ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

Modelling orthogonal machining of carbon steels. Part II: Comparisons with

experiments
T.H.C. Childs , R. Rahmad 1
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

a r t i c l e in fo abstract

Article history: Experimental measurements of cutting and thrust forces and chip shear plane angles have been carried
Received 4 September 2008 out for six steels turned at a feed of 0.25 mm/rev at speeds from 50 to 250 m/min. The results have been
Received in revised form successfully reproduced by finite element simulations. For this it has been necessary to include an
25 March 2009
initial yield drop from an upper to a lower yield stress in the description of the steels’ plastic strain
Accepted 6 April 2009
Available online 17 April 2009
hardening. It has also been necessary to assume flow stress to reduce non-linearly with increasing
temperature in the manner proposed by Zerilli and Armstrong, up to a temperature E900 1C above
Keywords: which rapid softening takes place. A comparison is made between the present work and the earlier work
FE analysis of Oxley and his group.
Plasticity
& 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Yield delay
Thermal softening
Metal machining

1. Introduction
Part I of this paper [1] showed that finite element simulations
of the machining of a softened carbon steel could be brought into
improved agreement with experiments by including a description
of an upper yield point in the steel’s constitutive equation. This
was presented as a general result, applicable to all such steels. It
was not attempted to predict the behaviour of any particular steel.
That would have required a consideration of its flow stress depen-
dence on temperature and strain rate too.
In this, Part II, paper, attention is turned to simulating the
behaviour of six particular steels. The paper includes experi-
mental measurements of the steels’ flow stress dependences on
strain, strain rate and temperature. Flow stress at high strain rate
reducing linearly with temperature was observed, as is frequently
assumed in machining simulations and was first reported by
Johnson and Cook [2]. The data were at first fitted to the power-
law (PL) form of constitutive equation (Eqs. (3) and (4) of Part I).
Simulations with this constitutive equation were not in agree-
ment with experiments. It was also observed that predicted
temperatures were higher than those used in the flow stress
determinations. Excellent agreement with experiments could be
obtained by both including the upper yield point and modifying
the high temperature dependence of flow stress on temperature
after the manner introduced by Zerilli and Armstrong [3]. Their
work and developments from it used in this paper are reviewed
in Section 2.
Agreements between experiments and simulations are
checked in three different ways. Most directly, the predicted and
experimental quantities FC, FT and f are compared. These are,
respectively, the cutting and thrust forces per unit cutting edge
engagement length and shear plane angle. f is obtained (Eq. (1))
from the chip thickness ratio t/ac, where t is the chip thickness and
ac the undeformed chip thickness, and the tool rake angle g. The
predicted and experimental dependences of (fg) on l are also
compared. l is the direction between the resultant force and
the normal to the rake face i.e. the friction angle that may be
calculated from Eq. (2). This method of comparison is helpful
because it gives guidance as to reasons for differences between
simulated and experimental values of FC, FT and f, should there be
any [4]. Finally, comparisons are made between predicted and
experimental shear stresses k calculated to act on the primary
shear plane (Eq. (3)), also because of insights that this gives.
t=ac ¼ cosðf  gÞ= sin f (1)
l ¼ tan1 ðF T =F C Þ þ g (2)
k ¼ ½ðF C cos f  F T sin fÞ sin f=ac (3)

 Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 113 34 32165; fax: +44 113 34 32150.
E-mail address: t.h.c.childs@leeds.ac.uk (T.H.C. Childs).
1
Current address: Department of Manufacturing and Industry, Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn, Malaysia.
It might be thought that there is no longer a need for research
into the prediction of chip form and forces in the orthogonal
machining of carbon steels. However, in much previous finite
element work, for example [5–8], agreement between simulation

0020-7403/$ - see front matter & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2009.04.001
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
466 T.H.C. Childs, R. Rahmad / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472

and experiment has been reported in only up to two out of three
of cutting and thrust force and shear plane angle; or it has not
been attempted to obtain all three. It is common that if the
(active) cutting force is correctly predicted, the (passive) thrust
force is not. This paper’s contribution is to present simulations in
which all three are obtained in near-agreement with experiment.
It also proposes a practical way to obtain the constitutive equa-
tions of other steels that have not been studied here that is the
necessary input to the simulations.
There is an earlier analytical machining literature, associated
with the name of Oxley [9], with particular researches jointly with
Hastings et al. [10] particularly relevant to this paper. The present
paper’s results in relation to these earlier studies are discussed.
2. Temperature and strain-rate modelling
    
s̄ ¼ C 1 þ C 5 ¯ c1=n þ C 2 exp C 3 þ C 4 ln _¯ T abs ; ¯ 4c (4d)
s̄ ¼ su ; ¯ pu (4e)
There is published work on typical values of the coefficients
C1–C5, for pure iron and carbon steels. Values of C3 and C4 that
control temperature and strain-rate dependence are shown
in Table 1. In this paper, simulations are presented using
Zerilli–Armstrong (ZA) constitutive equations. C3 and C4 have
been assumed to be the same for all the steels, namely mean
values from Table 1, 5.6  103 and 2.7  104, respectively. The
other coefficients have been obtained experimentally. Simulations
are also presented using the power-law equations (3) and (4) from
Part I. Then, in addition to those with ‘as measured’ constitutive
equation coefficients, thermal softening coefficients have been
chosen to mimic Zerilli–Armstrong temperature dependence.

Eq. (4a) shows Zerilli’s and Armstrong’s [3] proposed consti-

tutive equation for b.c.c. metals (Tabs is absolute temperature, and 3. Experimentation
the strain-hardening exponent defined as 1/n in this paper was
written n in the original). Subsequently [11], it has been pro- Three plain and three free-machining carbon steels (Table 2)
posed that the strain-hardening part should have a temperature have been the subject of the physical experiments and simula-
dependence, Eq. (4b), through the temperature dependence of tions. The free-machining steels were from experimental casts
the elastic modulus E. In neither, as recognised in [3], is the high (see Acknowledgements) and their compositions in Table 2 are
temperature recovery of strain hardening allowed for. For that measured. The plain carbon steels were purchased from a stockist.
reason, in this paper, a further modification is made. Above a Their compositions are nominal mid-range values. For all, the
critical temperature Tc (1C), the strain-hardening term is assumed room temperature thermal conductivities and specific heats are
to reduce linearly to zero as temperature increases to the melting from data in [15]. Their densities were assumed to be 7860 kg/m3.
temperature Tm (Eq. (4c)). This is the same empirical modification
as used in the power-law form of Part I. A cut-off strain ¯ c is also 3.1. Physical experiments
assumed in all cases, above which no further strain hardening
takes place. Eq. (4d) is the modification for the case of Eq. (4a). Both machining and mechanical property testing have been
Finally, the upper yield point continues to be modelled as in carried out.
Eq. (4e): Machining tests: All six steels, in cylindrical bar form from 60
     to 100 mm diameter, were turned on a lathe, without any cutting
s̄ ¼ C 1 þ C 5 ¯ 1=n þ C 2 exp C 3 þ C 4 ln _¯ T abs (4a)
fluid, at cutting speeds from 50 to 250 m/min and a feed of
     0.25 mm/rev. SPGN 120304 inserts were used. Their cutting edge
s̄ ¼ C 1 þ C 5 ¯ 1=n ðET =Eref Þ þ C 2 exp C 3 þ C 4 ln _¯ T abs (4b) radii were measured to be 1575 mm. Their room temperature
thermal conductivity, specific heat and density were 60 W/mK,
  
Tm  T 255 J/kg K, 12,900 kg/m3, from [16]. They were held to present
s̄ ¼ C 1 þ C 5 ¯ 1=n ðET =Eref Þ 61 side rake, 01 back rake and 751 approach angle to the work.
Tm  Tc
   A fresh cutting edge was used and a 5 mm length of bar was
þ C 2 exp C 3 þ C 4 ln _¯ T abs ; T4T c (4c)
turned for every test. The axial, radial and circumferential compo-
nents of force on the tool were measured with a Kistler dynamo-
Table 1 meter. Chip thickness ratios (from which f was calculated) were
Zerilli–Armstrong coefficients C3 and C4 for annealed iron and carbon steels.
obtained by weighing measured lengths of chips. The depth of
Material C3 C4 Ref. cut was varied in a preliminary set of tests with 080M46 steel.
All force components per unit depth of cut, and chip thickness
Pure iron 0.0070 0.00042 [3] ratios, were found to become independent of depth of cut, i.e. to
0.12% C steel 0.0042a 0.00022a [12]
approach plane strain conditions, at depths X1 mm. A depth of
Pure iron 0.0051 0.00026 [13]
0.45% C steel 0.0061 0.00019 [14] cut of 1 mm was therefore chosen for all subsequent tests. The
cutting and thrust force components FC and FT to be compared
a
Values calculated by present authors from data in [12]. with the results of the plane strain simulations were obtained,

Table 2
Work material compositions and thermo-physical properties at 20 1C.

Material Composition (wt%) (balance Fe) K (W/m K) C (J/kg K)

C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Pb

070M20 0.20 0.25 0.70 0.05 0.05 0.30 0.15 0.40 – 52 490
080M40 0.40 0.25 0.80 0.05 0.05 0.30 0.15 0.40 – 48 480
080M46 0.47 0.25 0.80 0.05 0.05 0.30 0.15 0.40 – 48 480
9SMn36 0.09 0.01 1.01 0.06 0.33 0.03 0.01 0.04 – 55 470
9SMnPb36 0.08 0.04 1.49 0.07 0.42 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.27 55 470
SAE1144 0.44 0.13 1.45 0.01 0.30 0.15 0.00 0.02 – 47 490
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.H.C. Childs, R. Rahmad / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472 467

respectively, from the measured circumferential force and by
resolving the measured axial and radial components normal to the
cutting edge.
Mechanical testing: Tensile test pieces were made from all six
steels, to obtain their lower yield stress and initial strain-
hardening behaviour at low strain rate and room temperature.
Plane strain compression (PSC) samples were also made, to extend
equivalent stress, equivalent strain behaviour up to a strain E1.
These tests were carried out incrementally, with lubrication
between increments, and changing platens to keep platen width
to sample thickness in the range 2–4, as is recommended [17].
Hopkinson bar (HB) test results were available for the free-
machining steels, from a previous project. These had been carried
out at room temperature, at a strain rate of 103/s, incrementally,
in compressive strain steps of 0.05, up to a final strain of 1.0, with
lubrication between steps. They had also been carried out at tem-
peratures from room temperature to 700 1C, with rapid heating
and cooling before and after each step, as described in [18].
3.2. Simulations
Simulations were performed at the three cutting speeds 50,
150, 250 m/min and ac ¼ 0.25 mm. The work material was given
nominal room temperature thermal properties (K ¼ 52 W/m K,
C ¼ 490 J/kg K, Table 2) and a density of 7860 kg/m3. The cutting
tool was given a rake angle of 61 and a clearance angle of 101. Its
cutting edge radius was 20 mm. The software did not allow free
choice of the tool’s thermal conductivity (as explained in Part I).
An option was chosen with K estimated to be 75 W/mK, as close
4.1. Physical experiments
Mechanical testing: Figs. 1a, and b present the combined tensile
testing and PSC results for the plain and free-machining carbon
steels. Fig. 1b in addition presents the HB data for the free-
machining steels. Fig. 2 shows results from the elevated temper-
ature HB tests, with two further sets of data from previously
published work [20,21]. It plots the flow stress at temperature,
relative to the flow stress at 20 1C, for ¯ ¼ 1 and _¯ ¼ 103 =s. The
dashed line shows the linear reduction to zero as temperature
increases from ambient to the melting temperature, as was pro-
posed, based on experiments, by Johnson and Cook [2].
The values of the coefficients in the power-law constitutive
model (Part I, Eqs. (3) and (4)), based on Figs. 1 and 2, are
presented in Table 3. Coefficient values C1, C2, C5, n and ¯ c for the
Zerilli–Armstrong constitutive model (Eqs. (4a) and (4d)) are
entered in Table 4 (C3 and C4, not included in the table, are the
mean values from Table 1). How the coefficient values were
obtained is described in Appendix A1.
Machining tests: Representative experimentally determined
cutting and thrust forces and shear plane angles are distributed
among Figs. 3, 6 and 7, with other data in Appendix A2.
1000
800
Equivalent stress (MPa)

as was possible to the physical tool’s 60 W/m K. The fraction of

plastic work converted to heat was assumed to rise from an initial
value of 0.9 linearly to 1.0 as strain increased to the cut-off level at 600
which strain hardening no longer occurred. The small differences
(in tool clearance angle and cutting edge radius, and tool and work
thermo-physical properties) between these and the experimen- 400 070M20
tal conditions were found to lead to shorter computation times. 080M40
Sensitivity analyses showed that they did not influence the con- 080M46
clusions to be reported. 200
For the plain carbon steels, the friction coefficient m was taken
to be 1.0, large enough to ensure frictionpffiffiffi stress was limited by the
chip material’s shear flow stress, s̄= 3, over the highly loaded 0
part of the chip–tool contact length (as discussed in Part I). For the 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
free-machining steels values of mo1.0 were chosen empirically to Equivalent strain
fit the observed resultant force direction. This was because, for
these steels, solid lubricant layers are deposited on the rake face
1400
andpffiffifficause friction stress to be limited to a fraction m (mo1) of
s̄= 3[19]. The commercial software used in this paper does not
support such a description (mo1) of friction behaviour. 1200
Simulation of 070M20 machining was carried out first. Initially
the ‘as measured’ mechanical properties were input, in power-law 1000
Equivalent stress (MPa)

form. The simulation was designated PL1. Then an upper yield

point and modified effects of temperature and strain rate on flow 800
stress were introduced in a series of simulations PL2 to 5, as well
as a series of simulations ZA1 to 3 based on the Zerilli–Armstrong
600
equations (all details in Section 4.2). The equations that resulted
in the closest agreement between simulations and experiment
were established. Their temperature and strain-rate dependencies 400 Material PSC HB
were carried forward to simulations of the machining of the other 9SMn36
five steels, for each steel combining those dependencies with that 200 9SMnPb36
steel’s individual strain-hardening behaviour. SAE1144
0
4. Results 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Equivalent strain
In all the following figures, curves drawn to fit the data are Fig. 1. Strain-hardening data for (a) plain and (b) free-cutting carbon steels from
B-splines to guide the eye and are not regression lines. (a) PSC and (b) PSC and HB tests.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
468 T.H.C. Childs, R. Rahmad / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472

Experiment
1.0 Simulation PL1 simulation ZA1
1400 Simulation PL4 Simulation ZA2 28
9SMn36
0.8 9SMnPb36 1200 24
SAE1144

Shear plane angle (°C)

1000 20
[σT] / [σ T=20°C]

0.6 0.1% C steel [20]

FC, FT (N/mm)
708M40 [21] φ
800 16
0.4
600 FC 12

0.2 Linear reduction 400 8

FT
(c.f. Johnson-Cook law)

0.0 200 4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Temperature (°C) 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 2. Flow stresses relative to ambient values, ¯ ¼ 1:0 and _¯ ¼ 103 s1 . Cutting speed (m/min)

Table 3
Power-law (PL) coefficient values from mechanical testing. 600

Material s0 (MPa) n ¯ 0 ¯ c m _¯ 0 c0 c1 c2–c5 Primary plane shear stress, k (MPa)

550
070M20 250 5 4.09E3 1.0 45 0.01 1.0 –6.7E4 0
080M40 360 13 1.12E5 1.0 45 0.01 1.0 –6.7E4 0
080M46 330 9 4.82E5 1.0 45 0.01 1.0 –6.7E4 0
9SMn36 240 5 5.26E3 1.0 45 0.01 1.0 –6.7E4 0 500
9SMnPb36 370 10 3.14E3 1.0 45 0.01 1.0 –6.7E4 0
SAE1144 490 8 3.15E3 1.0 45 0.01 1.0 –6.7E4 0
450 Experiment
Simulation PL1 Simulation ZA1
Simulation PL4 Simulation ZA2
400 Simulation PL5
Table 4
Zerilli–Armstrong (ZA) coefficient values (Eq. (4d)) from mechanical testing.
0 50 100 150 200 250
Material C1 (MPa) C2 (MPa) C5 (MPa) n ¯ c Cutting speed (m/min)
070M20 120 1000 510 2.4 1.0
080M40 180 1350 510 5.0 1.0 25
080M46 150 1350 650 4.5 1.0
9SMn36 100 1000 470 2.1 1.0
9SMnPb36 200 1250 300 3.1 1.0
SAE1144 300 1350 530 3.2 1.0
20
(φ - γ) (°)

15
4.2. Simulations

Experiment
The simulations of 070M20 machining are summarised in Fig. 3.
10 Simulation PL1
Fig. 3a shows that the simulations PL1 and ZA1 (with materials
Simulation PL2 Simulation ZA1
data as in Tables 3 and 4) give rise, respectively, to shear plane
Simulation PL3 Simulation ZA2
angles larger than and smaller than experimental. Their cutting
Simulation PL4 Simulation ZA3
forces are, respectively, smaller than and larger than experimental. 5
The thrust force for PL1 is much less than experimental, whereas 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
that for ZA1 is in agreement with experiment. λ (°)
Fig. 3b shows that both simulations give primary plane shear
stresses in agreement with experiment. Fig. 3c clearly shows differ- Fig. 3. 070M20 experimental and simulated dependencies of (a) forces and shear
plane angle and (b) primary plane shear stress on cutting speed; (c) (fg) on l.
ences between the two and from experiment. PL1 shows both lower
values and a wider range of friction angles l than ZA1. ZA1’s l
values are approximately in agreement with experiment. Inspection
showed that the differences between PL1 and ZA1 could largely be Fig. 3c shows simulation PL2 to give almost identical results to
attributed to their different thermal softening behaviours. ZA1. Both have shear plane angles lower than experiment.
The simulation PL2 was therefore created with thermal soften- Therefore (Table 5) simulations PL3, 4 and ZA2 were created,
ing coefficients modified to bring its behaviour closer to ZA1. with upper yield points su ¼ 800 (PL3) and 1000 (PL4, ZA2) MPa
As shown in Table 5, c2 was given a non-zero value, also Tc, Tm (eu ¼ 0.05 in all cases). Fig. 3c shows these to give results closer to
were specified (see also Fig. 4 for a graphical interpretation). experiments than do PL2, ZA1. Fig. 3b shows their primary plane
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.H.C. Childs, R. Rahmad / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472 469

Table 5
Modified PL and ZA (Eqs. (4b) and (4c)) coefficient values for 070M20 simulations.
1000 a
Simulation c2 m _¯ 0 su (MPa) eu Tc (1C) Tm (1C) ET (1C)/Eref c

PL2 3.7E7 – – – – 900 1470 –

800
PL3 3.7E7 – – 800 0.05 900 1470 –

Equivalent stress (MPa)

PL4 3.7E7 – – 1000 0.05 900 1470 –
PL5 3.7E7 35 0.1 1000 0.05 900 1470 –

ZA2 – – – 1000 0.05 900 1470 –

600 d
ZA3 – – – 1000 0.05 900 1470 1–0.000445T
b
400

shear stresses to agree with experiment. Fig. 3a shows that there

200
is a resulting good agreement with the primary quantities of
cutting and thrust forces and shear angles.
Simulation PL5 is concerned with the choice of (m, _¯ 0 ) values.
0
It is as PL4 (Table 5) except that (m, _¯ 0 ) ¼ (35, 0.1). Fig. 3b shows
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
its primary plane shear stress to be verging on too large a value.
Temperature (°C)
Tests with (m, _¯ 0 ) ¼ (25, 1) gave even large values, 610–630 MPa.
It is for this reason that PL1-4’s (m, _¯ 0 ) ¼ (45, 0.01) combination
has been preferred. (Why these m; ¯ 0 are considered is explained
1000 a
in Appendix 1.)
Simulation ZA3 shows the effect of introducing the soften- c
ing associated with elastic modulus reducing with temperature
800
(Eq. (4c)). It is a retrograde step. Its l value spread is similar to
Equivalent stress (MPa)

that of PL1, though its (fg) values are higher (due to its upper
yield stress value).
600 d
Insight into the thermal softening behaviours of the models
PL4, ZA2 and ZA3 is gained from Fig. 4. It shows, for tests at a b
cutting speed of 250 m/min., equivalent stress dependence on
400
temperature extracted from Gauss points that are plastically
deforming (as judged by a strain rate 410/s). In all there is a
low temperature part ‘a’ for which the equivalent stress is the
200
upper yield stress. There is a section ‘bc’ over which flow stress
increases with temperature, due to strain-hardening (the plastic
work causes the temperature rise). Then there is a section ‘cd’ in
0
which thermal and strain-rate effects dominate. In Fig. 4b, the
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
non-linearity of ‘cd’ is the natural result of the exponential term
Temperature (°C)
in the ZA equation. In Fig. 4a, the same characteristics have been
created by the choice of coefficients c1 and c2. In Fig. 4c, the influ-
ence of elastic modulus softening has made the equivalent stress
1000 a
thermal softening become almost linear with increasing tem-
perature. This is similar to the behaviour associated with the PL1 c
simulations.
800
The scatter in Fig. 4 results comes from the range of strain rates
Equivalent stress (MPa)

acting at every temperature. Fig. 5 re-plots Fig. 4b in terms of

Tmod, known as the velocity modified temperature. It is defined
600
as T mod ¼ ð1  C 4 =C 3 ln _¯ ÞT abs . It is the combined strain rate and b
temperature function within the exponential term of Eq. (4). In
d
this way, the scatter over the portion ‘cd’ is eliminated. Scatter still 400
exists over ‘bc’ because of the strain dependence of equivalent
stress. The portion ‘de’ comes from Gauss points at which the
temperature was above Tc. The flow stress at unit strain from the 200
previous work by Hastings et al. [10] has been added to the figure
and is discussed in Section 5.
It is the temperature and strain-rate dependences of the PL4 0
and ZA2 simulations that have been applied to the simulations of 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
all the other five steels. Temperature (°C)
The simulations of 080M40 and 080M46 machining with ‘as
measured’ mechanical properties showed the same differences Fig. 4. 070M20 flow stress dependence on temperature, from Gauss point data at a
from experimental results as did those with the 070M20 steel. cutting speed of 250 m/min: simulations (a) PL4, (b) ZA2 and (c) ZA3.

Fig. 6 compares the experimental results for 080M40 with the

‘best model’ PL4 and ZA2 simulations, equivalent to 070M20’s underestimate experimental cutting and thrust forces, particu-
PL4 and ZA2, except that the magnitude of su was set at 1200 larly at low cutting speeds, by E10%, ZA2 slightly more so than
rather than 1000 MPa. Fig. 6a shows that both simulations PL4. Fig. 6b shows that this is associated with the simulations’
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
470 T.H.C. Childs, R. Rahmad / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472

1000 a
Experiment
1200 36
Simulation PL4
c
Simulation ZA2
800 1000 30
Equivalent stress (MPa)

Shear plane angle (°C)

d 800 φ 24

FC, FT (N/mm)
600 b A e

600 FC 18
400
400 12
FT
200
Simulation ZA2 200 6
from Hastings, Oxley, Stevenson [10]
0 0 0
200 400 600 800 1000 0 50 100 150 200 250
Velocity modified temperature, Tmod (K) Cutting speed (m/min)

Fig. 5. Data of Fig. 4b re-plotted against Tmod and compared with previous work.
Experiment
too low primary zone shear stresses rather than with discre- Simulation PL4
750

Primary plane shear stress, k (MPa)

pancies (Fig. 6c) in f and l values. For 080M46, the simulated Simulation ZA2
(also with su ¼ 1200 MPa) and experimental results were in all
respects in better agreement with one another than were the 700
080M40 ones, as can be checked from Appendix A2.
Fig. 7 compares the experimental and simulated results for the
free-machining steel 9SMn36. As before, only the ‘best model’ PL4 650
and ZA2 simulations are presented. In this case, su ¼ 1000 MPa
and friction coefficient m has been chosen to be 0.6. Simi-
larly, good agreements were obtained for the 9SMnPb36 steel 600
(also with su ¼ 1000 MPa and m ¼ 0.6) and for SAE1144 (with
su ¼ 1200 MPa but m varying from 0.4 to 0.3 as cutting speed
increased from 50 to 250 m/min). In all cases, ZA2 simulations
550
are marginally closer to experiments than PL4 ones (again see
Appendix A2). 0 50 100 150 200 250
Cutting speed (m/min)

5. Discussion and conclusions 30

The proposal from Part I that simulating the machining of

carbon steels could be improved by including an upper yield
point in the metals’ constitutive descriptions has been born out. 25
Near-agreement between experiments and simulations has been
achieved for six different steels.
(φ - γ) (°)

However, also as suggested in Part I it has had to be supposed

that the upper yield stress is 2.5–4 times larger than the lower 20
yield stress (su ¼ 1000 MPa for 070M20, 9SMn36 and 9SMnPb36,
with lower yield stresses of 250, 240 and 370 MPa; su ¼ 1,200
MPa for 080M40, 080M46 and SAE1144, with lower yield stresses Experiment
15 Simulation PL4
of 360, 330, 490 MPa). This exceeds the factor of up to 3 from a
review of yield delay effects [5, Part I]. It remains to be determined Simulation ZA2
how realistic is so large an increase in upper yield stress.
It has also been necessary to modify the thermal softening
10
behaviour of the steels from the measured linear reduction with 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
temperature (Fig. 2). The modification has, however, been one that
λ (°)
has its main effect above 600 1C which is the limit of the experi-
mental observations. It has two parts. One is a reduction in Fig. 6. 080M40 experimental and simulated dependencies of (a) forces and shear
temperature sensitivity of flow stress in the range 600–900 1C plane angle and (b) primary plane shear stress on cutting speed and (c) (fg) on l.
(Figs. 4a and b). It is justified by materials’ science arguments as
advanced by Zerilli and Armstrong [3]. (As an aside, the modi-
fication to their argument, proposed in [11], leading to Eq. (4c), is hundred 1C, than is experienced in less rapid heating processes.
not supported by the present work.) The other is a rapid thermal Just as an enhanced upper yield stress is attributed to yield delay
softening at temperatures above Tc ¼ 900 1C. This may mark the effects, it is necessary to invoke a softening delay in the machining
onset of recovery, but is a somewhat higher temperature, by a few process. This too remains a subject for further study.

T.H.C. Childs, R. Rahmad / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 465–472
Experiment
PL4 ZA2
1000
800
φ
FC, FT (N/mm)
600
FC
400
200 FT
0 0
0 50 100 150 200
Cutting speed (m/min)
Fig. 7. Experimental and simulated dependencies of forces and shear plane angle
on cutting speed for steel 9SMn36.
The actual value, 900 1C, depends on the accuracy of the simu-
lations’ temperature calculations. In that respect, it should be
remarked that it has been assumed that, at plastic strains 41,
100% of plastic work is converted to heat. This is believed to be
more realistic than the common, alternative, view that E90% is
converted to heat, whatever the strain. However, the accurate
calculation of temperature and its experimental verification
remains an open issue.
Good agreements between simulations and experiments have
been obtained with both ZA- and PL-based constitutive equations
although the ZA-based simulations have been marginally better
than the PL ones. However, the ZA form of constitutive equation
(for b.c.c. metals), adding strain hardening and temperature/
strain-rate terms, makes the derivation of its coefficients more
difficult than for the PL type of equation. From a practical point
of view, it is more straightforward to use a PL-type equation,
requiring only a steel’s room temperature and low strain-rate
strain hardening to be measured, assuming its temperature and
strain-rate dependencies to be the same as for every other steel.
With this assumption, the largest difference between measured
and simulated shear stresses on the primary shear plane has
occurred for the 080M40 steel (Fig. 6b), but this difference has
only been E10%. The assumption would seem to be good to that
level of accuracy.
Finally, the present work’s adoption of non-linear thermal
softening may be compared with the earlier (pre-finite-element)
work of Oxley and his colleagues. In [10] they consider, for a steel
of similar carbon content to 070M20, flow in the high tempera-
ture conditions next to the rake face, which determines chip/tool
friction stresses. The dashed line in Fig. 5 is their flow stress at
unit strain determined from high-speed compression tests. The
portion AB was attributed to blue-brittleness but the more strik-
ing feature is the overlapping of the present Zerilli–Armstrong and
[10] curves over the Tmod range 200–700 K. There are however
large differences at higher values of Tmod. It draws attention to
the need for more understanding of flow stress and friction in this
highest temperature range.
Acknowledgements
The free-machining steels were from stock procured as part
of the ECSC agreement No. 7210.MA/821. The Hopkinson bar tests
reported on these were carried out as part of that project, under
ARTICLE IN PRESS
471
the direction of Prof. K. Maekawa (Ibaraki University, Japan). This
paper was written while one of us (RR) was a visiting researcher,
30
following Ph.D. study, at Leeds, supported by her home university.
24
Appendix A1. Derivation of Tables 3 and 4 coefficients from
Shear plane angle (°C)
Figs. 1 and 2.
18
Table 3: s0 values were obtained from the tensile tests’ lower
yield stress and n from the slope of PSC log (stress)/log (strain)
12 plots. ¯ 0 values were then chosen to give the correct PSC stress
level at a strain of 1.0. ¯ c was taken to be 1.0. Strain-rate constants
m (m ¼ m1 ¼ m2) and _¯ 0 were obtained by comparing PSC and HB
6
results (Fig. 1b). Inspection shows stress levels in HB tests
(_¯ ¼ 103 =s) to be E1.3 times those in the PSC tests (_¯ o102 =s).
Then, from the form of the PL’s strain-rate term, ð103 =_¯ 0 Þ1=m  1:3.
250 Possible (m, _¯ 0 s1 ) combinations range from (25, 1), through
(35, 101), to (45, 102). m ¼ 25 has been found to give too large a
strain-rate dependence in the present machining tests, where
strain rates 4104/s have been generated. For this reason, (35, 101)
and (45, 102) have been considered, with (45, 102) shown in
Table 3, as explained next.
_¯ 0 has the physical significance that flow stress dependence on
strain rate is much reduced at strain rates less than it. Although
there is evidence that _¯ 0  101 at room temperature [12], the
combination of (m, _¯ 0 ) with _¯ 0 ¼ 102 gave slightly better agree-
ments with experiment in simulations of 070M20 machining
(as is shown in Fig. 3b). (45, 102) is therefore entered in Table 3.
It is assumed to be the same for all the steels. Finally, Table 3’s
thermal softening constants c0–c5 give the linear softening shown
by Fig. 2’s dashed line. In this case, there is no need to specify the
cut-off temperature Tc.
Table 4: For all the steels, C5 is the PSC flow stress increase from
¯ ¼ 0 to 1 and n comes from the slope of the log(stress)/log(strain)
plot. (The n values differ from those of the PL descriptions because
of the different form of the strain-hardening term.) For the free-
machining steels, C2 is obtained from the difference in stress
levels between the PSC and HB tests, after calculating the room
temperature values of the exponential term at strain rates of 103
and 102/s. Then C1 is determined such that at zero strain the
tensile test lower yield stress value is obtained. For the plain
carbon steels, in the absence of any high strain-rate test data, it
has been assumed that C2 for 070M20 is the same as for 9SMn36
(because of the similarity between their PSC behaviours) and for
080M40 and M46 it is the same as for SAE1144. Then C1 has been
calculated as for the free-machining steels.
Appendix A2. Machining data (to 2 significant figures)
not presented in main text
Experimental data and simulation data for 080M46, 9SMnPb36
and SAE1144 steels are represented in Tables A1 and A2, respectively.
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Table A1
Experimental data for 080M46, 9SMnPb36 and SAE1144 steels.

Vc (m/min) 080M46 9SMnPb36 SAE1144

FC (N/mm) FT(N/mm) f (deg) FC (N/mm) FT (N/mm) f (deg) FC (N/mm) FT (N/mm) f (deg)

50 625 425 25 390 190 33 480 180 32

100 560 320 26 380 180 30 450 150 34
150 530 240 26 380 180 31 420 120 36
200 520 230 25 360 160 34 420 110 37
250 500 210 27 340 150 36 400 110 38

Table A2
PL4 and ZA2 simulation data for 080M46, 9SMnPb36 and SAE1144 steels.

Sim. Vc (m/min) 080M46 9SMnPb36 SAE1144

FC (N/mm) FT (N/mm) f (deg) FC (N/mm) FT (N/mm) f (deg) FC (N/mm) FT (N/mm) f (deg)

PL4 50 600 370 25 390 180 28 520 190 30

150 560 300 25 380 180 29 500 160 31
250 530 230 28 390 180 31 490 140 32

ZA2 50 600 370 23 370 170 30 470 170 30

150 560 320 25 360 150 33 460 140 33
250 520 220 29 360 150 34 450 130 33

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