MODULE -4

Ch-1: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

Most of the properties of metal can be explained by assigning a free electron model to them. A classical
model of electrical conduction in a metal was first proposed by Paul Drude.

Drude –Lorentz theory (Classical free electron theory) :

Free-electron and phonon concept:

All metal atoms consist of valance electrons. These valance electrons are responsible for electrical conduction
in a metal. Any atom constitutes the elementary particles that electron, proton and neutron. The nucleus is the
central part of the atom and consists of protons and neutrons and this nucleus possess maximum mass of the
atom. The light weight electrons revolving around the nucleus in the atoms. The electrons in the last orbit of
the atom are called valence electrons. Consider copper as an example for metals. A copper atom consists of 29
electrons, out of which 28 electrons are filled in the first 3 shells and forms the core part. The remaining one
electron will be present in the 4th shell and is the valance electron of the copper atom. It is very loosely bound
in the atom.

When large number of copper atoms joins to form a metal, the boundaries of the neighboring atoms
slightly overlap on each other. Due to this the valance electron finds continuity from atom to atom. Thus, it can
move easily throughout the body of the metal. The free movement of electrons means none of them belongs to
any atom, but each of them belongs to the metal to which they are confined to. Thus, such electrons are named
free electrons. These free electrons are responsible for physical property of metal such as electrical and
thermal conductivities, electron emission etc. Since free electrons are responsible for electrical conduction
in a solid, they are also called conduction electrons.

Fig 1. Free electrons

However, the loss of electrons makes the atom to lose their electrical neutrality. They become positive ions
fixed about in their mean position. The structure formation due to the array of such ions in 3 dimensions is
called lattice. The ionic cores and free electrons in a metal above the absolute zero temperature (> 0K) starts to
vibrate after absorbing the heat energy and the area covered by such vibrations is called area of influences, this
vibrations are called as Lattice vibrations. The quanta of energy, which emitted during vibrations, are called
Phonons. Thermal vibrations of ions at lattice points cause elastic waves in crystal. The energy of these lattice
vibrations is quantized and quantum of this energy is phonon.

Phonon: it is particle like entity which carries the unit energy of elastic field in a particular mode is called
phonon. The energy of the phonon is given by hν.

The free electrons collide with ion core at lattice point. The collision results in a change in the direction of
velocity of the electrons. In absence of electric field, the velocities of electrons are in random directions as in
fig.2 due to which there is no net transfer of charge.

Fig 2. Free electrons colliding with Lattice ions.

According to Drude –Lorentz theory all metals contain free electrons move through the positive ionic core of
the metals. The metal is then pictured to be held together by electrostatic forces of attraction between the
positively charged ions and negatively charged electron gas. Mutual repulsion between negative electrons is
ignored in this theory.

Failures of classical free electron theory:

Classical free electron theory failed to account for much experimental fact. Among which the notable once are
specific heat, temperature dependence of electric conductivity (𝜎), and the dependence of electrical
conductivity on electron concentration.
1) Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

It has been experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity 𝜎 is inversely proportional to
temperature T,
1
𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝛼 ------(1)
𝑇

1
𝜎𝐶𝐹𝐸𝑇 𝛼 -----(2)
√𝑇

From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with
experimental observation.

2) Dependence of 𝜎 on electron concentration:

According to classical free electron theory, the electrical conductivity 𝜎 is given by,
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
Where, n is the electron concentration.

i.e. free electron theory suggest that 𝜎 is proportional to electron concentration n.

Experimental conductivity values for different metals are as follow

Metal Electron concentration(n) Conductivity (𝜎)

per m3 Siemens per meter

Ag 5.85*10^28 6.30*10^7
Cu 8.45*10^28 5.88*10^7
Cd 9.28*10^28 0.15*10^7
Zn 13.10*10^28 1.09*10^7
Ga 15.30*10^28 0.67*10^7
Al 18.06*10^28 3.65*10^7

Practically it is observed from above table that 𝜎 is not strictly proportional to electronconcentration.
2) Dependence of 𝜎 on specific heat:

According to the Molar specific heat of metals

3
𝐶𝑉 = 2 𝑅 -------- (1)
According to experiments, Specific heat of metals.
𝐶𝑉 = 10−4 𝑅 𝑇 --------- (2)

From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with
experimental observation.

Drift velocity (Vd):

In the absence of applied field, the free electrons move rapidly in all direction. i,e the net current moving
across any given plane at any instant is zero. If a constant electric field is applied, the electron will experience
a force eE and get accelerated. This causes the electrons to drift in a direction opposite to that of E. The
accelerated electrons collide with ions of the metal. During collision their velocities decreases. Due to repeated
collisions the average acceleration of the electrons is reduced to zero. The electrons acquire a constant average
velocity opposite to the field. This velocity is called drift velocity (Vd). The drift motion is directional and
causes current flow, called drift current.

“The average velocity with which free electrons move in a steady state opposite to the direction of the
electric field in a metal is called drift velocity”.

Resistivity and mobility:

Electrons tend to accelerate in the direction of the field; they are deflected in random directions by vibrating
lattice points, which is scattering. The overall effect of scattering of electrons by vibrating lattice manifests as
resistance to electric current.

Resistance is the physical effect brought about the vibrating lattice in a material by virtue of which the
accelerating effects of an applied field on the conduction electrons is annulled so that the electrons settle into
state of constant velocity which is proportional to the strength of the applied field.

For a material of uniform cross section, the resistance R is directly proportional to length of wire (L) and
𝐿
inversely proportional to cross sectional area (A) , 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝜌 is called resistivity.
 It is the property of the material measuring opposition offered by material to flow of current
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = i.e. 𝜎 =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌

Mobility of electrons: The mobility of electrons is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the
electrons in unit electric field
𝑉𝑑
Mobility of electrons, 𝜇 =
𝐸
vd is drift velocity, E is electric field applied

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND IMPURITY ON ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS:

The variation of electrical resistivity 𝜌 withtemperature T in the low temperature region for sodium is shown in the figure.
Except for some metals that are super conducting, this variation in general applies to all the metals. It may be noticed
that 𝜌 doesnot become zero even at T = 00 K , but has a small constant value. From this value , 𝜌 increases with T
slowly in beginning , latter it assumes linear but faster variation . The linearity in variation is continued throughout till
the metal melts.

From our earlier discussion we understand that resistivity of metals is attributed to the scattering of conduction electrons.
In metals the scattering takes place basically under two mechanisms which give rise to two components of resistivity
which are described below.

1. Resistivity 𝜌𝑃ℎ due to scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations (phonons) which increases with temperature. 𝜌𝑃ℎ is
therefore temperature dependent. It is the resistivity exhibited by pure specimen that is free of all defects, and hence
called the Ideal resistivity
2. Resistivity 𝜌𝑖 due to scattering of conduction electrons by the presence of impurities, and imperfections such as
dislocation vacancies, and grain boundaries. This type of scattering is independent of temperature and contributes to
resistivity even at the temperature T= 00K. 𝜌𝑖 is therefore called residual resistivity.

Since the two scattering mechanisms mentioned above act independently , the two resistivities are additive. If 𝜌 is the
total resistivity of the metal, then 𝜌 is given by ,
 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑃ℎ + 𝜌𝑖 ---------------(1)

The above equation is called Matthiessen’s rule. Matthiessen’s rule states that the total resistivity of a metal is the sum
of the resistivity due to phonon scattering which is temperature dependent and, the resistivity due to scattering by
impurities which is temperature independent.

Quantum free electron theory

After the development of quantum mechanics, a new free electron theory was proposed by Sommerfeld in
1928. He succeeded in overcoming many of the drawbacks of classical free electron theory while retaining all
its essential features. He treated electrons quantum mechanically and included the effects of Pauli’s exclusion
principle. This new theory proposed by Summerfield is known as Quantum free electron theory.

Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory:

1) The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are realized in
terms of a set of energy levels.
2) The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pauli’sexclusion principle.
3) The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confinedwithin its boundaries.
4) The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions, and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.
Density of states:

We know that the permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid material will be in terms of bands. Each band
is spread over an energy range of few electron volts. The number of energy levels in each band will be
extremely large. Therefore, in a small energy range, the energy values appear to be virtually continuous over
the band spread. However, number of energy levels per unit energy range varies with energy in band. This
variation is realized through a function g(E), which is known as density of states function. Density of states g
(E) can be defined as it is the number of available energy states per unit volume per unit energy centred at E. It
is mathematically continuous function and the product g(E) dE gives the number of states per unit volume in
an energy interval dE at E.

Let us consider the case of free electrons in a material. The possible energy values for the free electrons
corresponds to only the set of energy levels available vacant but adjacent to the filled energy levels in the
band. Consider such a band as shown in fig below. Let the energy band be spread in an energy interval
between E1 and E2.

Consider an infinitesimally small increment dE at arbitrary energy value E in the band. Since dE is
an infinitesimally small increment in E, we can assume that g(E) remains constant between E and E+dE. Then
the number of energy levels in the range E and (E+dE)is obtained by evaluating the product of g(E) and dE

3
8√2𝜋𝑚2
i.e. 𝑔(𝐸) ∗ 𝑑𝐸 = [ ] √𝐸𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

As per this equation, the number of energylevels in an energy interval dE is proportional to

√𝐸 .A plot of g(E) verses E is shown in fig.
Fermi energy:

The energy corresponding to the highest occupied levels at zero degree absolute is called the Fermi energy, and
the energy levels is referred to as Fermi level. The Fermi energy is denoted as 𝐸𝐹.

Thus at T=O⁰K all the energy levels lying above the Fermi level are empty and those lying below are
completely filled as shown in fig below.

Fermi factor and its temperature dependence:

Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal
equilibrium. The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a steady temperature
T, is given by
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 +1

Where EF is the Fermi energy and K is the Boltzmann constant.

The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and the effect on occupancy of energy level is as
shown in fig below. Let us consider different cases of distribution as follows.

(i) Probability of occupation for E < EF at T=O

When T= O and E < EF, we have for the probability,

1 1 1
f(𝐸) = 𝑒 −∞+1 = 0+1 = 1 = 1

Therefore f (E) =1, for E < EF Here f(E ) = 1 means the energy level is certainly occupied, and E
< EF applies to all the energy levels below EF.

Therefore, at T=O, all the energy levels above Fermi level are occupied.
(ii) Probability of occupation for E > EF at T=O
When T= O and E > EF, we have for the probability,
1 1
f(𝐸) = 𝑒 ∞+1 = ∞ = 0

Therefore f (E) = 0, for E >EF. i.e at T=O, all the energy levels above Fermilevels are unoccupied.
(iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature:

At ordinary temperature the value of probability remains 1 for E<< EF. But it starts decreasing from 1 as
E reaches closer to EF.
The value of f(E) becomes ½ at E = EF.
This is because, for E = EF,
(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) 0
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑒 =1
Therefore,
1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) = 1+1 = =0.5
+1 2
𝑒 𝐾𝑇

Further, for E> EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.

From the discussion we may say that the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the
electrons across which the energy transition occurs at temperature above zero degree absolute. This may be
considered as the physical basis for the concept of Fermi energy.
Q.No Questions CO

MODULE-4 Ch 1:Electrical Conductivity of

metals
1. Enumerate the failures of classical free electro theory and assumptionsof CO3

quantum free electron theory of metals.

2. Enumerate the assumptions of Quantum free electron theory. CO3

3. Write note on Density of states. Define Fermi Energy CO3

4. Define fermi factor and Discuss the variation of Fermi factor with temperature and CO3

energy.
5. Explain concept of Phonon and resistance. CO3

6. Explain the effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of metals CO3

and state Matthiessen’s rule

7. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02eV above CO3

Fermi level at 200K and 400K.

8. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02eV above CO3

Fermi level and below fermi level at 200K

9. Show that the sum of the probability of occupancy of an energy state at ∆𝐸 below CO3

fermi level and that at ∆𝐸 above fermi level is unity

10. Show that occupation probability at E=EF+∆𝐸 is equal to non occupation Cis O3

probability at E=EF-∆𝐸
11. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with an energy
0.5 eV above Fermi energy is occupied.
 Superconductors:
Temperature dependence on superconductors & normal metals:
In certain electrical conducting materials like metals, alloys & chemical oxide compounds, the resistance
to electrical conductivity disappears at a particular low temperature. These materials are called as
superconductors and the phenomenon is known as Superconductivity. The temperature at which electrical
resistivity of the material becomes zero is called critical temperature of that material. In 1911,
Kammerlingh Onnes , while investigating the behaviour of electrical resistance of metals at low
temperatures, observed that the resistance of pure Mercury loses its resistivity completely at 4.2K. The
materials that exhibit super conductivity are called superconductors.
The variation of resistance of superconductors & normal metals are shown in figure. In non-
superconducting state, the resistivity decreases with decrease in temperature, however at a particular
temperature the resistance suddenly decreases to zero. The temperature at which material goes from
normal state to super conducting state is called critical temperature (Tc). In normal metals, the resistance
decreases with decrease in temperature until absolute zero.

Fig 1. Temperature dependence of resistivity

Meissner’s effect:
If a super conductor specimen is placed in a magnetic field and cooled below the critical
temperature then the magnetic field lines are expelled from the material. This effect is known as Meissner
effect.

Statement: “When the weak magnetic field is applied to the superconducting material and then cooled
below the critical temperature, then magnetic flux will be expelled out of the superconductor”

At this stage the specimen spontaneously becomes perfect dia-magnetic material. This process is
reversible.
 B
=0

The magnetic Induction inside the specimen in normal state is given by

B = μ0 (H + M)
Where H - is the external applied magnetic field
M - is the magnetization of the material.
If the temperature of specimen is lowered below critical temperature then B=0.
μ0 (H+M) =0 (or) H = -M
The susceptibility of material at T < Tc

According to Meisner effect, when the specimen is in superconducting state, it has B = 0 Thus

H = -M  Magnetic susceptibility, 𝜒 = (M/H) = -1.

This is the indication for a perfect diamagnetic material.

Effect of external magnetic field on superconductor

Temperature dependence of critical magnetic field

Superconductivity state of super conductors exist only within the limit of critical temperature (Tc ) and
critical magnetic field (Hc). If the superconductor below critical temperature is kept above certain
magnetic field called critical magnetic field then Superconductivity vanishes and goes to normal state.
Here the value of critical magnetic (Hc) varies with temperature of super conductor. The dependence of Hc
on temperature in a typical superconductor is shown in figure. The curve is nearly parabolic and can be
𝑇 2
represented by the relation, 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐

Where Hc is critical magnetic field strength at temperature T and H0 is the critical field strength at absolute
zero & Tc is critical temperature.

Types of super conductors:

The Classification is based on the response shown by the super conductors in the applied magnetic field.
The response curve of magnetization v/s applied magnetic field show a different nature of variation for
different category of superconductors

Super conductors are classified into two types

Type – I superconductor (soft super conductor)
Type – II superconductor (Hard super conductor)
Type – I superconductor (soft super conductor):

 This type of super conductors exhibit complete Meissner effect.

 The transition from superconducting state to normal state occurs sharply with one critical magnetic
field Hc.
 At Hc , the material loses its superconductivity abruptly and magnetic field start to penetrate inside
the material.
 Aluminium, lead , Zink, mercury, indium, etc are the examples of type – 1 superconductors.
 The critical magnetic field Hc is relatively low for this type of material, hence cannot be used to
construct superconducting magnets.

Type – II superconductor (Hard super conductor) :

 Type – II superconductors are characterized by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐1 & 𝐻𝑐2 .

 The material is perfectly diamagnetic and flux is completely ejected out from it at lower magnetic
field up to lower critical field 𝐻𝑐1 . Between 𝐻𝑐1 & 𝐻𝑐2 , Meissner effect is incomplete but
electrically superconductor. This state is known as mixed state or vortex state because of the
materials is electrically superconductorbut magnetically not.

 Transition metals and alloys consisting niobium, Aluminium, silicon are the example of type – II
superconductors.

 Type – II superconductors are used to construct superconducting motors and magnets.

 Type- I super conductors Type –II super conductors
Exhibits complete Meisner effect Partial Meisner effect

Only one Critical field
No vortex region present
Low critical temperature (<10K)
Low critical magnetic field
Cannot be used to prepare high field magnets
Two critical fields namely lower and upper
Vortex region is present
High critical temperature (>10K)
High critical magnetic field
Can be used to prepare high field magnets

BCS theory:
Super conductivity was explained by Bardeen, Cooper & Schrieffer on the basis of quantum
theory. This theory is based on interaction of two electrons through the intermediary particle called
phonons.
When electrons approach a lattice ion, there is a coulomb attractive force between electrons &
lattice ion, which make distortion in lattice. This distortion causes increase in the density of ions in the
region of distortion. This increased ionic core attracts further electrons. Thus a free electron exerts a small
attractive force on another electron by exchanging a elementary particle called phonon. This phonon is a
quanta of lattice vibration. This paired electron with phonon is called cooper pair. This cooper pair does
not take place at normal temperature because of low attraction.
Each cooper pair consists of two electrons with opposite spin and momenta. At lower temperature,
free electrons attraction is stronger than electron – electron repulsive Coulomb force. In a typical
superconductor, the volume of a given pair encompasses as many as 106 other pairs. This dense cloud of
cooper pairs form a collective state with strong correlation among electrons during the motion of all pairs,
hence they drift cooperatively through the material. Thus the super conducting state is an orderly state of
conduction electrons. Since the density of cooper pairs is high, even large current require only small
velocity and orderly movement of electrons minimizes collisions and hence resistivity. The BCS theory
gives four important results namely existence of energy gap, Meissner effect, coherence length and flux
quantization.
High temperature superconductor:

If the transition temperature is high then the superconductors are called High temperature superconductors.
Generally, those superconductors that can work at liquid Nitrogen temperature (above 77K) are classified under
High Tc superconductor.
In the year 1987, it was observed copper oxide based superconductors with high critical temperature. The oxide
of yttrium, barium and copper shows the superconductivity at 92K. The oxide of bismuth, strontium, calcium
and copper shows the superconductivity at 105K.
In recent years, the scientist discovered superconductivity at 150K in an oxide containing mercury. Thus the
research is progressing towards inventing the superconductor at room temperature.
All the high temperature superconductors are classified under Type 2, since theyhave higher critical magnetic
fields.

Quantum Tunneling
• It is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which an object such as an electron or atom passes through a
potential energy barrier. This concept is not
possible, according to classical mechanics
• Tunneling is a outcome of wave nature of matter and is found in low mass particles like electrons, protons
etc
• Probability of transmission of a wave packet through a barrier decreases exponentially with the barrier
height. When the quantum wave reach the barrier, its amplitude will decrease exponentially

(E the energy of the particle and V the potential energy of the barrier

Josephson Junction
• A Josephson junction is made by sandwiching a thin layer of a non superconducting material between two
layers of superconducting material. The non superconducting barrier separating the two superconductors
must be very thin.
• If the barrier is an insulator, it must be about 30 angstroms thick or less. If the barrier is another metal , it
can be as much as several nanometer thick.
• In this system, the cooper pairs tunnel through the barrier without resistance
• This phenomenon of flow of current between two pieces of superconductor separated by a normal material
is called as Josephson effect and the current is called Josephson current.

• The current flows through the junction even in the absence of external DC voltage. Hence the Josephson
current is present in the absence of supply voltage.

• If the external DC voltage is applied, current oscillates rapidly with a frequency of several GHz, leading to
the development of AC voltage.

DC Josephson Effect
• It is the phenomenon of flow of super current through the junction even in the absence of
external emf . If the voltage across the junction is measured, it gives zero.
• Consider a Josephson junction containing two superconducting films separated by thin oxide
layer. Here cooper pairs in the superconductor starts tunneling through the oxide layer which
are represented by wave function.
• During this process the oxide layer introduces the phase difference between input and output
wave functions.
• Due to this, super current flow through the junction, even in the absence of external source.
• The super current through the junction is
Is = Ic sin 0
Ic = critical current at zero voltage, which depends on the thickness of the junction layer
and the temperature,

0 = Phase difference between the wave functions of cooper pairs

AC Josephson Effect
 When dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, it leads to the development of oscillating
current. In other words an alternating emf of high frequency is established across the junction.
This effect is called as AC Josephson effect.
• The oscillating current is because of the fact that, the application of dc voltage across the junction causes
the additional phase change for the cooper pairs
• The energy difference of cooper pairs on both sides is of the order of 2eV
• Thus the current
Is = Ic sin (0+Δ) Δ = phase difference, Ic is the critical current
The frequency of the generated AC is f = 2eV / h
• Where 2eV is the energy difference between the cooper pairs on either side of the junction
 SQUIDS
• Stands for Super conducting Quantum Interference Device
• It is an instrument used to measure extremely weak magnetic field of the order of 10 ^ - 13 T.
• Hence it is a sensitive magnetometer
• Heart of the SQUID is a super conducting ring containing one or more Josephson
junctions
• Two types of SQUIDS are available namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID. It works on the principle of
Josephson effect
DC SQUID
It has two Josephson junctions connected in parallel and works on the interference of current from two junctions.
It works on the principle of DC Josephson effect which is the phenomenon of flow of super current through the
junction even in the absence of external emf.
Construction and Working :

The cross sectional view of the arrangements is shown,

P and Q are twoJosephson Junctions arranged in parallel
When current I flows through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2
 Cross Sectional View
• Hence the wave function due to these super currents (cooper pairs) experience a phase shift at P and Q
• In the absence of applied magnetic field, the phase difference between the wave functions is zero. If the
magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current loop, then phase difference between the wave
functions will not be zero. This is identified by the sum of the currents I1’ and I2’

• The magnitude of phase difference is proportional to applied magnetic field. Hence, Even if there is a weak
magnetic field in the region will be detected.

• When current I flows through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2

RF SQUID

• It works on the principle of AC Josephson effect - When dc voltage is applied across the Josephson
junction, it leads to the development of oscillating current.
It has single Josephson Junction.
• Magnetic field is applied perpendicular to theplane of the current loop.
• The flux is coupled into a loop containing a single Josephson junction through an input coil and an RF
source. Hence when the RF current changes, there is corresponding change in the flux linked with the coil
• This variation is very sensitive and is measured.
• It is also used in the detection of low magnetic field
• It is less sensitive compared to DC Squid
• Due to its low cost manufacturing, it is commonly used SQUID in many applications.
Q.No Questions CO

MODULE-4 Ch 1:Electrical Conductivity of

metals
1. Explain Meissner’s Effect and the variation of critical field with temperature. CO3

2. Explain the phenomenon of superconductivity and Discuss qualitatively the BCS CO3

theory of superconductivity for negligible resistance of metal at temperatures close

to absolute zero.
3. Give the qualitative explanation of RF Squid with the help of a neatsketch. CO3

4. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic field CO3

and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.

5. Explain DC and AC Josephson effects and mention the applications of CO3

superconductivity in quantum computing.

6. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of 7.26 K. If the initialfield at CO3

0K is 50 × 103 Am-1 Calculate the critical field at 6k.

7. Describe Meissner’s Effect and hence classify superconductors into Soft and Hard CO3

superconductors using M-H graphs.