Engineering Physics

Dr. Rajesh Cheruku

​ ssistant Professor
A
Department of Physics
Central University of Karnataka
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 Electricity and Magnetism
Unit II
Vector Analysis
Ways of writing vector notation

➢Remember that vectors have both magnitude and direction e.g. a, q

➢You should know how to find the components of a vector from its
magnitude and direction.
y
➢You should know how to find a vector’s magnitude and direction

from its components.
F = ma
a
ay
a x = a cosq a = a x2 + a y2 q  
F = ma
ax x

a y = a sin q q = tan −1 a y / a x
F = ma

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 Projection of a Vector in Three Dimensions

➢ Any vector in three dimensions can be projected

onto the x-y plane.
➢ The vector projection then makes an angle f from z
the x axis.

a
➢ Now project the vector onto the z axis, along the
direction of the earlier projection. q
➢ The original vector a makes an angle q from the z f y
axis.

x
Vector Basics
➢You should know how to generalize the case of a 2-d vector to three dimensions, e.g.
1 magnitude and 2 directions
➢Conversion to x, y, z components z a, q , f
a x = a sin q cosf a = a x2 + a y2 + a z2 
a
q
a y = a sin q sin f q = cos a z / a
−1

a z = a cosq f = tan −1 a y / a x
f
➢Conversion from x, y, z components y

 x
a = a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ
 A Note About Right-Hand Coordinate Systems

z
➢A three-dimensional coordinate system MUST obey the
right-hand rule.

➢Curl the fingers of your RIGHT HAND so they go from y

x to y. Your thumb will point in the z direction.
x
Vector Mathematics
 
Vector Inverse A −A
◦ Just switch direction
Vector Addition     
A B A A+ B
◦ Use head-tail method, or parallelogram 
method   B
A+ B
Vector Subtraction 
A
◦ Use inverse, then add   Vector Math by Components
 A− B
 B  
−B B = − A = − Ax iˆ − Ay ˆj − Az kˆ
Vector Multiplication  
◦ Three kinds! A + B = ( Ax + Bx )iˆ + ( Ay + By ) ˆj + ( Az + Bz )kˆ
 
◦ Multiplying a vector by a scalar A − B = ( Ax − Bx )iˆ + ( Ay − By ) ˆj + ( Az − Bz )kˆ
 
◦ Scalar, or dot product B = sA = sAx iˆ + sAy ˆj + sAz kˆ
◦ Vector, or cross product
Scalar Product of Two Vectors

The scalar product of two

vectors is written as
◦ It is also called the dot
product A  B

A  B  A B cos q
◦ q is the angle between A and
B
Applied to work, this
means W = F r cos q = F   r
Dot Product
The dot product says something about
how parallel two vectors are.
The dot product (scalar product) of two
vectors can be thought of as the
projection of one onto the direction of
the other. 
B
 
A  B = AB cosq ( A cos q ) B
 
A  iˆ = A cosq = Ax q A
Components A( B cos q )

 
A  B = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
Projection of a Vector: Dot Product

The dot product says something about

how parallel two vectors are.
The dot product (scalar product) of 
two vectors can be thought of as the B Projection is zero
projection of one onto the direction of
the other.
 
A  B = AB cosq p/2

A  iˆ = A cosq = Ax 
A
Components
 
A  B = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
Derivation
How do we show that   ?
A  B = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
Start with

A = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ

B = Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ
 
Then A  B = ( Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ)  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ)
= Ax iˆ  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ) + Ay ˆj  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ) + Az kˆ  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ)

iˆ  ˆj = 0; iˆ  kˆ = 0; ˆj  kˆ = 0
But iˆ  iˆ = 1; ˆj  ˆj = 1; kˆ  kˆ = 1
 
A  B = Ax iˆ  Bx iˆ + Ay ˆj  B y ˆj + Az kˆ  Bz kˆ
= Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
So
Cross Product →    
C = A B B sin q B

The cross product of two vectors says something about 

how perpendicular they are. q A

Magnitude: →   A sin q
C = A  B = AB sin q
y
◦ q is smaller angle between the vectors
◦ Cross product of any parallel vectors = zero j i
◦ Cross product is maximum for perpendicular vectors x
k
◦ Cross products of Cartesian unit vectors: z

i
iˆ  ˆj = kˆ; iˆ  kˆ = − ˆj; ˆj  kˆ = iˆ
iˆ  iˆ = 0; ˆj  ˆj = 0; kˆ  kˆ = 0 j k
Cross Product

Direction: C perpendicular to both A and B (right-

hand rule)
◦ Place A and B tail to tail
◦ Right hand, not left hand
◦ Four fingers are pointed along the first vector A
◦ “sweep” from first vector A into second vector B
through the smaller angle between them    
◦ Your outstretched thumb points the direction of C A B = B  A ?
First practice    
A B = - B  A
   
A B = B  A ?
More about Cross Product
The quantity ABsinq is the area of the parallelogram
formed by A and B
The direction of C is perpendicular to the plane formed
by A and B
Cross product is not commutative
   
A B = - B  A
      
The distributive law A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
 
The derivative of cross product
dt
( dt
)
d   dA   dB
A B =  B + A
dt
obeys the chain rule
Calculate cross product
 
A  B = ( Ay Bz − Az By )iˆ + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ˆj + ( Ax By − Ay Bx )kˆ
Derivation
 
How do we show that A  B = ( Ay Bz − Az B y )iˆ + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ˆj +? ( Ax B y − Ay Bx )kˆ

Start with A = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ

B = Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ
 
A  B = ( Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ)  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ)
Then
= Ax iˆ  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ) + Ay ˆj  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ) + Az kˆ  ( Bx iˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ)

iˆ  ˆj = kˆ; iˆ  kˆ = − ˆj; ˆj  kˆ = iˆ
But iˆ  iˆ = 0; ˆj  ˆj = 0; kˆ  kˆ = 0
 
A  B = Ax iˆ  B y ˆj + Ax iˆ  Bz kˆ + Ay ˆj  Bx iˆ + Ay ˆj  Bz kˆ
+ Az kˆ  Bx iˆ + Az kˆ  B y ˆj
So
Contents

• Physical Interpretation
• Gradient
• Curl
• Divergence
• Examples

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Gradient of A Scalar Field
• The gradient of a scalar function f(x1, x2, x3, ..., xn) is denoted by ∇f
or where ∇(the nabla symbol) denotes the vector differential operator,
del. The notation "grad(f)" is also commonly used for the gradient.
• The gradient of f is defined as the unique vector field whose dot
product with any vector v at each point x is the directional derivative
of f along v. That is,
• In 3-dimensional cartesian coordinate system it is denoted by:

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Geometric Interpretation

Gradient Vector is always perpendicular to

level curves and level surfaces.

Along the tangent direction to a

level curve, directional derivative
must be 0! Function value does not
change in that direction. But then
f (a; t) = rf (a) t = 0

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Extreme Values
∇f (a) = 0
i.e., maximum or minimum or a saddle point.

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 Differentiation of vector fields
Example of a vector field: Suppose fluid moves down a pipe, a river flows, or
the air circulates in a certain pattern.
The velocity can be different at different points and may be at different time.
The velocity vector F gives the direction of flow and speed of flow at every point.

There are two kinds of differentiation of a vector field F(x,y,z):

1. divergence (div F = ∇ . F) and
2. curl (curl F = ∇ x F)

Applications of Vector Fields:

• Mechanics
• Electric and Magnetic fields
• Fluids motions
• Heat transfer

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Examples of Vector Fields

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The Divergence of a Vector Field

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 Divergence

Divergence is the outflow of flux from a small closed

surface area (per unit volume) as volume shrinks to zero.
Air leaving a punctured tire: Divergence is positive,
as closed surface (tire) exhibits net outflow
The divergence measures sources and drains of flow:

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 Physical Interpretation of the Divergence
Consider a vector field F that represents a fluid velocity:
F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)ˆi + Q(x, y, z)ˆj+ R(x, y, z)kˆ
➢The divergence of F at a point in a fluid is a measure of the rate at which the fluid
is flowing away from or towards that point.
➢A positive divergence is indicating a flow away from the point.
➢Physically divergence means that either the fluid is expanding or that fluid is
being supplied by a source external to the field.
➢The lines of flow diverge from a source and converge to a sink.
➢If there is no gain or loss of fluid anywhere then div F = 0. Such a
➢vector field is said to be solenoidal.

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The divergence also enters electrical
engineering topics such as electric and
magnetic fields:
• For a magnetic field:∇ · B = 0, that is
there are no sources or sinks of magnetic
field, a solenoidal filed.
• For an electric field:∇ · E = ρ/ε, that is
there are sources of electric field.

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The Curl of a Vector Field
Consider the vector fields
F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)ˆi + Q(x, y, z)ˆj+ R(x, y, z)kˆ

The curl of F is another vector field defined as:

In terms of the differential operator ∇, the curl of F

A key point: F is a vector, and the curl of F is a vector.

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Physical Interpretation of the Curl
Consider a vector field F that represents a fluid velocity:

➢The curl of F at a point in a fluid is a measure of the rotation of the fluid.

➢If there is no rotation of fluid anywhere then ∇ x F = 0. Such a vector

field is said to be irrotational or conservative.

➢For a 2D flow with F represents the fluid velocity, ∇ x F is perpendicular

to the motion and represents the direction of axis of rotation.

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The curl also enters electrical engineering topics such as electric
and magnetic fields:
➢ A magnetic field (denoted by H) has the property ∇ x H = J.
➢ An electrostatic field (denoted by E) has the property ∇ x E = 0,
an irrotational (conservative) field
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Further properties of the vector differential
operator ∇

Verification Examples: f = x2 y2z3 F =< x2 y, xy2z,− yz2 >

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Vector Calculus and Heat Transfer

Consider a solid material with density ρ, heat capacity c , the

temperature distribution T(x,y,z,t) and heat flux vector q.
conservation of heat energy

In many cases the heat flux is given by Fick’s law

Which results in heat equation:

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Vector Calculus and Fluid Mechanics

Conservation of Mass:
Let
ρ be the fluid density and
v be the fluid velocity.
Conservation of mass in a volume gives

Which can be written as

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 Vector Calculus and Electromagnetics

Maxwell equations in free space

• Maxwell Equations describe the transmission of
information ( internet data, TV/radio program, phone,…)
using wireless communication.
Solutions of this equations are essential for the analysis,
design and advancement of wireless devices and system,
high-speed electronics, microwave imaging, remote
sensing, …etc.

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Magneto-static Field Example

Magneto-static Field is an example of rotational field

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GATE Question

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