3.

VECTORS
Vectors
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vector
algebra are called vectors.
Example: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, impulse,
weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
Representing a vector
A vector is represented by a straight line with arrow head on it. The length
represents the magnitude of a vector and the arrow head tells the direction of
the vector. Example – Force is vector it is represented by ⃗F
The direction of some of the vector quantities is clearly indicated by the
direction of motion of a system.
Example of such vectors are displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc. such
vectors are called polar vectors.

There is another category of vectors, namely, angular velocity, angular

acceleration, angular momentum etc. associated with rotational motion. As
you know, their direction does not indicate the direction of rotation of the
body and their direction is taken to be along the axis of rotation. such vectors
are called Axial vectors.

Position and Displacement Vectors

Position Vector: Position vector of an object at time t is the position of the
object relative to the origin. It is represented by a straight line between the
origin and the position at time t.
Displacement Vector: Displacement vector of an object between two points is
the straight line between the two points irrespective of the path followed. The
path length is always equal or greater than the displacement.

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Types of Vector
(i) Equal Vectors-Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude and same direction, wherever be their initial positions.
(ii) Like vectors -Two vectors are said to be like vectors, if they have same
direction but different magnitudes
 (iii) Opposite vectors-The vectors of same magnitude but opposite in direction,
are called opposite vectors
 (iv) Unlike vectors-The vectors of different magnitude acting in opposite
directions are called unlike vectors.

(v) Unit vector-A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit vector. It is also
defined as a vector divided by its own magnitude.

Thus, a vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and unit vector
along its direction.
(vi) Null vector or zero vector-A vector whose magnitude is zero, is called a null
vector or zero vector. It is represented by 0 and its starting and end points are
the same. The direction of null vector is not known.
(vii) Proper vector-All the non-zero vectors are called proper vectors.
(viii) Co-initial Vectors-Vectors having the same starting point are called

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co-initial vectors.
(ix) Coplanar Vectors-Vectors lying in the same plane are called coplanar vectors
and the plane in which the vectors lie are called plane of vectors.
(x) Orthogonal unit vectors- Orthogonal vectors are those which are perpendicular to
each other.

Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors.

“If two non-zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in
same order then the resultant is given by the closing side of triangle in
opposite order” (i.e.) ⃗R = ⃗A + ⃗B

(1) Magnitude of resultant vector

AN BN
In∆ ABN, cos θ = B ∴ AN = B cos θ , Sin θ = B ∴ BN = B sin θ

In OBN , we have OB2 = ON2 + BN2

R2 = (A + Bcos)2 + (B sin)2
R2 = A2 + B2 cos2 + 2AB cos + B2 sin2
R2 = A2 + B2+2AB cos θ
R =√ A2 + B2+2AB cos θ

(2) Direction of resultant vector

If θ is the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B and⃗R makes an angle α with ⃗A, then, tan α
BN BN
= ON = OA + AN
B sin θ
tan α = A +B cos θ

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Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors.
“If two non-zero vector are represented by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through the point of intersection of the two vectors”
(1) Magnitude
R2 = ON2 + CN2
R2 = (OA + AN )2 + CN2
R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ
R =√ A2 + B2+2AB cos θ

Special cases (i) R = A + B, if θ= 0°

(ii) R = A - B, if θ=180°
(iii) R = √ A + B , if θ= 90°

(2) Direction

CN B sin θ
tan β = ON = A +B cos θ

Polygon Law of Vector Addition

“if a number of vectors can be represented in magnitude and direction by the
sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then their resultant is represented
in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the
opposite order”

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Subtraction of Vectors.
⃗
A-⃗ B=⃗ A + (- ⃗
B)
|⃗A + ⃗B ¿| =√ A2 + B2+2AB cos θ
|⃗A −⃗B ¿| =√ A2 + B2+2AB cos(180°- θ)
cos(180 −) = − cos
|⃗A −⃗B ¿| =√ A2 + B2 -2AB cos θ

B sin θ B sin(180−θ)
tanα 1 = A +B cos θ and tanα 2 = A +B cos ⁡(180−θ)

sin(180 −) = sin and cos(180 −) = −cos

B sin θ
tanα 2 = A−B cos θ

Resolution of Vector into Components.

Consider a vector ⃗R in x-y plane as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors
Rx and Ry along x and y axes respectively, by law of vector addition,
⃗
R=⃗
Rx+⃗
Ry

R x = Rx i^
⃗ , ⃗R y = Ry ^j
R = Rx i^ + Ry ^j ………(1)
⃗
From fig, Rx = R cos θ..…(2)
Ry = R sin θ…… (3)
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (2) and (3) give the magnitude of
the components of R along x and y-axes respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its components, the
components themselves can be used to specify the vector as –
(1) The magnitude of the vector ⃗R is obtained by squaring and adding equation
(2) and (3)
R=√ R2x + R2y

2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation (3) by (2)

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 Ry
tan θ = Rx

Ry
θ =tan -1 Rx

Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector

⃗
R=⃗
Rx+⃗
R y +⃗
Rz (or) ⃗R = Rx i^ + Ry ^j + Rz k^
If ⃗R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis, then
Rx Ry Rz
Cosα = R , Cos β = R and Cos γ = R

Cos2α + Cos2 β + Cos2 γ = 1

Scalar Product of Two Vectors.

The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of
the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between them.
The product of two vectors is scalar it is a scalar product.
⃗
A. ⃗
B= AB cos

Properties:
(i) It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute
(i.e., < 90°) and negative if angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< 180°).
(ii) It is commutative (i.e.) ⃗A . ⃗B =⃗B. ⃗A
(iii) It is distributive,( i.e.)⃗A . (⃗B+⃗
C) = ⃗
A. ⃗ A .⃗
B+⃗ C)

(iv) As by definition ⃗A . ⃗B= AB cos

⃗
A .⃗
B
The angle between the vectors  = cos-1 AB

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos = max = 1, i.e. 0°
vectors are parallel

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 (⃗A . ⃗
B ¿ ¿max= AB

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when | cos | = min = 0, i.e.
 = 90°
(⃗A . ⃗
B ¿ ¿min = 0

(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self-dot product and is
given by (⃗A ¿2 =¿. ⃗
A ¿ ¿ = AB cos = A2

(i.e.) A =⃗A . ⃗
A

(viii) In case of unit vector n^

n^ .n^ =i^ .i^ = ^j . ^j =k^ .k^ =1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, i^ . ^j = ^j .k^ =k^ .i^ = 0

(x) In terms of components
⃗
A. ⃗B = (Axi^ + Ay ^j +Azk^ ). (Bxi^ + By ^j +Bzk^ ) = (Ax Bx)+(Ay By)+ (Az Bz)

Example for dot product- Work, power

Work = ⃗F . ⃗S = FS cos θ
Power = ⃗F .⃗
V = FV cos θ

Vector Product of Two Vector (cross product)

The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as a vector
having a magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors
with the sine of angle between them, and direction perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors in accordance with right hand screw rule.
If the product of two vectors is a vector it is vector product.

⃗ AX⃗
C=⃗ B = AB sin θ n^

The direction of⃗A X ⃗B (i.e)⃗

C is perpendicular to the plane containing of⃗
A and ⃗
B
.

Direction is given by right hand screw rule.

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Properties
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the
plane containing these two vectors (i.e.) orthogonal to both vectors ⃗A and ⃗B ,
though both the vectors ⃗A and ⃗Bmay or may not be orthogonal.
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative,
i.e.,⃗A X ⃗B ≠ ⃗B X⃗A but [-⃗B X⃗A ]
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly
maintained, i.e.⃗A X( ⃗B+ ⃗C ) =⃗AX⃗ B +⃗
AX⃗C

(iv) As by definition of vector product of two vectors⃗A X ⃗B = AB sin θ n^

So, |⃗ B| = AB sin θ
AX⃗

|⃗A X ⃗B|
Θ = sin -1[ ⃗ ⃗ ]
| A||B|
(v) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum whensin θ = max = 1,
i.e., θ = 90° (⃗A .X⃗
B ¿ ¿max= ABn^

(vi) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when
| sin θ | =minimum = 0, i.e. = 0° or 180° (⃗A .X⃗
B ¿ ¿min = 0

(vii) The self-cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself vanishes, i.e., is
null vector ⃗A x ⃗A =A A sin 0° n^ = 0⃗
(viii) In case of unit vector n^ x n^ = 0. so that i^ x i^ = ^j x ^j =k^ x k^ =0
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, i^ , ^j and k^ in accordance with right hand
screw rule,
i^ x ^j =k^ ^j x i^ =−k^

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 ^j x k^ = i^ k^ x ^j = - i^

k^ x i^ = ^j i^ x k^ = - ^j

(x) In terms of components

| |
i j k
AX⃗
⃗ B = Ax Ay Az = i^ ( Ay Bz - Az By ) + ^j ( Az Bx - Ax Bz ) + k^ ( Ax By - Ay Bx )
Bx By Bz

Example for cross product- Torque, linear velocity, angular momentum

Torque τ⃗ = r⃗ x ⃗F
Linear velocity ⃗v =⃗
ω x r⃗
Angular momentum ⃗L =r⃗ x ⃗P
concurrent forces
If the forces applied to a body are such that their lines of action meet at a
single point, then they are called concurrent forces

Static and dynamic equilibrium

Static equilibrium is a state where bodies are at rest; dynamic equilibrium is a
state where bodies are moving at a constant velocity (rectilinear motion). In
both cases the sum of the forces acting on them is zero.

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Lami’s theorem relates the magnitudes of coplanar, concurrent and non-
collinear forces that maintain an object in static equilibrium.
Lami’s theorem is applicable only for three forces in equilibrium.
Lami’s theorem
“When three forces acting at a point are in static equilibrium, then each force
is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces”.

A B C
sin α
= sin β
= sin γ

Lami’s Theorem Derivation

Let F1, F2, and F3 be the forces acting at a point. As per the statement of the
theorem, we take the sum of all forces acting at a given point which will be
zero.
i.e. FA + FB + FC = 0
The angles made by force vectors when a triangle is drawn are

Applying sine rule we get

F1 F2 F3
sin(180−α )
= sin ¿ ¿
= sin ¿ ¿
[Sin 180 - θ= sin θ]

F1 F2 F3
sin α
= sin β
= sin γ
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Relative velocity in two dimension

The relative velocity of a particle A moving with a velocity ⃗

V 1 w.r.t another
⃗
particle B moving with a velocity V 2 is

VAB = VA –VB

The relative velocity of a particle A moving with a velocity ⃗

V 2 w.r.t another
⃗
particle B moving with a velocity V 1 is

VBA = VB –VA
S.no Angle Relative velocity
1 Θ= θ ° VAB = VA –VB
2 Θ= 180° VAB = VA +VB
3 Θ= 90° VAB =√ v A + v B
2 2

4 Θ= θ°

β -the angle between VAB and VB

Relative velocity of satellite

If a satellite is moving in equatorial plane with velocity ⃗ v s and a point on
surface of earth with ⃗ v e relative to centre of earth, , the velocity of satellite
relative to the surface of earth,
⃗
v se =⃗
v s -⃗
ve

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So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of rotation of earth
on its axis) its velocity relative to earth's surface will be
⃗
v se =⃗
v s -⃗
ve

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the motion of
earth,
⃗
v se =⃗
v s – (-⃗
ve )

⃗
v se =⃗
v s +⃗
ve

Relative velocity of rain

If rain is falling vertically with a velocity ⃗vR and an observer is moving
horizontally with speed ⃗vM , the velocity of rain relative to observer will be
⃗v RM = v⃗ R - ⃗v M

which by law of vector addition has magnitude

VRM =√ v M + v R
2 2

Vm
Direction θ = tan-1 VR

Relative velocity of swimmer

If a man can swim relative to water with velocity ⃗v and water flowing relative
to ground with velocity ⃗vR velocity of man relative to ground ⃗vM will be given by
⃗v = ⃗v M - ⃗v R

⃗vM = ⃗v + ⃗vR 41
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 (i.e.)

So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water, ⃗vM = ⃗v+ ⃗vR

And , if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water, ⃗vM = ⃗v- ⃗vR
Crossing the river
Suppose, the river is flowing with velocity Vr. A man can swim in still water
with velocity Vm. He is standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross
the river Two cases arise.
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance :
That is to cross the river straight, the man should swim making angle  with
the upstream as shown.

Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which ⃗

OA = ⃗v M ,⃗
AB = ⃗v r. The resultant is
given by ⃗
OB = ⃗v. The direction of swimming makes angle θ with upstream.

From the triangle OBA, we find,

Vr Vr
cos θ = Vm , Also sin α = Vm ,
whereα is the angle made by the direction of swimming with the shortest
distance (OB) across the river.
Time taken to cross the river: If w be the width of the river, then time taken to
cross the river will be given by

w w
t1 = v = √ v 2 −v 2
m r

(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time

The man should swim perpendicular to the bank.

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The time taken to cross the river will be:
w
t2 = Vm

In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a distance AB
downstream. This distance will be given by
w
AB = Vr x t2 = Vr x Vm

Vr
AB = Vm w

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