Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45 – 55

A finite-element analysis of machining with the tool edge

considered
Kug Weon Kim a,*, Woo Young Lee b, Hyo Chol Sin c
a
LG Electronics, Digital Media Research Laboratory, 16 Woomyeon-Dong, Seocho-Gu, Seoul 137 -40, South Korea
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Uni6ersity of Technology and Education, Chonan-Gun, Chungnam 333 -860, South Korea
c
Department of Mechanical Design and Production Engineering, Seoul National Uni6ersity, San 56 -1, Shinlim-Dong, Gwanak-Gu,
Seoul 151 -742, South Korea
Received 23 June 1997

Abstract

This paper deals with numerical and experimental analyses of the effect of the tool edge on the cutting process. The tool forces
and temperature in the steady-state orthogonal cutting process, taking tool edge radius into consideration, are analyzed using the
finite-element method (FEM). The effects of depth of cut and tool edge radius are investigated. Also, orthogonal cutting
experiments are performed for 0.2% carbon steel with tools having three different edge radii, the tool forces being measured. The
experimental results are discussed in comparison with the results of the FEM analysis. From the study, it is confirmed that a
major cause of the ‘size effect’ is the tool edge radius and it is noted that an increase in the tool edge radius causes a change in
the temperature distribution in the tool, particularly in the position of maximum temperature. © 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Orthogonal cutting; Finite-element method; Tool edge radius; Size effect

1. Introduction No cutting tool is perfectly sharp, as shown in Fig. 1,

but up to now most cutting models have made the
Recently, the demand for ultra-precision machining assumption that the tool is perfectly sharp and very
has been increasing steadily and its field of application little attention has been paid to the effect of the tool
is being expanded in the manufacture of electronic and edge. However, this could can hardly be considered
optical devices. In most ultra-precision machining, the until the appearance of two cutting models using the
effective depth of cut is very small, typically much less finite-element method. Iwata et al. [1] developed a
than 1 mm or even down to the order of a few nanome- rigid–plastic finite-element model for orthogonal cut-
ters. Under such conditions, the tool edge radius plays
an essential role in the chip formation process and is
reported to be a major cause of the ‘size effect’.
Even with conventional machining in the order of
millimeters, it is very important to know the effect of
the tool edge on the cutting process. This is because the
state of the tool edge influences the properties of the cut
material surface in the form of residual stresses and
surface integrity and alters the tool forces and cutting
temperatures, which can cause a reduction in the life of
the tool.

* Corresponding author. Fax: + 82 2 34614414; e-mail:

kkw@wm.Ige.co.kr Fig. 1. Tool edge radius.

0924-0136/99/$ - see front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII S0924-0136(98)00230-1
46 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55
Fig. 2. Velocity boundary conditions used for the cutting model.
ting under steady-state conditions, wherein the effects
of the ratio of the tool edge radius to the depth of cut
on cutting process were examined. Moriwaki et al. [2]
analyzed the mechanics of the steady-state orthogonal
micro-machining process by applying the rigid – plastic
finite-element method and examined the effects of the
ratio of the tool edge radius to the depth of cut on the
process. They analyzed the flow of cutting heat and
temperature distribution [3]. In analyzing temperature
however, they did not consider the variation of the flow
stress with temperature and with the velocities in work-
piece and the chip and hence, their studies were only
for very low cutting speeds in ultraprecision machining.
In this paper, the effects of the tool edge on the
cutting process are analyzed for conventional machin-
Fig. 3. Temperature boundary conditions used for the cutting model.
ing by the finite-element method. In addition, orthogo-
nal cutting experiments are conducted and the tool
forces are measured. In the experiments, the radius of
the tool edge is five to ten times that of the conven-
tional tool in order that such cutting conditions as
depth of cut can be controlled exactly in the test to
observe the effects of the tool edge radius on the cutting
forces. The experimental results are discussed in com-
parison with the results of the FEM analysis.
2. Finite element model for machining
With the advent of digital computers, the finite–ele-
ment method became a powerful computational tool,
which could overcome computational difficulties in
modeling the machining process. A thermo–viscoplas-
tic cutting model [4] is one among the various cutting
models and is appropriate for investigating the effects
of the tool edge on the machining process. This model
is based on a Eulerian formulation and treats the
workpiece material as rigid–viscoplastic. The advan-
tages of the model are that the chip separation crite-
rion, which is the most critical factor in a Lagrangian
formulation, is not required and that the boundaries of
the chip need not be known in advance. In addition, it
is possible to analyze the cutting mechanism for high-
speed cutting. Here, the model is briefly introduced.
Fig. 4. Flow chart of the metal-cutting analysis program.
 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55 47

Fig. 6. Initial chip geometry for a rake angle of 12°, a 5° clearance

angle, a 0.1 mm tool edge radius and a 0.2 mm depth of cut.

Equilibrium equation: sij, j = 0 (1)

3 o;¯
Constitutive equation: o; ij = s (2)
2 s̄ ij

Fig. 5. Flow stress results plotted against velocity-modified tempera- 1

Compatibility conditions: o; ij = (ui, j + uj,i ) (3)
ture: (a) the flow stress s1; and (b) the strain-hardening index, n. 2
Energy equation: kcTii − rCpT: + Q=0 (4)
2.1. Go6erning equations
In the velocity field, with a weak form of the equi-
The governing equations for the deformation of vis- librium and the incompressibility constraint given by
coplastic materials are formally identical to those of o; ii = 0, the basic equation for the finite-element dis-
cretization is given by
& & &
plastic materials, except that the effective stress is a
function of strain, strain rate and temperature.
s%ij do; ij dV +Ck o; ii do; ii dV− f*dV
i i dS= 0 (5)
V V Sf
Table 1
Inputs and outputs of the numerical example where Ck is a penalty constant.
When discretizing the energy equation, the upwind
Inputs Outputs
scheme [5] is adopted for the weighting functions of the
Cutting speed, Principal force (Fc ), 454.04 N Galerkin method. The weighting functions can be writ-
2.16 m s−1 ten as
Depth of cut, Thrust force (Ft), 236.26 N
0.2 mm Wi = Wi (j)Wi (h) (6)
Rake angle, 12° Chip thickness (t2), 0.51 mm
Tool edge radius, Maximum effective strain rate, 27102.0 3
0.1 mm Wi (j)= Ni (j)+ aij (1− j)(1+ j) (7)
4
Clearance angle, Maximum effective strain, 4.46
5° 3
Width of cut, Maximum shear stress 622.62 MPa Wi (h)= Ni (h)+ bik (1− h)(1+ h) (8)
1 mm 4
Temperature at chip–tool contact (Tint),
694.48°C
As a full upwind scheme is used, aij is either 1 or −1
Maximum temperature (Tmax), 738.21°C and is determined by the direction of the average
velocity along the element side ij.
48 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55

Table 2
Cutting conditions for the experiment

Test no. Tool edge radius (mm) Cutting velocity; rpm (m s−1) Feed rate (mm rev−1)

1 0.07
2 0.1
3 0.1 250 (2.16) 0.15
4 0.1 250 (2.16) 0.2
5 0.25
6 0.3
7 0.01 250 (2.16)
8 0.1 350 (3.02) 0.2
9 0.05 250 (2.16) 0.2
10 0.05 350 (3.02)

2.2. Boundary conditions 2. Calculate the velocities and stresses.

The geometry and boundary conditions shown in
Fig. 2 are used to model the orthogonal cutting for the
velocity field. The boundary conditions include a cut-
ting velocity (V) and no flow normal to the base of the
control volume of the tool surface (D – E). Free surfaces
(A – B, C–D, E–F) and the chip-tool contact region
(D – E), which are initially unknown, must be deter-
mined iteratively during the simulation.
The free surface of the chip can be calculated by
requiring that the normal component of the surface
velocity be zero. If a fixed point of known coordinate
exists values on the free surface, then from that point
the coordinates of the free surface can be calculated by
3. Calculate the coordinates of free surfaces using Eq.
(9). If some nodes penetrate the tool face, they are
assumed to be in contact with the tool and the free
surfaces are re-calculated. A positive stress at any
node along the interface means that the chip has
separated from the rake face of the tool. Where the
chip separates from the tool is then treated as a free
surface and its position is recalculated.
4. Continue until the normal velocity component on
the free surfaces of the chip is found to be zero and
the normal stress at every node along the chip-tool
interface is negative.
The temperature boundary conditions are shown in
Fig. 3. Most external surfaces that contact the air are

&
integrating as follows. taken to be adiabatic, i.e. heat losses to the surround-
x% ings by convention and radiation are assumed to be
dy%
as or y%= as dx% (9) zero. At the right-hand side and the lower boundary of
dx% 0 the workpiece, the temperature gradients normal to the
where x% and y% are the coordinates of the surface and boundary are very small and hence are taken to be
as represents the direction of the velocity vector. zero. At the left-hand boundary of the workpiece, room
By using the condition that the normal stress at every temperature is assumed.
node along the chip-tool interface is negative, the con-
tact length can be calculated. The calculation proce-
dures are as follows.
1. Assume the initial chip configuration and the chip-
tool contact length.

Table 3
Experimental apparatus

Apparatus Specification

Tool Material: cemented carbide

Shape: rake angle 12°; clearance angle 5°; edge
radii 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1 mm
Workpiece Material: SM20C
Shape: diameter 165 mm; thickness 3.2 mm
Lathe Daewoo Heavy Industries
Dynanometer AST TSM-TH 1671
Amplifier Showa dynamic strain amplifier
Computer IBM 486
A/D converter Data Translation DT3831-G Fig. 7. Variation in principal and thrust forces with depth of cut for
a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm.
 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55
Fig. 8. The ratio of thrust force to principal force with depth of cut
for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm.
Infinite elements [6] are introduced to represent the
areas of tool that are much larger in comparison with
the deformation areas of the workpiece. The elements
on the boundaries of QR in Fig. 3 are infinite elements
in the longitudinal direction. The shape function of an
infinite element is given by the following equation to
represent the infinity of the element in the h direction.
Mi (j, h)=Ni (j, h)gi (j, h) (10)
where i is the nodal number, Ni is the shape function of
the normal element and gi is called the decay function,
given as follows.
hi − ho m process simulation. The first solves the viscoplastic
gi (j, h)= (11)
h −ho
where ho B − 1 represents some origin point in the
h-direction and m is set to 1.2.
Fig. 9. Variation in specific energy with depth of cut for a cutting
speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm.
49
2.3. Effecti6e strain calculation
All values of effective strain rate at the center points
of finite elements can be interpolated by those on nodal
points. Take the two neighbouring points Pi and Pi + 1
on a flow line in Fig. 2 as examples. After checking to
see to which element the point Pi belongs, the velocity
component Vi at point Pi can be determined by linear
interpolation. The next point Pi + 1 on the flow line is
calculated by
Pi + 1 = Pi + Vi × Dt (12)
where Dt denotes the time increment and can be ad-
justed appropriately. After checking to see to which
element the point Pi + 1 belongs, the effective strain rate
at the point can be calculated by linear interpolation.
The interpolated strain rate is added incrementally to
the value of effective strain at the previous location as
ōi + 1 = ōi + ō; i + 1 × Dt (13)
By the above procedure, a new grid system is con-
structed by the points on the selected flow lines. Fi-
nally, the effective strain at the center of a finite
element can be obtained through linear interpolation of
the values on the new grid system.
3. Numerical simulation example
3.1. Numerical simulation procedures
Four iterative cycles are performed during a cutting
equations for the velocity and strain rate distributions
in the chip and workpiece. At ambient temperature
conditions and with an assumed strain distribution in
the chip and the workpiece, the nodal velocity and
strain-rate distributions are calculated by direct itera-
tion, using the finite-element method. After each itera-
tion, the strain rate is compared to the initial value. The
iterations are continued until the initial and calculated
strain rates coincide. Once the velocities have been
determined, the temperature is calculated. It is consid-
ered that the heat generation in the chip and the
workpiece is due to plastic deformation and frictional
heating and that the chip–tool contact length defines
the thermal conduction path between the chip and the
tool. Because the elevated temperatures will signifi-
cantly alter the material and its thermal properties an
iterative solution is again required until the tempera-
tures converge. Next, the chip geometry is determined.
After the solution of the viscoplastic and temperature
equations, the computed velocities on the surface of the
chip are checked to ensure that they are parallel to the
free surface. If this condition is not satisfied, the coordi-
nates of the chip free surface are updated, the grid is
50 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55
Fig. 10. Effect of depth of cut on the contours of effective strain rate for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm: (a)
t1 =0.1 mm; (b) t1 = 0.2 mm.
remeshed and the velocity and temperature distribu-
tions are computed again. The final step is to calculate
the strain distributions. Flow lines and strain distribu-
tions are determined by linear interpolation. The itera-
tions are continued until the initial and calculated
strains converge. In calculating the temperature and
strain distribution, it was found that the procedure
converged fairly rapidly, usually within four or five
iterations. Fig. 4 shows the flow chart of the cutting
process simulation program.
3.2. Material properties and friction force
The method proposed by Oxley [7] was used to
determine the flow stress s. The flow stress of the
workpiece can be represented by the stress s1 and the
strain-hardening index n, which define the stress – strain
curve as
s = s1o n
They are taken to be functions of a velocity-modified
!  "
temperature parameter, Tmod defined by
o;
Tmod =T 1−n log
o; 0
where T is the temperature, o; is the uniaxial strain rate
and 6 and o; 0 are the material constants, which are 0.09
and 1 s − 1, respectively [7]. The s1 and n curves corre-
sponding to plain-carbon steel of 0.2% carbon content
are given in Fig. 5. These indicate a clear dynamic
strain-ageing (blue brittle) range where flow stress in-
creases with increase in temperature, which is typical
for plain-carbon steel and also show that an increase in
the carbon content increases s1 and decrease n.
In calculating the temperatures, the appropriate tem-
perature-dependent thermal properties have been deter-
mined from the relationship
Cp°/(J kg − 1 K − 1)= 420+ 0.504T/°C (16)
and
kc/(Wm − 1 K − 1)= 54.17−0.0298T/°C (17)
For the friction force, the following equation pro-
!  "
posed by Usui and Shirakashi [8] is used
sn
tf = k 1− exp − l (18)
k
where l is an experimental constant determined by the
(14)
tool and the workpiece, sn is the normal stress and k is
the shear stress.
3.3. Numerical example
(15)
The machining process of 0.2% carbon steel was
simulated for a tool having 0.1 mm tool edge. Inputs
and outputs are shown in Table 1. Fig. 6 represents the
initially-assumed chip geometry, the latter being ad-
justed iteratively during the simulation using the free
 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55
Fig. 11. Effect of depth of cut on the contours of temperature for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm: (a) t1 = 0.1
mm; (b) t1 =0.2 mm.
surface condition and the contact condition. From the
machining analysis, the velocity, stress, strain-rate dis-
tributions in the chip and the workpiece can be pre-
dicted, along with the temperature distribution in the
chip and the tool.
4. Experimental work
The cylindrical workpiece is held by the chuck at the
spindle. The tool is set on the cross slide and fed
linearly along the rotational axis of the spindle. Tool
force signals measured by the tool dynanometer are
amplified by a strain-gauge type amplifier and passed
through a low-pass filter (band width: 25 kHz). These
signals are then sent to an A/D converter and stored in
the computer.
Table 2 shows the cutting conditions employed for
the experiments. Three types of experiments are carried
out. First, as the feed rate increases, the principal forces
and the thrust forces are measured for a constant
cutting speed of 1.26 m s − 1 for a tool having a 0.1 mm
edge radius (Test nos. 1 – 6). Second, the experiments
are conducted for tools having three different edge radii
under constant cutting conditions (Test nos. 4, 7 and 9).
Last, the effect of the cutting speed is investigated for
tools having 0.01 and 0.05 mm edge radii (Test nos. 7,
51
8, 9 and 10). Table 3 shows the experimental apparatus
used.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Effect of depth of cut
Measured and simulated principal and thrust forces
for a speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1
mm are shown in Fig. 7 for various depths of cut. Good
correlation is found for the principal and the thrust forces
over the entire range of depths of cut tested. As excepted,
the forces increase with increasing depth of cut. Fig. 8
shows the ratio of thrust force to principal force. As the
depth of cut decreases, the ratio increase. The ratio is 0.61
for 0.3 mm depth of cut and 0.75 for 0.07 mm depth of
cut, which is explained by Lucca and Seo [9] as the
effective negative rake angle resultingt from the tool edge
becoming important in the case where the ratio of the
depth of cut to the tool edge radius is comparatively
small. Fig. 9 shows the specific energies for various
depths of cut. It can be seen that the specific energies in-
crease as the depth of cut decreases, which confirms that
one of the major causes of the ‘size effect’ is the tool edge
radius. The simulated results also shows the ‘size effect’,
providing good agreement with the experimental results.
52 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55
Fig. 12. Effect of depth of cut on the contours of maximum shear stress for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm:
(a) t1 = 0.1 mm; (b) t1 = 0.2 mm.
Figs. 10–12 show the contours of effective strain
rate, temperature and maximum shear stress for a
depth of cut of 0.1 mm, compared with those for 0.2
mm. As the depth of cut increases, the maximum
effective strain rate decreases, but the deformation re-
gion does not change substantially. The maximum tem-
perature increases, while distributions of the maximum
shear stresses change little.
Fig. 13. Variation of principal forces and thrust forces with tool edge
radii for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1 and a depth of cut of 0.2 mm.
5.2. Effect of tool edge radius
Fig. 13 shows the measured and simulated forces for
a speed of 2.16 m s − 1, a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and
various tool edge radii. Although the same cutting
conditions are applied, a tool with a greater edge radius
exhibits greater principal and thrust forces. The simu-
lated results show good agreement with the experimen-
tal results over the entire range of the tool edge radii
tested.
Figs. 14–16 show the contours of effective strain
rate, temperature and maximum shear stress for an
edge radius of 0.01 mm, compared with those for 0.1
mm. Regarding the effective strain rate, the deforma-
tion region extends deeper and more widely in the
workpiece, but the maximum value decreases with in-
creased tool edge radius. The maximum temperature
value increases with increase in the tool edge radius and
in particular, the distribution of temperature in the tool
region changes greatly. It is considered that this results
from the increase of heat transfer along the tool edge
due to the increased size of the contact region. The
distribution of maximum shear stress shows that the
deformation region extends deeper in the workpiece
with increased tool edge radius. The chip thickness for
a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm is nearly equal to that for
a tool edge radius of 0.01 mm, which explains why an
 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55 53

Fig. 14. Effects of tool edge radius on the contours of effective strain rate for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1: (a)
r =0.01 mm; (b) r =0.1 mm.

Fig. 15. Effects of tool edge radius on the contours of temperature for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1: (a) r =0.01
mm; (b) r =0.1 mm.

increase in the tool edge radius does not change the
shear angle, i.e. does not contribute directly to chip
production.
Fig. 17 shows the distribution of temperature in tool
in detail. In the case of a 0.1 mm tool edge radius and
0.2 mm depth of cut, the maximum temperature is
located along the tool edge, not on the rake face. It is
reasoned that the ratio of the contact region in the tool
edge to the chip-tool contact region in the rake face
increases compared with the conventional tool edge
radius and cutting condition. In other words, it can be
said that the position of the maximum temperature
depends on the ratio of the depth of cut to tool edge
radius. This phenomenon is also noted in Fig. 18. In
the case of a 0.1 mm tool edge radius and 0.3 a mm
depth of cut, the position of the maximum temperature
is shifted to the chip–tool contact region in the rake
face, because of the increase in the contact region in the
rake face.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, the mechanics of the steady-state or-
thogonal cutting process considering the tool edge ra-
dius were analyzed using the finite-element method.
Orthogonal cutting experiments were performed for
0.2% carbon steel with tools having three different edge
54 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55

Fig. 16. Effects of tool edge radius on the contours of maximum shear stress for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1:
(a) r =0.01 mm; (b) r= 0.1 mm.

radii, the forces being measured. The following conclu- the ratio of the depth of cut to the tool edge radius is
sions can be drawn from the results of this study. comparatively small.
(1) The orthogonal cutting experiments confirm
that a major cause of the ‘size effect’ is the tool
edge radius. The simulated results also show the ‘size 7. Nomenclature
effect’ and give good agreements with the experimental
Ck penalty constant
results.
Cp specific heat
(2) As the tool edge radius increase, the principle
Fc principal force
forces and the thrust forces increase, the maximum
Ft thrust force
effective strain rate decreases, but the deformation re-
k shear stress
gion extends deeper in the workpiece. In addition, there
kc thermal conductivity
is no change in chip thickness change despite the in-
ln chip–tool contact length
crease of the tool edge radius, which shows that the
Mi shape function of infinite element for node i
increase of the total edge radius does not change the
n strain-hardening index
shear angle, i.e. it does not contribute directly to chip
Ni shape function of quadrilateral element for
production.
node i
(3) Increased tool edge radius causes change in the
Pi ith point on a flow line
temperature distribution of the tool, particularly in the
r tool edge radius
position of maximum temperature; the maximum tem-
T temperature, cutting temperature
perature occurs along the tool edge in the case where
Tint chip–tool contact average temperature

Fig. 17. Temperature distributions and location of maximum temper- Fig. 18. Temperature distributions and locations of maximum tem-
ature for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s − 1: perature for a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16
(a) r= 0.1 mm; (b) r= 0.01 mm. m s − 1: (a) t1 =0.2 mm; (b) t1 =0.3.
 K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45–55 55

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