Superconductivity

Bart Raes, Raes.Bart@kuleuven.be

Summary first lecture
▪ Fundamental properties of Superconductivity
• Perfect Conductivity
• Perfect Diamagnetism
• Superconducting phase diagram,
• Type-I and Type-II superconductors

▪ Phenomenological theory of Superconductivity, the London Equations

• How do they explain basic properties of superconductivity
• Applications: 2 exercises

Second lecture
▪ Superconductivity a “macroscopic quantum effect”
• Macroscopic quantum model of superconductivity
• Manifestation I :Flux quantization
• Manifestation II: Introduction of the Josephson effect
- Application: the SQUID
- Effect finite size junction
• Exercise
 1
Superconductivity: Macroscopic Quantum Effect
• Review Quantum Mechanics
“All QM has to offer is statistical information about possible results”

The probability to find particle at time, 𝑡, in a volume, d3 r, around the

point, 𝑟,
Ԧ is given by:
+∞
𝑑 3 𝑃 = 𝜓 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 2 d3 r
Ԧ 𝑡 d3 r
= 𝜌 𝑟, Necessary: ‫׬‬−∞ 𝜓 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 2 d3 r =1
Max Born
Nobel prize 1954

Ԧ
𝜕𝜌 𝑟,𝑡
How does the probability density evolves in time? = −∇ ⋅ 𝐽Ԧ
𝜕𝑡

iℏ q
probability current: 𝐽Ԧ = 2𝑚 𝜓 ∇𝜓 ∗ − 𝜓 ∗ ∇𝜓 − 𝑚 𝜓 𝜓 ∗ 𝐴Ԧ

Important:

𝐽Ԧ is not a physical observable and has no relation to a physical current of particles!

 2
Superconductivity: Macroscopic Quantum Effect

Macroscopic quantum model of superconductivity (1948, London):

The complete entity of all superconducting electrons 𝑛𝑠 (identical particles) can be
described by a single complex macroscopic wave function (“coherent matter wave”)
Ԧ
𝜓 𝑟, Ԧ 𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝜓0 𝑟, 𝑟,𝑡

We prove this later: BCS theory

What with Born’s statistical interpretation?

𝑑 3 𝑃 = 𝜓 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 2 d3 r Ԧ 𝑡 d3 r ~probability of finding anyone of them at a given place
= 𝜌 𝑟,
2
~particle density! 𝜓 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 = 𝑛𝑠 (𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡)

Ԧ
𝜕𝜌 𝑟,𝑡
= −∇ ⋅ 𝐽Ԧ ~particle current and 𝑞𝑠 𝐽Ԧ =an electrical current density
𝜕𝑡

Important:
𝐽Ԧ is now a physical observable and has a relation to a physical current of the
superconducting electrons!
 3
Superconductivity: Macroscopic Quantum Effect
• The supercurrent expression in the macroscopic quantum model:
iℏ 𝑞𝑠
𝐽𝑠 = 𝑞𝑠 ∗ ∗
𝜓 ∇𝜓 − 𝜓 ∇𝜓 − 𝜓 𝜓 ∗ 𝐴Ԧ
2𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑠 𝜓 𝑟, Ԧ 𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝜓0 𝑟, Ԧ
𝑟,𝑡

𝜓 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 2 = 𝑛𝑠 (𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡)
ℏ 𝑞𝑠
𝐽𝑠 = 𝑛𝑠 𝑞𝑠 ∇𝜃 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 − 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 = 𝑛𝑠 𝑞𝑠 𝑣Ԧ𝑠
𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑠

ms 2
ℏ Λ= = 𝜇 𝜆
Λ 𝐽𝑠 = Ԧ 𝑡 − 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟,
∇𝜃 𝑟, Ԧ𝑡 ns q2s 0 𝐿
𝑞𝑠

• Two important manifestations that superconductivity is a macroscopic quantum effect

(i) Flux quantization

(ii) Josephson effect
 4
I. Flux quantization
• Start : The supercurrent expression in the macroscopic quantum model
ℏ
Λ 𝐽𝑠 = Ԧ 𝑡 − 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟,
∇𝜃 𝑟, Ԧ𝑡
𝑞𝑠
• Integrate expression for supercurrent density around
a closed contour:
ℏ
ර Λ 𝐽𝑠 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ + ර 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ = ර ∇𝜃 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ
𝑞𝑠

• Stoke‘s theorem on second integral:

ර 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟, Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ = ර 𝐵 𝑟,

• Integral of gradient:

ර ∇𝜃 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ = 𝜃 𝑟2 , 𝑡 − 𝜃 𝑟1 , 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑛

if 𝑟1 → 𝑟2 (closed path), you would naively say that the integral is zero
but: 𝜃 is only specified within modulo 2𝜋 of its principle value [−𝜋, 𝜋 ]: 𝜃𝑛 = 𝜃0 + 2𝜋𝑛
 5
I. Flux quantization
• All together:

ℏ ℎ
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑆Ԧ =
ර Λ 𝐽𝑠 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ + ර 𝐵 𝑟, 2𝜋𝑛 = 𝑛 = Φ0 𝑛
|𝑞𝑠 | |𝑞𝑠 |

Fluxoid is quantized in units of Φ0

“total flux = external applied flux + flux generated by induced supercurrent
must have discrete values”

ℎ (𝑞𝑠 = −2𝑒, see later)

Flux quantum: Φ0 = = 2.067833758 46 × 10−15 𝑊𝑏
2𝑒
 6
I. Flux quantization
• Consider a very thick cylinder 𝑡 >> 𝜆𝐿 in a weakly applied external magnetic field.
• Now let’s cool down the cylinder below T < 𝑇𝑐
• What is the field and current distribution?

• For a very thick cylinder 𝑡 >> 𝜆𝐿

we can choose a closed contour deep
inside the SC, where 𝐽Ԧ𝑠 = 0.

• The fluxoid quantization for this

contour reduces to:
ℎ
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ =
ර 𝐵 𝑟, 𝑛 = Φ0 𝑛
𝑞𝑠

ℎ Flux
Φ= 𝑛 = Φ0 𝑛
𝑞𝑠 quantization

• remove field after cooling down → trapped flux = integer multiple of flux quantum
𝜕Φ
For perfect conductor: = 0 (see lecture 1)
𝜕𝑡
 7
I. Flux quantization
• 1961 Doll/Näbauer at Munich, Deaver/Fairbanks at Stanford

➢ Quantization of magnetic flux in a hollow cylinder

➢ Superconducting carriers carry charge 𝒒𝒔 = −𝟐𝒆 ~pairs of electrons “Cooper pairs”

Self-resonance method
 8
II. The Josephson effect
What happens if we weakly couple two superconductors ?
For the answer to this question he received the Nobel prize
in 1973
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟~1𝑛𝑚
𝑆1 𝑆2

𝑛𝑆1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑆1 𝑛𝑆2 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑆2

Δ𝜙 = 𝜙𝑆1 − 𝜙𝑆2

• “Cooper pairs” can tunnel through thin insulating barrier

Expectation before 1962:
- If the tunneling probability for electrons is 𝑝𝑒 ∼ 10−4
- Then the tunneling probability for pairs 𝑝𝑒 2 →extremely small ∼ 10−4 2 , unmeasurable
Josephson stated in 1962:
- The tunneling probability for pairs ∝ 𝑝𝑒
- Coherent tunneling of pairs („tunneling of macroscopic wave function“)
• In 1963 the Josephson effect was confirmed experimentally by Philip Anderson and John
Rowell of Bell Labs in Princeton
 9
II. The Josephson effect
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟~1𝑛𝑚
𝑆1 𝑆2

𝑛𝑆1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑆1 𝑛𝑆2 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑆2

𝜑 = 𝜙𝑆1 − 𝜙𝑆2
~Ohm’s law for JJ

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 (1st Josephson Equation or Current-phase relation)

𝑑 𝜑 2𝑒𝑉
= (2th Josephson Equation or Voltage-phase relation)
𝑑𝑡 ℏ

2𝜋 2 𝜑=“gauge invariant
In the presence of a magnetic field: 𝜑 = 𝜙𝑆1 − 𝜙𝑆2 − Φ න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑ℓ phase difference”
0 1

• DC Josephson effect : finite supercurrent at zero applied voltage

• AC Josephson effect : oscillation of supercurrent at constant applied voltage
 10
II. The Josephson effect

For an elegant “derivation”

Check my lectures

R. Feynman

@Check the derivation home: pg47-50 book Reinhold Kleiner

and Werner Buckel
 11
II. DC Josephson effect
1st Josephson Equation or Current-phase relation: 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑

DC Josephson effect :

• A finite supercurrent can flow at zero applied voltage up to a maximum value,

the critical current 𝐼𝑐 of the Josephson junction.

• The Josephson current depends on the sine of the (gauge invariant) phase difference
between the weakly coupled superconductors.

The supercurrent 𝐼𝑠 a macroscopic observable depends on a quantum mechanical

variable, the gauge invariant phase difference 𝜑 !!

Applications: SQUID magnetometer

 12
II. AC Josephson effect
𝑑 𝜑 2𝑒𝑉
2th Josephson Equation or Voltage-phase relation: =
𝑑𝑡 ℏ

AC Josephson effect :

• A direct voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 across the junction makes the gauge invariant phase
difference 𝜑 to increase linearly in time

2𝑒𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝑒𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝜋
𝜑= t + 𝜑0 = 𝜔𝐽 𝑡 + 𝜑0 𝜔𝐽 = = Φ 𝑉𝑑𝑐
ℏ ℏ 0

• With the first Josephson relation this gives rise to an ac supercurrent:

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 =𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜔𝐽 𝑡 + 𝜑0

𝜈𝐽 𝜔𝐽 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ, = = Φ0−1 = 483.597 898 19
𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝜋𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝜇V

• A Josephson junction acts as a dc voltage to ac supercurrent transducer

applications: Microwave sources, voltage standards,etc.
 13
II. Fabrication of Josephson junctions

SIS- junctions:
Al/AlOx/AL

T. Niemczyk et al.,
SUST 22, 034009 (2009)
 14
II. Application: The SQUID

SQUID: Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

• Parallel circuit of two Josephson junctions

• The maximum supercurrent you can send through

the SQUID changes periodically with the flux Φ
through the SQUID. The oscillation
period is equal to Φ0 .

• Very sensitive magnetic field sensor

• SQUID can resolve changes of magnetic flux ΔΦ ∼ 10−6 Φ0

For an area of 1mm2 : Δ 𝐵~10−15 𝑇
 15
II. Application: The SQUID
• Biomagnetic imaging

→Non-invasive detection of magnetic signals from human body

MEG(magnetoencephalography)→Brain ≃100fT ( Single neuron ≃0.1fT)

• SQUID can resolve changes of magentic flux ΔΦ ∼ 10−6 Φ0

For an area of 1mm2 Δ 𝐵~10−15 𝑇
 𝐼 16
II. Application: The SQUID
• Question:
𝐼1 𝐼2
How does the critical current of the SQUID (the
maximum supercurrent we can send through the
SQUID) depend on the applied magnetic field?
𝑎 𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑐1 sin 𝜑1 + 𝐼𝑐2 sin 𝜑2 (Kirchoff) 𝐽1 𝐵 𝐽2
ර∇𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑛 (macroscopic wavefunction must be 𝑏 𝑐
Single valued and gives a relation between
𝜑1 , 𝜑2 and B)

• Meaning:

For a given 𝑩 how do we choose 𝝋𝟏 and 𝝋𝟐 in order to

maximize the supercurrent 𝑰 ?
 17
II. Application: The SQUID
• Question:

For a given 𝑩 how do we choose 𝝋𝟏 and 𝝋𝟐 in order to

maximize the current 𝑰 ?

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑1 + 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑2 (Kirchoff)

Simplification I: symmetric SQUID 𝐼𝑐1 = 𝐼𝑐2 = 𝐼𝑐

• We can eliminate one of the two gauge invariant phases

𝜑1 , 𝜑2 by using the condition that the macroscopic
wavefunction needs to be single valued (maximization
problem from 2 to 1 variable):

ර∇𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑛 = 𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑎 + 𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑏 + 𝜃𝑑 − 𝜃𝑐 + 𝜃𝑎 − 𝜃𝑑

• Let’s have a closer look at the different terms:

2𝜋 𝑏
𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑎 = −𝜑1 − න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
Φ0 𝑎 Definition of gauge invariant phase difference

2𝜋 𝑑 (Note direction of current!)

𝜃𝑑 − 𝜃𝑐 = 𝜑2 − න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
Φ0 𝑐
 18
II. Application: The SQUID
ර∇𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑛 = 𝜃𝑏 − 𝜃𝑎 + 𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑏 + 𝜃𝑑 − 𝜃𝑐 + 𝜃𝑎 − 𝜃𝑑

𝑐
2𝜋 𝑐 2𝜋 𝑐 From macroscopic quantum model
𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑏 = න ∇𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = − න ΛԦ𝑗𝑠 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 − න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 expression for supercurrent:
𝑏 Φ0 𝑏 Φ0 𝑏
ℏ
𝑎
2𝜋 𝑎
2𝜋 𝑎 Λ 𝐽𝑠 = Ԧ 𝑡 − 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟,
∇𝜃 𝑟, Ԧ𝑡
𝑞𝑠
𝜃𝑎 − 𝜃𝑑 = න ∇𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = − න ΛԦ𝑗𝑠 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 − න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑑 Φ0 𝑑 Φ0 𝑑 ⟺− ΛԦ𝑗𝑠 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 − 𝐴Ԧ 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 = ∇𝜃 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡
Φ0 Φ0

• Everything together:
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑐 2𝜋 𝑎
𝜑2 − 𝜑1 = 2𝜋𝑛 + ර𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 + න ΛԦ𝑗 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 + න ΛԦ𝑗 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
Φ0 Φ0 𝑏 𝑠 Φ0 𝑑 𝑠

• Simplification II: 𝑗𝑠 = 0 deep inside electrode material

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜑2 − 𝜑1 = 2𝜋𝑛 +
Φ0
‫𝐴 ׯ‬Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 =
Φ0
Φ
Define difference modulo 2𝜋

where Φ ≡ ‫𝐴 ׯ =𝑆𝑑 ⋅ 𝐵 ׯ‬Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 is total flux through the SQUID!

Φ ≡ Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡 + Φ𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐿𝐽

 19
II. Application: The SQUID
To Summarize:
𝜑1 −𝜑2 𝜑1 +𝜑2
(i) 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 2𝐼𝑐 cos sin
2 2

2𝜋
(ii) 𝜑2 = 𝜑1 + Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐿𝐽
Φ0

Φ
2𝐸𝑞. in 3 unknows 𝜑1 , 𝜑2 , J

• Simplification III: 𝐿𝐽 ≪ 𝛷𝑒𝑥𝑡 : Φ= Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡

Neglect field of screening currents! (𝛽𝐿 ≪ 1,see next slide)

𝜋 𝜋
(i)+(ii) 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 2𝐼𝑐 cos Φ sin 𝜑1 + Φ
Φ0 𝑒𝑥𝑡 Φ0 𝑒𝑥𝑡

• For a given flux Φext , the critical current is given by maximizing 𝐼 with respect to 𝜑1

𝜕𝐼 Φext , 𝜑1 𝑛𝜋 𝜋
ቤ = 0 ⟺ 𝜑1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − Φ 𝜋
𝜕𝜑1 Φ 2 Φ0 ext 𝐼𝑠𝑚 = 2𝐼𝑐 cos Φ
ext
𝑛𝜋 𝜋 Φ0 𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝜑2max = + Φ
2 Φ0 ext
 20
II. Application: The SQUID

𝜋
𝐼𝑠𝑚 = 2𝐼𝑐 cos Φ
Φ0 𝑒𝑥𝑡

~Interference patten

2𝜋
𝜑2 = 𝜑1 + Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡
Φ0

@ Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, constructive interference

@ Φ𝑒𝑥𝑡 = Φ0 /2, destructive interference
 21
II. Application: The SQUID
• Effect of relaxing simplification III : what if 𝐿𝐽 is not ≪ 𝛷𝑒𝑥𝑡

2𝐿𝐼𝑐 (Indicates how important

Screening parameter: 𝛽𝐿 = effect of screening is)
Φ0

• Screening current is maximum

Φ0
𝐿𝐽 ≤ 𝐿𝐼𝑐 at Φext =
2
Screening parameter is ratio of both

• Modulation depth of 𝐼𝑠𝑚 is

strongly reduced with
increasing 𝛽𝐿 (roughly 1/ 𝛽𝐿 )

Nummerical solutions of
Equations ∗ for different 𝛽𝐿
 22
II. nano-SQUID Microscopy

gap

D. Vasyukov et. al. Nat. Nano 8, 639 (2013) L. Ceccarelli et al., Phys. Rev. B 100, 104504 (2019)
 23
II. Fraunhofer
• So far: Zero-dimensional JJ (lumped elements)
Homogeneous supercurrent density and phase difference
Local version of first Josephson Equation!

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 𝐽𝑠 𝑟Ԧ = 𝐽𝑐 sin 𝜑(𝑟)

Ԧ
2
2𝜋 2𝜋 2
𝜑 = 𝜙𝑆1 − 𝜙𝑆2 − න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑ℓ Ԧ 𝑟)
Φ0 1 𝜑 𝑟Ԧ = 𝜙𝑆1 (𝑟)
Ԧ − 𝜙𝑆2 (𝑟)
Ԧ − න 𝐴( Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑ℓ
Φ0 1

𝐼Ԧ𝑠 𝑡 = ඵ 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑆

• Now: Extended junctions (Junctions with finite size)

• Question: What is the effect of the finite size of a junction on the maximum
supercurrent we can send through the whole junction 𝐼𝑠𝑚 (𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑐 ) when placed
in a magnetic field?
• Answer:

- An external magnetic field will induce spatial variations

𝑗Ԧ𝑠 (𝑟) and 𝜑(𝒓).

-This will result in a Fraunhofer like modulation of 𝐼𝑠𝑚 Φ

 24
II. Fraunhofer
• Consider the specific geometry
Insulating barrier thickness: 𝑑
Junction area: 𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊
Electrode thickness: 𝑡 > 𝜆𝐿
Ext. magnetic field 𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑡 = (0, 𝐵𝑦 , 0)
Effective Magentic thickness:
t 𝐵 = 𝑑 + 𝜆𝐿1 + 𝜆𝐿2

• Effect of 𝑩𝒆𝒙𝒕 ?

Introduce a phase shift 𝜑(Q)−𝜑(P) between

two points P and Q separated by 𝑑𝑧

• To find this phase shift consider the red contour in the figure and calculate:

ර∇𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜃𝑄𝑏 − 𝜃𝑄𝑎 + 𝜃𝑃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑄𝑏 + 𝜃𝑃𝑑 − 𝜃𝑃𝑐 + 𝜃𝑄𝑎 − 𝑃𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑛

• You can show in analogy to the SQUID derivation that (@home):

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑃𝑐 2𝜋 𝑄𝑎
𝜑(P)−𝜑(Q) = 2𝜋n +
Φ0
‫𝐴 ׯ‬Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 + ‫ ׬‬ΛԦ𝑗𝑠
Φ 0 𝑄𝑏
⋅ 𝑑𝑙 + ‫ ׬‬ΛԦ𝑗𝑠
Φ0 𝑃𝑑
⋅ 𝑑𝑙
 25
II. Fraunhofer x

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑃𝑐 2𝜋 𝑄𝑎
𝜑(P)−𝜑(Q) = 2𝜋n +
Φ0
‫𝐴 ׯ‬Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 + ‫ ׬‬ΛԦ𝑗𝑠
Φ 0 𝑄𝑏
⋅ 𝑑𝑙 + ‫ ׬‬ΛԦ𝑗𝑠
Φ 0 𝑃𝑑
⋅ 𝑑𝑙

• Line integrals of supercurrent density 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 z

Segments in x-direction cancel (𝑑𝑧→0)
Segments in z-direction: deep in side SC (>𝜆L): 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 ~0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜑(P)−𝜑(Q)=
Φ0
‫𝐴 ׯ‬Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = +
Φ0
Φ
𝑑𝜑 2𝜋 2𝜋
Δ𝑧= + Φ= B t Δ𝑧
𝑑𝑧 Φ0 Φ0 y B
Δ𝑧→0
𝑑𝜑 2𝜋
= B t
𝑑𝑧 Φ0 y B

• Similar argument for 𝑃 and 𝑄separated by 𝑑𝑦 in the 𝑦-direction (Exercise @home):

2𝜋 2𝜋
∇𝜑(𝑟)=
Ԧ t 𝐵(𝑟)
Ԧ × 𝑥ො 𝜑 𝑧 = B t z+ 𝜑 z=0
Φ0 y 𝐵
Φ0 𝐵
 26
II. Fraunhofer
• Extended 1-st Josephson (current-phase) relation:

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑗Ԧ𝑠 𝑧 = 𝐽𝑐 sin B t z+ 𝜑 z = 0 𝑥ො = 𝐽𝑐 sin 𝑘z+ 𝜑 z = 0 𝑥ො With 𝑘= B t
Φ0 y 𝐵 Φ0 y 𝐵

• For an extended junction: an external magnetic field will induce spatial

Φ = By t 𝐵 L
variations 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 (𝑟) and 𝜑(𝒓).
2𝜋 Φ0 Φ0
• 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 varies periodically in space with period: 𝛥𝑧 = = = 𝐿
𝑘 By t 𝐵 Φ
• To fit one period in the junction of length L an external flux of Φ = Φ0 has to
be applied x
2𝜋 2𝜋 Φ
B y t 𝐵 z= 𝑧
Φ0 𝐿 Φ0 z

Variation 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 (𝑦, 𝑧)

 27
II. Fraunhofer

• How does 𝐼𝑠𝑚 (𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑐 ) depends on the applied field 𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑡 = (0, 𝐵𝑦 , 0)?

𝐼Ԧ𝑠 𝑡 = ඵ 𝑗Ԧ𝑠 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

• Integrating and taking the maximum gives (Exercise @home):

𝑘𝐿 𝜋Φ
sin 2 sin Φ
0
𝐼𝑠𝑚 Φ = 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑐 with Φ = By t 𝐵 L
𝑘𝐿 𝜋Φ
2 Φ0

~Fraunhofer pattern
for diffraction
 28
II. Fraunhofer

𝜋Φ
sin • Single Josephson junction
Φ0
𝐼𝑠𝑚 Φ = 𝐼𝑐
𝜋Φ can also act as a
Φ0
magnetic field sensor
𝑑𝐼𝑠𝑚 /𝑑Φ 𝑑𝐼𝑠𝑚 𝑑𝐼𝑠𝑚
sensitivity: 𝑑B ~ 𝑑Φ t 𝐵 L
Increase area 𝐴 = 𝑡𝐵 𝐿
to increase sensitivity

• Reason why a SQUID is used!

 29
II. Fraunhofer
• Diffraction and interference in a YBaCuO SQUID structure

• Large oscillation period due

to small area of the
Josephson junctions
( finite size junction effect)
• Small oscillation period
due to larger area of the
SQUID loop

R.R. Schultz et al. Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 912 (2000)

 𝐼 30
II. Josephson effect
Exercise III@home: Asymmetric SQUID

• Consider the SQUID as before:

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑐1 sin 𝜑1 + 𝐼𝑐2 sin 𝜑2 𝑎 𝑑

𝐽1 𝐵 𝐽2
• However, this time do not assume the SQUID to 𝑏 𝑐
be symmetric, meaning 𝐼𝑐1 ≠ 𝐼𝑐2 .

• In case you can neglect the field of screening currents, show

that the critical current is given by:

2 2
2𝜋
𝐼𝑠𝑚 = 𝐼𝑐1 + 𝐼𝑐2 + 2𝐼𝑐1 𝐼𝑐2 cos Φ
Φ0 ext

• Sketch the field dependence of the critical current and check

the solution for 𝐼𝑐1 = 𝐼𝑐2
 Summary Second lecture
▪ Superconductivity a “macroscopic quantum effect”
• Macroscopic quantum model of superconductivity
• Manifestation I :Flux quantization
• Manifestation II: Introduction of the Josephson effect
- Application: the SQUID Interference effects:
- Effect finite size junction Modulation critical
• Exercise current by field