrites having also other composition may be produced.

Cation Net spin magnetic moment (Bohr-Procopiu mg)

3 +¿¿
Fe 5
Fe2+ ¿¿ 4
Mn2 +¿¿ 5
Co 2+¿ ¿ 3
¿2 +¿¿ 2
Cu 2+¿ ¿ 1

The saturation magnetizations for ferromagnetic materials are not so high as

for ferromagnets. On the other hand, ferrites having ceramic materials are
good electrical insulators. For some magnetic application such as frequency
transformers, a low electrical conductivity is most desirable.

The influence of temperature on magnetic behavior

20
Raising a temperature of a solid results in an increase in the magnitude
vibration of atoms. The increased thermal motion of atoms tends to randomize
the direction of any moment that may be aligned, resulting in a decrease of the
magnetic spin for both ferro and ferri magnetic materials.

The saturation magnetization is maximum at 0 K where the thermal vibrations

are minimum. With increasing temperature, the saturation magnetization
diminishes gradually and then abruptly drops to 0 at Curie temperature.

Domains and hysteresis

Any ferro and ferri magnetic material that has a temperature below Curie
temperature is composed of small volume regions in which all magnetic dipole
moments are aligned in the same direction.

Such a region is called domain and each one is magnetized to its saturation
magnetization. Adjacent domains are separated by domain boundaries or walls
(block walls).

For ferrimagnets and ferromagnets the flux density B and the field density H
are not proportional. If the material is initially unmagnetisez, then varies as a
function of H.

The curve begins at the origin and as H is increased, the B field begins to
increase slowly, then more rapidly, finally leveling off and becoming
independent of H. This maximum value of B is the saturation induction Bs. The
slope of B vs. H curve at H=0 is specified as a material property and is called the
initial permeability μi.

As the external field is applied, the domains are oriented in directions favorable
to the applied field (or nearly aligned to it) grow at the expense of those that
are unfavorably oriented. This process continues with increasing field intensity
until the specimen becomes a single domain, thus saturation being achieved.

From saturation as the H field is reduced by reversal field direction, the curve
does not retrace its original path. A hysteresis effect is produced. At 0 H field
there exists a residual B field called remanence for the remanent induction Br.
The material remains magnetized in the absence of the external H field. The
explanation for this phenomenon is the resistance to moment of domain walls

21
that occurs in response to the increase of the magnetic field in the opposite
direction. When the applied field H reaches 0, there is still some net volume,
fractions of domains oriented in the former direction which explains the
existence of the remanence Br. In order to reduce the B field of the specimen
to 0, an H field of magnitude –Hc must be applied. Hc is called coercitivity (or
coercitive field). Upon continuation of the applied field in this reverse direction
saturation is achieved in the opposite sense. A ? reversal of the field up to the
point of initial saturation completes the symmetrical hysteresis loop.

This B vs. H curve represents a hysteresis loop ? to saturation.

22