SPH 110

Handout I
Introduction

Physics is inherently a science of measurement. It’s a science dedicated to the study

of all natural phenomena. Physics is a science whose objective is to study the
components of matter and their mutual interactions.

These notes contain a succinct and cogent coverage of the material required for first
year undergraduate students in the Kenyan Universities. It is also quite helpful to
those students taking physics related courses in other post secondary institutions like
polytechnics.

The text could be employed directly by teachers. Accordingly more time could be
devoted to experiments, discussions and problem solving. The notes provide the
foundation for constructive revision prior to an examination. Useful reminder of
important details is given just before the worked examples that preceed the problems
that every student should go through. SI units are employed throughout.

VECTORS

Scalar and Vector Quantities

Many quantities (e.g. volume) have no direction associated with them. These
quantities which normally have magnitude only are called scalar quantities. Scalar
quantities include, mass, time, density, work, temperature, amount of money e. t. c.
There are other quantities, which have both magnitude and direction. These are vector
quantities. These include displacement, velocity, force, acceleration, and electric field
e.t.c. A vector quantity is represented by an arrow drawn to scale. The length of the
arrow represents the magnitude and the direction of the arrow represents the direction
of that vector.

Vector Addition
Vectors are added using the geometric method. Vectors don’t obey ordinary rules of
algebra. They combine according to certain rules of addition and multiplication.
Vectors are added by geometrically connecting the head to the tail of the other vector
and drawing a straight line between the other tail and head of the vectors. This gives
you a resultant vector

AB + BC = AC = Resultant vector
The resultant of a number of force vectors is that single vector which would have the
same effect as all the original vectors together.

Commutative Law of Vector Addition.

AB + BC = BC + AB. During vector addition it does not matter with the vector you
begin with first. The resultant or effective vector will be the same.

Associative Law of Vector Addition.

Consider more than two vector which are to be added together. Draw to scale each
vector in turn, taking them in any order of succession. The tail end of each vector is
attached to the arrow end of the preceding one. The line drawn to complete the
polygon is equal in magnitude to the resultant or equilibrant. An equilibrant of a
number of vectors is that vector which would balance all original vectors taken,
together. It is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant.

For associative law of vector addition

AB + BC + CD = AD, ⇒ (AB + BC) + CD = AB + (BC +CD). Hence the ordering
of the vectors makes no difference as far as their addition is concerned. This is the
associative law of vector addition.

Magnitude of Resultant Vector and Angles between the Vectors

Consider the figure given below where AB ≡ v1, BC ≡ v2, AC ≡ v, DC ≡ v2Sinθ,

Angles CBD≡ θ,CAB ≡α, ACB ≡β. AB +BC =AC, v1 + v2 = v. To compute the
magnitude of v we have (AC)2 = (AD)2 + (DC)2 .

θ
α

But AD = AB + BD = v1 + v2 Cosθ, DC = v2Sinθ. Therefore (AC)2 = (v'1 + v '2

Cosθ)2 + (v2Sinθ)2 = v12 + v22 +2 v1 v2 Cosθ or v= (v12 +v22 + 2v1v2 Cos θ)1/2. To
determine the angle we need only find the angleα. From the figure we see that in

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triangle ACD, CD = AC Sinα, and in triangle BDC, CD = BC Sin θ; ⇒ AC Sin α =
BC Sinθ, vSin α = v2Sinθ . Similarly, BE = v1Sin α = v2Sin β which when we
combine we get,

When v1 & v2 are perpendicular θ = ½π and from v= (v12 +v22 + 2v1v2 Cos θ)1/2 we
have
v = (ν12 + ν22)½ and tanα = (Opposite)/(Adjacent) = ν2/ν1

ν ν1 ν
= = 2
Sinθ Sinβ Sinα

Subtraction of Vectors
The negative of a vector is another vector of equal magnitude but opposite direction

e.g.
The difference between two vectors is obtained by adding to the first the negative (or
opposite) of the second. ν = v1 - ν2 = (v1 +( -v2)). Note that v2 -v1 = -v i.e. if the
velocities are subtracted in the reverse order, the opposite vector results. Vector
subtraction is anti-commutative. The magnitude of the difference is
D = v12 + v 22 + 2v1v 2 Cos (π − θ ) = v12 + v 22 − 2v1v 2 Cosθ . NB: The magnitude of a
vector quantity is basically its length.

Component of a Vector
The component of a vector is its effective value in any given direction. e.g horizontal
component of a vector is its effective value in a horizontal direction. A vector may be
considered as the resultant of two or more component vector. It’s customary and most
useful to resolve a vector into components along mutually perpendicular directions.
From the figure below we see that ν = νx+ νy. But νx = νCosα, νy = νSinα. Defining
unit vector νx & νy in the direction of the X and Y-axis, we note that

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v x = OA = u x v x , v y = OB = u y v y .Therefore v = u x v x + u y v y . In three dimensions we
have v = u x v x + u y v y + u z v z .

Multiplication of Vectors
Operations of addition and subtraction can be carried out among like vectors.
However in the case of vector multiplication, vectors of different kinds representing
different physical quantities can be multiplied, giving rise to another meaningful
physical quantity, e.g. FB = qo νxB, where FB is the magnetic deflecting force in the
magnetic field, ν is the drift velocity and B is the magnetic inductance.
There are three kinds of operations for vector multiplication.
Vector x Scalar = Vector
Vector • Vector = Scalar
Vector x vector = Vector

Multiplication of a vector with a scalar

If a vector a is multiplied with an arbitrary number n (a scalar n), the resultant vector
R will be n times the magnitude of a but the direction of R remains the same.

n x a = R = na

Hence multiplication of a vector and a scalar gives a vector quantity in the same
direction.

Scalar product (Dot. Product)

Scalar product of two vector a and b represented by the symbol a.b (Read “a dot b”)
is defined as the scalar quantity obtained by finding the product of a and b and the
cosine of the angle between the two vectors.
a.b = ab cos θ

a . a = a2 Since θ = 0. The product is zero for θ = π/2. Hence the condition for
perpendicularly is expressed by a.b = 0. The scalar product is commutative i.e., a . b =
b . a since θ is the same in both cases. The scalar product is distributive with respect
to the sum; i.e c (a+ b) = c . a + c. b. For unit vectors ux, uy, uz, we have ux . ux = uy .
uy = uz .uz = 1, ux . uy = ux . uz = uy . uz = 0. Writing a and b in terms of their
rectangular components, and applying the distributive law, we have
a.b = (u x a x + u y a y + u z a z ).(u x bx + u y b y + u z b z ) = a x bx + a y b y + a z b z . Note that a. a =
a2x + ay2 + az2

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Vector product (cross product)
The cross product of two vectors as A and B (see figure below), written as A x B = C
defined as a vector C have magnitude |C|= C = ABSin θ and a direction of advance of
a right hand screw when turned from A and B through angle θ, provided that the axis
of the plane determined by A and B (the right - hand screw rule). Or if the curled
fingers of the right-hand point from A and B the extended thumb points in the
direction of C. Note that in accord with the right hand screw rule
A x B = -(B x A) = C

NOTE:
A x B = 0, when A or B are either parallel or antiparallel. If vectors are parallel θ = 0
and the vector product is zero. The condition for parallelism is AxB = 0. Obviously
AxA = 0.
A x B has its maximum when A and B are perpendicular to each other.
A x B = -B x A in contrast with A.B = B.A. Hence vector product anticommute
Null vector - has magnitude zero.
The vector product is distributive relative to the sum; i.e C x (A + B) = C x A + C x
B.
The vector products among the unit vectors ux, uy, uz are ux x uy = -uy x ux = uz,
uy X uz = -uz x uy = ux, uz X ux= -ux x uz = uy. Note that vector products among the
unit vectors is cyclic ux x ux = uy x uy = uz x uz = 0

u x uy uz 
 
For A x B =  Ax Ay Az  = ux (AyBz - AzBy) + uy (Az Bx - Ax Bz) + uz (AxBy - Ay
Bx By B z 

Bx)

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD

• Scalar quantities?
• Vector quantities?
• Vector addition?
• Laws associated with vector addition?
• Vector resolutions & vector components?
• Vector subtraction?
• Vector multiplication?

Summary of Key Expressions.

• a.b =abCosθ
• a.b = b.a
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• A xB = - A x B = AB Sinθ
EXAMPLES

E.1 Find the magnitude, component and direction w.r.t the x-axis of the resultant
vector formed by (a) A + B (b) A – B if A = 5i +3j, B = 2i- 4j

Solution
Let P = A + B = (5+ 2)i + (3 - 4)j = 7i - j, ⇒ |P| = (1+49)1/2 = 50 = 7.1.
Components of the resultant are 7 and -1. Angle of the resultant tan –1 (Py/Px )= tan -1(-
1/7 ) =-80. The negative angle indicates that the angle is measured in the fourth
quadrant.
Let P = A - B = 3i + 7j; magnitude = |P| = 7.6. Components of the resultant are 3
and 7. Angle of resultant with the X-axis is tan –1 (Py/Px )= tan -1(7/3 ) = 670

E.2 If A + B + C = 0 and A = 2i + 3j + 4k and B = 5i+6j+7k then what is C and

|C|. What is the angle between C and the X - axis.

Solution
C = - (A +B) = - (7i + 9j + 11k); |C| = (49+81+121)1/2 = (251)1/2 = 15.81. Angle of the
resultant with the X-axis is tan –1 (Cy/Cx) = tan -1(9/7 ) = 52.130

E.3 The vectors v1 and v2 have same length v. The angle between them is θ. What
is the magnitude of v2 - v1 ?.

Solution
Let ∆ v = | v2 - v1 |. It is the base of the Isosceles triangle in the figure below

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∆v
In either right angled-triangle, Sin (θ/2) = 2 . Hence ∆v = 2v Sin (θ/2)
v
E.4 A Ferry - boat wishes to go straight across a stream that is flowing at 5km/h
to the East. The pilot knows his speed w.r.t the water is 10km/h. At what angle must
he head the boat and what will be his speed?

Solution
Let be his vector velocity w.r.t. the water and vw be the velocity of the water.

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Then v' = v + vw - points to the north. Vw - points to east. The triangle is right-angled
triangle. Hence Sinθ = 1/2, θ = Sin-1 (0.5) = 300 . The pilot must head the boat 300 to
the west of north. The magnitude of v' is vCosθ = 10Cos300 = 8.66 km/hr. Note that
this resultant vector is smaller in magnitude than the direct sum of its parts i.e 8.66 ≠
10+ 5

E.5 A mass m is being pulled down on an incline plane by a gravitational force Fg

as shown in the figure. What is F′ the component of force that parallel to the surface?

Solution

Let X - axis be along or parallel to the surface. Drop a perpendicular from the tip of Fg
to the X–axis. Then F′ = Fg Sinθ

E.6 A pilot of a private plane flies 20.0 km in a direction 600 north of east, then
30.0 km straight east, then 10.0 km straight north. How far and in what direction is
she from the starting point?

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Solution

Let A = First displacement

B = 2nd displacement
rd
C = 3 displacement
R = Resultant

Ax = 20 Cos 600 = 10 km; Ay = 20Sin600 = 17.3 km; Bx = 30Cosθ = 30 km; By = 30

Sinθ = 0 km
Cx = 10 Cos 90 =0; Cy = 10 sin 90 = 10; Rx = (10+30+0) = 40 Km; Ry = (17.5+0+10)
= 27.3 km
Therefore R = R x2 + R y2 = 40 2 + 27.3 2 = 48.4

 Ry 
 = tan −1 
27.3 
The angle will be given by θ = tan -1   = 34.3
0

 Rx   40 

E.7. Find the distance between the two points with coordinates (6, 8,10) and
(4,4,10)

Solution
Since the Z- co-ordinate is the same, then both points lie in a plane parallel to the XY
- plane.
R21 = ux (4-6)+uy(4-8) + uz(10-10) = ux(-2) - uy(4), ⇒ r21 = 4 +16 = 20 = 4.47 units

E.8. Find the components of the vector that is 13 units long and makes an angle of
22.60 withZ-axes and whose projection in the XY plane makes an angle φ of 370 with
the X-axis

Solution
From V = Vx + Vy

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Vx = Vcos δ, Vy = V sin δ
V = 13 units, θ = 22.60. Therefore Cos θ = 0.923
Z component = 13 cos θ = 13 x 0.923 = 12 units
Projection into XY plane Vxy is given by Vxy = V sin θ = 13 Sin 22.6 = 13 x 0.384 =
4.992. From which we have Vx = Vxy cos φ = 13 x 0.384 x 0.8 = 4 units; Vy = Vxy
sin φ = 13 x 0.384 x 0.6 = 3.0 units. ∴ V = ux(4) + uy(3) + uz(12) or V = 4i + 3j + 12
k

E.9 Find the angle between the vectors A = 2i +3j-k and B = -i+j+2k

Solution
Compute scalar product
A.B = 2(-1) + 3(1) + (-1)2= -1
|A| = 14 = 3.74, |B| = 6 = 2.45
A.B −1
From A.B =AB Cosθ, we can write Cos θ = = = -0.109
AB 3.74 x 2.45
θ = Cos -1(-0.109) = 96.30

E.10 Find the vector product of the vectors A = 2i+3j - k and B = -i+j+2k

Solution
i j k
AxB =  2 3 − 1 = 7i-3j+5k
− 1 1 2 

PROBLEMS
Does a vector of zero length have a direction?
Can a vector quantity ever have components different from zero but a magnitude of
zero?
One sometimes speaks of the “direction of time” evolving from past to future. Does
this mean that time is a vector quantity?
What does the term 'null' vector mean?
Calculate the components, magnitude and direction of the resultant vector P which is
given by
P = Q+ R, if Q = 2i + 3j and R = i + j.

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Two vectors A and B have equal magnitudes and the angle between them is 600.
Calculate the magnitudes of the scalar product and the vector product of the vectors.
If A = 2i+3j, B = j-k, find A x B and A⋅B
In cartesian co-ordinate system, show that
i⋅i = j⋅j = k⋅k =1
i⋅i = j⋅k = k⋅k =0
ixi = jxj = kxk =0
ixj =k, jxk=i, kxi = j
Find the angle between two vectors A = 3i+4j+5k and B = 3i+4j-5k
Given the two dimension-less vectors A = 3i+4j and B = 2i+6j+5k determine
A+B (b) A-B ( c) B-A (d) B+A
Find the angle between a and b in the following cases:
a⋅ b = 2 where |a| = 2 and |b| = 3
a⋅b = -1/4 where |a| = 3 and |b| = 3
Find a.b, a.c and a.(b+c) given that
2i +2j+k = a
3i+4j +5k = b
4i+j-5k = c
Find the angle between the vectors a = 2i+k and b = 3i+4j+5k
Given a vector a in the x-direction, a vector b in the y-direction, and the scalar
quantity d:
What is the direction axb?
What is the direction of bxa?
What is the direction of (1/d)b?
What is the magnitude of a.b?
Show for any vector a, that a.a=a2 and that axa=0
Two vectors a and b have components, in arbitrary units, ax=3.2, ay=1.6;
bx=0.50.by=4.5
Using the unit vector i and j, express a and b.
Find the angle between a and b,
Find the components of a vector c that is perpendicular to a in the XY-plane and has a
magnitude of 5.0 units.
(a) Define scalar and vector quantities.
When is the sum of the two vectors maximum and when is it minimum?
Can two vectors of different magnitude be added in such a way that their resultant is
zero?
Two vectors have non-zero magnitude. Under what condition will their dot and cross
product be zero?
If A and B are arbitrary vectors and they are such that A .(B x A) =0. Explain.
The resultant of two vectors is 30 units long and forms with their angles of 250 and
500. Find the magnitude of the two vectors.
Find the angle between two vectors 8 and 10 units long, when the resultant vector
makes an angle of 500 with the larger vector. Also calculate the magnitude of the
resultant vector.
Two vectors, 10 and 8 units long form an angle of 600, 900 and 1200. Find the
magnitude of the difference and the angle with respect to the larger vector.
Find the rectangular components of a vector 15 units long when it forms an angle
w.r.t. the positive X-axis of 500, 1300, 2300 and 3100

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Given for coplanar vectors 8, 12, 10 and 6 units long respectively; the last three make
with the first angles of 700, 1500 and 2000 respectively. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant vector.
Prove that if the sum and the difference of two vectors are perpendicular, then the
vectors have equal magnitudes.
Prove that if the magnitudes of the sum and the difference of two vectors are equal the
vectors are perpendicular.
Express the triple product V1.(V2xV3) in determinant form. Derive, from it its
symmetry properties i.e. V1.V2x V3 = V3.V1xV2 = V2.V3xV1
Prove that the value of the triple product is equal to the volume of the 11
parallelepiped made from the three vectors

RECTILINEAR MOTION

Mechanics deals with the relations of force, matter and motion. A mathematical
method for describing motion is a branch of mechanics called Kinematics. Kinematics
is the study of motion without reference to the forces, which may cause that motion.
Motion is basically a continuous change of position. The simplest case of motion is
that of a point along a straight line. The motion of a body is rectilinear when its
trajectory is a straight line.

Distance
This is a measure of length between two points not necessarily in a straight line. It’s a
scalar quantity distance is measured in meters.

Displacement
This is the shortest measure of length between two points in a specific direction. It’s
linear distance in a given direction. It’s a vector quantity. Its SI units are meters (m)

Speed
This is the time rate of change of distance i.e. it is a scalar quantity measured in m/s.
The average speed ν of a body, which travels a distance s in time t, is defined by v
=ds/t. From which ds = vt.

Velocity
This is the time rate of change of displacement. It is a vector quantity and its SI units
are m/s. The velocity of a body changes if there are changes in magnitude or in
direction of motion or in both. The average velocity during a certain time interval is
equal to the average displacement(s) per unit time during that time interval. Therefore
vaverage = ∆S/∆t. A body is said to have move in uniform velocity when ∆S/∆t =
constant hence its acceleration is zero i.e. velocity is constant.

Displacement - Time Graph

The gradient at any instant or at a given time of a displacement-time graph for a body
that is changing positions represents the instantaneous velocities. If it is a straight-line
graph then it is undergoing uniform velocity otherwise it is non-uniform velocity.
Negative gradient means that the body is moving back. Increasing gradient is
increasing velocity and vice versa. The are under the curve has no physical meaning.

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We can obtain the instantaneous velocity by comparing the time derivative of the
displacement, v = dS/dt.

Acceleration
This is the time rate of change of velocity. It’s a vector quantity with SI units as m/s2.
a = dν/dt (also equivalent to acceleration). A body is said to move in uniform
acceleration when ∆ν/∆t = constant. i.e. the velocity changes by equal amounts in
equal times. Non-uniform acceleration is due to the different changes in velocities in
equal time intervals.

Velocity-Time Graph
The gradient at a given point of a velocity - time graph gives the instantaneous
acceleration at that point. If the graph is linear then the body is undergoing uniform
acceleration otherwise it is non-uniform acceleration. Increasing gradient means
increasing acceleration and vice versa. Negative gradient implies negative
acceleration or declaration. The area under the curves gives the displacement covered.
Area under curve = ∫ υ .dt = displacement. Area above time axis is positive and below
it is negative meaning negative displacement or backward motion.

Equations of Motion
If a body is moving in a straight line under constant acceleration, then relations among
its velocity displacement, time and accelerations can be represented by equations.
These equations are called equations of motion. Suppose a body starts with an initial
velocity u, and has a constant acceleration a. Suppose it covers a distance
(displacement) in time t and its velocity becomes ν. The constant acceleration a is
given by a = (ν - u)/t which on rearranging gives ν = u + at. This is the first equation
of motion. Since the acceleration is constant, the average velocity ν of the body is
ν = ½(u + ν). The displacement s covered in time t is s = νt or s = ½( u + ν) t. Using
the first equation of motion to eliminate ν, we have s = ½ t (u + u + at) = ½ t(2u
+at). Therefore s = ut + ½(at 2 ). This is the second equation of motion. The third
equation of motion can be obtained by combining the first two equations of motion.
Square both sides of equations ν = u+at ⇒ v2 = (u+at)2 = u2+2uat+ a2t2 = u2 + 2a
(ut + ½(at2))
But s = ut + ½(at2). Hence v2 = u2 + 2as. This is the third equation of motion.

Therefore the three equations of motion are

v = u + at
s = ut + ½(at2)
v2 = u2 + 2as

These equations hold well only when the acceleration is constant and the motion is in
a straight line.
If we know any three of v, u, a, s and t, then the remaining parameter can be evaluated
with ease. The three equations can also be found by integration.
v t
dv
= a ⇒ ∫ dv = ∫ a.dt ⇒ [v ]u = [at ]o ⇒ v -u = at. Therefore v = u + at.
v t

dt u 0

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 s v v
dv ds dv dv 1 
⇒ ∫ a.ds = ∫ v.dv ⇒ [as ]0 =  v 2 
s
Also a = = . = v.
dt dt ds ds 0 u 2 u
2 2
Hence v = u + 2as. When the body start from rest the initial velocity u =0 and we
get v = at,
s =½(at2), v2 = 2as.

Equation of Motion under Gravity

The earth attracts everybody towards its center. As a result of these attractions a
constant acceleration is produced in bodies falling freely towards the earth. This is
called the “acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by “g.” The motion of bodies
falling towards the earth (or thrown away from the earth) is called “gravitational
motion. Air resistance is neglected. If in the three equations we replace ‘a’ by ‘g’, ‘s’
by ‘h’ then we shall get equations for the bodies falling towards the earth. Thus these
equations are ν= u +gt, h = ut + ½(gt2), ν2 = u2 + 2gh, where h is the height from the
earth's surface. g is negative for bodies moving upwards and is positive for bodies
moving downwards. If initial velocity is zero, then ν =gt, h =½(gt2), ν2=2gh. For
free-fall motion, the particle may have zero velocity, yet it can be accelerating.

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD

• The difference between (i) distance and displacement (ii) Speed and velocity?
• Uniform (i) velocity? (ii) Acceleration?
• Equations of motion and its applications?
• Equations of motion under gravity?

Summary of Key Expressions

• v = ds/dt
• v = u + at
• s = ut + ½ at2
• v2 = u2 + 2as

EXAMPLES.
E.1 The velocity of a car is retarded from 10m/s to 4m/s in 2 seconds. What is its
acceleration?

Solution
We have been given v = 4, u = 10, u = 2, a =? For retardation a is negative. Using v =
u + at
a = (u - v)/t = (10 - 4)/2 = 3 m/s2 (retardation)

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E.2 An object is dropped into a well and hits the water 2 seconds after being released.
How deep is the well? Take g=10m/s 2

Solution
We have been given u = 0, t = 2, g = 10, h = ? ⇒ h = ut + ½ at2 = 0.2 + 1/2 x10 x 4 =
20 m

E.3 A ball is thrown vertically into the air at 50m/s. How high will it rise and how
long will it take to reach that height? G = 10m/s2

Solution
We have been given u = 50m/s, v = 0, g = 10m/s, h =?, t = ?. g is negative since it is
against gravity.
v 2 = u 2 - 2gh. ⇒ h = ( u 2 - v 2 )/2g = u 2 /2g = (50 x 50)/(2 x 10) = 125mm
From v = u - gt, t = (u - v)/g = u/g = 5 seconds

E.4 A particle is fired with a constant velocity of 10 x 10 5 m/s into a region where it
is subjected to an acceleration of 2 x 10 12 m/s directed opposite to the initial velocity.
How far does the particle travel before coming to rest? Ho long does the particle
remain at rest.

Solution
We have been given u = 10 x 10 5 m/s, v = 0, a = -2 x 10 12 m/s 2 . Using v 2 = u 2 +
2as we have
S = (v 2 - u 2 )/2a =(10 x 10 5 )/(2x2x10 12 ) = 0.25m
Also t = (v-u)/a = (-10 x 10 5 )/(- 2 x 10 12 ) = 0.5 x 10 6 Sec = 0.5µsec.

E.5 A coin is thrown vertically upwards from the ground with a speed of 10m/s. (a)
How long does it take to reach the highest point? (b) What is the maximum height
reached by the coin?

Solution
We have been given a = g = 10m/s 2 , u = 10m/s; at the highest point v = 0;
t = (v - u)/g = -10/-10 = 1 sec
Max height = ut - ½gt 2 = 10x1 - ½x10xt 2 = 5.0 m

E.6 Describe the motion represented by figures below.

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Solution
O Stationary
O-A Acceleration (increasing slope)
A-B Moving with constant velocity
B-C Decelerating (decreasing slope)
C-D Stationary
D-E Accelerating and moving back to the starting point
E-F Moving with constant velocity
F Stationary at starting point

(ii) A-B Stationary & away from origin

B-C Accelerating back to the origin
C-D Constant velocity
D-E Moving away from the origin with constant velocity in the opposite
direction to the
original direction
E-F Decelerating.
At F Momentarily at rest.
F-G Accelerating back toward origin
G-H Constant velocity towards origin
H Stationary at origin

PROBLEMS
Define distance, speed, displacement, velocity, uniform velocity, and uniform
acceleration. In each case explain whether it is a vector or scalar quantity. State their
SI units.
An automobile travels on a straight road for 40km at 30 km/h. It then continues in the
same direction for another 40km at 60km/h. What is the average speed of the car
during the 80km trip? Sketch the motion (on a displacement - time) of the automobile
for the whole trip giving the relevant distance and time.
A car accelerates at 9.2km/h2. Compute the acceleration in m/s2.
A particle had a velocity of 18m/s and 2.4s later its velocity was 30m/s in the opposite
direction. What was the average acceleration of the particle during this 2.4s interval?
On a dry road a car with good tires may be able to brake with a deceleration of
4.92m/s2. How long does such a car initially traveling at 24.6m/s take to come to rest?
How far does it travel in this time?
Can an object (i) have zero velocity and still be accelerating? (ii) have a constant
speed and still have a varying velocity? In each case give an example if your answer is
yes; explain why if your answer is no.
A rocket ship in free space moves with constant acceleration equal to 9.8m/s2. (a) If it
starts from rest, how long will it take to acquire a speed one-tenth that of light? (b)
How far will it travel in so doing? (Speed of light = 3.0 x 108m/s).
Derive the three equations of motion in a straight line for a general case and for a body
starting motion from rest. Write down equations of motion under gravity (Assume
acceleration is constant).
A car runs at a constant speed of 15m/s for 300 seconds and then accelerates
uniformly to a speed of 25m/s over a period of 20 seconds. This speed is maintained
for 300 seconds and then accelerates uniformly in 30 sec. Draw a velocity time graph
to represent the journey described above. From the graph (i) find the acceleration

14
while the body changes from 15m/s to 25m/s. (ii) the total distance traveled in the
time described. (iii) The average speed over the time described.
An object moves in a straight line starting from rest. There are two stages in the
motion (a) It gains speed uniformly for 2 seconds and attains a speed of 6.0 m/s (b) It
continues with this speed for a further 1.5 seconds. Find the acceleration in both
stages (a) and (b) and the total distance moved during both stages.
A stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground and is observed to pass a point
situated at a height H above ground level at 4 sec and gain at 5 seconds after
projection. Find the velocity of projection of the stone and the height of H.
A body slides down a frictionless incline, which makes an angle of 300 with the
horizontal. Compute the velocity v after sliding 8 metres from rest and the time t it
takes to slide the 8m.
A body is projected up a smooth 300 incline with a velocity of 40m/s measured along
the slope. Determine (a) the time it takes to return to the starting point (b) the distance
it moves along the slope before reaching its highest point.
Prove that a gun will shoot three times as high when its angle of elevation is 600 as
when it is 300, but will carry the same horizontal distance.
A ball after having fallen from rest under the influence of gravity for 6 seconds
crashes through a horizontal glass plate, thereby loosing 2/3 of its velocity. If it then
reaches the ground in 2 seconds find the height of the plate above the ground.
A bead (fig. shown) is free to slide down a smooth wire tightly stretched between
points P1 and P2 on a vertical circle. Find (a) its velocity v on arriving at P2 and (b) the
time taken to arrive at P2 and show that this time is the same for any chord drawn
from P2.

Bead acc. along the wire = gcosθ; length of wire = 2Rcosθ

Body 1 is released from rest at the top of a smooth inclined plane and at the same
instant body 2 is projected upward from the foot of the plane with such velocity that
they meet halfway up the plane. Determine the velocity of projection and the velocity
of each body when they meet.

PHY 110
Handout II
PROJECTILE MOTION
A projectile is any body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path
determined by the gravitational force acting on it. The path followed by a projectile is

15
called a trajectory. The motion of a freely falling body is a special case of projectile
motion and in this case the trajectory is a straight line. Consider a body that is thrown
in space obliquely at an angle of θ to the ground.

Assume air resistance and variations in g are negligible. The horizontal component of
acceleration is zero and the vertical component is downward and equal to that of a
freely falling body. Since zero acceleration means constant velocity, the motion can
be described as a combination of horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical
motion with constant acceleration. Vertical motion is under the influence of gravity. g
is negative for upward motion and positive for downward motion. Horizontal motion
is independent of vertical motion. Suppose that at time t = 0 our particle is at the point
(x0 y0) and has velocity components uox and uoy. The variation of each coordinate with
time is a case of motion with constant acceleration and equations of motion can be
used directly. In this case ax = 0, a0y = -g. We shall be referring to the three
equations; v= u + gt, h = ut +1/2gt2,and
v2 = u2 + 2gs, which are equations of motion under gravity. At point O, the
component of velocity will be uoy = uoSinθ, uox = uoCosθ .

(i) Vertical Motion

Maximum height
The vertical component of velocity is uoy = uoSinθ. The body is subjected to a constant
acceleration a = -g. Let hm be the maximum height of the projectile. At maximum
height, hm, the body will be momentarily at rest, hence from 3rd equation of motion we
get v2 = u2 - 2gh, ⇒ 0 = u2oy - 2ghm. Therefore, hm = (u2oy)/2g = (uoSinθ)2/2g .

Time taken to reach Maximum height

Suppose the body takes time t to reach the highest point of its paths. Then from first
equation of motion, v = u - gt. But v = 0, u = uoy, a = g , ⇒ 0 = uoy - gt. Hence t =
uoy/g = uoSinθ/g. Time of flight is the time the projectile takes before it hits the
horizontal axis. It's twice the time taken to teach the highest point. Therefore T = 2t =
(2uoSinθ)/g. Vertical velocity at any given time can be computed using vy = uoy - gt.
Hence vy = uoSinθ - gt.
(ii) Horizontal Motion
Neglecting air resistance the horizontal component of velocity uoCosθ remains
constant during the flight since g has no effect in a horizontal direction. Horizontal
displacement OB is called the Range R.
Range (R) = Horizontal velocity x Time of flight. R = uoCosθ x (2uoSinθ)/g = (uo2
Sin2θ)/g, since Sin2θ = 2Sinθ Cosθ. For a given velocity of projection the range is

16
maximum when Sin 2θ =1, i.e. θ = 450. The range then has maximum value of Rmax =
uo2/g. A body projected at 300 or 600 will strike the ground at the same place.
However the projection at 600 takes longer time in space.

(iii) Trajectory
The path traced by a projectile is called a trajectory. At any given time horizontal
displacement is given by x = uoCosθ x Time = uotCosθ. The displacement along the
vertical direction is y = ut +1/2gt2, ⇒ y = (uoSinθ)t - 1/2gt2 . From the expression of
the horizontal displacement, t = {(u0Cosθ)/x}-1 Substituting the above expression in
that of y we get
y= (u0Sinθ) {(u0Cosθ)/x}-1 - 1/2 g {(u0Cosθ)/x}-2 = x tanθ - 1/2 (gx2)(uo2Cos2θ)-1. The
quantities uo, tanθ, Cosθ and g are constants, so the equation has the form y = ax -
bx2. Where a and b are constants. This is the equation of a parabola. Therefore the
trajectory path is parabolic.

Trajectory with θ = 0
In this case, the direction of projection is horizontal. The initial vertical and
horizontal expressions of velocity becomes respectively Uoy = uoSinθ = uoSin0 = 0
(i.e. there's no vertical components) and Uox = uoCosθ = uoCos0 = uo. From the
equations of motion, vy = +gt at a point below the origin. Vertical displacement is
given by h = uoy t +1/2 gt2. Therefore h =1/2 gt2. Also vy2 = uoy2 + 2gh. Therefore vy2
= 2gh.
y - axis (h)
x-axis

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD

• A projectile motion? Summary of Key Expressions
• A trajectory? • hm = (uo2Sin2 θ)/2g
• Motion of the freely falling body? • T = (2uo Sinθ)/g
• Assumptions made in projectile motion? • vy = uo Sinθ - gt
• Vertical components of velocity?
• Relation for maximum height? • R = (uo2Sin2 θ)/g
• Time of flight?
• Range?
• The nature of the trajectory path?
• Trajectory with θ = 0

17
EXAMPLES

E.1 A submarine launched ballistic missile (SLBM) is fired to our city from a
distance of 3000 km. Assume it is detected at firing time. How much warning time is
there and what is the launch velocity vo? Make the assumption of flat earth, constant
gravitational acceleration and a firing angle of 450 and that the rocket coasts over all
but the very beginning of its trajectory.

Solution
From R = (2vo2 SinθCos θ)/g = (vo2 Sin2θ)/g. For 2θ = 900, R = vo2/g. Therefore
gR = vo
= 9.8 x3 x106m / s = 5.4 km/s. The X-coordinate of the missile position is given by
x = (voCosθ)t
or t = x(voCosθ)-1. Total time to occur when x = R. ⇒T = R(voCosθ)-1
=(3x106)/(5.42x103 x 0.707)
= 783 sec = 13 min (This time is not enough for evacuation of a city).

E.2 Assume a monkey lets go of a tree when a gun is fired. At what angle should the
gun be pointed so that the bullet hits the monkey while in free fall.

Solution

Let xm & ym be the initial coordinates of the monkey. Let t1, be the time of collision.
At collision the height of the monkey is y = ym - 1/2gt12 and the height of the bullet is
y = (vo Sinθ)t1 - ½ gt12
Equating the two equations gives t1 = ym (voSinθ)-1. X - coordinate of the bullet at time
t1 is
xm = (voCosθ)t1. Substituting for t1 using the expression for the time of collision we
get
y
xm = ym (voCosθ) (voSinθ)-1. ⇒ tanθ = m . We see that the gun must be pointed
xm
directly at the monkey. Note that the angle is independent of the muzzle velocity.

E.3 A motorcycle stunt rider rides off the edge of a cliff with a horizontal velocity
of magnitude 5m/s. Find the rider’s position and velocity after ¼ seconds.

18
Solution
Initial angle θ = 0. Therefore, initial vertical velocity component is zero. The
horizontal velocity component is equal to the initial velocity and is constant. Hence X
= uoxt = 5 x 1/4 = 1.25.
y = uoy.t - 1/2(gt2) = -1/2 (gt2) = -1/2(9.8) (1/4)2 =0.306m
Distance from origin at this time is r = x 2 + y 2 = 1.252 + 0.30062 = 1.29 m
Components of velocity are vx = uox = 5m/s, vy = uoy - gt = (-9.8) (1/4) = -2.45 m/s
Resultant velocity has magnitude v = v x2 + v 2y = 5.57 m/s.
vy
The angle θ is θ = tan-1 = tan -1(-2.45)/5 = - 26.10 i.e. the velocity is 26.10 below
vx
the horizontal.
PROBLEMS
1. (a) Define (i) Projectile (ii) Trajectory
(a) Show that (i) maximum height of a projectile is hm = (uo2 Sin2θ)/2g. (ii) Time
of flight is
T = (2uoSinθ)/g (iii) Maximum range is Rmax = u02/g
(c) Show that the trajectory path is parabolic, i.e. it is in the form y = ax - bx2
2. A projectile is launched with initial velocity of 30m/s at an angle of 600 above the
horizontal.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of its velocity (a) 2s and (b) 5s after launch.
3. A stone is thrown from a cliff with initial velocity of 15m/s at an angle of 200
below the horizontal. Find its horizontal and vertical displacements 2.3 s later.
4. A body is projected upwards at an angle of 30o with the horizontal from the top of
a building 170m high. Its initial speed is 40m/s. How long will it take before
striking the ground? How far from the foot of the building will it strike?
5. A person observes a bird on a tree 39.6m high and at a distance of 59.2m. With
what velocity should a person throw an arrow at an angle of 450 so that it may hit
the bird?
6. An aeroplane is flying with a horizontal velocity of 600km/h at a height of 1960m.
When the plane is just above a place A on the ground, a bomb is dropped from it.
The bomb hits the ground at a place B. (a) What is the distance AB? (b) What is
the trajectory of the bomb as seen by an observer (i) on the earth (ii) inside the
plane?
7. A hunter takes aim towards a monkey sitting on a tree. As the hunter fires, just
then the monkey drops down from the tree. (a) Show that the bullet will hit the
monkey. (b) Will the hitting of the monkey depend on the initial velocity of the
bullet? (c)Will the monkey be hit if (i) it delays a bit to loose the grip (ii) It was
given some initial thrust? Explain your answers.
8. A person observes a bird on a tube 39.6m high and at a distance of 59.2m. With
what velocity does the person need to throw an arrow at 450 to the horizontal so
that it may hit the bird?
9. No matter what the initial velocity is, the motion of a projectile (neglecting air
resistance) is always confined to a single plane. Why?
10. A projectile is shot at an angle of 600 above the horizontal and strikes a building
30m away at a point 15m above the point of projection. Find (a) velocity of

19
 projection, (b) the magnitude and direction of velocity of the projectile when it
strikes the building.
11. Prove that a projectile launched at an angle θ has the same range as one launched
with the same speed at angle (900- θ0)
12. An airplane diving at an angle of 36.90 with the horizontal drops a bag of sand
from an altitude of 800 m. The bag is observed to strike the ground 5 seconds
after its release. What is the speed of the plane. How far does the bag travel
horizontally during its fall? What are the horizontal and vertical components of its
velocity just before it strikes the ground?
13. From the roof of a building a stone is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of
29.4m/s. Another stone is dropped 4s after the first is thrown. Prove that the first
stone will pass the second exactly 4 seconds after the second stone was dropped?
14. At the same distance, one body is dropped and a second body is thrown downward
with an initial velocity of 100cms-1. When will the distance between them be
18m?
15. Two bodies are thrown vertically upwards with the same initial velocity of 98m/s,
but 4 sec apart. How long after the first stone will they meet?
16. A stone is dropped from the top of a building. The sound of the stone hitting the
ground is heard 5.1 seconds later. If the velocity of sound is 341m/s calculate the
height of the building.
17. Prove that the trajectory of a projectile, which gives the maximum horizontal
range R also, has a greatest height of 1/4 R.
18. Show that bodies projected at 300 and 600 have the same range.
19. Find the angle of projection, which gives a body a horizontal range of 10km when
projected with a speed of 400ms-1.

FORCE AND NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

What is Force?
Force denotes a push or a pull. It’s a vector quantity. When a force is applied to a
body it begins to move. For a moving body, an external force can alter its velocity and
probably bring it to rest. Therefore force is that which changes a body’s state of rest
or of uniform motion in a straight line. Force causes a body to accelerate. Force is
measured in Newton's (N). 1 Newton = Weight of 100g.

Types of Forces
Mm
Gravitational force: It pulls us towards the earth. F = G for r >> compared with
r2
the size of the bodies. It is responsible for holding the moon in its orbit about the earth
and planets in their respective orbits about the sun.

20
Centripetal force: It keeps a body moving in a circle and is always directed towards
the centre. It is required to produce continuous change of direction of a moving body.
MV 2
It varies according to mass, speed and path radius. F =
r
Weight: It's the gravitational acceleration acting on a given mass. W = mg; where g ≡
gravitational acceleration (= 9.81 m/s2). Force of gravity varies from place to place on
the earth because of the shape of the earth and its rotation. Hence weight varies from
place to place.

Friction: It opposes the relative sliding motion of two surfaces that are in contact with
one another. It enables us to walk and brake our automobiles

Static Friction Force: Frictional forces are usually in play just before there’s relative
motion between any two bodies.

Kinetic or Sliding Friction Force: This force is less than static friction. It is the
resistance to motion between two bodies that have constant relative motion.

Electric Magnetic Force/Interaction: It is responsible for intermolecular forces. It may

be attractive or repulsive.

Impulsive Forces: Impulse = F ∆t = m ∆V (Ns)

First law: If F = 0, ∆u = O
Every body continuous in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it. It’s also called the
law of inertia. It means that a body cannot accelerate on its own. Mass is a measure
of inertia of a body i.e. Mass ∝ Inertia. Mass is a scalar quantity. Mass is the
quantity of matter in a substance. It’s always constant for a given body anywhere on
the earth. Weight is mass times gravitational acceleration (W = mg). Gravitational
field is the force acting on a unit mass in the field. According to the law of inertia, a
body accelerates only if an unbalanced force acts on it. Effects of Newton's first law
are quite common. When a vehicle suddenly stops it causes the passengers to lurch
forward (tending to keep moving) or when it starts moving it jerks the passengers
backwards (the tendency to remain at rest). Inertia is the tendency to remain at rest or
to continue moving in a straight line. It’s the ability to resist a change of motion.
d
Newton's second law, F∝ (mv)
dt
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force and
occurs in the direction of the force. Momentum of a body of mass m moving with a
velocity u is given by mu. It is measured in kg.m/s or Ns. Consider a force F acting
on a body of mass m for a time t, thus changing its velocity from u to v. The change in
m (v − u )
momentum = mv − mu . Hence rate of change of momentum = . From second
t
m (v − u ) km(v − u )
law, we have F∝ . Hence F = . But from the equation’s of linear
t t

21
 v−u
motion, a = . Therefore F= kma (where k = constant of proportionality). 1
t
Newton force is the force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a body of 1 kg .
1= kx1x1 therefore k=1. Hence F = ma.
F
Writing a = , we can make the following observations:
m
(i) a ∝ F for a given m
(ii) a occurs along the same direction as F
1
(iii) a ∝ for a given F
m

F= ma defines the procedure for the measurement of force. We measure the

acceleration it produces in a known mass such as the standard kilogram. We define
m a
the ratio of the two masses by 0 = if the forces acting on the two masses are the
m a0
same (i.e.-common force is acting on the two masses). Acceleration produced by the
force on a body is always in the direction of the force. A body is said to have linear
momentum when it moves on a straight line, (P = mu). Newton's second law can be
redefined as Force = mass x acceleration. If F = 0, then a =0; the body is either at
rest or is moving with uniform velocity. Putting F=W, a = g then we have W = mg.

To verify experimentally that F ∝ ma.

F = ma, applies to any consistent system of units, hence we can use a number of
identical trolleys which can be fixed, one on top of the other, and taking the mass
of a trolley as a unit of mass. Similarly, forces are applied to the trolleys by one or
more identical elastic cords each stretched by exactly the same length, thus using
the tension in a cord as a unit of force.

Attached to the trolley is a long strip of paper tape, which passes under a disc of
carbon paper. Immediately above the carbon paper is an iron strip, vibrating 50
times per second with a stylus which makes a series of dots on the tape as it is
pulled along. Ticker tape vibrator acts as both clock and distance measure;
distance between the dots representing distances moved by the trolley in
successive intervals of 0.02s. Tilt the runway to compensate for the friction which
retards the trolley’s motion. Dots are equally spaced for correct adjustments. The
resultant force on the trolley is now zero, so only the force applied by the elastic
cord will produce acceleration.

∝F for given m.
To show that a∝
Fixed on the vibrator, pull the trolley while maintaining a particular length of the cord.
Repeat the experiment for 2, 3, 4, …. cords respectively as the length of extension of
the cords is maintained in all experiments. Acceleration is found to increase with the
number of cords being used. Hence a ∝ F.

Newton's Third law: F12 = − F21

To every action, there’s always an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction
acts on different bodies. Action and reaction always acts in pairs. If a person stands

22
on a table, two forces act on him. (i) Weight of his body. (ii) Counter reacting force R
from the table. For the person not to fall through the table, the third law has to apply.
W = mg, but mg = R. Therefore W = mg = R

Momentum
The product of mass and velocity of body is called the momentum of a body. (P =
mv2). It’s measured in Ns or kg m/sec. This momentum is what Newton referred to as
“quantity of motion.” Since mass is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity,
momentum is a vector in the direction of the velocity. Changes in momentum are
calculated by vector subtraction; thus
 final   initial 
Change in momentum =   −   . Momentum is a measure of
 momentum   momentum 
mdv
force, F = , when acted on a body of constant mass. Suppose a constant force F
dt
∆v
acts over a time interval ∆t. Then F = m . Hence F∆t = m∆v = ∆p. Where ∆v ≅
∆t
velocity change, ∆p ≅ momentum change. The impulse of a constant force is defined
by the equation. Impulse = F∆t. Impulse and momentum have the same dimensions
[MLT-1]. Both may be measured in Ns or kgms-1. Impulse is a vector quantity whose
dv
direction is that of F. Consider a variable force applied. From F = m . Integrating
dt

we get ∫ Fdt = mv ∫ dv =[mv ]uv . Therefore ∫ Fdt = mv − mu = ∆P . Hence the impulse of

u

a variable force is defined by Impulse = ∫ Fdt.

Impulse–Momentum Theorem: ∫ Fdt = ∆p = mv − mu , where the impulse

changes the velocity of a body of mass m from u to v. The
relationship ∫ Fdt = mv − mu is sometimes called the impulse – momentum theory.
This holds well for very small impact time.

Conservation of Momentum
Momentum of an isolated system is conserved. An isolated system is one which
experiences zero interaction with its environment. In practice it is not easy to isolate a
system. Consider two bodies moving in the same direction on a smooth horizontal
surface before collision their masses are m1 & m2 and velocities u1 & u2 respectively.
Hence P1 = m1 u1; P2 = m2 u2; P = P1 + P2. During collision, total momentum P1 + P2
= m1u1 + m2 u2. After collision their velocities are v1 & v2 respectively hence total
momentum P = m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2. This is true for isolated bodies.

Inelastic Collision
Total momentum of colliding bodies is always conserved. Usually however, K.E is
not conserved. Some of it is changed to heat energy, sound energy, light energy,
which is not recoverable. Such a collision is said to be inelastic collision. If K.E is
conserved then the collision is said to be elastic collision. Consider a sphere A of
mass M and velocity V incident on a stationary sphere B of equal mass M. Suppose

23
the collision is elastic and after collision A moves with velocity V1 and B with
velocity V2.Then MV = MV1 + MV2; hence V= V1 + V2. Then K.E
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
= M T V = MV1 + M V2 , V2 = V1 + V2 . For inelastic collision (if bodies stick
2 2 2
together). MTV =2MV1, hence V = 2V1.

The Coefficient of Restitution (e).

velocity of separation V − V1
Coefficient of restitution e is given by e = = 2 where
velocity of approach U1 − U 2
U1, U2, V1, V2 have their usual meaning.

E Type
>1 Explosive or super-elastic collision
1 Elastic
<1 Inelastic
o Completely inelastic

Weight of a body in a lift

Our weight appears to be increased in a lift accelerated upward and decreased in a lift
accelerated downward. Suppose a person (mass m) is standing on a weighing machine,
gravity force mg acts on him vertically downward (W = mg). The machine also exerts
a reactionary force, R, on the person in the upward direction where R = W (3rd law).
Hence the net force on the person is given by F = mg = R (downward). But the person
is stationary (no acceleration on him), hence the net force on him should be zero i.e.
F = mg – R = O, R = mg. But R = W. ∴ W = mg. Thus the weight of the
person (which is read on the machine is equal to the gravity force).

Lift moving up
For a lift moving up with acceleration a, F = mg – R (downward). From Newton’ 2nd
law – Net force on him is given by F = ma (upward) or F = - ma. Thus - ma = mg – R
⇒ R = mg + ma But R = W, ∴ W = mg + ma. Hence the weight of the person
is greater than the gravity force (mg) i.e. the person will feel his weight to be increased
than in the normal state.

Lift moving down

For a lift moving up with acceleration a, F = mg – R (downward). ∴F = ma directed
downward.
∴ F = ma = mg – R ⇒ R = mg – ma. But R = W, ∴ W = mg – ma. Hence weight W
of the person is less than the gravity force (mg) i.e a person feels – his weight is
decreased.

Free Fall
For free fall, a = g. ∴ W = mg – mg = 0. The machine will read zero – i.e. the
person will feel weightless. This is a state of weightlessness. In this state the person
will not feel even the weight of a heavy body placed on his head because both are
undergoing free fall. If a person drops a packet from his hand, the packed will not fall

24
down on the floor of the lift (under free fall) but will appear to be floating in air. If a
>g then N= mg – ma will be negative. Under this condition the person will rise from
the floor of the lift and stick to the ceiling of the lift. If the lift is moving up or down
with constant velocity (a = o) then W = mg i.e. weight of a person will remain equal
to the gravity force.

Bodies on flat smooth surfaces

Consider a block of mass m1, attached to a massless string that passes over a pulley
hung by another block of mass m2, m1 being on the surface of a smooth horizontal
frictionless table. To find the acceleration a and Tension T, in the string, consider
forces on an individual block. T = Constant. For m1, N – m1g =0 and T = m1a. For
m2a is downward. T - m2g = - m2a. From the above equations we can calculate the
values of the acceleration and tension. T = -m2a + m2g = m1a or a(m1 + m2) = m2g, ∴
 M2   M 1M 2 
a =   g . But T = m1 a ∴T=   g
 M 1+ M 2   M1 + M 2 

Inclined plane

Consider a block held on smooth inclined plane by a massless string. Let F be the
force acting on the block by the string, mg the weight acting vertically downward. Let
N be the normal component. Since the block is at rest F + N + mg = 0; F – mg Sinθ =
0; N – mg Cosθ = 0. The negative sign is due to the force components acting along
negative direction of the applied force.

25
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Whenever the surface of one body slides over that of another, each body exerts a
frictional force on the other parallel to the surface. Frictional force is the resistance a
body experiences when it tends to move over another body. The force acts along the
common surface and in such a direction as to oppose the relative motion of the
surfaces. In this case the friction of the pulleys and the weight of the string is
considered negligible.

Since the string is tight, the tension T is the same throughout the string. If the hanging
mass m is at rest then T = mg; F = T; N = Mg. If the block just starts to move i.e it is
in limiting equilibrium, we have T =mg; F =µN = µMg. Hence F =mg = µMg ⇒ µ =
m/M. The force on the pulley must be the resultant of T and T.

Fr = 2Tcos45o = T 2 = mg 2 . Let's increase the hanging mass to 2m. Resultant

force = 2mg -T. But F =ma. 2mg -T = 2ma. Similarly for the block T -F = Ma.
Adding the two equations gives
2mg - F = a (2m + M). But F =µN = µMg where µ is the coefficient of sliding
friction. Hence
2mg - µMg = a (2m + M) which enables us to investigate the ensuing motion.

Types of friction
(a) Consider a block A resting on a rough surface (table) and attached to a scale-pan S,
over the friction less pulley B.

When small weights are added on S the block does not move. The frictional force
between the blocks and the table is equal to the total weight on S. When weight is
increased further, A suddenly begins to slip. The frictional force now present between
the surfaces is called limiting (static) frictional force.

26
(b) When brakes are applied to a bicycle, a frictional force is exerted between the
moving wheels and the brake blocks. This type of force is called kinetic (or dynamic
or sliding) frictional force.

Laws of friction
(i) The frictional force between two surfaces opposes their relative motion or
attempted motion.
(ii) The frictional forces are independent of the area of contact of the surfaces.
(iii) When the surfaces are at rest the limiting frictional force F is directly
proportional to the normal reaction i.e. F α R, F = µ.R, where µ = Coefficient
of limiting friction force.
When the surfaces are in motion, the sliding frictional force is directly proportional to the normal
reaction and is independent of the relative velocity of the surfaces. F α R, F=µ'.R; µ.' = Coefficient of
sliding (Kinetic) friction.

Coefficient of friction

FR α R; where R = Normal reaction; hence FR = µ.R. But R = mg. Therefore FR =

µ.mg where
LimitingFrictionalForce( FR )
µ = Coefficient of friction, µ = .
Normal Re action( R )

Freely hanging bodies

Consider a block of mass M, on the rough surface of coefficient of friction µ. The
mass m, is attached to mass M, over the pulleys and joined together through the mass
less cords as shown below. Find the acceleration of the masses. Answer
a= 2
(m − µm1 )g
m1 + m2

Resolution of forces
If the inclined surface had friction with coefficient of friction µ, then:

The resultant force = F-FR = mg sinθ - µ.R, ⇒ ma = mg sinθ - µ.mgCosθ

27
⇒ a = g(sinθ -µ. Cosθ) for the body moving down, and a = g (µ. Cos θ - sin θ) for
F mg sin gθ
the body moving up. ∴Coefficient of sliding friction µ = = = tan θ
R mg cos θ

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD?

• Newton's laws of motion?
• Effects of 1st law of motion?
• Mastered their applications?
• Weight in a lift?
• State of free fall?
• Motion on frictionless surfaces?
• Inclined planes?
• Types of frictions?
• Coefficient of friction?
• Resolution of forces

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS

• F = ma
• ∆P = F∆∆t = impulse
• Impulse = ∫ fdt
v 2 − v1
• e=
u1 − u 2
• FR = µ.R = µ.mg

EXAMPLES
E.1 A 600N object is to be given on acceleration of 0.7m/s2. How large an
unbalanced force must act upon it?

Solution
Assuming the weight to be measured on the earth, we use W= mg, to find m =W/g
=600/9.8 =61 kg.
Using F = ma = 61x 0.7 = 43N

E.2 Compute the least acceleration with which a 45kg woman can slide down a rope
if the rope can withstand a tension of only 300N.

Solution
The weight of the woman is mg = 45x9.8 = 441N. Because the rope can only support
300N, the unbalanced downward force F on the woman must be at least (441-
300)N=141N. Her minimum downward acceleration is then a =F/m = 141/45 =3.1
ms-2.

E.3 A force 200N pulls a body of mass 50Kg and overcomes a constant frictional
force of 40N. What is the acceleration of the body?

28
Solution
Resultant force F = Fpull - Ffriction = (200 -40) N = 160N. Therefore F = ma = 160N.
a = 160/50 =3.2ms-2

E.4 Two masses of 0.5 and 0.25Kg are connected by a light inextensible string, which
passes over a smooth pulley. If the system is released from rest with the string taut,
find the acceleration of each mass and the distance travelled in 1 sec. from rest.
Solution
Let T be the tension in the string and a magnitude of acceleration of each mass.
Resultant force = mass x acceleration

For 0.25Kg, T- 0.25g = 0.25a. For 0.5Kg, 0.5g -T = 0.5a. Adding the two equations
gives
0.25g = 0.75a, ⇒ a = g/3. Hence a = 3.27 ms-2.
Using S = ut + ½(at2), in 1 sec S= 1.635m

PROBLEMS
1. A constant force acts on a 5kg object and reduces its velocity from 7m/s to 3m/s
in a time of 3s. Find the force.
2. A 100kg crate is pulled at constant speed up a smooth 30o ramp. What is the
horizontal force required?
3. Three blocks with masses 6kg, 9kg, and 10kg are connected as shown in the figure
below. The coefficient of friction between the table and the 10kg block is 0.2.

4. Find the acceleration of the system and the tension in the cord on the left and

29
 right. The mass of an elevator is 500kg. Calculate the tension in the cable of the
elevator when the elevator is (a) stationary (b) ascending with an acceleration of
2ms-2 (c) descending with an acceleration of 2ms-2 .
5. A lift is going upward with an acceleration of 4.9ms-2. What will be the
apparent weight of a 60kg person sitting in the lift? What will be the apparent
weight when he acquires a uniform velocity of 4.9m/s? If the rope of the lift
gets broken, what is likely to happen?
6. A body is dropped from the ceiling of a transparent cabin falling freely
towards the earth. Describe the motion of the body as observed by an observer
(a) sitting in the cabin (b) standing on the earth.
7. Two blocks of wood A and B are of weight 10N and 12N respectively. If µ
=1.4 for the contact surfaces, calculate the force of limiting friction when (a)
A is about to slide on B
(b) B is about to slide on A
8. Five copies of the same book each of weight 4N, are placed one on top of the
other. If µ = 0.36 calculate the horizontal force necessary to remove (a) the
second book up
(b) the fourth book up, keeping others in place.

PHY 110
Handout III
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Uniform Circular Motion
When a particle moves on a circular path with a constant speed, then its motion is said to
be a uniform circular motion in a plane. This motion has a velocity whose magnitude
remains constant but whose direction changes continuously. In the figure shown below,
a particle P is moving around a pivot O with a constant speed v.

30
The instantaneous position of P is expressed by an angle θ between a radial line OP and
a reference line OPo. |v| = v = constant. v is perpendicular to the radius rector r.

Angular displacement
Suppose a particle covers a distance ∆S along the circular path in the time interval t2 - t1
(=∆t). It revolves through the angle θ2 - θ1 (=∆θ) during the interval. The angle of
revolution ∆θ is called the angular displacement of the particle. If r is the radius of the
circle then the "angular displacement" is given by ∆θ = ∆S/r, {angle = Arc / radius}.
Unit of angular displacement is the "radian". If length of arc = radius of circle then ∆θ =
1 radian.

ω)
Angular velocity (ω
The angular velocity of a particle is given by
ω = Angular displacement divided by time taken.
∆θ dθ
ω = ∆θ/∆t, ⇒ ω = Lim. = . Units are radians per second. Dimensions: [T-1]
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
2π
If T is the time taken for one revolution then ϖ = . If the particle makes n revolutions
T
 1
in one second the ϖ = 2πn n = 
 T

Relation between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity.

The particle covers an arc length ∆S in time ∆t. Hence angular displacement is ∆θ =
∆θ ∆s 1 ∆θ 1  ∆s  1
∆S/r. Dividing through by ∆t, we get = . , Lim. =  Lim.  = .v
∆t ∆t r ∆t → 0 ∆t r  ∆t →0 ∆t  r
Therefore v = rω , which is the instantaneous linear velocity.

Centripetal acceleration
A particle in uniform circular motion changes direction hence velocity changes thus the
body accelerates. The direction of acceleration is always toward the centre of the circle.
Hence it is called "centripetal acceleration". Suppose a particle is moving with a uniform
speed v on a circular path whose radius r and centre o.

31
At every point of the path, the direction of the velocity of the particle would be
tangential. Suppose the particle covers a distance ∆S from P1 to P2 in a small time -
interval ∆t. Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the particles at P1 and P2 respectively. The
magnitude of v1 and v2 is v but there's a difference of ∆θ in their directions. The velocity
change from P1 to P2 is
∆v = v1 - v2 = v1 +(- v2). The triangle OP1P2 and the vector triangle QAB are similar

∆s ∆v v
Hence P1P2/ P1O = AB/ AQ, = , ⇒ ∆v = ∆s . Dividing both sides by ∆t, we
r v r
∆v v ∆s
have = . . If ∆t is infinitesimally small (∆t → 0) then
∆t r ∆t
∆v v ∆s  v 2 v2
Lim . =  Lim.  = , ⇒ a = . But v = rω , hence a = rω 2
∆t →0 ∆t r  ∆t →0 ∆t  r r
This is the magnitude of the acceleration a of the particle. The direction of this
acceleration is towards the centre of the circular path.

Centripetal force
From Newton's law, acceleration is always produced by a force whose direction is the
same as that of the acceleration. A body performing circular motion is acted upon by a
force, which is always directed towards the centre of the circle - centripetal force. F =
mv2/r or
F = mrω2

Examples of centripetal forces

(i) A car taking a turn requires centripetal force. This is provided by the frictional
forces between the tyres and the road.

32
(ii) When a stone tied to the end of string is whirled in a circular path, the centripetal
force is provided by the tension in the string created by drawing the string
inward.

Centrifuges
Read about centrifuges on your own and write notes.

Motion of Bicycle Rider round Circular Track.

When a person on a bicycle rides round a circular racing track, the necessary centripetal
force mv2/r is actually provided by the frictional force F at the ground. The force F has a
moment about the centre of gravity G equal to F.h, which tends to turn the rider
outward.

When the rider leans inwards as shown, this is counter balanced by the moment R.a
about G. R = mg. Since there's no vertical motion, so the moment is mg.a. Thus
provided no slipping occurs, F.h = mg.a. ⇒ a/h = tanθ = F/mg. Where θ is the
angle of inclination to the vertical. Now F = mv2/r = mg tanθ, ⇒ tanθ = v2/rg.
When F is greater than the limiting friction, skidding occurs. In this case F>lmg or mg
tan > lmg. Thus tanh > l is the condition for skidding.

Motion of car round circular track

Suppose a car is moving with a velocity v round a horizontal circular track of radius r,
and let R1, R2 be the respective normal reactions at the wheels A, B and F1, F2 the
corresponding frictional forces. Then for circular motion we have F1+F2 = mv2/r and
vertically
R1+R2 = mg. Also, taking moments about G, (F1+F2).h + R1a - R2a = 0 where 2a is the
distance between the wheels assuming G is mid-way between the wheels and h is the
1  v2h 
height of G above the ground. From these three equations we find R 2 = m g + 
2  ra 
1  v2h 
and vertically, R1 = m g −  . R2 never vanishes since it always has a positive
2  ra 
value. But if v2 = arg/h, R1 = 0, and the car turning left is about to overturn outwards.
R1 will be positive if v2 < arg/h.

33
Motion of Car round Banked Track
Centripetal force is required for a car to go round a bend on a level surface. The force is
provided by the frictional force exerted on the tyres by the road. A suitably banked road
removes the need to rely on friction. The normal reaction, R, of the road on the car
acquires a horizontal component (R Sin θ) as a result of banking. Using Newton's
second law (F = ma) we have, R Sinθ = ma ⇒ R Sin θ = mv2/r

There's no vertical accelerations hence R Cos θ = mg . Dividing the two equations gives
Tan θ = v2/rg. The angle of banking should be θ = tan -1 (v2/rg).

Conical Pendulum
If a pendulum bob moves in such a way that the string sweeps out a cone, then the bob
will describe a horizontal circle.

As it can be clearly seen, there are two forces acting on the pendulum bob;
(i) its weight (mg)
(ii) the tension in the string.

34
Centripetal force is provided by the horizontal component of the tension (F Sinθ).
Hence from Newton's second law F Sinθ = mv2/r (where symbols have their usual
meaning). Since there is no vertical acceleration F Cosθ = mg. Again, from the two
equations
tan θ = v2/rg. Note that this equation is similar to the one we got earlier for banked
tracks.
Using v = ω r in the equation we get tan θ = ωr2/rg = ω2r/g. From the figure above
r = L Sinθ. Hence tanθ = ω2r/g = (ω2L sinθ)/g. ⇒ Sin θ /Cosθ = (ω2L sin θ)/g.
Therefore
g LCosθ
ω= . Using equation the relation T = 2π/ω, ⇒ T = 2π
LCos g

HAVE YOU READ & UNDERSTOOD

• Uniform circular motion?

• Angular displacement?
• Units of angular displacement?
• Angular velocity?
• Dimension of Angular velocity?
• Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity?
• Centripetal acceleration?
• Centripetal force?
• Conditions for skidding to occur?
• Motion of a car round circular track and conditions for it to
overturn.
• Banked tracks i.e. angle of banking?
• How to derive an expression of the period of the conical
pendulum?

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS

• ∆θ = ∆S/r
∆θ dθ
• ω = ∆θ/∆t, ⇒ ω = Lim. ∆t = .
∆t →0 dt
2π
• ϖ= , v = r ω, a = rω2
T

EXAMPLES

35
E.1 A pendulum bob of mass 50g is attached to one end of a string of length 1.5m.
The bob moves in a horizontal circle in such a away that the string is inclined at 100 to
the vertical. Calculate the tension in the string and the period of the motion.

Solution
(i) F cos 100 = mg, F = mg/cos100 = (0.05 x 10)/0.98 = 0.51N
LCosθ
(ii) T = 2π = 0.77 s
g

E.2 A stone of mass 0.4kg is tied to a string of length 0.5m and whirled in a circle. If
the stone revolves uniformly and makes one complete revolution per second, calculate
its acceleration and the force exerted on the stone by the string.

Solution
(i) a = v2/r = (2π x 0.5)2/r = 19.72 m/s2
(ii) F = ma =0.4 x 19.72 =7.888 N

E.3 A mass of 2 kg is attached to a string of length 60cm. It is whirled in a circle in

a vertical plane at 5 revolutions per send about a horizontal axis. Calculate the tension
in the string when the mass is at the highest and lowest point of the circle

Solution
ω = 2π/T = 10π
F = mω2r = 2(10π)2 x 6.6 = 1184.4 N
Fup = mω2r - mg = 1164.4 N
Fdown = mω2r + mg = 1204.4 N

PROBLEMS
1. Define the following terms.
(i) Angular displacement
(ii) Angular velocity
(iii) Period
(iv) A radian
(v) Angular acceleration
(vi) Centripetal force
(vii) Centrifugal force
(viii) Banking of roads
Give dimensions where possible.
2. What is the speed of the tip of the minute hand of a clock, where the hand is of
length 7cm.
3. A diver performs 2½ somersaults from a 10m board. What is her average
angular velocity?
4. What is meant by centripetal force? Why does such a force do no work in a
circular orbit?
5. (a) An object of mass 0.50kg on the end of a string is whirled around a
horizontal circle of radius 2.0m with a constant speed of 10ms-1. Find its
angular velocity and the tension in the string.

36
 (b) If the same object is now whirled in a vertical circle of the same radius
with the same speed, what are the maximum and minimum tensions in
the string?
6. A curve of radius 30m is to be banked so that a car may make a turn at a speed
of 13m/s without depending on friction. What must be the slope of the curve?
7. A particle is making two revolutions per second in a circular orbit of radius
10cm. Calculate the angular velocity, linear velocity and the centripetal
acceleration of the particle in terms of π (pie).
8. The mass of a bicycle and its rider is 100kg and he wants to take a turn of radius
80m with speed of 20m/s. If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
road is µ = 0.6 then calculate the angle with which he must lean in order to
negotiate the turn safely. Will the rider then cross over the turn?

GRAVITATION
Kepler’s Laws
(i) The planets describe ellipses about the sun as one focus.
(ii) The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
(iii) The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of their mean distances from the sun.

Newton's law of universal gravitation

It states that every particle in the universe attracts every other with a force which is proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation i.e. F = (G
m1m2)/r2. Where F is the gravitational force of attraction between two bodies whose masses are m1 and
m2 and whose centres are a distance r apart and G is the universal gravitational constant (= 6.67 x 10-11
Nm2kg-2).

To show that Kepler's 3rd law is consistent with F = (G m1m2)/r2

Consider the motion of a planet moving in a circle round the sun S as centre. The force acting on the
planet of mass m is mrω2, where r is the radius of the circle and ω is the angular velocity of the motion.

Since ω = 2π/T, where T is the period of the motion, force on planet = mr(2π/T)2
=(4π2mr)/T2. This is equal to the force of attraction of the sun on the planet.
Assuming an inverse square law, then (if k is a constant), force on planet = km/r2.
Therefore km/r2=(4π2mr)/T2, ⇒ T2 = (4π2/k) r3. Hence T2 ∝ r3. Since k = Gms and π
are constants.

37
The moon’s motions round the earth.
The moon has a period of T ≅ 27.3 days and the force on it = mRω2 where R is the
Radius of the moons orbit and m is its mass. Therefore force = mR(2π/T)2 = (4π2Mr)/
T.2
If the moon were on earth’s surface, the force of attraction on it due to the earth would be mg, where g
is the acceleration due to gravity. Assuming that the force of attraction varies as the inverse square of
the distance between the earth and moon.

4π 2 R 3
2 2
(4π Mr)/ T : mg = 1/R : 1/r2 2
⇒ g = 2 2 ≈ 9.8m/s2
r T
The force of attraction between two given particles is inversely proportional to the square of their
distance apart. The earth exerted the same type of force on the moon as the sun did on the planets.

Mass of Earth
If a body of mass m is at the surface of the earth, the force
acting on the body is its weight mg. This same force is given
by the law of universal gravitation as (Gmme)/re2
where me and re are the mass and radius of the earth respectively. Therefore
(Gmme)/re2 = mg. ⇒ me = re2g/G.

Density of Earth
Density is the ratio of mass to volume of a given body.
Volume (V) = (4π πre3)/3 . ⇒ ρe = (re2gx 3)/4Gπre3 = 3g/(4πreG).
Hence ρ e ∝ 1/re. The density of the earth varies with the
depth but is largely independent of direction.
Outside The Earth (r > re)
The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth is given by rearranging the
equation as g = G me/re2. The acceleration due to gravity at a point outside the earth has
the value it would have if the entire mass of the earth were at its centre. Therefore by
analogy with the above equation, the acceleration due to gravity g′ at a distance r from
the centre of the earth when r>re is given by g′ = Gme/r2. Dividing the equations gives
g′ = (re2g)/r2.

Inside the Earth (r < re)

Similarly acceleration due to gravity at a point inside the earth that is a distance r from
the centre of the earth is due only to the sphere of radius r. Hence g′ = Gm/r2, where m
= mass of sphere. The earth is assumed to have uniform density. Therefore m =
(4πr3g)/3 and me = (4πre3g)/3 and hence m/me = r3/re3. Substituting in g′ = Gm/r2 we get
g′ = Gmer/re3. But g = Gme/re2, therefore g′ = rg/re. Note that this equation reduces to g′
= g at r = re

38
Assumption: density is uniform.

Escape Velocity
This is the minimum velocity that makes a body of mass m escape the earth’s gravitational force. It is
2Gme
given by ½mv2 = (Gmme)/r; v= ≈ 11 km/s
re
This is for bodies, which are not being driven, and so relies on the initial kinetic energy
to overcome the earth’s gravitational attraction. The escape velocity does not depend on
the direction of projection.

HAVE YOU READ & UNDERSTOOD

• Kepler's laws of planetary motion?
• Newton's laws of gravitation?
• Moon's motion around the earth?
• Mass & density of the earth?
• Mass and density of the sun?
• Orbits round the earth?
• Parking orbits?
• Variation of go inside and outside the earth?
• Escape velocity

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS.

• F = (G m1m2)/r2
• me = re2g/G
• ρe = (re2gx 3)/4Gπre3 = 3g/(4πreG
• g′ = (re2g)/r2
• g′ = rg/re
2Gme
• v= ≈ 11 km/s
re

39
PROBLEMS
1. State Newton's law of gravitation. If the acceleration due to gravity gm, at the
moon's surface is 1.70ms-2 and its radius is 1.74 x 106m, calculate the mass of
the moon. When a signal rocket is fired on earth, it will reach a height of 200m.
if an identical one is fired on the moon, calculate the height which it will reach.
2. The radius of the earth is approximately 6000km. What will be the weight of an
object, M kg, placed at 6000km above the earth's surface?
3. When a clock controlled by a pendulum (Grandfather clock) is taken from sea-
level to a mountain, it becomes slow while a wristwatch controlled by a spring
remains unaffected. Explain.
4. The weight of a person on earth is 600N. The gravitational field of the moon is
1/6th of the gravitational field of the earth. What will be the weight of the person
on the moon? If the person can jump 2m high on the earth, how high will he
jump on the moon? What is the mass of the person on the earth and moon
respectively?
5. If the radius of the earth be 6.37 x 106m and the acceleration due to gravity 9.81
m/s2, then calculate the mass and the density of the earth.
6. An artificial satellite travels in a circular orbit round the earth. Explain why its
speed will have to be greater for an orbit of small radius than for one of large
radius.
7. From the fact that the moon orbits the earth in about 28 days, estimate the
distance of the moon from the earth's surface (re = 6.4 x 106m).
8. An earth satellite of mass 20kg is in a circular orbit at a height small compared
to the radius of the earth. If air resistance causes its total energy to decrease by
10kJ per revolution, what is the fractional change in its speed per revolution?
Does the speed increase or decrease?

40
 PHY 110
Handout IV

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S.H.M.)

Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) is the simplest form of oscillatory motion. The study of S.H.M is
important because all other vibrations can be treated as if they are composed of simple harmonic
vibrations. It is the way in which the acceleration of a body depends on its position that determines the
particular type of vibration a body is undergoing. Before a system can be set into vibrations or
oscillation, it must satisfy two conditions. It must (i) be able to store P.E (i.e. has elastic properties).
(ii) have some inertia which enables it to possess K.E. An oscillation represents a continual interchange
of P.E and K.E.

Definition of S.H.M.
This is a motion where the acceleration of the particle is directed towards a fixed point and is directly
proportional to the distance from that point. The fixed point is known as the equilibrium position or the
position of resting if the body losses all its energy. From the definition, the motion of a body moving in
d 2x
S.H.M can be described by the equation of the form 2
= −ω 2 x . This is a 2nd-order differential
dt
d 2x
equation, where 2
= a , the acceleration of body, ω2 ≡positive constant and x ≡ displacement from
dt
equilibrium position. The negative sign indicates that acceleration is always directed towards
d 2x
equilibrium position. For a particle moving in a circular path, x is replaced by θ and is replaced
dt 2
d 2θ d 2θ
by , where = angular acceleration.
dt dt 2
Period (T)
The period T, of S.H.M is the time taken to complete one
π/ω
oscillation; T = 2π ω where ω is the angular velocity and 2π
π
is the angle of complete oscillation. Note that for any
particular system the period is independent of the amplitude.
Frequency (f)
I ω
Frequency is defined as the number of complete vibrations or oscillations per second. f = = .
T 2π

Phase
Timing may commence when the body is at any point of oscillation. An initial phase angle or epoch
Φdepends on our choice of zero time. If t = 0, when x = A, then Φ = 0. Phase of the motion is the term
that expresses the position and direction of motion of the vibrating particle at any instant.

41
Examples of S.H.M.
1. Simple Pendulum
2. Mass on a spring
3. Vibrations of prongs of tuning fork

Relationship between S.H.M and Circular Motion

Consider a particle moving with uniform speed along the circumference of a circle as shown below:

When a particle is at point P, the foot of the perpendicular drawn from P to the diameter AA’ of the
circle is at point N. As the particle moves round the circle, the foot N move is a straight line to and fro
about point O. The motion of N can be projected as shown above. The to and fro motion of N along
AOA’ is called S.H.M. Note that the period and hence the frequency of rotation of P is equal to the
period and frequency of oscillation of N which is 2π/ω.

Displacement Equation of S.H.M.

At P, ω = θ/t. The displacement of the foot N from O is ON = y = OPSinθ. But OP = r.
∴ y = r sin θ ; But θ = ωt.
∴ y = rSinωt ............................................................................................... 1
This is the position function for simple harmonic motion.

Velocity Equation for S.H.M.

dy
Differentiating equation 1, we have ( y = r sin wt ) and since r constant,
dt
dy d dy
= r (sin ωt ) Velocity ν = rωCosωt ................................................................ 2
dt dt dt

42
 NP = rCosθ = rCosωt = r 2 − y 2
Therefore, ν = ω r2 − y2 ......................................................................................... 3
At y = 0, ν = ωr (Velocity on circular path). At y = r, ν = ω x o. Hence ν = o

Acceleration in S.H.M.
Differentiating equation 2 with respect to time:

dy d
=r ω (Cosωt ) = −rω 2 Sinωt . Since rSinωt = y , then acceleration
dt dt
dv
a= = −ω 2 y ................................................................................................ 4
dt
From equation 4, we can easily see that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and in the
2
opposite direction. At y = 0, a = 0 . At y = r, a = ω r .

Determination of g Using Simple Pendulum.

Suppose the mass m is displaced slightly by θ is and l is the length of the string. At A forces acting on
mass m are (i) Weight mg (ii) Tension in the string T = mg Cosθ. Components of weight along x
direction = mg Sinθ and is the force that tends to restore the bob to the equilibrium point O. Thus the
restoring force on the bob is F =-mg Sinθ.

The negative sign is due to the fact that the force is opposite the angular displacement. For small angles
of θ where θ is in radians, Sinθ ≈ θ = (arc length)/radius = r/l. Hence F = - mg Sinθ = -(mg r)/l If a is
r
the acceleration of m towards O, then by second law of motion: F = ma = − mg . Therefore,
l
r g g
a = − g . This equation is of the form a = −ω 2 y , where ω 2 = and r = y. Hence ω = .
l l h
l
Period T = 2π/ω= 2π .
g
l
Therefore, T = 2π . By measuring l and determining corresponding values of T at small angles
g
of displacement, g can be evaluated quite easily using equation 4. A graph of T2 Vs l has the gradient
given by Gradient = (4π2)/g.
Hence g = (4π2)/gradient.
Except in the idealized case of a spring of zero mass it is necessary to take account of the fact that the
spring itself oscillates. It can be shown that m needs to be replaced by (m + ms), Where ms is the
effective mass of the spring. ms is less than the actual mass of the spring because it is only the lowest
coil which oscillates with the full amplitude of the suspended body. Hence
Period = 2π{(m + ms)/k} ½

43
Motions of a Body Suspended by a spring
Consider Mass m suspended on a spring of length L as shown. When there is no motion, the tension (t)
in the spring balances the weight of Mass m. t = mg; Using Hooke's law t ∝ extension of the spring i.e. t
= ke, where k is the spring constant. Hence we can write ke = mg. Let m be displaced downwards such
that at a given instant of oscillation m is at a distance x from the equilibrium position O.

Total Spring extension is e+x . Force executed on m by the spring = t' = k(x+e) . Resultant force acting
on m = mg-t'. Let a be the acceleration of m towards O. F = ma = mg - t' = mg - ke - kx = -kx.
Therefore ma = kx, hence
k
a = - (kx)/m. This equation is of the form a = -ω2 y; ⇒ ω2 = k/m. Therefore ω . The period T is
m
m e
given by T = 2π/ω= 2π . Since ke =mg ⇒ k = mg/e; hence T = 2π . By measuring e and T,
k g
g can be determined

Conservation of Mechanical Energy - in S. H. M.

If E is the total energy of S.H.M, then we have E = K.E + P.E constant. Consider a Mass m executing a
S.H.M.
2 2
K.E=1/2v2=1/2mω2 ( r − y ) =1/2mω2(r2-y2)....................…………....... (1)
P.E. for S. H. M.

dv
a= = −ω 2 y . Restoring force on m,
dt
2
F = ma = −ω y .............................................................................. (2)
Drawing a Graph of X Vs y, the Area below the curve is equal to the P. E of m.

44
 Area = 1/2 (AB x OB) = 1/2 F.y = 1/2 mω2y2
Therefore total energy = 1/2 mw2y2 +mω2(r2 -y2) = 1/2 mω2r2

Total Energy, E, is independent of time. When y = r, E is in the form of P. E. When y = 0, E is in the

form of K. E (Kinetic Energy). The variation of P.E with K.E. with displacement is shown below:

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD

• Definition of S.H.M?
• Period, frequency, oscillation, phases?
• Motions that execute S.H.M.?
• Displacement equation of S.H.M.?
• Velocity equation of S.H. M.
• Acceleration equation of S.H.M.?
• The determination of g using simple pendulum?
• Motion of a body suspended by a spring.

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS.

• ν=ω r 2 − y 2 , y = rSin2ωt
dv
• a= = −ω 2 y
dt
1
 l 2
• π  
T = 2π
g
m
• π
T = 2π
k
• K. E. = 1/2mω
ω2(r2-y2)

45
 • F = -mωω2y
• P. E = 1/2 mω
ω2y2
• Total Energy = P.E+ K.E= 1/2mω
ω2r2

EXAMPLE
A steel strip, clamped at one and vibrates with a frequency of 20Hz and an amplitude if 5mm at the free
and where a small mass of 2g is positioned. Find
(a) Velocity of the end when passing through the zero position
(b) the acceleration at maximum displacement
(c) the maximum K.E. and P.E of the mass.

Solution
(a) Let y =r Sinωt where r = amplitude; ν =ω r 2 − y 2 , at the zero position y = 0. Therefore
ω = 2πf = 2π x20 and r = 0.005 m; νmax = ωr = 0.628 m5-1
(b) a = -ω2y = -ω2r at the maximum displacement. Therefore, a = (2π x 20)2 x 0.005 = 79ms-2
(c) m = 2 x 10-3 Kg, ν=0.628ms-1, Max K. E = 1/2 mv2 = 1/2 (2x10-3) x 0.6282 = 3.9 x10-4J.
Max P. E (ν=0) = max K.E = 3.9 x 10-4J.

PROBLEMS
1. A simple pendulum has a period of 4.2 seconds. When the pendulum is shortened by 1m the
period is 3.7 seconds. From these measurements, calculate the acceleration due to gravity and the
original length of the pendulum.
2. Prove that the bob of a simple pendulum may move with simple harmonic motion and find an
expression for its period.
3. What is meant by simple harmonic motion? Obtain expression for the K.E of a body of mars m,
which is performing S.H.M. of amplitude a and period 2π/ω, when its displacement from the origin
is x.
4. A helical spring gives a displacement of 5cm for a load of 500. Find the maximum displacement
produced when a mass of 80g is dropped from a height of 10cm on to a light pan attached to the
spring.
5. The effect of a mass of a spring on the motion of an object attached to it is usually neglected.
Describe qualitatively its effect when it is not neglected.
6. What is the period of a pendulum 1m long when g is 9.81m/s2
7. The wire supporting a pendulum is exposed to variations in temperature on a given day. How
would this affect a clock operated by the pendulum?

ELASTICITY
Elasticity is that property of the material of a body by virtue of which the body opposes any change in
its shape or size when deforming forces are applied to it and recovers its original state as soon as the
deforming forces are removed. Perfectly elastic bodies recover their original states completely.
Perfectly plastic bodies retain their modified form. The maximum deforming force upto which a body
retains its property of elasticity is called the “limit of elasticity” of the material of the body.

Stress
Force F
Stress is force per unit area i.e. Stress (σ) = =
Cross sec tionaarea A

46
Kinds of Stress
(i) Tensile stress - is set up in a material when it is internally resisting an axial pull.
(ii) Compressive stress - is set up in a material when it is internally resisting an axial thrust.
(iii) Shear stress - is set up due to the load producing a tendency for one portion or layer to slide over
another portion of layer.

Strain
e
This is the fractional change in the body i.e. extension per unit length. Hence strain σ =
l

Hooke’s Law
For small strain, stress ∝ strain; hence stress = E x strain. A modulus of elasticity of
tensilestress
the wire called the Young modulus (E), is defined as the ratio E = =
tensilestrain
F A Fl
=
el Ae

Energy stored in a wire.

1
Work done = force x distance = Average force x Extension = Fe {energy stored in a wire}. Since F =
2
1
EAe/l (stretching force). Energy = EA e2/l. Area under a graph of F vs. e gives the energy stored in
2
the wire.

Energy per unit Volume of wire.

1 Fe 1 F e 1
Energy stored = Fe; Volume of wire = Al; Energy per unit volume = = . . = Stress x
2 2 Al 2 A l 2
strain.

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD

• Elastic bodies?
• Plastic bodies?
• Stress and types of stress?
• Hooke's law?
• Young's Modulus?

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS.

Force F
• Stress (σ) = =
Cross sec tionaarea A
e
• strain σ =
l
tensilestress F A Fl
• E= = =
tensilestrain el Ae

47
 1
• Energy = EA e2/l
2
1
• Energy per unit volume = Stress x strain.
2

EXAMPLES.
E.1. A 4.0 m long copper wire of cross-sectional area 1.2 cm2 is stretched by a force of
4.8 x 103N. If Young modulus is Y = 1.2 x 1011 N/M2, calculate (i) stress (ii) strain (iii) increase in
length of the wire.

Solution
F 4.8 X 10 3 N
(i) Stress = = 14 2
= 4.0 X 107 N/M2
A 1.2 X 10 M
Stress Stress 4.0 x10 7
(ii) Young’s Modulus Y = ; Strain = = 11
= 3.3 x.10 − 4
Strain Y 1.2 x1.
increase in length e
(iii) Longitudinal strain = = ; ∴e = strain x l = 3.3x10-4x 4.0=13.2 x 10-4 m
initial length l
E.2. For steel the breaking stress is 8.0 x 106 N/m2 and the density is 8.0 x 103Kg/m3. Find the
maximum length of a steel wire which can be suspended without breaking under its own
weight (g=10m/s2).

Solution.
Weight = Cross section Area x length of wire x density x gravity = A.l.g.ρ; Braking stress is given by
W 8.0 x10 6
= lρg . ∴ l.g.ρ = 8.0 x 106. Hence l = = 100 meters.
A pxg

E.3 A bar of steel is of square cross section 40mm x 40mm. A pull of 31200 N is applied to the bar.
Find the intensity of tensile stress.

Solution
Stress = Force/Area = 31200/1600 x 10-6 = 19.5x106N/m2

E.4. The stress in a cylindrical hollow steel column of 0.125 m outside diameter, inside diameter
0.1 m is 125000 KN/m2. Find the force carried by the column.
Solution
Cross sectional area = π (0.1252 - 0.12)/4 = (π x 0.0056)/4
Force = Area x Stress =( π x 0.0056 x 125000)/4 = 550KN

E.5. A steel bar 3m in length has an extension of 6mm under a tensile load. Find the fractional
Strain

Solution
Strain = extension / original length = 6/ 3 x 103 = 0.002

E.6. Find the modulus of elasticity of steel if a bar 3m in length 40 mm diameter stretches 1mm
under a load of 8000kg.

48
Solution
Area of Cross-section = π(40)2 =400π mm2
4

F 8000 X 9.81
Stress = = = 62.5 x10 6 N / M 2
A 400πx10 − 6
1x10 −3
Strain = e/l = = 0.328 x10 3
3.05
σ 62,5 x10 6
Modulus of elasticity = = −3
= 190.5 x10 9 N / m 2
∈ 0.328 x10
E.7. Find the maximum load, which may be placed on a steel wire of diameter 1.0mm, if the
permitted strain must not exceed 10-3 and the Young modulus for the steel is 2.0 x 1011 Nm-2.

Solution.
Max. Stress
= 2 x1011
Max. Strain
Max. Stress = 10-3 x 2 x 1011 = 2x 108 Nm-2
Stress = Load /Area ⇒ Load = Stress x Area = (2x 108 x πd2)/4 = 157 N

PROBLEMS
1. Define (i) tensile stress (ii) tensile strain (iii) young modulus. What are the units and dimensions of
each of the above?
2. What force must be applied to a steel wire 6m long and diameter 1.6mm to produce and extension
of 1mm (Young modulus for steel = 2.0 x 1011Nm-2).
3. What stress would cause a wire to increase in length by one-tenth of one percent if the young
modulus for the wire is 12 x 1010 Nm-2? What force would produce this stress if the diameter of the
wire is 0.56mm?
4. A tie bar 3m long overall consists of two steel bars welded onto the end of a tube. The diameter of
the steel bars is 40mm and each is 0.6m long, the external diameter of the tube is 40mm, the
internal diameter is 20mm and the length is 1.8m. Determine the extension of the rod when it is
subjected to an axial load of 9000kg. (E=207 x 10 6KN/m2).
5. A vertical brass rod of circular section is loaded by placing a 5kg weight on top of it. If its length
is 50cm, its radius of cross-section 1cm, and the young modulus of the material 3.5 x 1010Nm-2,
find the contraction of the rod and the energy stored in it.
6. What pressure is required to reduce the volume of 1Kg of water from 1.00 to 0.99 liters?

SURFACE TENSION

Introduction
Molecules in the surface are subject to intermolecular forces from below, but not from above provided
that the effects of the molecules of the vapour are ignored. If n is the coordination number of the
molecules of the interior, then the surface molecules will be n/2. The P.E of the interior molecules is
twice that of the surface because the surface molecules are only involved in half as many bonds as the
interior ones. For the P.E associated with intermolecular forces to be minimum, the number of
molecules residing in the surface has to be minimum. Thus
(a) Liquids have smallest possible surface area hence the tendency to attain spherical shapes.
(b) Average spacing of molecules in the surface of a liquid is greater than in the interior.

Unlike the molecules in the surface, interior molecules are at their equilibrium separation hence the
attractive forces of their neighbours are balanced by the repulsive forces. Surface molecules exert a net

49
attractive force on each other. Thus at any point in the surface of a liquid there's a net force away from
that point due to the attraction of the molecules around it. Hence the surface behaves like an elastic
skin in a state of tension. We can therefore say that free surface of a liquid has a tendency to contract to
a minimum possible area.

Definition
Let an imaginary line AB be drawn in any direction in the liquid surface. The surface on either side of
this line exerts a force on the surface and is at right angles to the line AB. The magnitude of this force
per unit length AB is taken as a measure of surface tension of the liquid. Thus if F be the total force
F
acting on either side of the line AB of length l, then the surface tension is given by γ =
L

Hence the surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length in the plane of the liquid
surface, acting at right angles on either side of an imaginary line drawn in that surface. S.I. Units of
surface tension are N/m. Surface tension of a liquid depends on the medium and temperature.

Free energy is defined as the work done in isothermally creating unit area of new surface. S.I Units are
Jm-2 ≡ Nm-1. Whenever the surface area of a given volume of liquid is increased, work has to be done
against surface forces. To increase the surface molecules work has to be done.
A A'
B

X
2Lγγ
B'
L Rigid frame
Movable
Consider stretching a thin film of liquid on a horizontal frame. The film has both an upper and lower
surface hence the force F on AB due to surface Tension is given by F = 2Lγ. If AB is moved a
distance X to A’B’ then work has to be done against this force. Provided AB is moved isothermally to
A’B’ the force on AB will be constant and since. Work = Force x distance.
Work done = 2Lγx; where γ = surface tension.
The increase in surface area is 2Lx (lower and upper surfaces). Therefore work done per unit area
2 Lxγ
increase σ= = γ . Thus the surface tension γ is the work done in isothermally increasing the
2 Lx
surface area of the liquid by a unit area.

Surface Energy
Work done = Energy of extended area = Surface Tension x Area = γ x (2Lx) = 2Lγx.

Some Surface Tension Phenomena

(i) Floating needle (ii) Thread on a soap film (iii) Camphor Boat.
The Camphor sublimes and interacts with water at the back of the boat, reducing γ, thus causing the
boat to move forward.

Effects on Surface tension

1. Effects of contamination

50
 If the water surface has dust, grease, or oil, the surface tension of water reduces.
2. Effect of solute
If the solute is very soluble then surface tension of liquid increases
3. Effects of temperature
The surface tension of liquids decreases with rise in temperature as it decreases the binding energy.

EXAMPLES
E.1. The surface tension of soap solution is 2.0 x10-2 N/m. How much work will be done in making a
bubble of diameter 2.0 cm by blowing?

Solution
The work done in making a bubble by blowing is stored in the form of energy in the surface of the
bubble. The soap bubble has two surfaces, external and internal. The area of both surfaces is
A = 2x4πr2 = 8πr2 = 2.512 x 10-3
Work done = Surface tension x area = (2.0 x 10-2) x (2.512 x 10-3) = 5.02 x 10-5 J.

E.2. A big drop is formed by coalescing 1000 small droplets of water. What will be the change in
surface energy?

Solution
Volume of big drop = volume of 1000 droplets
R
(4/3)πR3 = 1000 x (4/3 )πr3 ; Hence R = 10r, ⇒ r =
10
Surface energy of 1000 droplets = 1000 [T x 4πr2] = 1000 [T x 4πR2]/100 = 10 [T x4π R2)]
Surface energy of the big drop = T x 4πR2. Thus surface energy decreased in the ratio 10:1

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTOOD

• Definition of surface tension ?
• Free energy ?
• Surface energy ?
• Effects on surface tension ?

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS.

• F = 2Lγ
• W = 2Lγx

PROBLEMS
1. A drop of water of diameter 0.2cm is broken up into 27000 droplets of equal volume. How much
work will be done against surface tension in the process? (Surfaces tension of water = 7 x 10-2N/m)
2. A soap bubble in a vacuum has a radius of 3cm and another soap bubble in the vacuum has a radius
of 6cm. If the two coalesce under isothermal conditions calculate the radius of the bubble formed.
3. Calculate the work done against surface tension forces in blowing a soap bubble 1cm diameter if
the surface tension of soap solution is 2.5 x 10-2 N/m
4. Find the work required to break up a drop of water of radius 1mm assuming isothermal conditions.
(Surface tension of water = 7x10-2Nm-1).
5. What is the size of a steel sphere that will float on water with exactly half the sphere submerged, if
the density of steel is 7.9 x 103 Kg m-3?

51
FLOW OF LIQUIDS

Fluids
Liquids and gases are both fluids.

Steady Flow
The flow of the fluid is orderly. It is also known as streamline flow or orderly flow or uniform flow. All
the particles that pass any given point follow the same path at the same speed. In streamline flow the
streamlines coincide with the lines of flow.

Turbulent Flow.
This is a disorderly flow. Particles pass a given point with varying speeds.

Ideal liquid
Ideal liquid has
• Zero compressibility i.e. volume and density are constant on pressing.
• Zero viscosity - i.e. non viscous

Principle of continuity
It states that, when an incompressible and non-viscous liquids flows in streamlined motion thorough a tube of
non-uniform cross-section then the product of the area of cross-section and the velocity of flow is same at
every point in the tube.

Let us consider a liquid flowing in streamlined motion through a non-uniform tube XY. Let A1 and A2
be the cross sectional areas of the tube and v1 and v2 the velocities of flow at X and y respectively. Let
ρ be the density of the liquid. The liquid entering X covers a distance v in 1 second. Thus the volume of
the liquid entering at the end X in 1 second = A1 x v1. Mass of liquid entering at the end X in 1 second
= ρxA1 x v1. Similarly, mass of the liquid coming out from the end Y in 1 second = ρ x A2 x v2. But the
liquid, which enters at one end, must leave at the other. Hence both these masses are equal i.e. ρA1v1 =
ρA2v2. ⇒ A1v1 = A2v2. Therefore, Av = Constant.

Therefore the velocity of the liquid is smaller in the wider parts of the tube and larger in the narrow
parts.

Energy of a Flowing Liquid

There are three types of energy in a flowing liquid.

(i) Pressure energy

If P is the pressure on an area A of a liquid and the liquid moves through a distance l due to this
pressure, then pressure energy of the liquid
Work done = force x distance = pressure x area x distance = P x A x l
Volume of liquid = A x l. Therefore pressure energy per unit volume of the liquid = (PAl)/Al = P.

52
(ii) Kinetic Energy
If a liquid of mass m and volume V is flowing with velocity v, then its K.E is ½mv2. Therefore K. E per
unit volume of the liquid = ½(m/V) v2 = ½ρv2.

(iii) Potential energy

If a liquid of mass m is at a height h from the surface of the earth, then it's P. E is mgh. Therefore
P. E per unit volume of the liquid = (m/V)gh = ρgh

Bernoulli’s Theorem
When an incompressible and non-viscous liquid (or gas) flows in streamlined motion from one place to
another then at every point of its path the total energy per unit volume is a constant i.e.
P + ½ρv2 + ρgh = Constant
Thus, Bernoulli’s theorem is in one way the principal of conservation of energy for a flowing liquid (or
gas). Work done per second on the liquid entering the tube at X = force x distance
= P1 x A1 x V1
Similarly work done per second against the force P2 x A2 by the liquid leaving the tube at Y
= P2 x A2 x V2
Net work done on the liquid
= P1A1V1 - P2A2V2 ………………………………………………............ (i)
But A1V1 = A2V2 = m/ρ .................................................................................... (ii)
Where m = mass of liquid entering or leaving per second. Substitute (ii) in (i).
Net work done = (P1 - P2) m/ρ.……………………………………………..… (iii)
The K.E of the liquid entering at X in 1 second is ½mv2 and that of the liquid leaving at Y in 1 second
is ½mv2. Therefore, increase in K. E of the liquid = ½ (v2 2-v21). The P.E of the liquid at X is mgh1, and
that at y is mgh2. Decrease in P. E of liquid. = mg(h1-h2). Therefore, net increase in the energy of the
liquid = ½ (v2 2-v21) - mg (h1-h2). This increase in energy is due to the net work done on the liquid.
Hence net work done is equal to the net increase in energy.
(P1 - P2) m/ρ = ½ (v2 2-v21) - mg (h1-h2). ⇒ P1 + ½ρv12 = P2 + ½ρv22.
Hence P + ½ρv2 = Constant.
When liquid flows in a horizontal plane, h1 = h2, therefore
P1 + ½ρv12 = P2 + ½ρv22 ⇒ P + ½ρv2 = Constant

Viscosity
The property of the liquid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between it adjacent layers is
known as viscosity. When a body falls through a liquid (or any viscous medium) under gravity then the
layer of the liquid in immediate contact of the body is carried along with it, white the liquid at a large
distance from the body is at rest. Thus there’s relative motion between the layers of the liquid. The
viscous force in the liquid opposes this relative motion. Thus force increases with velocity of the body
and a stage is reached when it becomes equal to the driving force. The body then attains a constant
velocity called the terminal velocity. Stoke showed that if a small sphere of radius r is moving with
terminal velocity v through a perfectly, homogeneous liquid of infinite extension and having a viscosity
η then the viscous retarding force acting on the sphere is given.
F = 6πηrv ………………………………………………….. (Stokes law)
Consider a sphere of radius r, density ρ falling through a medium of density σ and coefficient of
viscosityη. When it attains the terminal velocity v it is subjected to three forces.
4 3
(i) Its weight acting downward, Ws = πr ρg
3
4
(ii) Up thrust due to buoyancy , = πr 3σg
3
(iii) Viscous force acting upward , F = 6πηrv
4 3
Thus the resultant downward driving force is πr ( ρ − σ )g . Since the sphere has attained a
3
constant velocity, the resultant driving force must be equal to the retarding viscous force.

53
 4 3 2 r 2 ( ρ − σ )g
6πηrv = πr ( ρ − σ )g ⇒ v = . .Thus v ∝ r2. Graph of v Vs r2 has a
3 9 η
2 r 2 (ρ − σ )
gradient = .
9 η

HAVE YOU READ AND UNDERSTAND

• Ideal liquids?
• Streamlines and streamlined flow?
• Principle of continuity?
• Energy of a flowing liquid?
• Bernoulli's theorem?
• Viscosity?

SUMMARY OF KEY EXPRESSIONS.

• Av = Constant
• P + ½ρv2 + ρgh = Constant
• F = 6πηrv (Stokes law)
2 r 2 ( ρ − σ )g
• v= .
9 η

EXAMPLE
E.1. The pressure difference between two points along a horizontal pipe, through which water is
flowing, is 1.4 cm of mercury. If due to non-uniform cross-section, the speed of flow of water at the
point of greater cross-section is 60cm/sec calculate the speed at the other part.

Solution
By Bernoulli’s theorem
P 1 + ½ ρ v 12 = P 2 + ½ ρ v 22
The speed of water will be greater at the place where the cross-section is smaller
∴ v22 = 2(P1-P2)/ρ + v12
P1-P2 = 1.4 cm mercury
1
 2 2 2
⇒v2 =  3 .1.866 x10 + (0.6 ) 
3

 10 
= 2m/s

PROBLEMS
1. The reading of a pressure-meter fitted in a closed pipe is 3.5 x 105 Nm-2. On opening the valve
of the pipe, the reading of the meter reduces to 3.0 x 105Nm-2. Calculate the speed of the water
flowing in the pipe.
2. A drop of water of radius 0.0015 m is falling in air. If the coefficient of viscosity of air is 1.8 x
10-5 Kg/mSec, what will be the terminal velocity of the drop? ( Density of water is 1000Kgm-3,
neglect density of air).

54
3. In a pipe of non-uniform cross-section the velocity of water is 0.4m/s at a place where the
pressure is 0.02m (mercury). If at any other place the velocity of water is 0.8m/s, then what
will be the pressure there?

PHY 110
Handout V(a)

THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT

HEAT AND ENERGY
Preamble
This course is concerned with the study of thermodynamics, which includes the
concepts of heat, internal energy and temperature. Thermodynamics is very successful
in explaining the bulk properties of matter and the correlation between those
properties and the mechanics of atoms and molecules. In general, thermodynamics
must concern itself with the physical and chemical transformations of matter in all its
forms: solid, liquid, gas and plasma.

You may have wondered how a refrigerator cools, what transformations occur in a car
engine, or what happens to the kinetic energy of a falling object once it hits the
ground? The laws of thermodynamics and the concepts of heat and temperature enable
us to answer such practical questions.

We start with temperature, which is a central concept in thermodynamics and forms

one of the seven basic SI units.

1. Temperature & Thermal Properties of Matter

Preview:
In this first part of the course we will
• define the concepts of heat and temperature
• explore the nature of heat and the ways in which we measure temperature
• examine the nature of thermal expansion of solids and liquids, and look at the
special properties of water
• discuss the gas laws, which relate macroscopic properties such as pressure and
temperature
• discuss the kinetic theory of gases, which shows how microscopic behaviour (such
as the random motion of molecules in a gas) can be related to macroscopic
properties such as temperature

1.1. Temperature and Heat

Objectives:
To be able to

define and distinguish between temperature and heat

define internal energy

55

discuss everyday examples to illustrate these concepts
Picture a child with a sparkler. Although the temperature of the sparks flying off the
stick exceeds 20000C, the heat they impart when striking the skin is very small. This
illustrates that temperature and heat are different concepts. We need to learn to
distinguish between such closely related concepts.
What is temperature?
The quantity that tells how warm or cold an object is with respect to some standard is
called temperature. We express the temperature of matter by a number that
corresponds to the degree of hotness on some chosen scale.
Temperature is a relative measure, or indication, of hotness or coldness. It's some sort
of indication, or measure, of heat.
We can perceive temperature by touch. However, this temperature sense is somewhat
unreliable: if we remove a metal tray and a frozen package of vegetables from the
freezer, we 'feel' the former as colder, even though they have the same temperature
(this is because the metal removes energy more quickly from our hands).
Also, the range of our temperature sense is too limited to be useful for scientific
purposes.
What is heat?
If you touch a hot stove, energy enters your hand because the stove is warmer than
your hand. When you touch a piece of ice, energy passes out of your hand and into the
colder ice. The direction of spontaneous energy transfer is always from a warmer
object to a neighbouring colder object. The energy transferred from one object to
another because of a temperature difference between the objects is called heat.
Matter does not contain heat. Matter contains molecular kinetic energy and possibly
potential energy, not heat.
Heat is energy in transit from a body of higher temperature to one of lower
temperature; it is energy that is transferred from one body to another because of a
temperature difference. It is related to temperature and describes the process of energy
transfer from one object to another.
Once transferred, the energy ceases to be heat; the energy becomes part of the total
energy of the molecules of the object or system, its internal energy.
As an analogy, work is also energy in transit. A body does not contain work. It does
work, or has work done on it.
The energy resulting from heat flow is often called thermal energy, to make clear its
link to heat and temperature. Scientists, however, often prefer to use the term internal
energy.
What is internal energy?
Internal energy is the grand total of all the energies inside a substance:
translational kinetic energy of jostling atoms
rotational and vibrational kinetic energy of molecules
kinetic energy due to internal movements of atoms within molecules
potential energy due to (attractive) forces between molecules
So a substance does not contain heat, but it does contain internal energy.
For objects in thermal contact, heat flow is from the substance at higher to the one at
lower temperature, but not necessarily from a substance with more internal energy to a
substance with less internal energy. Example: immerse a glass of hot water into the
sea, and the glass of water cools down, even though the sea (as an object) contains far
more internal energy.

56
How much heat flows depends not only on the temperature difference between
substances, but on the amount of material as well (there is generally more internal
energy in a larger amount of water than a smaller one, as illustrated by the example of
the sea and the glass of water).
A higher temperature does not necessarily mean that one system has a greater internal
energy than another. Example: Consider the air temperature in a classroom on a cold
day, relative to the cold air outside. The latter has more internal energy, even though it
is colder.
Internal energy of a system also depends on its mass, or the number of molecules in
the system.

1.2. Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Objectives:
To be able to

define what a thermometer is

describe the physical principles on which the use of a thermometer is based

state the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, and discuss its physical implications
with respect to thermometers

explain how a temperature scale is constructed

convert temperatures from one scale to another

obtain a feel for the range of temperature values in everyday life and throughout
the Universe

What is a thermometer?
A measure of temperature is obtained using a thermometer, a device constructed to
make evident some property of a substance that changes with temperature.
Many physical properties of materials change sufficiently with temperature to be used
as the bases for thermometers:
the change in volume of a liquid
the change in length of a solid
the change in pressure of a gas held at constant volume
the change in electrical resistance of a conductor
the change in colour of a very hot object.
By far the most obvious and commonly used property is thermal expansion, a change
in the dimensions or volume of a substance that occurs when the temperature changes.
A common thermometer is the liquid-in-glass type, which is based on the thermal
expansion and contraction of a liquid, usually mercury or coloured alcohol. These
substances were chosen because of their relatively large thermal expansion and
because they remain liquids over normal temperature ranges.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

What are the physical principles on which a thermometer is based?
To understand the basic principle on which a thermometer operates, we first need to
define two concepts:When heat is transferred between two objects, whether or not
they are touching, they are said to be in thermal contact.

57
When there is no longer a net heat transfer between objects in thermal contact, they
are at the same temperature and are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
Consider two objects A and B, that are not in thermal contact with each other. To
determine whether they are at the same temperature (in thermal equilibrium when
placed in contact), we can use a third object C, that acts as a thermometer.
The practical use of a thermometer is based on the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
(the law of equilibrium), which states that:
If bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body, C,
then A and B will be in thermal equilibrium with each other if placed in thermal
contact.
This statement is easily proved experimentally, and is very important because it is
used to define temperature. We can think of temperature as the property that
determines whether or not an object will be in thermal equilibrium with other objects.
A less formal way of stating the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics is that:
Every body has a property called temperature. When two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with each other, then they are at the same temperature.
The Zeroth Law means we can measure whether two bodies have the same
temperature without bringing them into thermal contact, provided we have a
thermometer. Thus, we can use a thermometer to take temperature readings of two
different classrooms to establish whether they are at the same temperature; there is no
need to physically bring the classrooms together.
A thermometer registers its own temperature. When a thermometer is in thermal
contact with something whose temperature we wish to know, energy will flow
between the two until their temperatures are equal and thermal equilibrium is
established. If we know the temperature of the thermometer, we then know the
temperature of the something.
A Proviso: A thermometer should be small enough that it doesn't appreciably alter the
temperature of the object being measured. If measuring air temperature in a room, the
thermometer is small enough. But if measuring the temperature of a drop of water,
contact between the drop and the thermometer may change the drop's temperature (a
classic case of changing what the measuring process is measuring).
The Zeroth Law was established in the 1930s - more or less as an afterthought - well
after the other Laws of Thermodynamics had been formulated.
The Zeroth Law implies that thermometer readings have a physical meaning attached
to them, but we still need to calibrate a thermometer. This brings us to the topic of
temperature scales.

The Celsius Scale

How do we calibrate thermometers?
Thermometers are calibrated so that a numerical value may be assigned to a given
temperature. For the definition of any standard scale or unit, two fixed reference
points are needed. The ice point and the steam point of water are two convenient fixed
points (temperatures at which water freezes and boils under a pressure of one
atmosphere).
On the scale commonly used in laboratories, the number 0 is assigned to the
temperature at which water freezes and the number 100 to the temperature at which
water boils (at standard atmospheric pressure).

58
The space between is divided into 100 equal parts called degrees.
A thermometer so calibrated is often called a centigrade thermometer (from centum:
hundred; gradus: degree). It is now called a Celsius thermometer, in honour of the
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701-1744), who first suggested the scale (or at
least, an inverted version of it).
Temperature readings are written as 0C; temperature differences are commonly written
as C0.

The Fahrenheit Scale

In the USA, the number 32 is assigned to the temperature at which water freezes, and
the number 212 to the temperature at which water boils.
On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal intervals, or degrees, between the two
reference points.
Such a scale makes up a Fahrenheit thermometer, named after its originator, the
German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736).
Not wanting to deal with negative values, he set the 0 mark at the coldest temperature
he could produce (a mixture of water, ice, and sea salt), and the upper reference he
took as normal human body temperature, which he took as 96 (probably because it is
divisible by 12 and easily halved and quartered) -- now known to be 98.60F.
The Fahrenheit scale does have some advantages in everyday use:
Its degrees are smaller (1F0 = 5/9C0), which gives greater accuracy when reporting the
weather in whole-number temperature readings.
When the temperature of a hot day is reported to reach 1000F, the idea of heat is
conveyed more dramatically than by saying it is 380C.
The Fahrenheit scale is geared to human beings (like much of the British system of
measure).
Temperature readings are written as 0F; temperature differences are commonly written
as F0.

The Kelvin Scale: Thermodynamic Temperature and

Absolute Zero
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales have little or nothing to do with the fundamental
nature of the concept of temperature -- on another planet there may be no water to
refer to.
The Kelvin scale, named after the British physicist Lord Kelvin (born William
Thomson) (1824-1907), is a more fundamental temperature scale favored by
scientists.
The Kelvin scale is calibrated not in terms of the freezing and boiling points of water,
but in terms of energy itself.
The number 0 is assigned to the universal zero of temperature, i.e., the lowest possible
temperature: absolute zero.
The second reference (fixed) point is the triple point of water, which represents a
unique set of conditions where water co-exists simultaneously in equilibrium as a
solid, liquid and a gas. The conditions for the triple point are a pressure of 610 Pa, and
a temperature taken to be 273.16 K (0.010C). Note that this provides some connection
with the other temperature scales, which are based on the properties of water.

59
The kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the temperature at the triple point of water.
Absolute zero corresponds to -2730C on the Celsius scale (-273.150C to be precise).
Units on the Kelvin scale are the same size as degrees on the Celsius scale (so the
temperature of melting ice is +273 kelvins).
There are no negative numbers on the Kelvin scale.
Temperature and temperature differences are stated in kelvins (not degrees Kelvin),
abbreviated as K (not 0K).

Conversions
Arithmetic formulas are used to convert between the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin
temperature scales.
To convert between the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales:
9
TF = TC + 32 Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion
5
5
TC = (TF − 32 ) Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion
9
Note: this is of the form of an equation for a straight line: y = mx + c , with m the
slope and c the intercept on the vertical axis.
To convert between the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales:
TK = TC + 273.15 Celsius to Kelvin conversion
TC = TK − 273.15 Kelvin to Celsius conversion

Temperature Ranges
The Universe sustains an incredible temperature range. The highest temperatures
likely to exist at this moment are found deep within stars: ∼ 4 x 109K seems to be a
theoretical extreme. At a temperature only ten times higher matter fragments into
subatomic particles.
At the start of the Universe (10-20 billion years ago), the temperature is believed to
have been 1039K (now it has cooled down to 3K - we are lucky to have a star called
the Sun to keep us warm!).
We live our delicate lives within a tiny band of hot and cold. The hottest thing you are
likely to find around the house is a tungsten light bulb filament: ∼ 2800 K. Body
temperature is about 310K (370C; 98.60F)
Although temperature has a lower limit, there does not appear to be an upper limit.
In the quest for absolute zero, experimenters have got bulk matter close to
temperatures ∼ 0.00000002K.

1.3. Thermal Expansion of Liquids and Solids

Objectives:
To be able to

60

discuss everyday examples and consequences of the thermal expansion of
solids and liquids

quantify the linear (1-dimensional) thermal expansion of solids, and define
the linear coefficient of thermal expansion

quantify the area (2-dimensional) thermal expansion of solids, and define
the area coefficient of thermal expansion

quantify the volume (3-dimensional) thermal expansion of solids, and
define the volume coefficient of thermal expansion

derive relations between the different coefficients of thermal expansion for
solids

quantify the volume (3-dimensional) thermal expansion of liquids, and
define the volume coefficient of thermal expansion

describe the (anomalous) thermal expansion of water, and its practical
consequences for life on Earth

What is thermal expansion, and what are its (practical) consequences?

When the temperature of a substance is increased, the molecules or atoms jiggle faster
and tend to move further apart, on average. The result is an expansion of the
substance.
With few exceptions, all forms of matter -- solids, liquids, gases and plasmas --
generally expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled (note:
contraction can be considered as 'negative' expansion).
In many cases, the change in size is not very noticeable, but careful observation will
detect them:
Telephone wires are longer and sag more on a hot summer day than a cold winter day.
Metal lids on glass fruit jars can often be loosened by heating them under hot water.
If one part of a piece of glass is heated or cooled more rapidly than adjacent parts, the
expansion or contraction that results may break the glass. This is especially true with
thick glass; pyrex glass is especially formulated to expand very little (three times less
than ordinary glass) with increasing temperature (ovenware).
The expansion of substances must be allowed for in structures and devices of all
kinds.
A dentist uses filling material that has the same rate of expansion as teeth.
Blacksmiths used to put red-hot iron rims on wooden wagon wheels, so they would
cool and shrink tight.
The aluminium pistons of some car engines are made a little bit smaller in diameter
than the steel cylinders to allow for the greater expansion rate of aluminium.
A civil engineer uses reinforcing steel of the same expansion rate as concrete.
Long steel bridges have one end of the bridge fixed, while the other end rides on
rockers.
The roadway is segmented with tongue-and-groove type gaps called expansion joints.
Similarly, concrete roadways and sidewalks are intersected by gaps, sometimes filled
with tar, so that the concrete can expand freely in summer and contract in winter.
Different substances expand at different rates.
This has the consequence that when two strips of different metals, such as brass and
iron, are welded or riveted together, the greater expansion of one metal results in a
bending. Such a compound thin bar is called a bimetallic strip. When the strip is
heated, one side of the double strip becomes longer than the other, causing the strip to
bend into a curve. When the strip is cooled, it tends to bend in the opposite direction,

61
because the metal that expands more (brass) also shrinks more. The movement of the
strip may be used to turn a pointer, regulate a valve, or close a switch:
A practical application is the thermostat. The back-and-forth bending of the bimetallic
coil opens and closes an electric circuit. Refrigerators are equipped with thermostats
to prevent them from becoming either too hot or too cold.
Coils formed from such strips are used in dial thermometers.
Bimetallic strips are used in oven thermometers, electric toasters, automatic chokes on
carburettors, and various other devices.
Liquids expand appreciably with increase in temperature. In most cases the expansion
of liquids is greater than the expansion of the (corresponding) solids (a typical metal
expands about 7% when its temperature rises from near 0K to its melting point). This
has practical consequences:
The petrol overflowing a car's tank on a hot day is evidence that the tank and its
contents expand at different rates.
The expansion of liquid mercury is greater than the expansion of glass. If the
expansion of the glass of a thermometer were as great as the expansion of mercury,
the mercury would not rise with increasing temperature.
Below we discuss the thermal expansion of solids and liquids quantitatively. It should
be noted in advance that the equations for thermal expansion used here are only
approximations.

Linear Expansion of Solids

Can we be more quantitative about thermal expansion?
The change in one dimension of a solid (length, width or thickness) is called linear
expansion.
For small temperature changes, linear expansion is approximately proportional to the
change in temperature, ∆T = T − T0 . The fractional change in length is
L − L0 ∆L
= ,
L0 L0
where L0 is the original length at the original temperature T0 . This is related to the
change in temperature by
∆L
= α∆T or ∆L = α L0 ∆T ,
L0
where α is the thermal coefficient of linear expansion, which has units of K-1. We
can also write down an expression for the final length L after a temperature
change:
∆L = α L0 ∆T
L − L0 = α L0 ∆T
L = L0 + α L0 ∆T
L = L0 (1 + α∆T ) .
Note the logic of the above result -- the process is used over and over in the
development of physics. We don't know enough to write out exactly what ∆L equals
on an atomic level. Instead, we determine which macroscopic parameters it depends
on ( L0 and ∆T ), and then lump the effects of everything else into an empirical

62
constant specific to each material, which we assume to take into account all the
atomic details.
The coefficient of expansion may vary slightly for different temperature ranges. Since
this variation is negligible for most applications, we (usually) consider α to be a
constant and independent of temperature.

Area Expansion of Solids

The fractional change in the area of a solid is related to the temperature change by
∆A
= β∆T or ∆A = β A0 ∆T ,
A0
where β is the thermal coefficient of area expansion, which has units of K-1.
Can we relate the thermal coefficient of linear expansion, α , to the thermal
coefficient of area expansion, β ?
A solid may have different coefficients of linear expansion for different directions, but
for simplicity we can assume that the same coefficient applies to all directions, i.e.,
the solids show isotropic expansion.
Major exceptions: Some substances, such as calcite (CaCO3) and graphite, expand
along one dimension (positive α ) and contract along another (negative α ) with
increasing temperature.
Since area, A, is length squared, L2:
A = L2 = L0 (1 + β∆T ) = A0 (1 + 2α∆T + α 2 ∆T 2 ) .
2 2

Since α 1 (in fact, α 10−6 for solids), the second-order term (containing α 2 ) can
be dropped with negligible error. As a first-order approximation we then obtain
∆A
A ≈ A0 (1 + 2α∆T ) or ≈ 2α∆T .
A0
Thus, the thermal coefficient of area expansion, β , is twice as large as the coefficient
of linear expansion, i.e., β ≈ 2α .

Volumetric Expansion of Solids

The fractional change in the volume of a solid is related to the temperature change by
∆V
= γ∆T or ∆V = γ V0 ∆T ,
V0
where γ is the thermal coefficient of volume expansion, which has units of K-1.
Can we relate the thermal coefficient of linear expansion, α , to the thermal
coefficient of volume expansion, γ ?
Assuming isotropic expansion, a first-order expression for the volume expansion is
∆V
≈ 3α∆T or V ≈ V0 (1 + 3α∆T ) .
V0
Thus, the thermal coefficient of linear expansion, α , is related to the thermal
coefficient of volume expansion, γ by γ ≈ 3α .

63
Volumetric Expansion of Liquids
Liquids, like solids and gases, normally expand with increasing temperature.
Because fluids (liquids and gases) have no definite shape, only volume expansion can
be analysed. The relation is
∆V
= γ∆T (fluid volume expansion)
V0
where γ is the coefficient of volume expansion for a fluid.
The values of γ for fluids are typically larger than the values of 3α for solids.

Anomalous Expansion of Water

Increase the temperature of any common liquid and it will expand. But not water at
temperatures near the freezing point: ice-cold water does just the opposite!
Water at the temperature of melting ice contracts when the temperature is increased,
and continues to do so until it reaches a temperature of 40C (3.980C, to be precise).
With further increase in temperature, the water then begins to expand, and this
continues until the boiling point. This odd behaviour is shown on the accompanying
graph.
A given amount of water has its smallest volume -- and thus its greatest density -- at
40C. Just below 00C, when water has become solid ice, its volume is considerably
larger (and density smaller). Recall that ice floats in water (icebergs), and frozen water
pipes burst: both phenomena provide evidence that ice is less dense than ice-cold
water.
After water has turned to ice, further cooling causes it to contract.
Why is ice less dense than water?
The crystals of most solids are arranged in a way that the solid state occupies a smaller
volume than the liquid state.
Ice, however, has an open-structured crystalline structure; the molecules form a
hexagonal (six-sided) lattice pattern, which is why snowflakes have hexagonal shapes.
This structure results from the angular shape of the water molecules and the fact that
the forces binding water molecules together are strongest at certain angles.
Water molecules in this open structure occupy a greater volume than they do in the
liquid state. Consequently, ice is less dense than water.
Why is there this dip in the volume-temperature graph?
The reason is that two types of volume changes take place in ice-cold water.
The open-structured crystals that make up the solid ice are present, to a small extent,
in ice-cold water -- a 'microscopic slush'. These crystals are buffeted by neighbouring
molecules and have short life spans -- some are broken apart while others form. At
any moment there are enough of them to alter the density of water. At about 100C, all
the ice crystals have collapsed.
At the same time that crystals are collapsing due to rising temperature, increased
molecular motion results in expansion. Whether ice crystals are in the water or not,
increased kinetic energy of the molecules increases the volume of the water.
The collapsing of ice crystals plus the increased molecular motion with increasing
temperature, i.e., the combined effects of contraction and expansion, produces the
overall effect of water being most dense at 40C.

64
This behaviour of water is of great importance in nature:
Suppose the greatest density of water was at its freezing point and that it shrank upon
freezing (as is true of most liquids). Then the coldest water would settle to the bottom,
and ponds would freeze from the bottom up. Pond organisms would then be destroyed
in winter months, and ice-skating would be less popular. There would also be no
oceanic ice caps at the Polar Regions; rather, there would be a thick layer of ice at the
bottom of the ocean, covered by a layer of water.
Instead, the densest water that settles at the bottom is 40C above the freezing point.
Water at the freezing point is less dense and 'floats', so ice forms at the surface while
the pond remains liquid below the ice. Since ice is a much poorer conductor of heat
than water, its very presence slows further ice formation. The sheet of surface ice
essentially seals off the lake from the winter cold, allowing life to continue beneath it.
In more detail:
Most of the cooling in a pond takes place at its surface when the surface air is colder
than the water. As the surface water is cooled, it becomes denser and sinks to the
bottom. Water will 'float' at the surface for further cooling only if it is equally dense as
or less dense than the water below.
Consider a pond being cooled from an initial temperature of 100C. First it has to be
cooled through 40C. Before any ice can form, all the water must be cooled to 40C.
Only when this condition is met can the surface water be cooled to 30, ...., 00C without
sinking. Then ice can form.
So water at the surface is the first to freeze. Continued cooling results in the pond
freezing from the surface downward. In a cold winter the ice will be thicker than in a
warm one.
Consider the picture of a lake accompanying these notes: As water is cooled, it sinks
until the entire pond is 40C. Then, as water at the surface is cooled further, it floats on
top and can freeze. Once ice is formed, temperatures lower than 40C can extend down
into the lake.
Very deep bodies of water are not ice-covered even in the coldest of winters, because
all the water in the lake must be cooled to 40C before lower temperatures can be
reached, and the winter is not long enough for this. If only some of the water is at 40C,
it lies on the bottom. Because of water's high specific heat and poor ability to conduct
heat, the bottom of deep lakes in cold regions is a constant 40C all the year round.
Happily for fish!

1.4. Gas Laws: Macroscopic Description of an Ideal

Gas
Objectives:
To be able to

define the following: ideal gas; equation of state; mole; Avogadro's number; molar
mass; universal gas constant; Boltzmann's constant; constant-volume gas
thermometer

state Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law

state the ideal gas law, summarising the above three laws

state Avogadro's hypothesis

65

explain how the behaviour of ideal gases allow the construction of an accurate
thermometer

explain how the behaviour of ideal gases can be used to determine absolute zero

General Information
Experiments show that all gases at very low densities exhibit the same expansion
behaviour. A thermometer that uses a gas therefore gives the same readings regardless
of which gas is used (cf. liquid-in-glass thermometer).
The variables that describe the behaviour of a given quantity (mass) of gas are:
pressure, p volume, V temperature, T number of moles of a gas, n.
The equation that inter-relates these quantities is called the equation of state.
As you may have learned in a chemistry course, one mole of a gas is the quantity that
contains N A = 6.02 × 1023 molecules/mole (Avogadro's number) and equals the
molecular weight of the substance expressed in grammes.
The number of moles, n, of a substance is related to its mass m, by
m
n= ,
M
where M is the molar mass of a substance, usually expressed in grammes per mole
(e.g., the mass of one mole of oxygen is 32.0 g).
Within a certain range of temperatures and pressures, many gases have been found to
follow three simple laws. A gas that follows these laws completely is an idealisation
called an ideal gas.
Note that the temperature referred to in these laws is always the absolute temperature.

Boyle's Law
When temperature of a gas is held constant, the pressure and volume of a quantity of
gas are related as follows:
pV = const. or p1V1 = p2V2 (at constant temperature)
This relation, the product of pressure and volume is constant, is known as Boyle's law,
after Robert Boyle (1627-1691), the English chemist who discovered it.

Charles' Law
When the pressure is held constant, the volume of a quantity of gas is related to the
(absolute) temperature by:
V V1 V2
= const. or = (at constant temperature)
T T1 T2
This relation, the ratio of the volume and temperature is a constant, is known as
Charles' law, after the French scientist Jacques Charles (1747-1823), who made early
hot-air balloon flights and was therefore very interested in the behaviour of a gas.

Gay-Lussac's Law

66
The pressure exerted by a gas held at constant volume is directly proportional to the
(absolute) temperature:
p p1 p2
= const. or = (at constant volume)
T T1 T2
This relation is named after Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1802).
Do you understand why it is dangerous to throw aerosol cans into a fire?

The Ideal Gas Law

Low-density gases obey the above three laws, which can be combined into a single
relationship, known as the ideal gas law.
One version of the ideal gas law, i.e., the equation of state for an ideal gas, is that for a
given quantity of gas:
pV p1V1 p2V2
= constant or = (fixed mass of gas)
T T1 T2
Another version is
pV = nRT ,
where n is the number of moles, and R is a constant of proportionality called the
universal gas constant, the value of which is R = 8.31 J/(mole K).
The ideal gas law is a special example (valid for an ideal gas) of an equation of state,
i.e., an equation which relates the thermodynamic variables pressure, temperature,
volume and density.

Avogadro's Number and the Ideal Gas Law

Avogadro's hypothesis formulated in 1811 states that
equal volumes of gas at the same pressure and temperature contain equal numbers of
molecules.
A corollary to Avogadro's hypothesis is
One mole quantities of all gases at standard temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules.
The number of molecules per mole is known as Avogadro's number, N A .
The total number of molecules in a gas, N , is equal to the product of the number of
moles of gas and the number of molecules per mole:
N = nN A , and so the ideal gas law (sometimes called the perfect gas law) can also be
written as
pV = Nk BT (ideal gas law)
R
where k B = = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K is known as Boltzmann's constant.
NA

Absolute Zero and the Kelvin Temperature Scale Revisited

Liquid-in-glass thermometers are adequate for many temperature measurements, but
problems arise when very accurate determinations are needed.
When calibrated to the ice and steam points, an alcohol and a mercury thermometer
have the same readings at these points. But because of different expansion properties

67
(a material does not generally expand uniformly over a given temperature range), the
thermometers will not have exactly the same reading at an intermediate temperature.
Another type of thermometer must therefore be used for very sensitive measurements.
Another disadvantage of the liquid-in-glass thermometers is their limited temperature
range (mercury cannot be used below its freezing point, -390C).
We need a universal thermometer whose readings are independent of the substance
used.
The pressure and volume are directly proportional to temperature, and this
relationship allows a gas to be used to measure temperature in a constant-volume gas
thermometer.
Holding the volume constant gives p ∝ T , and thus temperature can be read in terms
of pressure.
Nk B
A plot of temperature versus pressure gives a straight line, with a slope .
V
When the line is extended to the zero pressure value, a temperature of -273.150C is
obtained, which is taken to be absolute zero.
Extrapolation of such curves for all low-density gases indicates the same absolute zero
temperature (the actual behaviour of gases deviates from the straight-line relationship
at low temperatures because they start to liquefy).
Absolute zero is believed to be the lower limit for temperature, but it has never been
attained (in fact, there is a physical law that says it can never be). There is no known
upper limit to temperature.

1.5. Kinetic Theory: Microscopic Description of an

Ideal Gas

Objectives:
To be able to
state the basic assumptions underlying kinetic theory
use kinetic theory to relate the microscopic behaviour of gas particles and the
macroscopic property called pressure
use kinetic theory (i.e., apply the laws of mechanics to gas molecules) to relate the
microscopic behaviour of gas particles (speeds, masses and number per unit volume)
to the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas (properties such as pressure and
temperature)
derive an expression for the average speed of gas molecules as a function of
temperature
define the mean free path, and relate it to the diffusion of a gas
Kinetic Theory of Ideal Gases
The study of ideal gases can be approached on two levels:
In one approach ideal gases can be examined on a macroscopic scale. In this case we
are concerned with the relationships amongst such quantities as pressure, volume and
temperature.
In the second approach we examine gases on a microscopic scale, using a model that
pictures the components of a gas as small particles. This approach, called the kinetic

68
theory of gases, helps us understand what happens on the atomic level to affect such
macroscopic properties as pressure and temperature.
Kinetic theory, as developed by James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, is a
mathematical description of how a vast number of minute, rapidly moving particles
can manifest itself macroscopically in the observed properties of bulk matter.
Kinetic theory is a branch of physics based on the assumption that matter consists of
molecules. It treats the following topics (we consider only a selection of these):
Change of phase (evaporation; vapour pressure; latent heat)
Pressure (liquid and solid pressures; gas pressure and deductions therefrom)
Change of shape and volume (elasticity; Hooke's law)
Transport phenomena (diffusion - transport of mass; viscosity - transport of
momentum; electrical conduction - transport of electric charge; thermal conduction -
transport of heat)
Thermal expansion
Surface energy and surface tension
In each case, the predictions of theory are more or less in agreement with experiment
(qualitatively, and sometimes quantitatively), which gives indirect confirmation of the
underlying assumptions of kinetic theory.
Using the kinetic theory, pressure and temperature can be understood on the basis of
what is happening on an atomic scale. The ideal gas law can be examined in terms of
the behaviour of the individual molecules that make up the gas.
The Basic Postulates of Kinetic Theory define on a microscopic scale what we mean
by an ideal gas, and can be stated as:
The number of molecules is large, and the average separation between them is large
compared with their dimensions. This means that the molecules occupy a negligible
volume in the container.
As a check: A typical gas at STP (273.15K, 0.101 MPa) contains 2.7 x 1019
molecules/cm3; each such particle has a diameter of roughly 0.2 nm (for a monatomic
gas), so on average they will be separated from one another by about 15 atomic-
diameters. Imagining each little particle at the centre of a cube of 15 atomic-diameters
on a side, the ratio of the empty volume to the actually occupied volume is about
153:1, or 3375:1.
The molecules obey Newton's laws of motion, but as a whole they move randomly.
'Randomly' means that any molecule can move equally in any direction.
The molecules undergo elastic collisions with each other and with the walls of the
container. Thus, in the collisions both kinetic energy and momentum are constant.
The forces between molecules are negligible except during a collision. The forces
between a molecule are short-range, so the molecules interact with each other only
during a collision.
The gas is a pure substance. All molecules are identical.
Another (similar) version of the basic postulates states:
A gas consists of a large number of molecules moving in random directions with a
variety of speeds.
The average distance between any two molecules in a gas is large compared to the size
of an individual molecule.
The molecules obey the laws of classical mechanics and are presumed to interact with
one another only when they collide.
Collisions between molecules or between a molecule and the walls of the container
are perfectly elastic.

69
Still another (similar) version of the basic assumptions of kinetic theory states:
A gas consists of particles called molecules
The molecules are in constant random motion, but because we are dealing with
perhaps 1023 molecules there are as many molecules travelling in one direction as any
other, and so the centre of mass of the gas is at rest.
The range of inter-molecular forces is small compared to the average separation of the
gas molecules, so
the inter-molecular forces (both attractive and repulsive) are negligible except during
a collision;
the volume of the gas molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the
gas;
the duration of a collision is negligible compared to the time spent in free motion.
A molecule moves with uniform velocity between collisions - we can ignore
gravitational effects.
On average we can consider the collisions of the molecules with one another and with
the walls to be perfectly elastic (the effects of in-elastic and super-elastic collisions
cancel out).
We can apply Newtonian mechanics to molecular collisions.

Molecular Interpretation of Pressure (Boyle's Law)

Let's derive an expression for the pressure of N molecules of an ideal gas in a
container of volume V :
Consider the container as a cube with edges of length l , and focus on one molecule,
of mass m , moving along the x − axis with speed vx .
As the molecule collides elastically with any wall, its direction of motion is reversed,
and the change in momentum is ∆px = mv f − mvi = −2mvx . The change in momentum
of the wall is then 2mvx , and the impulse-momentum theorem gives
F ∆t = ∆p = 2mvx .
In order for the molecule to make another collision with the same wall, it must travel a
distance of 2l , and the time interval between two collisions with the same wall is
2l
therefore ∆t = .
vx
The force exerted by the molecule (labelled 1) on a wall is therefore
2 2
2mvx 2mvx mv
F1 = = = x .
∆t 2l l
The total force exerted on the wall by all the molecules is found by adding the forces
exerted by all the individual molecules:
F = F1 + F2 + L + FN
m
=
l
(2 2
vx1 + vx 2 + L + vxN
2
)
m 2
= N vx
l
2
where vx is the average value of the square of the velocity in the x − direction:

70
 2 2 2
2 vx1 + vx 2 + L + vxN
vx ≡ .
N
The Pythagorean theorem relates the square of the velocity to the square of its
components:
2 2 2 2 2 2
v 2 = v x + v y + vz → v 2 = v x + v y + v z
2 2 2
Since all directions of motion are equivalent, vx = v y = vz , and so the total force on
the wall is
N  mv 2 
F=  .
3  l 
This expression allows us to determine the pressure exerted on the wall:
F F 2  N  1 
p = = 2 =    mv 2  .
A l 3  V  2 
This result shows that the pressure is proportional to the number of molecules per
unit volume and to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules.
An alternative way of expressing this result is:
1
p = ρ v2 ,
3
where ρ is the mass density (mass per unit volume) of the gas.
With this simplified model of an ideal gas, we have obtained an important result that
relates the large-scale quantity of pressure to an atomic quantity, the average value of
the square of the molecular speed. Thus we have a key link between the atomic world
and the large-scale world.
The last result verifies some everyday features of pressure:
One way to increase pressure inside a tyre is to increase the number of molecules per
unit volume in the container -- this can by adding air to the tyre (pumping).
The pressure in the tyre can also be raised by increasing the average translational
energy of the molecules in the tyre – this can be accomplished by increasing the
temperature of the gas in the tyre (which is why the tyre pressure increases after a long
trip).

Molecular Interpretation of Temperature

Temperature is related to the random motion of the molecules in a substance. More
specifically, it is proportional to the average kinetic energy of molecular translational
motion (i.e., molecular motion along a straight or curved path).
It is important to understand that temperature is not a measure of the total kinetic
energy of molecules in a substance. For example, there is twice as much molecular
kinetic energy in 2l of boiling waters as in 1l of boiling water, even though both
amounts of water have the same temperature because the average kinetic energy per
molecule in each is the same.
2 1
We can get some insight into the meaning of temperature by writing pV = N mv 2
3 2
and comparing this with the equation of state for an ideal gas: pV = Nk BT . Equating

71
 2 1 2
the right-hand sides of these expressions we obtain T = mv , i.e., temperature is
3k B 2
a direct measure of average molecular kinetic energy.
1 2 3
The average translational kinetic energy per molecule is given by mv = k BT .
2 2
Also, each degree of freedom (which refers to the number of independent means by
which a molecule can possess energy) contributes an equal amount of energy to the
gas:
1 2 1
mvx = k BT
2 2
1 2 1
mv y = k BT
2 2
1 2 1
mvz = k BT
2 2
A generalization of this result, known as the theorem of equipartition of energy, states
that the energy of a system in thermal equilibrium is equally divided among all
degrees of freedom.
The total translational kinetic energy of N molecules of gas is N times the average
1 3 3
energy per molecule: E = N mv 2 = Nk BT = nRT . This result implies that the
2 2 2
pressure exerted by an ideal gas depends only on the number of molecules per unit
volume and the temperature.

Average Speed of Gas Molecules

The root-mean-square (rms) speed of the molecules is given by
3k BT 3RT
vrms = v 2 = = ,
m M
where M is the molar mass in kg/mole. This expression shows that, at a given
temperature, lighter molecules move faster on average than heavier molecules.
A statistical analysis shows that v = 0.92vrms , and so the latter gives us a measure of
the typical speed of a gas particle.
The effect of the tremendous number of inter-molecular collisions does not even out
the speeds of the particles, but distributes them in a stable pattern over a broad range
from zero to infinity. The curves represent the number of molecules in each interval of
speed. Most of the particles are grouped around the peak speed, which is roughly 13%
below v , and 23% below vrms . These are the Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions.

Diffusion of a Gas
Our present understanding is that the molecules of a gas undergo a vast number of
collisions with each other -- about 5 x 109 per second for each molecule in the air
around us, which is about 105 collisions for each centimetre of path travelled.
The uninterrupted distance between collisions -- the mean free path -- is about 10-7 m,
which is roughly 100 atomic diameters.

72
That's why it takes time for the scent of a perfume bottle to fill a room after the bottle
is opened. The molecules, even though they move at great speeds, travel zigzag paths
and only gradually diffuse outward (diffusion was instrumental in the production of
the atomic bomb).

1
Deductions from p = ρ v2
3

Let's discuss (and to some extent repeat) the consequences of the result we obtained
for the pressure of an ideal gas based on the assumptions of kinetic theory.
(a) Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
1
Compare pV ∝ mv 2 , the consequence of the kinetic theory assumptions, with
2
pV ∝ T , the definition of temperature on the ideal-gas scale, which corresponds to
the thermodynamic scale.
We can conclude that
The thermodynamic temperature of an ideal gas is proportional to the mean
translational kinetic energy of its molecules (and to the total translational kinetic
energy).
This interpretation is consistent with the ideal-gas equation, and hence with the
individual gas laws.
1 2
Because mv ∝ T :
2
for a particular gas (m constant): v2 ∝ T ,
1
and for different gases at the same temperature T: v2 ∝ .
m
(b) Avogadro's Law
Consider two ideal gases labelled 1 and 2:
1 2
p1V1 = N1m1 v1
3
1 2
p2V2 = N 2 m2 v2
3
If the gases have the same temperature, pressure and temperature, then
p1 = p2
V1 = V2
1 2 1 2
m1 v1 = m2 v2
2 2
Hence: N1 = N 2 .
In words, Avogadro's law can be stated as:
Equal volumes of all ideal gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules.
(c) Graham's Law of Diffusion
Suppose the rate of diffusion of a gas through a small hole ∝ v ∝ v 2 .
Then for two gases, labelled A and B, diffusing under identical conditions (same p
and T , same hole):

73
rate of diffusion of A vA
=
rate of diffusion of B vB
ρB
= ,
ρA
2 2
since ρ A v A = ρ B vB .
In words, Graham's law of diffusion can be stated as:
The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
density, and hence inversely proportional to the square root of the relative molecular
mass.
(d) Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
Consider a mixture of two ideal gases (labelled 1 and 2) in a volume V ; then
1 2
p1V = N1m1 v1
3
1 2
p2V = N 2 m2 v2 .
3
When the gases have acquired the same temperature:
2 2
m1 v1 = m2 v2 = mv 2 (say).
1
Hence: ( p1 + p2 + L) V = v 2 ( N1 + N 2 + K) .
3
n
The total pressure for a mixture of n gases is therefore given by: p = ∑ pi
i =1

In words, Dalton's law of partial pressures can be formulated as:

When two or more gases (which do not react chemically) are present in the same
container, the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures (the pressure that each
gas would exert if isolated in the container).

Mean Free Path λ

The mean free path λ of a gas molecule is defined as the average distance it travels
between collisions.
An approximate value for λ can be found from the following simplified argument
Let r0 be the effective molecular diameter.
Then if the molecule travels a distance l in time ∆t , the volume swept out will be
2
π r0 l.
We assume that the molecule will collide with any other molecule within this volume.
2
The volume contains nπ r0 l molecules, where n is the number density of molecules.
During the time interval ∆t , collisions with all of these molecules will occur.
Hence:
distance travelled
λ =
number of collisions
l 1
= 2
= 2
.
nπ r0 l nπ r0

74
 1
Check units: λ [m] = 2
. The table shows some typical values for the
n [m ]π r0 [m 2 ]
-3

mean free path.

HEAT AND ENERGY
1. Heat, Phase Changes and Heat Transfer
Preview:
In this second part of the course we will
• revisit the concept of heat, and define its units
• describe what is meant by sensible heat, and latent heat
• discuss phase changes and phase diagrams
• define specific heat capacity, and latent heat capacity
• discuss calorimetry: an experimental technique to measure thermal constants such as the specific
heat capacity
• discuss differences and characteristics of the three methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection
and radiation
• describe practical and environmental applications of heat transfer, including the greenhouse effect

2.1 Units of Heat

Objectives:
To be able to

define and distinguish between various units of heat

define the mechanical equivalent of heat

Heat describes a type of energy transfer, in particular the addition or removal of internal
energy to a body or system.
Heat is energy in transit, and is measurable as an energy loss or gain.
Heat is described by standard energy units.
The SI unit is the joule (J), or newton-metre (Nm).
Before scientists realized that heat is transferred energy, heat was measured in terms of its
ability to raise the temperature of water.
Thus, another commonly used unit of heat is the kilocalorie (kcal):
One kilocalorie (kcal) is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
kg of water 1 C0 (from 14.50 C to 15.50 C ).1
A smaller unit, the calorie (cal) is also sometimes used:
One calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C0
(from 14.50 C to 15.50 C ).
A familiar use of the larger kilocalorie is to specify the energy value of food; in this context
the word is usually shortened to Calorie (Cal).
A capital 'C' is used to distinguish the larger kilogramme-Calorie, or kilocalorie, from the
smaller gramme-calorie; they are sometimes referred to as the 'big Calorie' and the 'little
calorie'.
unit of heat commonly used in industry is the British thermal unit (Btu):
One Btu is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1 F0
(from 630 F to 640 F ).

1 0
The temperature range is specified because the energy needed to raise 1 kg of water by 1 C varies
slightly with temperature (at a pressure of 1 atm, it is a minimum in the specified range).

75
The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
The English scientist James Joule was able to verify quantitatively that water can be heated
by doing mechanical work.
Using his apparatus, Joule demonstrated that when a given amount of mechanical work was
done, the water was heated, as indicated by an increase in temperature.
Joule's experiment demonstrated that for every 4186 J of work done, the temperature of water
rose 1 C0 per kg.
This relationship is called the mechanical equivalent of heat, and provides a conversion
factor between kilocalories and joules:
1 cal = 4.186 J.
The relations among the various heat units are:
1 cal = 10-3 Cal = 10-3 kcal = 3.969 × 10−3 Btu = 4.186 J.

2.2 Sensible Heat

Objectives:
To be able to

describe what is meant by 'sensible heat'

define specific heat

explain how the specific heat capacities of materials are obtained using calorimetry
Sensible heat refers to heat which brings about a change in the body which can be detected
by the senses; this implies it causes the temperature of the body to change.
Thus, sensible heat, Q , can be sensed by humans. It is that portion of the total internal
energy associated with a temperature change ∆T .
Some materials heat up more easily than others. The change in temperature depends on the
energy supplied to the object, the mass of the object, and the nature of the substance.
When heat is added to a substance, the energy may go to increase the random molecular
motion (which results in a temperature change), and also to increase the potential energy
associated with the molecular bonds.
Different substances have different molecular configurations and bonding.
Thus, if equal amounts of heat are added to equal masses of different substances, the
resulting temperature changes will not generally be the same.
The heat, Q , can be measured as the product of the change of temperature, ∆T , and a
quantity called the heat capacity, C :2
Q = C ∆T .
The SI unit of heat capacity, C , is J/K.
The amount of sensible heat, Q , needed to change the temperature of a unit mass of
substance is given by:
Q
= c∆T ,
m
where m is the mass of the substance, and c is a quantity called the specific heat capacity,
or simply the specific heat.

Specific Heat Capacity

The word specific is a term often used to indicate that the property relates to unit mass of the
substance involved.

2
The word capacity in this context may be misleading: you should not think of an object as
'containing' heat or being limited in its ability to absorb heat. Heat transfer can proceed without limit as
long as a temperature difference is maintained.

76
The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
(unit mass) of a substance by 1 C0 .
The specific heat capacity, c , is therefore defined as the heat capacity C per unit mass.
The specific heat capacity is characteristic of, or specific for, a given substance, and gives an
indication of its internal molecular configuration and bonding.
The specific heat capacity is given by
Q
c= .
m∆T
The SI units of specific heat capacity are: J/(kg K).
Another way of stating this is that the heat needed to raise the temperature of an object of
mass m by ∆T is given by:
Q = mc∆T .
Specific heat capacity depends somewhat on temperature (and pressure), but over usual
temperature intervals these variations can be neglected and c can be considered constant.
The greater the specific heat capacity of a substance, the more energy must be transferred to
it or taken from it to change the temperature of a given mass of it.
A substance with a greater heat capacity has a greater heat capacity, i.e., it accepts or yields
more heat for a given temperature change and mass.
Water has a relatively large specific heat capacity.
Everyday examples of this: burning your mouth on a baked potato or cheese of a pizza.
Note: In determining and then using the specific heat of any substance, we need to know the conditions
under which heat transfer occurs.
For solids and liquids, it turns out that the specific heats under constant pressure and constant volume
differ usually by no more than a few percent. Gases have quite different values for their specific heats
under constant-pressure conditions and under constant-volume conditions.

Molar Specific Heat

In many instances, the most convenient unit for specifying the amount of a substance is the
mole (mol).
When quantities are expressed in moles, the specific heat must also involve moles (rather
than a mass unit); it is then called a molar specific heat.
The molar specific heats of many elements have about the same value at room temperature:
25 J/(mol K).
In fact, the molar specific heats of all solids increase toward that value as the temperature
increases.
When we compare two substances on a molar basis, we are comparing samples that contain
the same number of elementary units (atoms, molecules).
Since, at high enough temperature, all solid elements have the same specific heat, we can
conclude that atoms of all kinds absorb heat in the same way.

Calorimetry (The Method of Mixtures)

Calorimetry is the experimental technique to measure the values of thermal constants, such as
the specific heat capacity.
Such measurements usually necessitate the determination of a quantity of heat, for example
by observing the rise in temperature it produces in a known quantity of water, or other
suitable liquid.
A calorimeter is a vessel containing the liquid used in calorimetry. The name is also
sometimes used for the entire apparatus used in measuring thermal quantities.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is determined by measuring the quantities on the
right-hand side of the heat equation:

77
 Q
c= .
m∆T
Basically, heat exchange problems are just a matter of 'thermal accounting': If something
loses heat, something else must gain heat, or else the energy conservation principle would be
violated.

2.3 Latent Heat & Phase Changes

Objectives:
To be able to

compare and contrast the three common phases of matter

relate latent heat to phase changes

Latent heat is a 'hidden' heat, not evident until a substance undergoes a phase change.
Example: Evaporation of liquid water droplets cools the air by removing sensible heat and
storing it as latent heat.

Phases of Matter
Matter normally exists in one of three phases: solid, liquid and gas (although plasma is often
considered a fourth state of matter).
The phase that matter is in depends on its internal energy (as indicated by its temperature)
and the pressure on it.
In the solid phase, molecules are held together by attractive forces, or bonds.
Adding heat causes increased motion about the molecular equilibrium positions.
If enough heat is added to break the inter-molecular bonds, the solid undergoes a phase
change and becomes a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid undergoes a phase change to become a liquid is called the
melting point.
Conversely, the temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid is called the freezing point.
In the liquid phase, molecules of a substance are relatively free to move, and a liquid assumes
the shape of its container.
In certain liquids, there may be some ordered structure, giving rise to so-called liquid
crystals, as used in LCD's (liquid crystal displays) in calculators, watches, clocks etc.
Adding heat increases the motion of the molecules of a liquid.
When the molecules have enough energy to become separated by large distances (compared
to their diameters), the liquid changes to the gaseous phase, or vapour phase. (A gas has the
property that it fills the container it is kept in.)
This change may occur slowly by the process of evaporation, or rapidly at a particular
temperature called the boiling point.
Conversely, the temperature at which a gas condenses and becomes a liquid is called the
condensation point.
Some solids (such as dry ice, i.e., carbon dioxide) change directly from the solid to the
gaseous phase. This process is called sublimation.
Conversely, a phase change from a gas to a solid is called deposition.
The following phase changes require the supply of heat:
vaporization: liquid → vapour
melting: solid → liquid
sublimation: solid → vapour
The following phase changes release heat to the surroundings:
condensation: vapour → liquid
fusion: liquid → solid
: vapour → solid

78
Latent Heat
In general, when heat energy is transferred to a substance, its temperature increases.
When added (or removed) heat causes only a phase change, the temperature of the substance
does not change.
During a phase change, the heat energy goes into the work of breaking bonds and separating
molecules, rather than increasing the temperature.
The amount of heat per unit mass that must be transformed when a sample completely
undergoes a phase change is called the latent heat.
The heat involved in a phase change, the latent heat, L , is given by
Q
L≡ ,
m
where m is the mass of the substance.
The latent heat L has units of J/kg.
The latent heat for a liquid-solid phase change is called the latent heat of fusion, L f , also
referred to as the heat of fusion.
The latent heat for a liquid-gas phase change is called the latent heat of vaporization, Lv ,
also referred to as the heat of vaporization.
The latent heat for the less common solid-gas phase change is called the latent heat of
sublimation, Ls .
The values of the latent heats for water are:
Lv = ±22.6 × 105 J/kg condensation/vaporization
Lf = ±3.33 × 105 J/kg fusion/melting
Ld = ±28.3 × 105 J/kg deposition/sublimation
where the sign depends on the direction of the phase change.
The latent heat of vaporization is therefore almost 7 times the latent heat of fusion; this
indicates more energy is needed to separate the molecules in going from water to steam than
to break up the lattice structure in going from ice to water.
The word 'latent' means hidden. In this context, it can be understood by considering a
situation involving the human skin.
To convert 1 kg of water into steam requires 540 kcal of energy, and conversely, when 1 kg
of steam condenses into water, this amount of energy is released.
As a result, burns from steam are usually more serious than those from boiling water.
The condensing of steam on the skin provides an additional 540 kcal/kg of heat, that is
seemingly hidden until contact.

Phase Diagrams
Information about phase changes is represented on graphs called phase diagrams.
One example is the pT (pressure-temperature) diagram for water.
The curves are formed of the points ( p, T ) , or the pressure-temperature combinations at
which different phases are in equilibrium.
Example: the point at 1 atm and 1000 C corresponds to the normal boiling point, at which
liquid water and steam are in equilibrium.
The triple point is the point at which all three phases coexist.
This is the unique point used as a reference point (in the case of water) for the Kelvin scale.
The three curves branching out from this point separate the phase regions:
the fusion curve separates the solid and liquid phase regions;

79
the vaporization curve separates the liquid and gaseous phase regions;
the sublimation curve separates the solid and gaseous phase regions.
Vapour is another term commonly used for gas.
Water vapour is water in the gas phase (vapour is also used in a non-technical sense to mean
visible droplets of water, such as condensed steam or clouds).
The distinction between vapour and gas is often made relative to the critical point at the end
of the vaporization curve.
At temperatures less than the critical temperature ( 3740 C for water), a gas will change to a
liquid if sufficient pressure is applied.
If a gas is above its critical temperature, no amount of pressure will cause it to become a
liquid: it becomes denser and denser with increasing pressure, but never quite becomes a
liquid.
A substance that is gaseous and has a temperature above its critical temperature is called a
gas, and a substance that is gaseous but with a temperature below its critical temperature is
known as a vapour.

2.4 Methods of Heat Transfer

Objectives:
To be able to

describe the three methods of heat transfer

give practical/environmental examples of each

define a blackbody

Conduction
The process of heat conduction is visualized as resulting from molecular interactions
(interactions/collisions between electrons and molecules):
Molecules in one part of a body at higher temperature vibrate faster. They collide with and
transfer some of their energy to less energetic molecules located toward the cooler part of the
body. In this way energy is conductively transferred from a higher-temperature region to a
lower-temperature region - transfer as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermal conductors are materials that are good conductors of heat.
Metals (a type of solid) are thermal conductors. Why?
A metal has a large number of electrons that are free to move around (conduction electrons),
and are not permanently bound to any particular atom or molecule. The free electrons are
believed to be primarily responsible for the heat conduction of metals.
Thermal insulators are materials that are poor conductors of heat.
Non-metals such as wood or cloth are thermal insulators. Why?
In general, the ability of a substance to conduct heat depends on its phase.
Gases are poor thermal conductors because their molecules are relatively far apart, and
collisions are therefore infrequent.
Liquids are better thermal conductors than gases because their molecules are closer together
and can interact more readily.
Non-metals have relatively few free electrons.
Can we describe heat conduction quantitatively?
Heat conduction is the time rate of heat flow (Q ∆t ) in a material for a given temperature

difference (∆T ) .
Experiments have established that the rate of heat flow through a substance depends on the
temperature difference between its boundaries.
Heat conduction also depends on the size and shape of the object.

80
 Heat flow through a uniform slab of material is directly proportional to its surface area, A ,
and inversely proportional to its thickness, d (Fourier's law of conduction):
Q ∆T
= kA ,
∆t d
where ∆T is called the thermal gradient (the change in temperature per unit length), and
d
the constant k is called the thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivity characterizes the heat-conducting ability of a material: the greater
the value of k for a material, the more rapidly it will conduct heat.
The SI units of thermal conductivity k are: J/(m s K).
The thermal conductivity varies slightly over different temperature ranges, but can be
considered constant over the usual temperature ranges and differences.
Thermal Resistance to Conduction: R − Value: If you are interested in insulating your house
or in keeping coke cans cold on a picnic, you are more concerned with poor heat conductors
than with good ones. For this reason, the concept of thermal resistance R has been
introduced into engineering practice. The R − value of a slab of thickness d is defined as
d
R= .
k
Thus, the lower the lower the thermal conductivity of the material of which a slab is made,
the higher the R − value of the slab. Note that R is a property attributed to a slab of a
specified thickness, not to a material.

Convection
The mobility of molecules in fluids permits heat transfer by another process - convection.
Heat transfer by convection involves mass transfer.
Example: cold water in contact with a hot object, such as the bottom of a pot.
Natural convection cycles occur in liquids and gases.
Convection can also be forced, which means that the medium of heat transfer is moved
mechanically.
In this case, heat can be transferred in the absence of a temperature difference, and even from
a low-temperature region to high-temperature one.
Examples of Natural Convection:
Atmospheric processes: During the day, the ground heats up more quickly than do large
bodies of water; this occurs because water has a larger specific heat capacity, and because
mixing currents disperse the absorbed heat throughout the large volume of water. The air in
contact with the warm ground is heated by conduction. That air expands, becoming less
dense than the surrounding cooler air. As a result, the warm air rises (air currents) and other
air moves horizontally (winds) to fill the space - creating sea breeze near a large body of
water. Cooler air descends, and a thermal convection cycle is set up, which transfers heat
away from the land. At night, the ground loses its heat more quickly, and the water surface is
warmer than the land. As a result, the cycle is reversed.
You can see convection currents in the air above a hot road surface in the summer and in
transparent liquids, such as heated water in a glass container. This is because regions of
different temperatures have different densities, which cause a bending, or refraction, of light.
Atmospheric convection plays a fundamental role in determining global climate patterns and
daily weather variations.
Glider pilots and birds alike seek rising thermals (currents of warm air) that keep them aloft.
Huge energy transfers take place within the oceans by the same process.
Energy is transported to the surface of the Sun from the nuclear furnace at its core by
enormous convection cells, in which hot gas rises to the surface along the cell core and cooler
gas around the core descends below the surface.

81
Examples of Forced Convection:
Energy transfer from a low-temperature region to a high-temperature one occurs in the case
of a refrigerator coolant removing energy from the inside of the refrigerator. The circulating
coolant carries heat energy from the inside of the refrigerator, and this heat is given up to the
environment.
Forced-air heating systems in homes.
The human circulatory system: The human body does not use all of the energy obtained from
food; a great deal is lost. So that body temperature will stay normal, the internally generated
heat energy is transferred close to the surface by blood circulation. From the skin, it is
conducted to the air or lost by radiation.
The cooling system of a car engine: Water or some other coolant is circulated (pumped)
through most car cooling systems (some engines are air-cooled). The fluid medium carries
heat to the radiator (a heat exchanger), where forced air flow produced by the fan carries it
away. The radiation of a car is actually misnamed - most of the heat is transferred from it by
convection rather than radiation.

Radiation
Radiation, which is a mechanism for heat transfer by electromagnetic waves, does not need a
medium for transport.
Heat transferred in this way is often called thermal radiation, to distinguish it from
electromagnetic signals (like in TV broadcasts) and from nuclear radiation (energy and
particles emitted by nuclei).
The word 'radiate' generally means to emit.
Infrared radiation is sometimes referred to as 'heat rays'.
All objects whose temperatures are above 0 K emit radiation (including people).
The rate Pr at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature, and is given by Stefan's law:
Q
Pr = = σ Aε T 4 ,
∆t
where Pr is the power radiated, A is the surface area of the object,
−8 -2 -4
σ = 5.67 × 10 W m K is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and ε is the emissivity, which
is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1, characteristic of the material. Dark surfaces have
emissivities close to 1, and shiny surfaces have emissivities close to 0 (the emissivity of the
human skin is about 0.7).
Dark surfaces are not only better emitters of radiation, they are also good absorbers.
Shiny surfaces are poor absorbers, since most of the incident radiation is reflected (hence, it
is better to wear light-coloured clothes in the summer, and dark-coloured clothes in the
winter).
In general, a good emitter is also a good absorber.
An ideal, or perfect, absorber (and emitter) is referred to as a blackbody ( ε = 1 ).
When an object is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings (environment), its
temperature is constant: it emits and absorbs radiation at the same rate.
The rate Pa at which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its environment,
taken to be at a uniform temperature Tenv , is
4
Pa = σε ATenv .
If the temperatures of the object and its environment/surroundings are different, there must be
a net flow of radiant energy.
If an object is at temperature T and its environment is at temperature Tenv , then the net rate
of energy loss or gain per unit time is given by

82
 Q
Pnet = Pa − Pr = = σ Aε (Tenv
4
− T 4 ).
∆t
If Tenv < T , then Pnet is negative, indicating a net energy loss.
Heat can be transferred in the absence of a temperature difference: if Tenv = T , there is a
continuous exchange of radiant energy, but there is no net change of internal energy.

Applications
Heat is transferred from the Sun to the Earth through (nearly) empty space by means of
electromagnetic waves.
If you stand near an open fire, you can feel the heat on your exposed hands and face. The heat
transfer is not due to convection or conduction, since heated air rises and air is a poor
conductor. Visible radiation is emitted from the burning material, but most of the heating
effect comes from the invisible infrared radiation emitted by the glowing ember or coals.
You feel this radiation because it is absorbed by water molecules in your skin (body tissues is
about 85% water). The water molecule has an internal vibration whose frequency coincides
with that of infrared radiation, which is therefore absorbed readily. [This is called resonance
absorption. The electromagnetic wave drives the molecular vibration, and energy is
transferred to the molecule, somewhat like pushing a swing.]
Red infrared lamps are used to keep food warm in cafeterias.
Although infrared radiation is invisible to the human eye, it can be detected by other means.
The frequency of infrared radiation is proportional to the temperature of its source. This is
the basis for infrared thermometers, which, using infrared detectors, can measure temperature
remotely. Also, you can buy special infrared film for some cameras. A picture taken with this
film will be an image consisting of contrasting light and dark areas corresponding to regions
of higher and lower temperatures. Special instruments that apply such thermography are used
in industry and medicine.
A new application of thermograms is for security. The system consists of an infrared camera
and a computer that identifies people by means of the heat patterns emitted by the facial
blood vessels. The camera takes a picture of the radiation from a person's face, which is
compared with an earlier image stored in the computer memory. It is reported that the system
can even distinguish between identical twins, whose facial features are slightly different.
Also, changes in body temperature from weather conditions or a fever do not affect the
identification, as the relative patterns of radiation remain the same.
The Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect is one of the factors which regulate the Earth's
long-term average temperature, which has been fairly constant. A portion of the solar
radiation we receive reaches the Earth's surface and warms it. The Earth in turn reradiates
energy in the form of infrared radiation. The balance between absorption and emission of
radiation is the major factor in stabilizing the Earth's temperature.

It is this balance that is affected by the concentration of greenhouse gases - primarily water
vapour and CO2 (carbon dioxide) - in the atmosphere. As the infrared radiation passes
through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by the greenhouse gases. These gases are
selective absorbers: they absorb radiation at some wavelengths, but not at others.

If terrestrial infrared radiation is absorbed, the atmosphere warms, warming the Earth (heat
transfer by radiation). This rise in surface temperature causes a shift in the wavelength of the
emitted radiation. The wavelength is eventually shifted to a 'window' in the absorption
spectrum where little or no absorption takes place, and the terrestrial radiation passes through
the atmosphere and into space. Thus, the Earth loses energy and its surface temperature
decreases. But with a temperature decrease, the terrestrial radiation shifts to a longer
wavelength and is again absorbed by the greenhouse gases. We have a turning on and off, so

83
to speak, similar to the action of a thermostat. Hence, the selective absorption of atmospheric
gases play an important role in maintaining the Earth's average temperature.

The phenomenon is called the atmospheric greenhouse effect because the atmosphere
functions a bit like the glass in a greenhouse: the absorption and transmission properties of
glass are similar to those of the atmospheric greenhouse gases - in general, visible radiation is
transmitted, but infrared radiation is selectively absorbed. Most of us can remember the
warming effect of sunlight passing through glass, for example, in a closed car on a sunny,
cold day. Similarly, a greenhouse heats up by absorbing sunlight and trapping the reradiated
infrared radiation. Thus, it is quite warm inside on a sunny day, even in winter. (But in
practice, the elimination of heat loss by convection is the chief factor in maintaining an
elevated temperature: the glass enclosure keeps warm air from escaping upward, as it
normally would. The temperature of a greenhouse in summer is controlled by painting the
glass panels white so that some of the sunlight is reflected, and opening panels to let some
hot air escape.)

A recent concern is that human activities may accentuate the greenhouse warming: the so-
called enhanced greenhouse effect. With all the combustion of fossil fuels for heating and
industrial processes, and deforestation, vast amounts of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are
vented into the atmosphere. There is a worry that the result of this trend will be global
warming: an increase in the Earth's average temperature that could dramatically affect the
environment. For example, the climate in many parts of the globe might be altered, with
effects on agricultural production and world food supplies that are very difficult to predict. It
has also been suggested that a general rise in temperature might cause partial melting of the
polar ice caps. Sea levels would rise, flooding low-lying regions and endangering coastal
ports and population centres.

An interesting sidelight to the greenhouse effect concerns the transmission of radiation

through glass. In an actual greenhouse, the visible portion of the sunlight is transmitted
through the glass, but the short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation is absorbed. The ultraviolet
spectrum from 280 to 400 nm is divided into two regions called UVA (320-400 nm) and
UVB (280-320 nm). Ordinary window glass does not appreciably transmit UVB radiation,
which is the primary cause of suntan and sunburn. Hence, although a considerable warming
effect occurs through glass from visible radiation, people do not receive a tan or severe
sunburn through ordinary window glass because of UVB absorption. Some slight reddening
may occur for sensitive skin from the UVA radiation that is transmitted.

The Microwave Oven: The microwave oven is a common kitchen appliance which is both
time-saving and energy-saving, since the oven doesn't have to be warmed up like a
conventional oven. The principle of operation of the microwave oven is heat transfer by
radiation.

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation; they have a frequency range just below
that of infrared radiation. Like infrared radiation, microwaves are absorbed mainly by water
molecules (in a molecular resonance). In a microwave oven, the microwaves are generated
electronically and distributed by reflection from a metal stirrer or fan and the metal walls.
Because the walls reflect the radiant energy, they do not get hot.

Microwaves pass through plastic wrap, glass, or dishes made of other 'microwave-safe'
materials and are absorbed by water molecules in the food, producing rapid heating. (Metal
utensils or objects cannot be used in microwave ovens because the microwaves can dislodge
electrons from metals, cause sparking and possibly damage.) The microwaves do not
penetrate the food completely but are absorbed near the surface. Heat is then conducted to the

84
interior of the food, just as it is in conventional oven heating. This is why it is advisable to let
large items or portions sit for a time after the microwave oven has shut off, so that they will
be warmed or cooked throughout.

Since microwaves could be absorbed by water molecules in the skin, causing burns,
microwave ovens have several important safety features. The door is tight-fitting so that
microwaves cannot leak out. The glass in the door is fitted with a metal shield that has small
holes through which food can be viewed without opening the door. Microwaves are reflected
by this shield and prevented from coming through the glass (essentially, the waves are larger
than the holes.) Also, there is a mechanism that automatically shuts off the oven when the
door is opened, so a person cannot get into the oven while it is running. In fact, the oven
cannot be turned on when the door is open.

Body Heat: See Exercise Class.

The Thermos Flask: The thermos bottle, sometimes called a Dewar flask, is designed to
minimise heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation. It is used to store either hot
or cold liquids for long periods of time. The standard vessel is double-walled Pyrex glass
with a silvered inner wall. The space between the walls is evacuated to minimise heat transfer
by conduction and convection. By reflecting most of the radiant heat, the silvered surface
minimizes heat transfer by radiation. Very little heat is lost through the neck of the flask
because Pyrex glass is a poor conductor. A further reduction in heat loss is achieved by
reducing the size of the neck. A common scientific application of Dewar flasks is storage of
liquid nitrogen (boiling point 77K) and liquid oxygen (boiling point 90K). For substances
that have very low specific heats, such as liquid helium (boiling point 4.2K), it is often
necessary to use a double Dewar system in which the Dewar flask containing the liquid is
surrounded by a second Dewar flask. The space between the two flasks is filled with liquid
nitrogen.

Some of the principles of the Dewar flask are used in the protection of sensitive electronic
instruments in orbiting space satellites. In half of its orbit around the Earth, a satellite is
exposed to intense radiation from the Sun, and in the other half it is in the Earth's cold
shadow. Without protection, its interior would thus be subjected to tremendous extremes of
heating and cooling. The interior of the satellite is wrapped with blankets of highly reflective
aluminium foil. The foil's shiny surface reflects away much of the Sun's radiation while the
satellite is in the unshaded part of the orbit, and helps retain interior heat while the satellite is
in the Earth's shadow.

Wool sweaters and down jackets keep us warm by trapping the warmer air in regions close to
our bodies and hence reducing heat loss by convection and conduction. In other words, what
keeps us warm is not the clothing itself but the air trapped in the clothing.

Solar Panels: See Exercise Class.

3. Thermodynamics
Preview:
In this third part of the course we will
• define the concepts of heat and temperature
• define and apply a number of thermodynamic ideas and concepts
• become familiar with and apply the 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics
• discuss several thermodynamic processes with the aid of pressure-volume ( pV ) diagrams

85
• define and discuss the concept of entropy
• apply the laws of thermodynamics to discuss heat engines, refrigerators and heat pumps
• introduce parameters to quantify the efficiency at which thermodynamic devices operate
• learn about the Carnot cycle and its relation to the concept of an 'ideal' engine

Thermodynamics deals with the transfer/actions (dynamics) of heat (therme is the Greek
word for heat).
Wherever there is a temperature difference, the potential exists for obtaining useful work.
The study of thermodynamics helps us to learn under what conditions, and with what
efficiency, heat can be exploited to perform work, in machines as different as cars and
freezers.
The laws of thermodynamics governing such energy conversions include some of the most
general and far-reaching in physics.
The development of thermodynamics grew out of efforts to develop heat engines, i.e., devices
which convert heat to mechanical work; the steam engine was one of the first such devices.
Classical thermodynamics was based on experimental observations, rather than hypotheses
about the structure of matter.
By applying modern molecular kinetic theory and statistical mechanics, which deals with
large numbers of particles, we can gain deeper insight into the principles of thermodynamics.

3.1 Thermodynamic Systems, States and Processes

Objectives:
To be able to
define thermodynamics systems and states of systems
explain how processes affect such systems
apply the above thermodynamic terms and ideas to the laws of thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Systems
To study thermodynamics, you need to become familiar with a number of special terms, or
everyday terms which have special meanings.
The term system, as used in thermodynamics, refers to a definite quantity of matter enclosed
by boundaries or surfaces, either real or imaginary ones - the enclosing boundaries of a
system need have no definite shape, nor do they have to enclose a fixed volume.
An important thermodynamic consideration is the interchange of energy between a system
and its surroundings - this may occur through a transfer of heat and/or the performance of
mechanical work.
A system is said to be a thermally isolated system if heat transfer into or out of the system is
impossible.
Work may be done on a thermally isolated system.
A system is said to be a (completely) isolated system if conditions are such that no energy
interchange (i.e., no interaction at all) can occur between a system and its surroundings.
When heat does enter or leave a system, it is absorbed from or given up to the surroundings
or to theoretical heat reservoirs (which have constant temperatures).
A heat reservoir is a system with an unlimited heat capacity - this implies that any quantity of
heat may be withdrawn from or added to the reservoir without appreciably changing its
temperature. (Analogy: taking a cup of water from or adding a cup of water to the ocean.)
State of a System
Just as there are kinematic equations to describe aspects of the motion of an object, there are
equations of state to describe the conditions of thermodynamic systems.
An equation of state is a mathematical relationship between the thermodynamic variables of a
system.

86
We have already come across a simple example of an equation of state in the form of the
ideal gas law:
pV = Nk BT .
The equation of state establishes a relationship between the pressure p , the volume V ,
absolute temperature T , and mass (represented by N , the number of molecules) of a gas.
These quantities are called state variables.
Different states have different sets of values for these variables; a set of these variables that
satisfies the ideal gas law specifies a state of a system of ideal gas completely (but the system
must be in thermal equilibrium and have a uniform temperature).
The state of a given mass of gas in a closed system can be specified by the variables p , V
and T .
It is convenient to plot the states using the thermodynamic coordinates ( p,V , T ) ; these
coordinates specify the individual states on a pVT graph or diagram.
In three dimensions, the states describe a surface, and each point ( p ,V , T ) on the surface
represents an equilibrium state.
The pVT plot of a substance is very helpful for understanding and predicting its behaviour
when the state variables change.
Processes
A process is a change in the state3, or the thermodynamic coordinates, of a system, i.e., when
a system undergoes a process, the set of coordinates on the pVT plot describing it changes.
For example, we can go from state ( p1 ,V1 , T1 ) to state ( p2 ,V2 , T2 ) by a thermodynamic
process.
Processes are said to be either reversible or irreversible:
Irreversible Processes:
If a system of gas in equilibrium (with known pVT values) is allowed to expand quickly,
then the state of the system will change rapidly and unpredictably, but will eventually return
to equilibrium with another set of thermodynamic coordinates, in another state. On a graph,
such as a pV diagram, it's possible to show the initial equilibrium point, or state, and the
final state, but not what happened in between. Since the intermediate states changed so fast,
there would be no data describing them.
This is called an irreversible process, i.e., one for which the intermediate states are non-
equilibrium states.4
Reversible Processes:
If the gas expands very, very slowly, passing from one known equilibrium state to the
neighbouring one and eventually arriving at the final state, then the process path between the
initial and final states would be known. This is called a reversible process, i.e., one whose
path is known.
All real thermodynamic processes are irreversible to some degree, so a perfectly reversible
process cannot be achieved; the concept of an ideal reversible process is useful, however.

3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Objectives:
To be able to

3
A change of state (of a system) does not necessarily mean a change of phase, such as from liquid to
solid. To avoid confusion, refer to solid, liquid and gas as phases rather than states of matter.
4
'Irreversible' does not mean that the system can't be taken back to the initial state; it only means the
process path can't be retraced, because of the non-equilibrium conditions.

87
apply the conservation of energy to thermodynamic systems
explain the relationship between internal energy, heat and work as expressed by the first law of
thermodynamics;
analyse various 'iso'-processes:
isobaric (constant-pressure) processes
isometric (constant-volume) processes
isothermal (constant-temperature) processes
adiabatic (zero heat flow) processes

The conservation of energy is considered to be valid for any system, and the first law of
thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic
systems.
Heat, internal energy and work are the quantities determining the transfer and transformation
of energy in a thermodynamic system.
If some heat Q is added to a system, it could serve to increase the system's internal energy
( ∆U ), or it could result in work ( W ) being done by the system. Thus, it is possible for the
added heat to go into internal energy or work, or both:
Q → W and/or ∆U .
A mathematical expression for the first law of thermodynamics is given by:
Q = ∆U + W ,
with the following sign convention:
a positive value of heat ( +Q ) means that heat is added to the system;
a negative value of heat ( −Q ) means that heat is removed from the system;
a positive value of work ( +W ) means that work is done by the system (for example the work
done by an expanding gas);
a negative value of work ( −W ) means that work is done on the system (for example in
compressing a gas).
To ensure you understand the relationships between internal energy U , heat Q and work
W , consider the following:
Any given system in a particular state will have a certain amount of internal energy U .
In contrast, a system does not have certain amounts of heat and work; these are what change
the state of the system, and generally change the internal energy.
When heat is added to or removed from a system, or work is done by or on a system,
thermodynamic processes occur that can change the system from one state to another, each
having a particular internal energy U .
Thus, the internal energy depends only on the state of the system, and not what brought it
there.
Hence, to find the change in internal energy ∆U in going from one state to another, we need
to know only the internal energy of the states, and then
∆U = U 2 − U1.
In other words, the change in the internal energy ∆U is independent of the process path, and
depends only on the initial and final states.
The first law of thermodynamics can be applied to several processes for a closed system of an
ideal gas in which one of the thermodynamic variables is kept constant; these processes have
names beginning with iso (from the Greek isos, meaning 'equal').

Isobaric Process:
A constant-pressure process is called an isobaric process.
On a pV diagram, the path of an isobaric process is along a horizontal line called an isobar.
When heat is added to the ideal gas in the cylinder, the ratio V must remain constant, since
T

88
V Nk B
= .
T p
The heated gas expands; there is an increase in its volume; the temperature must
therefore also increase proportionally, which means that the internal energy of the gas
increases (cf. results from kinetic theory in Part I).
Work is done by the gas as it expands, and in moving the piston:
F
W= .
∆x
In terms of pressure ( p = F ), the force may be written F = pA , where A is the area of
A
the piston.
Hence
W = pA∆x.
Since A∆x is simply the change in volume of the gas, A∆x = ∆V = V2 − V1 , and hence
W = p∆V = p (V2 − V1 ) (isobaric process)
On a pV diagram, p∆V is the area under the isobar.
For a non-isobaric process, the work is also equal to the area under the line showing the
process path.
Thus, the work depends on the process path as well as on the initial and final states: there
will be different areas under different paths.
Since the internal energy of a quantity of an ideal gas depends only on its (absolute)
temperature, a change in this internal energy is independent of the process path and depends
only on the initial and final states, or the temperatures of these states:
∆U = U 2 − U1 ∝ T2 − T1.
Since V2 > V1 for an expanding gas, work is done by the system ( +W ).
By the first law:
Q = ∆U + W = ∆U + p∆V .
The heat added to the system goes into both increasing the internal energy and into work
done by the system.
If the process was reversed, and the gas was being compressed by an external force doing
work on the system, all the quantities would be negative: heat would go out of the system
( −Q ), and the internal energy, or the temperature, of the gas would decrease ( −∆U ).

Iso(volu)metric/Isochoric Process:
An isometric process, also known as an isovolumetric, isovolumic or an isochoric process, is
a constant-volume process.
The process path on a pV diagram is along a vertical line, commonly called an isomet.
No work is done ( W = p∆V = 0 , since ∆V = 0 ), so all the added heat goes into increasing
the internal energy, and therefore the temperature, of the gas.
By the first law of thermodynamics:
Q = ∆U (isometric process)
since W = 0 .

Isothermal Process:
An isothermal process is a constant-temperature process.
The process path is along an isotherm, or a line of constant temperature.
Since
pV = Nk BT = constant

89
 for an isothermal process, an isotherm is a hyperbola on a pV diagram (the general form
of the equation for a hyperbola is yx = a ).
In going from state 1 to state 2, heat is added to the system, and both the pressure and volume
change in order to keep the temperature constant (pressure decreases and volume increases).
The work done by the expanding system ( +W ) is again equal to the area under the process
path.
For an isothermal process, the internal energy of the ideal gas remains constant ( ∆U = 0 ),
because the temperature is constant.
By the first law:
Q =W (isothermal process)
since ∆U = 0 .
Thus, for an ideal gas an isothermal process is one in which heat energy is converted to
mechanical work (or vice versa for the reverse path).

Adiabatic Process:
An adiabatic process is another type of process in which a thermodynamic condition remains
constant; this time it is the heat that is transferred into or out of the system: Q = 0 (the Greek
word adiabatic means 'impassable').
The condition Q = 0 is satisfied for a thermally isolated system - this is an ideal/theoretical
situation, since there is always some heat transfer in actual system processes.
Processes that are nearly adiabatic can take place in systems that are not thermally isolated if
they occur rapidly enough that there isn't time for much energy to be transferred into or out of
the system.
On a pV diagram, the process follows a curve called an adiabat; along this curve, all three
thermodynamic coordinates change.
By the first law:
W = −∆U (adiabatic expansion)
since Q = 0 .
Thus, in an adiabatic expansion, work (the area under the process path) is done by the system
with a corresponding decrease in its internal energy. The decrease in internal energy is
evidenced by a decrease in temperature in going from state 1 to state 2.

3.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy

Objectives:
To be able to
state and explain the second law of thermodynamics
explain the concept of entropy

Everyone can think of examples of situations in which heat is transferred from a hot body to a
cooler one. But can the reverse process exist, in which heat is transferred from a cold body to
a hot one?
As long as the total energy of an isolated system remains constant, energy transfer from a hot
to a cold body does not violate the first law of thermodynamics.
Experience, however, tells us that such an energy transfer does not happen naturally.
There must be another principle, therefore, which is not expressed in the first law of
thermodynamics, and which tells us the direction in which a process can take place.
This principle is embodied in the second law of thermodynamics, which says that certain
processes do not take place, or have never been observed to take place, even though they are
consistent with the first law.
There are many equivalent statements of the second law, worded differently according to
their application. A few examples:

90
Heat will not flow spontaneously from a colder body to a warmer body.
Heat energy cannot be transformed completely into mechanical work.
It is impossible to construct an operational perpetual motion machine.5
The second statement applies in particular to heat engines.
If the third statement were not valid, then a perpetual motion machine could be built. Such a
machine could transform heat from a reservoir completely into work and motion (mechanical
energy), with no energy loss. The mechanical energy could then be transformed back into
heat and be used to reheat the reservoir (again with no loss). Since the process could be
repeated indefinitely, the machine would run perpetually. All of the energy is accounted for,
so this situation does not violate the first law. However, real machines are always less than
100% efficient, and work output is always less than energy input.
In general, the second law applies to all forms of energy. Thus far, no exception has been
found to it. For example, nobody has yet successfully constructed a perpetual motion
machine.
One convenient way of expressing the direction of a process is in terms of the temperature;
knowing the temperature difference between a system and its surroundings, you can state the
direction in which heat transfer will spontaneously take place ( +Q into the system; −Q out
of the system).
Entropy
A more general property that indicates the direction of a process was introduced by the
German physicist Rudolf Clausius (1822-8888).
The property is called entropy.
Entropy is a multifaceted concept, with diverse interpretations:
Entropy is a measure of a system's ability to do useful work. As a system loses the ability to
do work, its entropy increases.
Entropy is what determines the direction of time. It's 'time's arrow' that points out the
forward flow of events, thereby distinguishing the past from the future.
Entropy is a measure of disorder. A system naturally moves toward a state of greater
disorder. The more order, the less entropy.
Entropy is related to temperature and heat.
The change in entropy, ∆S , when an amount of heat Q is added to (or removed from) a
system by a reversible process at a constant temperature is given by
Q
∆S = (change in entropy at constant temperature)
T
where T is the temperature in kelvins.
The units of entropy are joules per kelvin: J/K.
In general, the direction of any process is toward an increase in entropy:
the entropy of an isolated system never decreases.
Another way to state this observation is to say that the entropy of an isolated system
increases for every natural process ( ∆S > 0 ).6
The entropy of a system is a function of its state: each state of a system has a particular value
of entropy, and a change in entropy depends only on the initial and final states for a process
(analogous to the change in internal energy for an ideal gas).

5
Perpetual motion machines are distinguished as being of the first kind or the second kind. A
perpetual machine of the first kind would violate the first law of thermodynamics, the law of
conservation of energy. In other words, energy could be created, or the machine would have efficiency
greater than 100%. A perpetual motion machine of the second kind would not create energy, but would
violate the second law, which specifies the direction of spontaneous heat flow. In this case, 100%
efficiency would be enough.
6
In this context, an unnatural process is one which has never been observed (water at room
temperature turning naturally into ice), and a natural process is one which is observed to occur.

91
An entropy change can be represented on a TS diagram.
Just as the area under a curve on a pV diagram for gas is equal to the work:
W = p∆V ,
the area under a TS curve is equal to the change in the heat energy:
Q = T ∆S .
Like work for a process with variable pressure, heat transferred in a process with variable
temperature is also equal to the area under the T − S curve.
An adiabatic process is a constant-entropy process, or an isentropic process, since Q = 0
for an adiabatic process and therefore
Q
∆S = =0 (adiabatic process).
T

3.4 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps

Objectives:
To be able to
explain what a heat engine is and compute its thermal efficiency
explain what a heat pump is and compute its coefficient of performance

A pV diagram can be used to represent the concept of a cycle.

The area enclosed by the closed path corresponding to the cycle is equal to the net work
(output or input) during each cycle.
This picture of a cycle suggests the following operation of an engine:
An engine is a device that converts some form of energy (electrical, gravitational, thermal,
chemical, etc.) into work.
More specifically,
A heat engine is a cyclic device that converts thermal energy ninto work output.
What is a heat engine?
A heat engine is any device that converts heat energy to work.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, perpetual motion machines are impossible,
and so some of the heat energy supplied to a heat engine will be lost.
Most of the turbines that generate electricity for daily use are heat engines, using heat from
various sources: the burning of chemical fuels (oil, gas, coal); nuclear reactions; geothermal
energy.
To study the thermodynamics of heat engines, there is no need to be concerned with
mechanical components such as pistons, cylinders and gears.
For theoretical purposes, a heat engine is simply a device that takes heat from a high-
temperature/hot reservoir, converts some of it to useful work, and transfers the rest to its
surroundings (a low-temperature/cold reservoir).
Since a continual output is usually wanted, practical heat engines usually operate in a cycle,
or a series of processes, which brings the engine or system back to its original condition.
Such cyclic heat engines include steam engines and internal combustion engines, such as car
engines.
One example is an idealized, rectangular thermodynamic cycle consisting of two isobars and
two isomets.
Thermal efficiency eth is a quantity used to rate heat engines, and is defined by
work out Wout
eth = = .
heat in Qin
The efficiency tells you "what you get out for what you put in."
For one cycle of a cyclic heat engine, the work output is
W = Qin − Qout ,

92
 or by the first law of thermodynamics:
Q = ∆U + W and Qin − Qout = 0 + W ,
where ∆U = 0 , since the system returns to its original state in completing a cycle.
Thus, with Qin = Qhot and Qout = Qcold , the thermal efficiency per cycle for a cyclic heat
engine is
W Qhot − Qcold Q
eth = = = 1 − cold .
Qin Qhot Qhot
In general, an engine is expected to have the same efficiency each cycle.
A heat engine could have 100% efficiency if Qcold were zero, but this would mean that no
heat energy would be lost and all the heat input would be converted to useful work. This is
impossible according to the second law of thermodynamics.
Thus, another form of the second law of thermodynamics (given by Lord Kelvin in 1851)
applied to heat engines is:
No heat engine operating in a cycle can convert its heat input completely to work.
Practically, to maximize the work output per cycle of a heat engine, it is necessary to
minimize the ratio
Qcold
,
Qhot
which in turn increases the efficiency.

What is a Heat Pump?

The function performed by a heat pump is basically the reverse of the of a heat engine.
A heat pump is a device that transfers heat energy from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-
temperature reservoir.
To do this, there must be work input, since according to the second law of thermodynamics
heat will not spontaneously flow from a cold body to a hot body.
An example of a heat pump is an air conditioner.
Another familiar example of a heat pump is a refrigerator:
With work input (from electrical energy), heat is transferred from inside the refrigerator (low-
temperature reservoir) to the surroundings (high-temperature reservoir).
The refrigerant, or heat-transferring medium, is a substance with a relatively low boiling
point: ammonia (boiling point −33.30 C at 1 atm), sulphur dioxide ( −10.10 C ) and Freon
( −29.80 C ) can be used as refrigerants. Freon is used in most domestic refrigerators (the
others tended to produce smells if there was a leak in the system).
It is convenient to think of the system as having high and low (temperature and pressure)
sides.
On the low side, heat is transferred to the evaporator coils from inside the refrigerator. The
heat causes the refrigerant to boil and it is carried away as latent heat of vaporisation. The
gaseous vapour is drawn into the compressor chamber on the down stroke of the piston and
compressed on the upstroke (work input by compressor motor). The compression increases
the temperature of the gas, which is discharged from the compressor as a superheated vapour
(on the high side). This vapour condenses in the cooler condenser unit, where circulating air
(or water in larger units) carries away the latent heat of condensation and the heat of
compression. The condensed liquid collects in a receiver.
An expansion valve maintains a balance between the high and low sides, thereby controlling
the rate at which the refrigerant passes back to the low side. On being admitted to the low
side, the liquid immediately boils and vaporises because of the low pressure. This is a cooling
process because the heat of vaporisation is supplied by the internal energy of the liquid. The
cooled refrigerant is drawn into the evaporator, and the cycle begins again.

93
In essence, a refrigerator (or air conditioner) pumps heat up a temperature gradient or "hill."
(As an analogy, think of pumping water up an actual hill against the force of gravity.) The
cooling efficiency of this operation depends on the amount of heat extracted from the cold
temperature reservoir (the freezer compartment or the inside of a house), Qin = Qcold , and the
work W needed to do so. Since a practical refrigerator operates in a cycle to provide a
continuous removal of heat, ∆U = 0 for the cycle. Then, by the conservation of energy (or
first law), Qcold + W = Qhot , where Qout = Qhot is the heat ejected to the high temperature
reservoir or the outside.
The measure of a refrigerator or air conditioner's performance is defined differently from that
of a heat engine, because of the difference in their functions. For these appliances, the
efficiency is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance ( cop ).
Since the purpose is to extract the most heat ( Qcold ) per unit work input ( W ), the coefficient
of performance for a refrigerator (or air conditioner), copref , is expressed as their ratio:
Qin Qcold
copref = = (for refrigerator or air conditioner)
W Qhot − Qcold
where the conservation relationship given above was used to express the work in terms of
heat.
Thus, the greater the cop , the better performance: more out for what you put in.
For normal refrigerator operation, the work input is less than the heat removed, so the cop is
greater than 1. The cop 's of typical refrigerator cycles range from 3 to 5, depending on
operating conditions. This means that the heat removed from the cold reservoir (the
refrigerator freezer or the inside of a house) is 3-5 times the work needed to remove it.
Refrigerators and air conditioners are generically referred to as heat pumps because they
basically "pump" heat uphill. However, the term heat pump is now more specifically applied
to the common commercial devices used to cool homes and offices in the summer and to heat
them in the winter. The summer operation is that of an air conditioner, as described above.
That is, in this mode it cools the inside (of a house) and heats the outdoors. Operating in the
heating mode, a heat pump heats the inside and cools the outdoors, usually by taking heat
from the air. This may seem hard to believe, as it may be quite cold outside. However, keep
in mind that the air has internal energy regardless of its temperature.
For a heat pump in the heating mode, the heat input is the major interest, so the cop is
defined differently from that of a refrigerator or air conditioner.
It is the ratio of Qout to W (what you get out for what you put in):
Qout Qhot
cophp = = (for heat pump in heating mode)
W Qhot − Qcold
where again Qcold + W = Qhot . Typical cop 's for heat pumps range between 2 and 4,
depending on operating conditions.
Compared to electrical heating, heat pumps are efficient.
For each kilowatt-hour of electricity consumed, a heat pump typically provides ("pumps in")
from one and one-half to three times as much heat as electrical baseboard units. However, if
the outside temperature is very low, a heat pump may not be efficient enough to heat a
building adequately.
Then it must be supplemented by some conventional heating system, such as an electrical
one. Some heat pumps use water from underground reservoirs, wells or in buried loops of
pipe as a heat source and sink.
These are more efficient than the ones that use the outside air because water has a larger
specific heat than air, and the average temperature difference between the water and the
inside air is smaller.

94
The Second Law Revisited
As a reminder, one formulation of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed as follows:
Heat flows naturally from a region at high temperature to a region at low temperature. By
itself, heat will not flow from a cold to a hot body.
Kelvin proposed the following statement of the second law of thermodynamics, which is
particularly appropriate for heat engines:
No process is possible for which the sole result is the removal of heat from a source and
its complete transformation into work.
This statement implies that
It is impossible to produce a cyclic engine that will generate work by extracting heat from a
reservoir without expelling some waste heat to a lower-temperature sink.
An anti-Kelvin device, which could continuously do work extracting thermal energy from a
single reservoir with no concern about temperature gradients, is a so-called perpetual motion
machine of the second kind. Although such a device would not violate the first law, it would
violate the second. It could not create energy, but it could produce ordered work out of
disordered heat (and thus allow us to tap the vast low-temperature sources of the atmosphere
and ocean).
Clausius proposed an alternative statement of the second law of thermodynamics, which
states something about the natural direction of the flow of heat and is particularly appropriate
for heat pumps:
No process is possible in which the sole result is the transfer of a given amount of thermal
energy from a body at low temperature to a body at a higher temperature.
The Kelvin and Clausius statements of the second law are equivalent to each other; if one is
correct, the other must be correct too.
3.5 The Carnot Cycle and Ideal Heat Engines
Objectives:
To be able to
explain how the Carnot cycle applies to heat engines
compute the ideal Carnot efficiency
state the third law of thermodynamics.

Lord Kelvin's statement of the second law of thermodynamics says that any heat engine,
regardless of its design, will always lose some heat energy.
But how much heat must be lost? What is the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine?
In designing heat engines, engineers strive to make them as efficient as possible, but there
must be some theoretical limit and, according to the second law, it must be less than 100%.
Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), a French engineer, solved this problem.
The first thing Carnot considered was the thermodynamic cycle an ideal heat engine would
use, that is, the most efficient cycle.
A heat engine absorbs heat from a constant high-temperature reservoir and exhausts it to a
constant low-temperature reservoir. These are ideally reversible isothermal processes and
may be represented by two isotherms on a pV diagram.
But what are the processes that complete the cycle and make it the most efficient cycle?
Carnot showed that these are reversible adiabatic processes (adiabats when represented on a
pV diagram).
Thus, the ideal Carnot cycle consists of two isotherms and two adiabats and is conveniently
represented on a TS diagram, where it forms a rectangle.
The area under the upper isotherm (1-2) is the heat added to the system from the high-
temperature reservoir:
Qin = Qhot = Thot ∆S .

95
Similarly, the area under the lower isotherm (3-4) is the heat exhausted:
Qout = Qcold = Tcold ∆S .
Qin and Qout are heat transfers at constant temperatures ( Thot and Tcold ).
The difference between these is the work output, which is equal to the area of the rectangle
enclosed by the processes:
W = Q = Qhot − Qcold = (Thot − Tcold ) ∆S .
There is no heat transfer ( Q = 0 ) in the adiabatic legs of the cycle. (Why?)
Since ∆S is the same for the areas under both isotherms, these expressions can be used to
relate the temperatures and heats:
Qhot Qcold Qhot T
= or = hot
Thot Tcold Qcold Tcold
since
Qhot = Thot ∆S and Qcold = Tcold ∆S .
This result can be used to express the efficiency of an ideal heat engine in terms of
temperature:
The ideal Carnot efficiency ( eC ) is
Qcold T
eC = 1 − = 1 − cold
Qhot Thot
(the fractional efficiency is often expressed as a percentage; note that the temperatures are
measured in kelvins).
The Carnot efficiency expresses the theoretical upper limit on thermodynamic efficiency for
a cyclic heat engine, which can never be achieved. It corresponds to the theoretical
mechanical advantage for a simple machine.
A true Carnot engine cannot be built because the necessary reversible processes can only be
approximated.
Although reversible adiabatic processes can be approached, reversible isothermal processes
are virtually impossible to approximate during the heat transfer processes in a real engine.
The Carnot efficiency shows that the greater the difference in the temperatures of the heat
reservoirs, the greater the efficiency.
For example, if Thot = 2Tcold , the Carnot efficiency will be
Tcold
eC = 1 − = 50%.
Thot
But if Thot = 4Tcold , then
T
eC = 1 − cold = 75%.
Thot
Finally, note that Carnot cop 's (coefficient of performances) can also be defined for
refrigerators and heat pumps.
The Third Law of Thermodynamic
Another interesting conclusion can be drawn from the expression for the Carnot efficiency:
To have eC equal to 100%, Tcold would have to be (absolute) zero.
Since a heat engine with 100% efficiency is impossible by the second law, we have the so-
called third law of thermodynamics:
It is impossible to reach a temperature of absolute zero.
Absolute zero has never been observed experimentally; if it were, this would in effect violate
the second law.

96
In cryogenic (low-temperature) experiments, scientists have come close to absolute zero -
down to about 20 nK ( 2 × 10 −8 K ) - but have never reached it. Near absolute zero, reducing
the temperature by an order of magnitude becomes more difficult at each step.
How are such low temperatures reached?
There are two methods:
One method uses laser light to slow a beam of atoms. The light exerts a small force in the
form of radiation pressure, probably best known for its role in the formation of comet tails.
Here, the radiation pressure acts as a retarding force. Since temperature is related to average
kinetic energy, it follows that reducing the speed of the atoms lowers the temperature. The
beam of slowed atoms is then passed through the convergence point of four laser beams. The
bombarded atoms absorb light, and re-emit it at a higher frequency or energy. Consequently,
the atoms steadily lose energy; and as the power of the lasers is progressively lowered, the
temperature of the atoms drops to a minimum.
The second method uses a magnetic "trap." A magnetic field is used to trap a large number of
ionised atoms in a small volume (magnetic confinement). As the magnetic field is gradually
reduced, the fastest (or hottest) atoms escape the trap, leaving behind the slower (or colder)
atoms. This is similar to an evaporative cooling process. In this way, the temperature of the
gaseous atoms is steadily lowered.
For both techniques, the temperature is determined by optical methods that measure the
average atomic speed, and hence the average kinetic energy and temperature.

Summary of Key Expressions.

1 ∆l
α= .
l ∆T
• T = Tc + 273.15
• Q = C ∆T = mc∆T
• Q=mL
dQ dT
• = − kA
dt dx

EXAMPLES
E.1 Convert the following values to Kelvin, K. (a) 700 C (b) - 400 C
Solutions
(a) T = θ + 273 ⇒ T = 70 + 273 = 343 K
(b) T = θ + 273 ⇒ T = - 40 + 273 = 233K

E.2 Given that mercury in glass thermometer has a mercury thread of lengths 2cm and 10 cm at
the ice and steam points respectively, calculate the temperature at a length of 6cm.

Solution
θ/100 = (lθ – l0 )/(l100 – l0) = (6 – 2) / (10 – 2) = ½ ⇒ θ = 500C

PROBLEMS
1. Explain the term linear expansivity
2. Sketch a graph of volume against temperature in 0C of water between –30C and 200C.
3. State the factors, which affect the sensitivity of a mercury thermometer. Define the term
supercooling.

97
4. A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 4Ω at the ice point, 6.78Ω at steam
point and 5.8Ω when immersed in boiling liquid. Calculate the temperature at which the liquid
is boiling.
5. Define the following terms
(a) Conduction, Convection, Radiation and black body
(b) Specific heat capacity
(c) Specific latent heat of fusion
(d) Specific latent heat of vaporization
(e) Steady state
(f) Coefficient of thermal conductivity
(g) Green house effect
6. Describe how a refrigerator works.
7. Calculate the fractional change in the volume of aluminum bar that undergoes a change in
temperature of 300C.
8. Why can you get a more severe burn at 1000C than from water at 1000C?
9. Pioneers stored fruits and vegetables in underground cellars. Discuss as fully as possible this
choice for a storage site.
10. If you hold water in a paper cup over a flame, you can boil without burning the cup. How
possible is it?
11. What is the final equilibrium temperature when 20g of milk at 100c is added to 150g of coffee
at 900c? (Assume the heat capacities of the two liquids are the same as that of water, and
neglect the heat capacity of the container.)
12. If 100g of water is contained in a 300g aluminium vessel at 200c and an additional 200g of
water at 1000c is poured into the container, what is the final equilibrium temperature of the
system?
13. The surface of the sun has a temperature of about 5800k. Taking the radius of then sun to be
equal to 6.96 x 108m, calculate the total power radiated by the sun.(Assume e=1.)
14. A bar of copper is in thermal contact with a bar of aluminium of the same length and area
(Fig.20.13). One end of the compound bar is maintained at 900c while the opposite end is at
200c. When the heat flow reaches steady state, find the temperature.

PHY 110
Handout V(b)

WAVES AND VIBRATIONS.

Wave motion is a means of transferring energy from one point to another without there being any
transfer of matter between the points. Waves are classified into two categories:
(a) Mechanical (matter) waves e.g water waves, sound waves, waves in stretched strings e.t.c.
(b) Electromagnetic waves e.g light, radio, X-rays etc.
The two categories of waves have similar properties e.g. reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference.

Differences Between Oscillations and Waves.

• An oscillation is confined to a body while a wave extends through space.
• A wave is a means by which energy is transferred from one place to another while an oscillation is
a means by which energy can be stored in a confined mass.
• Any oscillation can be resolved into a number of simple harmonic motions of different amplitudes
and frequencies. While a wave can be resolved into a continuous set of oscillations in the medium.

Waves and their characteristics.

98
A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of the wave velocity e.g. a wave in a string. Longitudinal waves are waves for which the
particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of the wave velocity e.g. sound
waves. Any one-dimensional wave travelling in a speed v in the positive X-direction can be represented
by a wave function of the form y = f(x - vt). Likewise a wave travelling in the negative X-direction can
be represented by a wave function of the form y = f(x + vt). The shape of the wave at any instant is
obtained by holding t constant.

The superposition principle says that when two or more linear waves move through a medium, the
resultant wave function equals the algebraic sum of the individual wave functions. Waves that obey
this principle are said to be linear. When two waves combine in space, they interfere to produce a
resultant wave. The interference may be constructive (when the individual displacements are in the
same direction) or destructive (when the individual displacements are in the opposite). The speed of a
F
wave travelling on a stretched string of mass per unit length µ and tension F isν = . When a pulse
µ
travelling on a string meets a fixed end, the pulse is reflected and inverted. If the pulse reaches a free
end, it is reflected but not inverted. The wave function for a one dimensional harmonic wave travelling
to the right can be expressed as y = A Sin[(2π/λ)(x - vt)] = A Sin(kx -ωt), where A is the amplitude, λ is
the wavelength, k is the wave number and ω is the angular frequency. If T is the period and f is the
v=λ k = 2π ω = 2π T = 2πf
T,
frequency then, and . The power transmitted wave
λ
1
by a harmonic on a stretched is given by P= µω 2 A 2 v. The wave function y(x,t) for many kinds of
2
∂ y 1 ∂2 y
2
waves satisfy the following linear equation = . .
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

PHY 110
Handout V(c)
SOUND
The speed at which sound flows through a medium depends on the elasticity of the medium and its
density. The elasticity of a gas depends on the pressure. The speed of sound in a structured solid such as
wood or a single crystal depends on the direction the sound takes. Sound waves spreading out from a
small source are weakened according to the law of inverse squares, which states that the power
transferred per unit area is reduced to one quarter if we double the distance.

Sound waves are longitudinal in nature and travel through a compressible medium with a speed that
depends on the compressibility and inertia of that medium. The speed of sound in a medium of
B
compressibility B and density ρ is v = . In the case of harmonic sound waves, the variation in
ρ
pressure from the equilibrium value is given by ∆P = ∆Pm Sin(kx − ωt ) , where ∆Pm is the pressure
amplitude.
Ultrasonics and its Applications

In most applications, ultrasonic waves are generated by applying an electric current to a special kind of
crystal known as a piezoelectric crystal. The crystal converts electrical energy into mechanical energy,
which, in turn, causes the crystal to vibrate at a high frequency. In another technique, a magnetic field is
applied to a crystal, causing it to emit ultrasonic waves. There are numerous practical applications for
ultrasonics. The first widespread use is in underwater exploration. Ultrasonic waves proved to be an

99
excellent method for determining the depth of water. Ultrasonics also are used to map the shape of lake
and ocean floors. Submarines use ultrasonic waves to maintain secret contact with each other.

In industry, ultrasonic waves have been used in the testing of machinery and machine parts. Using a
narrow beam of ultrasound, engineers can look inside metal parts in much the same way that doctors
use X rays to examine the human body. With ultrasonic technology, flaws in machinery can be detected
and repaired without having to take them apart.

Similar ultrasonic methods have been used to diagnose problems in the human body. As an ultrasonic
beam passes through the body, it encounters different types of tissue such as flesh, bone, and organs.
Each type of tissue causes the ultrasonic beam to reflect in a different way. By studying these
reflections, physicians can accurately map the interior of the body. Unlike X rays, there is no risk of
harmful overexposure with ultrasonics. Therefore, they have become a useful alternative to X rays for
diagnosis and are often used on sensitive organs, such as kidneys, as well as to monitor the progress of
pregnancies.

Because they can vibrate the particles through which they pass, ultrasonic waves are often used to
shake, or even destroy, certain materials. An example of this procedure is ultrasonic emulsification. In
this technique, two liquids that normally do not mix with each other (such as oil and water) are made to
vibrate until they are blended. This technique is also used to remove air bubbles from molten metals
before casting so that the finished piece will be free of cavities. Doctors use ultrasound to break up
kidney stones and gallstones, thus avoiding invasive (cutting through the skin with a knife) surgery.

Ultrasonic vibration also can be used to kill bacteria in milk and other liquids. Some inventors are
attempting to perfect an "ultrasonic laundry," using high-frequency vibrations to shake dirt and other
particles out of clothing

PROBLEMS
1. Define the following terms
(a) Wave motion, Transverse wave, longitudinal wave, Stationary wave
(b) Amplitude, Wavelength, Frequency, Wavefront, A progressive wave
2. Do the phenomena of wave interference apply only to harmonic motion? When two waves
interfere constructively or destructively, is there any gain or loss in energy? Explain
3. Explain why your voice seems to sound better than usual when you sing in the shower.
4. The equation of a transverse progressive simple harmonic wave moving in the positive
direction of x may be expressed in the form y = a Sin2π(bt – cx) where t represents time.
Justify this equation and explain the significance of the constants a, b, c, and the ratio b/c
5. Two harmonic waves are described by y1 = 5 Sin [π(4x – 1200t)] and y2 = 5 Sin [π(4x – 1200t
– 0.25)] where x, y1, and y2 are in m and t is in s. (a) What is the amplitude of the resultant
wave? (b) What is the frequency of the resultant wave?
6. A bus travelling towards a stage with a speed of 20ms-1 hoots and a note of frequency 80Hz. is
produced. Calculate the apparent frequency of the echo heard by the driver. Speed of sound in
air is 330m/s.
7. Given that the speed of sound in air is 330m/s, calculate the frequency of the second Overtone
of a closed pipe whose length is 1.2m.
8. Describe an experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air using a resonance tube and
several forks of known frequency. Sketch the graph you would expect to obtain. How would
you determine the velocity of sound from the graph?

100