Chapter 2.

Mathematical Methods
Certain mathematical tools are required to understand Physics.
Vector analysis and elementary calculus are two among these.
Different physical quantities can be classified into the following two categories:

Scalars: Scalar quantities are those quantities which require only the magnitude for their complete
specifications. Physical quantities which can be completely specified by a number and unit, and therefore
have the magnitude only, are scalars. Some physical quantities which are scalar are mass, length, time,
energy, volume, density, temperature, electric charge, electric potential etc. These examples obey the
algebraic law of addition. 

Vectors: Vector quantities are those quantities which require magnitude as well as direction for their
complete specifications. Vectors are physical quantities, which besides having both magnitude and
direction also obey the law of geometrical addition. (The law of geometrical addition, i.e. the law of
triangular addition and law of parallelogram are discussed later in this chapter). Some physical quantities,
which are vectors are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric intensity, magnetic intensity,
magnetic moment etc. Vector quantities cannot, in general, be added in algebraically.

Different types of vectors:

1. Null Vectors: A vector having zero magnitude an arbitrary direction is called zero vector or ‘null
vector’ and is written as = O vector. The initial point and the end point of such a vector coincide so that
its direction is indeterminate. The concept of null vector is hypothetical but we introduce it only to
explain some mathematical results. 
Properties of a Null Vector
(a) It has zero magnitude.
(b) It has arbitrary direction
(c) It is represented by a point.

Page 1 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

(d) When a null vector is added or subtracted from a given vector the resultant vector is same as the given
vector.
(e) Dot product of a null vector with any vector is always zero.
(f) Cross product of a null vector with any vector is also a null vector.

2. Resultant vector: The resultant of two or more vectors is that single vector, which produces the same
effect, as produced by all the vectors together.

3. Negative Vectors: Two vectors which have same magnitude (length) but

their direction is opposite to each, other called the negative vectors of each
other. In figure above vectors A and C or B and C are negative vectors. 

4. Equal Vectors: Two or more, vectors are equal if they have the same
magnitude (length) and direction, whatever their initial points. In the figure
above, the vectors A and B are equal. 

5. Position vector: A vector which gives the position of a particle at a point

with respect to the origin of a chosen coordinate system is called the position
vector of the particle. r⃗ =⃗
OP is the position vector of the particle present at P.

6. Unit Vectors: A unit vector is a vector having a magnitude of unity. Its

only purpose is to describe a direction in space. On x-y co-ordinate system
 denote unit vector in positive x direction and   denotes unit vector in

positive y direction.                           

Any vector in x – y plane can be represented in terms of these unit vectors   
and  . 
Similarly, any vector in a 3-dimensional x y z space can be represented in
terms of unit vectors  ,   and  . Here,   is the unit vector in the positive z direction, as shown in figure
above. 
7. Collinear vectors: Vectors having a common line of action are
called collinear vectors. There are two types of collinear vectors. One
is parallel vector and another is anti-parallel vector.

8. Parallel Vectors: Two or more vectors (which may have different magnitudes)

are said to be parallel (θ = 0°) when they are parallel to the same line. In the figure

below, the vectors   and  are parallel. 

Page 2 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

9. Anti-Parallel Vectors: Two or more vectors (which may have different magnitudes) acting along

opposite direction are called anti-parallel vectors. In the figure below, the vectors   and  are anti
parallel vectors. 

Vector Operations:

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar:

Pby a scalar quantity, say s, yields another vector. Let us write ⃗

Multiplying a vector ⃗ Q=s ⃗
P

Q will be a vector whose direction is the same as that of ⃗

⃗ P and magnitude is s times the magnitude of ⃗
P.

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors:

Scalar quantities can be added algebraically. for example, 4 kg of sugar and 3 kg of sugar, when
combined together in any way, always give 7 kg of sugar. This is not always there in case of vectors,
since they possess directions, also, in addition to the magnitudes.

Following are some points regarding vector addition:

(a) Addition or composition of vectors means finding the resultant of a

number of vectors acting on a body.

(b) The vectors can be added geometrically and not algebraically.

(c) Vectors, whose resultant is to be calculated behave independent of each

other. In other words, each vector behaves as if the other vectors were
absent.

(d) Vector addition is commutative.

So,  

It means that the law of addition of vectors is independent of the order of vectors.

Graphical Representation of Vector Addition:            

To find   , shift vector   such that its initial point

coincides with the terminal point of vector  .

Now, the vector whose initial point coincides with the initial

point of vector   , and terminal point coincides with the terminal

Page 3 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

point of vector    represents   as shown in the above figure. 

To find  , shift   such that its initial point coincides with the terminal point  . A vector whose

initial point coincides with the initial point of   and terminal point coincides with the terminal point

of   represents  .                

Vector Subtraction:

The process of subtracting one vector from another is equivalent to

adding, vectorially, the negative of the vector to be subtracted. Suppose

there are two vectors   and  , shown in figure (A) and we have to

subtract   and  . It is just the same thing as adding vectors –   to  .

The resultant is shown in figure (B).                           
                                          

                                                
Properties of Vector Addition:-  Vector addition obeys the following
properties.

1. Vector addition is commutative: It means that the order of vectors to be

added together does not affect the result of addition. If two vectors   and   
are to be added together, then

                 
 2. Vector addition is associative: While adding three or more vectors together,
the mutual grouping of vector does not affect the result.
Mathematically,

3. Vector addition is distributive: It means a scalar time the sum of two vectors is equal to the sum of
the scalar times of the two vectors, individually. Mathematically,

Geometrical Representation of Addition of Vectors:

                               

Magnitude and direction of  :-

Let angle between vector   and   be θ.

Page 4 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

In the figure vector ( ) = vector   , vector ( ) = vector 
From Δ ADB,

                                 AD = b cos θ
                                  BD = b sin θ

                           
In right angled ΔODB,
                      OD = a + b cosθ
                     BD = b sin θ

                    Therefore, OB = √(OD2+BD2 )
                    => |a +b |=√(a2+b2+2ab cos θ)
                   |a +b |max   =  a+b   when θ = 2nπ

                   |a +b |min   =  |a – b|   when θ = (2n + 1)π

                                       (where n = 0, 1, 2, …..)
If a + b  is inclined at an angle α with vector a , then
tan α = ((b sin θ)/(a+b cosθ))

Triangle’s Law of Vector Addition:

It is a law for the addition of two vectors. It can be stated as follows:

“If two vectors are represented (in magnitude and direction) by the
two sides of a triangle, taken in the same order, then their resultant
in represented (in magnitude and direction) by the third side of the
triangle taken in opposite order.”

Consider two vectors   and   [Below Figure] acting, simultaneously,

on a body. Represent vector   by the line  . At A draw another line   representing  . Join OC.

Then   (= ) gives the resultant of    and  . It can be noted that    and   are in same order

while   is in opposite order. This is in accordance with the triangle’s law.

So,   = 

         =   + 
Page 5 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS
 B +⃗
        = ⃗ A

It is, further, clear that the order of vectors in vector addition is immaterial. So, vector addition is
commutative. 

If θ is the angle between   and  , then the magnitude of the resultant vector   will be,

R = √ ( A 2+ B2 )+ 2 AB cos θ and if  is the angle between   and   then,

 = tan
−1
( B+AAsinθ
cos θ )

If three vectors acting, simultaneously, on a particle can be represented by the three sides of a triangle
taken in the same order, then the particle will remain in equilibrium. 

Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows:

Law of Parallelogram of Vectors

The addition of two vectors may also be understood by the law of parallelogram. It states that “if two
vectors acting simultaneously at a point are represented in
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram
drawn from a point, their resultant is given in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing
through that point.”

According to this law if two vectors   and    are

represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram both

pointing outwards as shown in the figure below , then the

diagonal drawn through the intersection of the two vectors represents the resultant (i.e. vector sum of   

and   ). If Q is displacement from position AD to BC by displacing it parallel to itself, this method

becomes equivalent to the triangle method.                            
In case of addition of two vectors by parallelogram method as shown in figure, the magnitude of resultant
will be given by,    (AC)2 = (AE)2 + (EC)2 
                               or R2 = (P + Q cos θ)2 (Q sin θ)2

                           Or   R=√ P2 +Q 2 +2 PQ cos θ  

Page 6 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

 CE Q sin θ
And the direction of resultant from vector P will be given by tan α= =
AE P+Q cos θ

−1 Q sin θ
                                 α =tan   
P+Q cos θ

Special Cases

(a) When θ = 0°, cos 0° = 1, sin 0° = 0

Substituting for cos θ in equation  R=√ P2 +Q 2 +2 PQ cos θ , we get,

R=√ P2 +Q2 +2 PQ cos 0   

R=√ P2 +Q 2

or R = P + Q (maximum)

−1 Q sin θ
Substituting for sin θ and cos θ in equation α =tan , we get,
P+Q cos θ

Q sin 0
α =tan−1  
P+Q cos 0

−1 QX0
 α =tan  
P+Q

= tan-1(0) = 0°

The resultant of two vectors acting in the same directions is equal to the sum of the two. The direction of
resultant coincides with those of the two vectors.

(b) When θ = 180°, cos 180° = -1, sin 180° = 0

Substituting for cos θ in equation  R=√ P2 +Q2 +2 PQ cos θ  , we get,

R=√ P2 +Q 2 +2 PQ cos 0  

  ¿ √ P2+ Q2−2 PQ

   ¿ √( P−Q)2 (minimum)

R = P – Q (minimum)

Page 7 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

 −1 Q sin θ
Substituting for sin 1800 and cos 1800 in equation  α =tan , we get,
P+Q cos θ

Q sin 180 −1 QX0

α =tan−1    =  tan   = tan-1(0) = 0°
P+Q cos 180 P+Q(−1)

This magnitude of the resultant of two vectors acting in opposite direction is equal to the difference of
magnitudes of the two and represents the minimum value. The direction of the resultant is in the direction
of the bigger one.

 (c) When θ = 90°, cos 90° = 0, sin 90° = 1

Substituting for cos θ in equation  R=√ P2 +Q2 +2 PQ cos θ  , we get,

R ¿ √ P2+ Q 2−2 PQ (0)

   ¿ √ P2+ Q 2

−1 Q sin θ
Substituting for sin 900 and cos 900 in equation  α =tan , we get,
P+Q cos θ

Q sin 90 −1 Q X 1 Q
α =tan−1    =  tan   = tan-1( )
P+Q cos 90 P+Q(0) P

The resultant of two vectors acting at right angles to each other is equal to the square root of the sum of
the squares of the magnitudes of the two vectors. Direction of the resultant depends upon their relative
magnitudes. 

Resolution of vectors:

A vector can be written as a sum of two or more vectors along certain fixed directions.

V =V 1 α^ +V 2 β^ +V 3 γ^ ……………………………………(1)
V can be written as ⃗
Thus a vector ⃗

where α^ , β^, γ^ are unit vectors along chosen directions. V1, V2 and V3 are known as components of V

along the three directions α^ , β^, γ^ .

The process of splitting a given vector into its components is called

resolution of the vector. The components can be found along directions at
any required angles, but if these components are found along the directions
which are mutually perpendicular, they are called rectangular components.

Let us see how to find rectangular components in two dimensions.

Page 8 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS
 R =⃗
Consider a vector ⃗ OC, originating from the origin of a rectangular co-ordinate system as shown in
Fig.

Drop perpendiculars from C that meet the x-axis at A and y-axis of at B.

OA= ⃗
⃗ R x ∧⃗
OB=⃗
Ry ; ⃗
R x and ⃗
R y , being the components of ⃗
OC along the x and y axes, respectively.

Then by the law of parallelogram of vectors,

R =⃗
⃗ R x +⃗
R y ……………………………...(2)

^ R y ^j ……………………………(3)
R =R x i+
⃗

where i^ and ^j are unit vectors along the x and y axes respectively, and Rx and Ry are the magnitudes of the
R.
two components of ⃗

Rx
Let  be the angle made by ⃗
R with the x-axis, then cos θ=
R

 R x =R cos θ ……………………………(4)

Ry
sin θ=
R

 R y =R sin θ ……………………………(5)

Squaring and adding Eqs. (4) and (5), we get

R2 cos2 θ+ R2 sin2 θ=R2x + R 2y

R2=R 2x + R2y

Or, R=√ R 2x + R2y ………………………(6)

R.
Equation (6) gives the magnitude of ⃗

Ry
R , from Fig. tanθ=
To find the direction of ⃗
Rx

Ry
∴ θ=tan
−1
( )
Rx
………………………………..(7)

Rx , ⃗
Similarly, if ⃗ R y ∧⃗
R z are the rectangular components of R along the x, y and z axes of the rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system in three dimensions, then

Page 9 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

R =⃗
⃗ R x +⃗
R y +⃗
R z ¿ R x i+ R|=√ R2x + R2y + R2z ……………………….(8)
^ R y ^j+ R z ^k or, |⃗

If two vectors are equal, it means that their corresponding components are also equal and vice versa.

The vectors cannot be added algebraically, like scalar quantities. The angle between the two vectors
plays an important role in addition of vectors. Similarly, angle between two vectors plays an important
role when the two vectors are multiplied together.

Consider two quantities having magnitudes ‘3’ and ‘2’ respectively. If the quantities are scalars then then
the result of their multiplication cannot be anything other than 6. We are at liberty to express these
product as 3.2 = 6 or 3 2 = 6. If the two quantities are vector quantities, the result of their multiplication
can have any value lying in between -6 and +6. The result depends upon the angle between them.
Moreover, we are not free to put a dot (.) or a cross ( ) in between.

Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar:

Let vector a is multiplied by a scalar m. If m is a positive quantity, only magnitude of the vector will
change by a factor ‘m’ and its direction will remain same. If m is a negative quantity the direction of the
vector will be reversed. 

Multiplication of a Vector by a Vector:

There are two ways in which two vectors can be multiplied together. 

   (A) Dot Product or Scalar Product: The dot product of two vectors a and b is
defined as the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the smaller angle
between the two.

It is written by putting a dot (.) between two vectors. The result of this product
does not possess any direction. So, it is a scalar quantity. Hence it is also called a scalar product.

 = | | | | cosθ = ab cosθ 

where a and b are the magnitudes of the respective vectors and θ

is the angle between them. The final product is a scalar quantity. If two vectors are mutually
perpendicular then θ = 900 and cos 900 = 0, Hence, their dot product is zero.

Some Examples of Dot Product:

Work (W): Work is the dot product of the force ( ) and displacement ( ). Work is scalar quantity.

W =   = Fs cosθ
Page 10 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS
Power (P): Power is the dot product of force ( ) and velocity ( ). Power is also a scalar quantity.

P =                              
Characteristics of Dot Product: Dot product of two vectors obeys the following characteristics.
(i) Commutative: Dot product between two vectors is commutative in nature.

If   and   are two vectors, then, 

It means that the order of vectors in the product can be changed without affecting the result.

(ii) Distributive: Dot product of vector with the sum of a number of other vectors is equal to the sum of
the dot products of the vector taken with other vectors separately.

Mathematically, it can be expressed as

(iii) Dot product in terms of rectangular component: Here, 

(iv) Perpendicular vectors: For two perpendicular vectors   and  , θ = 90º.

 = | | | | cos θ = ab cos 90º = 0

Thus, the product of two non-zero vectors, which are perpendicular to each other, is always zero. This
statement is known as condition of perpendicularity.

(v) Collinear vectors:

(a) Parallel vectors: In this case, θ = 0º, So,   = | | | | cos θ = ab cos 0º = ab

(b) Anti-parallel vectors: In this case,  θ = 180º,  = | | | | cos θ = ab cos 180º = -ab

Therefore, the dot product of collinear vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes. It is positive if
they are parallel and negative if they are anti-parallel. The statement is called condition of co-linearity.

(vi) Equal vectors: Vectors are equal if they possess same magnitude and . i⃗ ⃗j k
direction, i.e.,  θ = 0º So dot product of two equal vectors is given by  = |a|| i⃗ 1 0 0
2
a| cos0º = A
⃗j 0 1 0
Dot product two equal vectors is equal to the square of the magnitude of the
k⃗ 0 0 1
either.

Page 11 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

Thus, 

(B) Cross Product or Vector Product: Cross product of two vectors   

and   is defined as a single vector   whose magnitude is equal to the

product of their individual magnitudes and the sine of the smaller angle

between them and is directed along the normal to the plane containing   

and  .

x  =   = ab sinθ

Here   is the unit vector in a direction perpendicular to the plane

containing   and  .

Cross product of two vectors being a vector quantity is also known as vector
product.                           
To specify the sense of the vector c, refer to the figure given below.                     
Imagine rotating a right hand screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane
formed by vectors a and b so as to turn it from vectors a to b trough the angle θ
between them. Then the direction of advancement of the screw gives the

direction of the vector product vectors   and  . 

Some Examples of Cross Product:

Angular momentum ( ): Angular momentum  ( ) which is the cross product of position vector ( )

and momentum ( ) is also a vector quantity.

 =  x

Characteristics of Cross Product

(i) Not commutative: Cross product of two vectors is not commutative in nature.

Thus,

(ii) Distributive: Cross product of  a vector with the sum of a number of vectors is equal to the sum of
cross product of the vector taken with other vectors separately.

Page 12 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

So, 

(iii) Collinear vectors:

(a) Parallel vectors: In this case, θ = 0º, sin θ = 0, So,  = a null vector

(b) Anti-parallel vectors: In this case, θ =180º, sin θ = 0,Thus, again,   = a null vector

Therefore, cross product of two linear vectors is always a null vector (zero magnitude). The statement is
known as condition of co-linearity.

(iv) Equal vectors: For equal vectors, θ = 0º, sin θ = 0, So,  = a null vector

(v) Perpendicular vectors: For perpendicular vectors, θ = 90º, sin θ = 1, So,  = ab

The magnitude of the cross product of two perpendicular vectors is equal to the product of their individual
magnitudes.

(vi) Orthogonal unit vectors: In case of orthogonal unit vectors,

                         

    

Introduction to Calculus: branches of science. Here we will learn the

basics of the two branches of calculus namely
Calculus is the study of continuous (not
differential and integral calculus.
discrete) changes in mathematical quantities.

This branch of mathematics was first developed

Differential Calculus:
by G.W Leibnitz and Sir Issacs Newton in the
Let us consider a function y = f(x). Here x
17th century and is extensively used in several
is called an independent variable and f(x) gives

Page 13 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

the value of y for
different values of x
and is the
dependent
variable.

Average rate of change of y with respect to x.

Standard Derivatives Formulae:

Page 14 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

Rules in Derivative:

Integral calculus

Integral calculus is the branch of

mathematics dealing with properties of integrals

and their applications. Physical interpretation of

integral of a function f(x), i.e., ∫ f ( x ) dx is the

area under the curve f(x) versus x. It is the

reverse process of differentiation as we will see
below.

We know how to find the area of a rectangle,

triangle etc. In Fig. (a) we have shown y which is
a function of x, A and B being two points on it.

Page 15 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

 (a): Area under a straight line.

(b): Area under a curve.

Integration

Indefinite Definite
Integration Integration
Add C Don’t add C

Standard Integration Formulae:

Page 16 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS

 Definite Integration:

Some Special Integration:

Page 17 of 17 Mathematical Methods H.S.C (XI) PHYSICS