International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture

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Cutting temperature prediction in high speed machining by numerical

modelling of chip formation and its dependence with crater wear
G. List 1, G. Sutter n, A. Bouthiche 2
Laboratoire d’Etude des Microstructures et de Mécanique des Matériaux—UMR CNRS 7239, Université Paul Verlaine—Metz, Ile du Saulcy, 57045 Metz Cedex 01, France

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: A study through a finite elements model using the AbaqusTM code is conducted to predict the interface
Received 24 June 2011 cutting temperature and its dependence with the crater wear mechanism. Unlike the most previous
Received in revised form researches, this work is focused on the domain of the high speed machining above 20 m/s. The
29 November 2011
mechanical and thermal parameters that influence the temperature distribution at the tool rake face
Accepted 30 November 2011
Available online 8 December 2011
are analysed in details. A method based on some analytical preliminary calculations is proposed to
determine the adequate values of the friction shear stress and the heat partitioning factor between the
Keywords: tool and the chip. A correlation between specific experiments and simulations is verified in the case of
High speed machining orthogonal cutting of mild steel up to a velocity of 60 m/s. Cutting tests were carried out on a ballistic
Temperature
device equipped with an intensified CCD camera to measure the temperature field into the chip. A good
Finite element method
agreement is found with respect to measurements of cutting forces, contact length and temperature.
Wear
As application, a wear model is coupled with the finite element model through an iterative schema.
At each step of calculation, the contact pressure and temperature are updated while the crater grows.
& 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Due to the difficulty of measuring the temperature in the
cutting zones, the finite element calculation is often presented as
an alternative to the experimental methods to find the tempera-
ture field in the chip and the tool. However, the thermo-mechan-
ical behaviour of materials at high strain rates, coupled with
friction phenomena, complicates the description of physical
interactions in one model. For example, the material flow stress
dependence on temperature, strain and strain rate plays a
significant role in the mechanism of chip segmentation and
adiabatic shearing [1–3]. For their part, the frictional parameters
affect drastically the cutting forces and temperature [4–7]. Good
assessments are obtained when experimental data of stress
distribution at the tool–chip interface are directly input in the
FEM model [8]. Nonetheless, it is very costly and complex to
measure the pressure and tangential stress in this contact zone.
Existing measures are uncommon and they only concern the
conventional machining [8,9]. Therefore, friction models that
require few parameters are largely used. They mostly consist in
the Coulomb’s model with the assumption that the frictional
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 3 87 31 53 67; fax: þ33 3 87 31 53 66.
E-mail addresses: gautier.list@univ-metz.fr (G. List),
sutter@lpmm.univ-metz.fr (G. Sutter),
abdenbi.bouthiche@gmail.com (A. Bouthiche).
1
Tel.: þ33 03 87 54 72 49; fax: þ 33 03 87 31 53 66.
2
Tel.: þ33 03 87 31 53 60; fax: þ 33 03 87 31 53 66.
stress, which follows, cannot be larger than the work material
shear strength. At very high pressure a limiting friction stress is
then expected from the contact mechanics and a friction factor
describes the sliding condition when lower pressures are con-
sidered. The purpose of the present paper is to model the
machining process at high cutting speed complementing the most
common solutions already proposed in the literature. The first
objective is to predict the temperature rise in the contact zone
between the tool and the chip when high cutting speed machin-
ing is performed. The FEM model is established with AbaqusTM
software in version 6.10. The research work is supported by new
experimental data, existing theories and novel thoughtfulness on
the frictional stress. Contrarily to the conventional machining, the
chip presents more new material per unit time to the tool rake
face. As a consequence, most of the heat enters the chip and tool
wear is accelerated. All numerical parameters concerning the
contact must be carefully selected and the evolution of geometry
due the wear mechanisms must be taken into account even
for limited cutting time duration. In classical approach, the
improvement of the numerical results is conducted by the
accomplishment of a consequent number of simulation tests
following an experimental design. The ultimate model is then
chosen by comparing the cutting forces and chip morphology
but rarely with experimental temperature. The novelty of the
proposed approach is based on preliminarily theoretical calcula-
tions of the contact parameters. This method can considerably
reduce the number of simulation tests necessary to validate
the model.

0890-6955/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2011.11.009
2 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9

The development of the specific experimental techniques aims
to quantify the cutting forces, the contact length and the tem-
perature field for the model validation. Cutting tests reproduce
perfectly orthogonal cutting conditions from 23 to 60 m/s thanks
to a special ballistic device. Besides, we propose to take into
account the tool damage by coupling the finite element model of
chip formation with a model of crater wear. Note that in this
study the flank wear is not considered. The analysis of results
highlights the pertinence of updating the contact parameters such
as the pressure and the interfacial temperature while the geo-
metry of the tool rake face changes.
2. Modelling
2.1. Chip formation
In order to simulate the chip formation, a coupled tempera-
ture-displacement calculation with quadrilateral four-node ele-
ments CPE4RT is performed. The Lagrangian model in plane-strain
assumption considers a deformable workpiece and a rigid tool.
The thermo-mechanical response of the work material (AISI 1018)
is modelled by the Johnson–Cook relation [10,11]
! chip and the part transmitted into the tool
 
TT 0 0:053
s ¼ ð520 þ 269e0:282 Þð1 þ 0:0476 lnðe_ =e_ 0 ÞÞ 1 ð1Þ
T m T 0
here s in MPa is the effective flow stress of the material, e the
accumulated plastic strain, e_ the effective plastic strain rate, e_ 0
the reference plastic strain-rate of 1/s, T0 the room temperature
and Tm (1520 1C) the melting temperature. A shear failure damage
model [12] is also adopted to separate the chip from the work-
piece. An element is removed when the damage parameter o
exceeds the critical value 1
X Dep
o¼
ef
Dep is the increment of the effective plastic strain that occurs
during an integration cycle and ef the equivalent strain failure
limit under the current conditions of stress triaxiality defined by
 s 
ef ¼ d1 þ d2 exp d3 m ð3Þ
s low, at each position within the contact, there is ample time for
where sm is the hydrostatic pressure and d1, d2 and d3 are the
damage failure material constants with respective values 0.24,
1.1 and 1.5 [13]. In addition, thermal properties used in the model
are provided according to the temperature, see Table 1. The
contact friction between the rake face and the chip is based on
a Coulomb’s friction law limited by a value tmax that the friction
stress tf cannot exceed. To perform the shift from sticking to
sliding condition a sliding criterion tcrit is considered
tcrit ¼ minðmsn , tmax Þ
Here sn is the normal load at the tool–chip interface and m the
Coulomb’s friction factor. When the shear stress in the chip
reaches tcrit, the relative motion contributes exclusively to slip.
Moreover, to authorise heat transfer between two closely adja-
cent surfaces, a numeric conductance hc is considered so that the
heat flux per unit area c crossing the interface between two
points being part to the different bodies at respective tempera-
tures T1 and T2 is given by
c ¼ hc ðT 1 T 2 Þ ð5Þ
2.2. Heat partitioning at the tool–chip interface
Because of plastic deformation and friction, it is commonly
assumed that three main sources of heat coexist: the primary
shear zone, the secondary shear zone and the tertiary zone
(Fig. 1). After running through the primary shear zone, the chip
may be regarded as a body moving onto the tool rake face. The
transformation of frictional energy to heat is largely responsible
for increase in temperature. The corresponding heat rate genera-
tion per surface unit q_ f may be estimated by
q_ f ¼ Ztf g_ S ð6Þ
where g_ s is the incremental slip rate and Z the factor to convert
mechanical energy into thermal energy (Z E1). The heat genera-
tion rate q_ f is decomposed in two terms q_ C and q_ T , which are
respectively the parts of the frictional heating transmitted in the
q_ f ¼ q_ C þ q_ T
ð7Þ
Considering that the major heating is caused by friction, the
factor RS, which represents the heat fraction transmitted into the
tool, is defined by
RS ¼ q_ C =q_ C ð8Þ
Because of the difficulty of determining RS, the approximation
first made by Blok [14] is adopted, in which it is assumed that the
heat partition fraction is a constant factor. The chip may be
considered as a rectangular band (0rx rlc) uniform heat source
ð2Þ sliding with the velocity Vchip over a motionless semi-infinite
body (the tool) insulated everywhere except across the interface,
see Fig. 1. According to the models based on Blok’s theory, the
factor RS is determined by the assumption that the two bodies
have the same maximal surface temperature.
For conventional machining, where the Peclet number Pe is
the temperature distribution in the moving body to approach that
of the stationary body. At very low sliding speeds the ratio kW/kT
of the bodies’ conductivities governs the partitioning of frictional
heating. For high sliding velocities, the Peclet number Pe becomes
large and most of the heat (more than 80%) enters the moving
body, i.e. the chip. The chip presents more new material per unit
time to the heat source, where it must then be heated up to
maximal temperature Tmax. The surface of the motionless body,
i.e. the tool, is always at temperature Tmax and need not receive
ð4Þ

Table 1
Thermal conductivities and specific heat capacities for the tool (kT,CT) and the
workpiece (kW,CW).

25 1C 200 1C 500 1C 700 1C 750 1C 1000 1C 1200 1C

kT(W/m 1C) 88 80 75 – 68 55 –
kW(W/m 1C) 52 47 – 33 – 24.5 19
CT (J/kg 1C) 200 220 225 240 – 241 –
CW (J/kg 1C) 470 474 491 509 – 548 –
Fig. 1. Chip formation with heat transfer during the orthogonal cutting process.
 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9 3

much heat from the source to remain at that temperature. In the
numerical simulations, to ensure that heat can be transferred
between the chip and the tool, the contact conductance hc must
be adequately determined. A parametric study comparing simu-
lations over a large range of conductance demonstrated that a
high value of hc must be selected to ensure the same temperature
for both the chip and the tool [15]. Table 2 illustrates the
influence of the parameter hc on the maximum temperature
reached at the interface both for the tool and the chip. Only a
high value of hc tends to assure the same temperature at the
contact.
In the case of machining of mild steel with a carbide tool, Filice
et al. [16] have shown that a value of 103 kW/m2 1C for hc was
sufficient to ensure a rapid stabilisation of the cutting tempera-
ture at the tool–chip interface for cutting speeds ranging between
2 and 4 m/s. For higher cutting speed such as presented in this
paper, it is however, necessary to employ a higher value of hc such
as 106 kW/m2 1C. The equilibrium state in maximal temperature
is then rapidly reached as shown in Fig. 2.
better estimate the value KM described in Fig. 3. The evolution
of the crater in this direction is explained by the change of the
temperature distribution due to the tool damage and by the
mechanical action of chip on the tool. Therefore, in the direction
!
x , the following wear equation is also introduced in the model
_ B ¼ G sn V S
w ð10Þ
where sn is the normal stress and G is a material constant. At the
instant t, a point Pt located on the surface of the crater has the
position (xt,yt). At this point, the vector normal to the surface is
!
defined by n ¼ ðnx ,ny Þ, the temperature is T int ðxt ,yt Þ ¼ T t , the
normal stress is sn ðxt ,yt Þ ¼ stn and the sliding velocity is
V S ðxt ,yt Þ ¼ V tS .
The material loss per surface unit caused by diffusion wear
!
during a lap time Dt in the direction n is then estimated by
K t þ Dt ¼ V tS DexpðC=T t ÞDt: ð11Þ
And finally, the geometry of the current crater at the instant
tþ Dt is given by

yt þ Dt ¼ yt þnty K t þ Dt ð12Þ
2.3. Crater wear modelling 8
< xt þ Dt ¼ xt þ nt K t þ Dt þGn st V t Dt !!
x n s if n : x o0
The loss of tool material in the direction normal to the rake !! ð13Þ
: xt þ Dt ¼ xt þ ntx K t þ Dt if n : x 40
face is determined by the diffusion wear rate per volume unit [17]
_ A ¼ D V S expðE=T int Þ
w ð9Þ The procedure for predicting tool wear growth during the
cutting process is discussed in Section 3.3.
where D and E depend on the materials, VS is the sliding velocity
of the chip and Tint is the temperature at the tool–chip interface.
2.4. Determination of the friction parameters
The evolution of the depth crater wear KT is well predicted in the
!
direction y by Eq. (9), but experiments provided by List et al. [17]
In contact zone, heat generation is mainly controlled by the
show that the latter law must be completed by taking into
! magnitude of the frictional stress tf defined by Eq. (4). At low
account the crater progress in the longitudinal direction x to
pressure, the law of perfect friction states that the force of friction
is proportional to the normal load following the Coulomb’s
Table 2
Results of simulations at cutting time duration of 5 10–5 s showing the influence
the thermal conductance hc on the temperature in the tool and chip at the KB
interface, VC ¼ 38 m/s, t1 ¼0.26 mm.
x

Test hc (kW/m2 1C) RS smax (MPa) Tmax chip (1C) Tmax tool (1C)

3
1 10 0.5 80 657 667
2 106 0.5 80 703 709 n KT
3 103 0.8 80 737 423 KM
4 106 0.8 80 703 709 cutting
5 103 1 80 789 268 tool
6 106 1 80 722 725
7 103 0.8 200 1050 702
8 106 0.8 200 1027 1026
y
9 103 0.5 200 902 1216
10 106 0.5 200 1036 1037
Fig. 3. Schematic geometry of a tool crater wear on the rake face.

Fig. 2. Predicted temperature for high value of conductance hc: (a) temperature field in the chip and tool and (b) evolution of two contact points according to the
cutting time.
4 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9

friction law. This behaviour is commonly assumed far from the Here uS is the shear energy per unit volume of cut metal [19], b
tool cutting edge along the rake face. The factor m must be defined (E0.9) the Taylor–Quinney coefficient [20] and RP the fraction of
for relatively low pressures and it is known to be a decrescent energy that flows with the chip (see Fig. 1). The expressions of Rp and
function of the sliding velocity. Fig. 4(a) presents the variation of uS are given in appendix. The mean temperature rise DT f due to the
the friction coefficient obtained during dynamical tests of friction frictional heating is given by Eq. (17) proposed by Loewen and Shaw
between mild steel and tungsten carbide [18]. The conditions of [21] and Chao and Trigger [22] based on the solution from Jaeger, [23]
tests are assumed to be close to those appeared at the contact
q_ T lC
zone far from the tool tip. Therefore, for each cutting test, the DT f ¼ A ð17Þ
2kT
value of the coefficient m is selected according to the chip velocity
and the experimental results presented in Fig. 4(a). The magni- where A is a geometrical factor that depends on the ratio w/lc
tude of the limiting shear stress must also be carefully defined      
2 2w 1 lC 1
because tmax dominates the stress state at very high pressure in A¼ ln þ þ ð18Þ
p lC 3 w 2
particular near the tool cutting edge.
A complexity in identifying tmax exists as the maximal shear stress The heat frictional source is determined from the chip velocity
pffiffiffi
varies with temperature. For the classical value of tmax ¼ sY = 3, Vchip and the tangential force FT that can be deduced from the
where sY is the yield stress at the room temperature (sY ¼380 MPa), measurement of cutting forces during a test
the simulation trends to drastically overestimate the friction energy F T V chip
and by consequence the predicted cutting temperature. It is sug- q_ T ¼ Zð1RS Þ ð19Þ
lC w
gested to consider the effect of the cutting temperature on the value
The fraction of heat moving into the chip is then
of the frictional stress. Therefore, the limiting shear stress may be
estimated by following the thermal softening effect 1
RS ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð20Þ
sY 1þ 0:754ððkT =kW Þ=AÞ= k=V chip lC
tmax ¼ pffiffiffi HðT int Þ ð14Þ
3
where k is the thermal diffusivity.
where T int is the mean temperature at the tool–chip interface and H
the function that describes the decreasing of stress with temperature.
Three cases for the function H are presented in Table 3 with 3. Validation of the optimized model
respective variations of the shear stress illustrated in Fig. 4(b). To
estimate the value of the mean interface temperature T int , analytical 3.1. Experimental details
models may be considered
Cutting tests were carried out on a ballistic apparatus
T int ¼ T 0 þ DT S þ DT f ð15Þ (cf. Fig. 5) designed by Sutter [26], reproducing the condition of
where DT S is the mean temperature rise in the primary shear zone orthogonal cutting in high speed machining. This set-up was
and DT f is the mean temperature rise due to the friction phenomena specially developed to avoid constraints imposed by conventional
at the tool–chip interface machining tests such as parasite vibrations or cutting speed
limitation. No approximation is necessary to confront experimen-
RP buS tal and numerical results. The machined material is AISI 1018 in
DT S ¼ : ð16Þ
rW C W parallelepiped form. The workpiece is fixed on a projectile, which

0.5
200
Limiting shear stress (MPa)

0.4 39 < p < 56 MPa

Friction Coefficient µ

184 < p < 234 MPa 150

0.3
100

0.2 law 1
50 law 2
law 3
0.1
0
0 200 400 600 800
0 Temperature (°C)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Sliding Velocity [m/s]

Fig. 4. Variation of the contact parameters: (a) dry friction coefficient m for mild steel sliding against uncoated carbide and (b) evolution of limiting shear stress according
to the temperature.

Table 3
Different laws for thermal softening functions (temperature given in Kelvin).

Law Model Function Parameters

m
1 Johnson–Cook [11] H(T) ¼ 1  ((T  Troom)/(Tm  Troom)) m ¼0.553
2 Power law [24] H(T) ¼ (T/Troom)  b b ¼0.38
3 Polynomial law [25] H(T) ¼ C0 þ C1Tþ C2T2 þ C3T3 C0 ¼3.79  10  1, C1 ¼3.79  10  3, C2 ¼  6.55  10  6, C3 ¼ 2.59  10  9
 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9 5

receiving tube
intensified CCD camera
tools holding detail of cutting process
fixture
tool
chip
specimen

launch tube
Support specimen

Chip
tool
strain gauge
cutting tool

Fig. 5. Diagram of the ballistic cutting set-up.

Time [µs]
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Output signal from the stain gauge [V]

4
t2 Impact

lC
2

of the signal
Average value
t1
1

0
Cutting process

-1

Fig. 6. (a) Shear zones in orthogonal cutting process and (b) typical recorded signal.

is propelled inside the launch tube. A sufficient length of this tube
ensures a constant speed for the projectile. Two tools symme-
trically mounted at the entry of the receiving tube perform the
cutting process. These tools provide a simultaneous cutting of
both the sides of specimen thus balancing the cutting forces and
the chip thickness. All cutting tests were carried out with
uncoated carbide inserts (H13A-P15, 6% Co and 94%WC) without
chip-breaker, with a rake angle a ¼01 and a clearance angle of 71.
The geometrical dimensions of the workpiece define the feed t1,
the width of cut w (10 mm) and the cutting length of 12 mm. The
tools holding fixture is equipped with strain gauges to determine
the cutting force Fc.
The mean value of the recorded signal presented in Fig. 6(b) is
converted to force by calibration. Speed and acceleration are
recorded during the cutting process. An intensified high speed
CCD camera equips the bench. On the one hand, the camera can
be used to take photographs during chip formation aiming to
observe chip morphologies (Fig. 6(a)). A strong magnification
combined with a fine definition of the digital matrix and very
short exposure time allows to obtain high quality pictures of this
chip. The geometry of the root chip is then captured during the
process. It is then possible to measure with accuracy the contact
length lc and the chip thickness t2 [26]. The shear angle f may be
directly measured or deduced from the chip ratio t1/t2
 
ðt 1 =t 2 Þcos a
f ¼ tan1
1ðt 1 =t 2 Þsin a
The chip velocity Vchip is estimated from the value of shear
angle f and tool rake angle a and it is assumed to be equal to the
relative sliding velocity between the tool and the chip
sinðfÞ
V chip ¼ Vc ð22Þ
cosðfaÞ
On the other hand, the optical pyrometry technique can be
used in the visible spectral domain to measure temperature fields.
Above 400 1C, this technique improves the sensitivity and mini-
mises errors due to the variation of the material emissivity. The
relative error on temperature is then less than 5.5% as detailed in
Rank et al. [27] and Sutter and Ranc [28]. In addition, due to the
edge effects, it must be noted that the measured temperatures are
lower than those actually occurring in the bulk of the material.
The ballistic device is able to reach high cutting velocities up to
120 m/s, but in the present study, cutting speed was limited to
60 m/s aiming to attain depths of cut to 0.48 mm without break-
ing the tool. Temperature fields in transient state have been
measured experimentally with a spatial resolution of 1024  1024
and a short exposure time of 64 ms.
3.2. Experimental validation
Cutting tests presented Table 4, were carried out on the
ballistic device at different cutting conditions. No crater wear is
considered and the maximum temperatures T max are calculated
for a cutting length of 6 mm. The recorded values of t2, lc, Fc are
used to estimate the mean interfacial temperature T int following
ð21Þ
the method developed in Section 2.4.
The finite element simulations are performed by controlling
the contact parameters m, RS and tmax . The friction coefficient m is
chosen as a decreasing function of cutting velocity whereas RS is
6 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9

Table 4
Experimental and simulation results for different cutting conditions.

Conditions Contact parameters Experiments results Simulations results

VC (m/s) t1 (mm) m tmax (MPa) RS t2 (mm) lc (mm) Fc (N) Tmax (1C) t2 (mm) lc (mm) Fc(N) Tmax (1C)

23 0.26 0.12 64 0.97 0.32 0.49 3100 640 0.35 0.49 3050 632
23 0.38 0.12 53 0.975 0.45 0.72 4250 672 0.49 0.58 4250 640
23 0.48 0.12 55 0.975 0.57 0.94 5010 689 0.6 0.69 5400 684
38 0.38 0.1 51 0.98 0.42 0.71 4020 704 0.48 0.58 4300 731
60 0.38 0.08 40 0.985 0.41 0.75 4380 752 0.46 0.56 4450 739

Fig. 7. Chip morphology for VC ¼ 23 m/s, t1 ¼0.26 mm: (a) simulation result and (b) experimental result.

calculated from Eq. (20). The limiting shear stress tmax is deter-
mined from the estimated value of the interface temperature T int
and the thermal softening function H according to Eq. (14). The
function H is crucial in the aim of reproducing the experimental
trends with accuracy. A fine depiction of tmax with regard to
temperature ensures a discernible decreasing of the cutting forces
with the increase of the cutting velocity without overestimate the
cutting temperature. Best results are obtained when the polyno-
mial law is selected for the function H. Only the results for this case
are presented in Table 3. Numerical simulations overall reproduce
chip morphologies, as illustrated in Fig. 7. The chips are continuous
and the chip thicknesses are well predicted. Good estimations of
the cutting forces are obtained although a weak difference remains
for the contact length lC, which is always smaller in numerical
simulations.
The maximum temperature T max is located along the tool rake
face at a distance from the tool cutting edge around the value of
the uncut chip thickness t1. However, for the simulations T max is
generally located just upon t1 whereas T max is located just under
t1 in the experiments, see Fig. 8. Note that the location and the
value of the maximum temperature T max can weakly evolve
during a simulation at the instant when the curled chip enters
in contact with the workpiece. The rolling-up of the chip, as
illustrated in Fig. 7, causes a small increase of the contact length lc
so that a small fall of the temperature occurs during a very
short time. Nevertheless, the predicted values are very close to
the experimental results and it is observed that T max increases
with uncut chip thickness and cutting velocity. The present
study shows that the choice of the temperature dependence of
the limiting shear stress provides very good results not only in
term of temperature but also for the cutting forces and chip
morphology.
3.3. Temperature distribution with crater wear
The use of finite element codes for wear prediction is a
challenging research issue for industrial applications. In more
conventional machining (2–5 m/s), the previous works estab-
lished with Deform [16,29–32] and AbaqusTM codes [33] testify
in the interest and the advance in this domain. The important
points to consider are how to control the time Dt to create a crater
during two stages and how to update the boundary conditions
such as the temperature at the tool chip interface. In the present
work the Lagrangian method associated with a Python pro-
gramme was developed to study the temperature profile when
crater geometry is taken into account. The evident advantage of
the Lagragian formulation is an ability to simulate the chip
formation from the initial state to steady state. Thus, temperature
and tool wear mechanisms can be investigated without omitting
the effect of parameters in non-steady stages. Initially, a thermo-
mechanical calculation using a tool without any wear is con-
ducted in order to obtain the first temperature profile (Fig. 9(a)).
Once the quasi-stationary is reached, the user script programme
implemented in Python language takes over, in interaction with
AbaqusTM, in order to prepare and execute the next stage. The
algorithm of this programme is to make a post processing of
results from the previous step simulation. The procedure is then
to retrieve the slip velocities, normal stresses and the tempera-
ture associated with nodes of the tool and then calculates the
geometry of the new crater according to the wear model
described by Eqs. (12) and (13). The new surface of the rake face
is generated using a cubic spline interpolation by joining all the
nodes newly created (Fig. 9(b)).
The last phase of the script is to generate the mesh of the new
geometry of the tool (with crater) and the different boundary
 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9 7

Fig. 8. Temperature maps (t1 ¼ 0.48 mm, VC ¼ 23 m/s) after 6 mm of machining: (a) optimised numerical result and (b) experimental result.

Fig. 9. Tool presenting the progression of the temperature field and the crater at different stages.

conditions associated. Among these boundary conditions, the 700

distribution of the temperature field obtained in the last step is
introduced. For each new mesh node, a temperature is assigned as
an initial condition for the new simulation. Thus, the programme
determines the four nearest nodes belonging to the old mesh, and 600
then an extrapolation of the previous step temperature of these
Temperature [°C]

nodes is performed subsequently to determine the new initial

temperature of each node to the next simulation (Fig. 9(c)). An
iterative repetition will increase the accuracy of the solution 500
regarding the lap time Dt during which a crater is generated
(Fig. 9(d–e)). The results, presented Fig. 10, show the temperature experimental results
distribution when the crater wear mechanism is considered in
400 simulation without wear
simulation under the cutting condition VC ¼23 m/s and
t1 ¼0.48 mm. The new temperature distribution was obtained simulation with wear
after three iterations (each with Dt ¼0.1 s). The profile is com-
pared to the temperatures obtained by simulation and experi- 300
ment without wear. The new distribution on the worn tool 0 100 200 300 400 500
presents the emergence of a second local zone of elevated Distance from the tool tip [µm]
temperature. However, we can observe that the magnitude of
the global temperature does not increase and appears to be lower. Fig. 10. Temperature at the tool–chip interface with and without tool wear,
The second hot zone, located at the exit of tool–chip contact, is VC ¼23 m/s, t1 ¼ 0.48 mm.
explained by a larger normal stress combined to a maximum
sliding velocity acting on the crater face. The wear is accelerated
!
in the direction x according to more severe contact conditions. 4. Conclusion
The crater growth is responsible for the increase of the contact
length lc. The observations are in agreement with the experi- Numerical simulations and specific experimental approaches
mental results given by [17] where the role of the rolling-up of were mutually conducted to establish a finite element model in
the chip is explained. The present model shows promising results orthogonal cutting process. The results are related to the machin-
on the FEM methods, which studies crater wear progress in high ing of mild steel with an uncoated carbide tool for cutting speeds
speed machining. Further investigations should aim to demon- from 20 to 60 m/s and a cutting depth ranging from 0.26 to
strate ability to predict the tool life. 0.48 mm. To explore the domain of these high cutting speeds,
8 G. List et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 54–55 (2012) 1–9
a specific ballistic bench is used with means of thermo graphic
measurement and fast imaging.
An important issue of the model refers to the thermal transfer
with dynamical frictional condition at the tool–chip interface.
Special considerations are conducted on the limiting shear stress
tmax , which is the most important parameter controlling the
contact and the temperature at the interface. Prediction of the
friction stress is obtained by assuming that: (1) tmax is a function
of the interfacial mean temperature T int and (2) the evolution
of tmax follows the thermal softening of the yield stress. The
calculation of the interfacial mean temperature T int is established
by considering a relative movement of two rigid bodies in high
sliding speed condition implying a high value of RS the fraction of
heat moving into the chip and a calculation of the shear deforma-
tion uS with dynamical effect. The results show that the best
correlation with experiments is obtained when the decrease of
the stress is progressive at low temperature and more significant
at high temperature. A polynomial law is then used to describe
the thermal softening function and provides better results than
the classical power or Johnson–Cook laws.
In addition, the friction factor m is selected respecting an
experimental evolution with the sliding velocity. These values of
m are defined thanks to a specific tribometer. In the present paper,
a good correlation with experimental results from the specific
device is thus observed with respect to the interfacial tempera-
ture, including the position and the magnitude of the maximal
value. The contact length, the chip thickness and the cutting
forces are also well predicted. The next validation step of this
present model might be the confrontation with experiments
performed on machine tool for industry.
Moreover, the integration of a wear model the FEM model
shows the importance to take into account the progressive change
of the tool geometry during the evolution of the chip formation. In
the paper, a wear iterative approach has been integrated into the
numerical model. The temperature field, sliding velocity and
normal stress calculated numerically are used to predict the
crater wear of the tool. The results highlight that the distribution
of the temperature is modified and a second high temperature
zone can be found at the exit of the contact when the tool
presents a crater. The consequential higher temperature com-
bined with the action of the chip in this area contributes to the
growth of the crater profile along its length KB. An iteration of
these steps can be taken to accurately predict the growth and
geometry of the crater. As perspective, the integration of the flank
wear effect additional to the crater wear will be taken into
account in the FEM modelling.
Appendix A.
Relationship between forces components, shear angle and rake angle
F N ¼ F c cos aF f sin a ðforce normal to the rake faceÞ
F T ¼ F c sin a þ F f cos a ðforce tangential to the rake faceÞ
B. Deformation, deformation energy and heat partitioning factor in
primary shear zone
cosðaÞ
g¼
sinðfÞcosðfaÞ
FS cosðlaÞ cosðaÞcosðf
uS ¼ rW V c 2 ð26Þ
V c wt 1 cosðf þ laÞ cosðfaÞ
1
RP ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð27Þ
1 þ1:328 ðkW g=rW C W V c t 1 Þ
with
FT
tan l ¼ ð28Þ
FN
and
F S ¼ F c cos fF f sin f ð29Þ
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