CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Note : Vector quantities are shown in bold letters

1. Electric current and ohms law

(a) Current , motion of electron
(b) Ohm’s law in its microscopic and macroscopic form respectively
(c) Different types of resistors and their combinations ie. Series parallel and mixed combination
(d) Cell and different ways to group cells
2. Electrical circuits and measuring instruments
(a) Kirchoff laws
(b) Meter bridge
(c) Potentiometer
(d) Voltmeter and ammeter
3. Electrical energy and power

1. Electric current
Current is defined as rate of flow of electrons , if we are taking/considering uniform motion of electrons
then
𝑞
𝐼= ,
𝑡
𝑑𝑞
If the motion of charge is not uniform then , lim 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡→0
Direction of current
It is actually the electrons which moves. Under basic physics convention , that material flows from high
concentration to low concentration. But if we talk about electrons then they move from low potential to
high potential, to avert this exception we come up with a word current which is rate of flow of electrons
but assigned a direction high potential to low potential in order to maintain the conventional direction
Thus direction of current is from high Potential to low potential

Charge carriers in different materials

1. Metals →electrons
2. Liquids → ions ( both positive and negative )
3. Insulators → no free electrons , hence no conduction
4. Gases → ions
5. Semi-conductor →holes and electrons

Current density :

Current flowing per unit area of cross section is termed as current density
𝐼
𝑗=
𝐴
Or 𝐼 = 𝒋. 𝑨 = 𝒋𝑨𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽

Resistivity →
It is the inherent property of all materials. It denotes the presence of free electrons in the material and
also indicate the property allow or to resist the flow of current in a material.
On the basis of resistivity we have four types of materials
a. Conductors 𝜌 = 10-8 Ω𝑚
b. Alloys 10-8 < 𝜌 < 10-4
 c. Semi-conductors 10-4 < 𝜌 < 104
d. Insulators 𝜌 > 104
Higher the Value of resistivity more the material shifts towards being an insulator

Drift speed or drift velocity

In an isolated conductor the free electrons move randomly and collide with the cations.

Thus the electrons move in a zig zag path due to which the number of electrons crossing any cross-sectional

area in one direction is almost equal to the number of electrons crossing the same cross-section in the

opposite direction , thus the net flow of electrons is zero and no current flows in an isolated conductor

The cations are formed inside the conductor when a fast-moving electron knocks of the outermost electron

of the neutral atoms inside the conductor, thus making the atoms into a cation. The electrons then collide

with these cations repeatedly.

The speed of the electrons is due to the fact the every material is definitely at some temperature , we know

that no material can be at zero kelvin.

𝑓𝑘𝑡
In earlier classes we have studied that kinetic energy of any particle at microscopic level is . f being the
2

degree of freedom.

Due to this kinetic energy electrons have a velocity which is called thermal velocity.

If there are n electron and they have speeds as u1, u2 , u3 , u4 ….. and so on then the average velocity is zero as

net flow of electrons across any arbitrary cross- section is zero.

Thus mathematically we can write

𝐮𝟏 + 𝐮𝟐 + −− −−− 𝐮𝐧
=0
𝑛

Now when a potential difference is applied across the conductor , an electric field is set up across the length

of the conductor from high potential low potential

The electron under this electric field experience a force F =-eE and gets drifted in direction opposite to electric

field as shown in figure

+ 2
1
A A’
-
 Path 1 of electron is in the absence of potential difference and path 2 is when conductor is applied across a

potential difference

The extra displacement AA’ travelled by electron is due to the E.F, and this displacement per unit time is
called drift speed
𝐴𝐴′
Thus we can say that VD = 𝑡

Mathematical Expression of drift velocity :

As we know that electrons are under a constant acceleration due to the force due to electric field

F = -eE

ma = -eE
𝑒𝑬
a = -𝑚

As discussed above all electrons prior to application of Potential difference , have thermal velocity , u

Lets calculate the final velocity of electrons just before it undergoes collision

So , an electrons has just collided with a cation , has thermal velocity u1 . now we apply a potential difference

Let the electron travel some distance before it collides again, this time for which it travels between two

successive collisions is called the relaxation time

Hence we can write from newton’s first equation of motion

V1 = u1 + a𝜏1; similarly we can write this equation for second electron, third and so on

V2 = u2 + a𝜏2 ; V3 = u3 + a𝜏3 and so on

Now taking the average of all the accelerated velocities we get

𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + −− −−− 𝐕𝐧 𝐮𝟏 + 𝐮𝟐 + −− −−− 𝐮𝐧 τ1 + τ2 + −− −−− τn
𝒏
= 𝒏
+ 𝒂 𝑛

This term , which is the average of all final velocities just before collision is the drift velocity
𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + −− −−− 𝐕𝐧
VD= 𝒏
𝐮𝟏 + 𝐮𝟐 + −− −−− 𝐮𝐧 τ1 + τ2 + −− −−− τn
and we already know that 𝒏
= 0, the term 𝑛
== τ i.e, the average relaxation

time ,hence VD = a τ
τ
VD = -eE m

Note that the negative sign in the expression of drift velocity shows that the direction of electrons is
opposite to field
Relation between current and drift velocity :

A x
Let n be the number of free electrons in 1 m3 , in the figure above let there be a cylindrical volume of
length x and cross- sectional area A, then number of free electrons in volume Ax will be
N = nAx
So total charge at any instant in Ax volume will be Ne = nAxe
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝑛𝐴𝑥𝑒) (𝑛𝐴𝑒)𝑑𝑥
Then current is given as 𝐼 = = = = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑉 D
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

[remember the formula by the name naved]

Current density
𝑰 𝒏𝒆𝑨𝑽𝑫
j=𝑨 = = 𝒏𝒆VD --------------------------------------- (1)
𝑨

𝒆𝑬𝝉 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉𝑬
j = 𝒏𝒆 ቀ 𝒎 ቁ = 𝒎

Electron mobility:
The drift velocity attained per unit E.F denoted by 𝜇
𝑉𝐷 𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑒𝜏
𝜇= = 𝑚𝐸 =
𝐸 𝑚

We see that mobility is a function of only relaxation time , hence mobility is independent of E.F or
potential difference, it only varies with temperature
When temperature is increased, free electrons acquire higher K.E due to which they move faster and
Collision increases, and hence the relaxation time decreases, which results in the decrease of electron
Mobility
1
Thus 𝜇 ∝ 𝑇

Ohms law :
We have already proved that
I = nAeVD
𝑰
And current density j = 𝑨 = neVD----------------- (1)
𝑉𝐷
We also know that 𝜇 = ; note that the SI unit of electron mobility is m3/V-s
𝐸

VD = 𝝁𝑬 ------------------------------------------------(2)
From 1 and 2 we get
J = ne 𝝁𝑬 ---------------------------------------------- (3)
From 1
(𝒆𝑬𝝉) 𝒏𝑨𝒆𝟐 𝝉𝑬
I = neAVD = 𝒏𝒆𝑨 = ---------------------(4)
𝒎 𝒎

Let 𝑙 be the length of conductor , then E = V𝒍

 𝒏𝑨𝒆𝟐 𝝉𝑽𝒍
I= 𝒎

𝑰 𝒏𝑨𝒆𝟐 𝝉𝒍 1 𝐴 𝑚
= ------------- (5) ; as we know = (in class 10th ) on comparing we get 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2𝜏 ,
𝑽 𝒎 𝑅 𝜌𝑙

this expression is valid for any material

we see that for a given conductor the RHS of equation (5) is constant
Thus 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 this is the derivation of macroscopic and scalar form of ohm’s law
We have derived this macroscopic form of ohm’s law from its vector and microscopic form which
is given by equation (3)
Note : ohm’s law is not V ∝ 𝐼

Resistivity
From ohm’s law we have ,V = IR (for conductors and alloys)
𝜌𝑙
Putting V = E𝑙 , I = nAeVD and R = in ohms law , we get
𝐴
𝜌𝑙
E𝑙 = (nAeVD)x 𝐴
𝜏
Putting VD= eE𝑚 we get
𝜏 𝜌𝑙
E𝑙 = (nAe [eE𝑚])x 𝐴
𝜏
1 = (ne2𝑚)x 𝜌
𝒎
𝝆 = 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉

Explanation of variation of resistivity (nature of material ) with temperature

There are mainly four types of material viz.
(a) Metals
(b) Alloys
(c) Semi-conductor
(d) Insulator
The variation of resistivity 𝜌 with temperature is same for metals and alloys and same for
semiconductors and insulators , hence we are broadly going to discuss the variation of 𝜌 with
temperature for conductors and semiconductors
 Conductors (metals)
𝒎
We know that 𝝆 = for any material, here we see that resistivity is inversely proportional to number
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉

density of free electrons and also to relaxation time, so resistivity is inversely proportional to both the
parameters , hence to understand the variation we will have to see which one of the two n and 𝜏 are more
affected by temperature
In case of conductors the number density of free electrons is enormous, for example in case of copper its
1029 electrons (free) per 1m3. Now when you increase the temperature , a large number of collisions takes
place due to over-crowding of free e- , due to this rise in temperature few electrons get agitated and leave
their atoms as well and increase the number density, however the number of free electrons already present
are a lot, the increase is not much when compared to already present free electrons , on the other hand the
collisions are very high and thus we can say the factor by which the no. of collision increases dominates
over the factor by which number density increases , now if collisions increase, the relaxation time
decreases
and hence resistivity increases , as resistivity is inversely proportional to relaxation time
Thus we conclude that, as temperature increases, collisions increase , relaxation time decrease and
resistivity increases.
This can be shown by a curve in graph of 𝜌 vs temperature for conductors

(The curve at very low temperatures is not a straight line)

Semi-conductors
𝒎
Again we have a look at the relation 𝝆 = , in case of semi-conductors the number density of free electrons
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
(electrons which reside in conduction band are called free electrons ) is very low and, now when temperature
is increased , electrons get agitated and leave their covalent bonds and reach the conduction band and hence
number of free electrons increase , since even with this increase in number of free electrons , these are still
not enough to have very large number of collisions , hence the relaxation time does not decrease by a
considerable factor
Hence in case of semi-conductors the factor by which number density of free electrons increases dominates
over the factor by which relaxation time decreases , hence the net effect is of that of increase in the number
of free electrons due to which resistivity decreases, thus we conclude that when temperature increase
number density increases (relaxation time decreases , but mot much )and resistivity decreases
The variation of resistivity with temperature is shown in the graph below

𝐸𝑔
𝜌 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑜𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇

Resistance

It is the obstruction offered to the flow of electrons

Cause of resistance : when free electrons move to reach the positive end of the conductor , alloy or semiconductor,
it collides with the positive ions spread over the entire material carrying current (the positive ions are formed when
an electron knocks of the electron from the valence shell of the atom )

Factors affecting the resistance of an alloy or conductor

1. Length : if length is increases the number of collisions possible also increase and hence resistance increases
R∝L
2. Area of cross section : if the area of cross section increases , the number of collisions possible decrease as
electron have large area to move as compared to when area of cross is less , hence resistance decreases
1 1
R ∝ 𝐴 or R ∝ 𝑟2 in case the cross section is circular

Combining the two factors we get

𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴

𝜌𝐿
𝑅= 𝐴
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 is the resistivity of the material
Note :
If a wire is stretched n times then its length becomes nL and area reduces to A/n, as volume remains same
𝜌𝑛𝐿 𝑛2 𝜌𝐿
So the new resistance is given as 𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐴 = 𝐴
= 𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑛2 R
𝑛
 If the wire is folded on its self such that length becomes L/n the area becomes nA and new resistance would
be R/n2

3. Temperature : resistance increase with increase in temperature for an alloy or conductor

It increases linearly according to relation
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
EMF of cell