Ergün Yaraneri

MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

Some Solved Problems

 
1 2 −2
Problem 1. Let A =  2 4 −4  .
−2 −4 4

(a) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.

(b) Find the eigenvalues of A.

(c) Find bases for the eigenspaces of A.

(d) What are the algebraic and geometric multiplicities of eigenvalues of A?

(e) Is A diagonalizable? If so, find an invertible matrix P such that P −1 AP is a diagonal matrix.

Solution: (a):
   
 (λ − 1) −2 2   (λ − 1) −2 2 
  R2 + R3 → R3 
pA (λ) = det(λI − A) =  −2 (λ − 4) 4   −2 (λ − 4) 4 
 = 
 2 4 (λ − 4)   0 λ λ 
 
 (λ − 1) −4 2   
−C3 + C2 → C2 

 = λ(−1)3+3  (λ − 1)
 −4 
−2 (λ − 8) 4 
=    −2 (λ − 8) 
 0 0 λ 
 
= λ (λ − 1)(λ − 8) − 8 = λ(λ2 − 9λ + 8 − 8) = λ2 (λ − 9)

(b): The roots of the characteristic polynomial are the eigenvalues. So, the eigenvalues of A are 0 and 9.

(c): For λ = 0 : A basis for the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue 0 can be obtained by finding a
basis for the nullspace of the matrix −A (=|{z}
λ I − A).
λ=0
   
−1 −2 2 −1 −2 2
−2R1 + R2 → R2 
−A =  −2 −4 4  0 0 0 
2R1 + R3 → R3
2 4 −4 0 0 0

Letting the unknowns be x, y, z, the last two variables y and z are free. Moreover, the equation that corresponds
to the last matrix is −x − 2y + 2z = 0. Putting y = 1, z = 0 we get (x, y, z) = (−2, 1, 0); and putting z = 1, y = 0
we get (x, y, z) = (2, 0, 1). Hence, the set    
 −2 2 
 1 , 0 
0 1
 

is a basis for the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue 0.

For λ = 9 : We need to find a basis for the nullspace of the matrix 9I − A.
   
8 −2 2 0 −18 −18
−4R 3 + R1 → R 1 
9I − A =  −2 5 4  0 9 9 
R3 + R2 → R2
2 4 5 2 4 5
   
0 0 0 0 0 0
2R2 + R1 → R1 
0 1 1  − 4R2 + R3 → R3  0 1 1 
(1/9)R2
2 4 5 2 0 1
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

Letting unknowns be x, y, z it is clear from the latest matrix that z is free, and putting z = 1 we get (x, y, z) =
(−1/2, −1, 1). Hence, the set  
 −1/2 
 −1 
1
 

is a basis for the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue 9.

(d): By parts (a) and (c) we see that

eigenvalue algebraic multiplicity geometric multiplicity

0 2 2
9 1 1

(e) A is diaogonaizable
 because the
 sum of dimensions of distinct eigenspaces of A is 3.
−2 2 −1/2
We put P =  1 0 −1  . Then for this P we know that (or one may check that)
0 1 1
 
0 0 0
P −1 AP =  0 0 0 
0 0 9
 
−2 −1/2 2
Note also that if you change the places of columns, say for instance if we put Q =  1 −1 0  then
0 1 1
 
0 0 0
we get (you may check) Q−1 AQ =  0 9 0  , because the first and third columns of Q are eigenvectors both
0 0 0
corresponds to the eigenvalue 0, while the second column of Q corresponds to the eigenvalue 9.

 
6 0 1
Problem 2. Let A =  1 1 0  .
−9 0 0
(a) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.

(b) Find the eigenvalues of A.

(c) What are the algebraic and geometric multiplicities of eigenvalues of A?

(d) Is A diagonalizable? Explain.

Solution: (a):
 
 (λ − 6) 0 −1 

det(λI − A) =  −1 (λ − 1) 0 
 9 0 λ 
 
2+2  (λ − 6) −1 
 
= (λ − 1)(−1)  9 λ 
= (λ − 1)(λ2 − 6λ + 9)
= (λ − 1)(λ − 3)2
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

(b): Eigenvalues of A are 1 and 3.

(c): As “ 1 ≤ geometric multiplicity ≤ algebraic multiplicity ” it is immediately seen that algebraic and geometric
multiplicity of 1 are both equal to 1. So we need to find the nullity of
   
−3 0 −1 −3 0 −1
3I − A =  −1 2 0  3R1 + R3 → R3  −1 2 0 .
9 0 3 0 0 0
It is evident from the last matrix that the rank of 3I − A is 2. Thus nullity(3I − A) = 1. This means that the
geometric multiplicity of 3 is 1.
To sum up,
eigenvalue algebraic multiplicity geometric multiplicity
1 1 1
3 2 1

(d): A is not diagonalizable because the geometric multiplicity is not equal to the algebraic multiplicity for the
eigenvalue 3.

 
−5 −2 −2
Problem 3. Let A =  6 3 2 .
6 2 3
(a) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.
(b) Find the eigenvalues of A.
(c) Find bases for the eigenspaces of A.
(d) What are the algebraic and geometric multiplicities of eigenvalues of A?
(e) Is A diagonalizable? If so, find an invertible matrix P such that P −1 AP is a diagonal matrix.
(f ) Evaluate A1881 .

Solution: (a):
   
 (λ + 5) 2 2   (λ + 5) 2 2 
 −R 2 + R3 → R 3
 
pA (λ) = det(λI − A) =  −6 (λ − 3) −2   −6 (λ − 3) −2 
=  
 −6 −2 (λ − 3)   0 (1 − λ) (λ − 1) 
 
 (λ + 5) 4 2   
C3 + C2 → C2  3+3  (λ + 5)
 4 
−6 (λ − 5) −2  = (λ − 1)(−1) 
=    −6 (λ − 5) 
 0 0 (λ − 1) 
 
= (λ − 1) (λ + 5)(λ − 5) − (−6)(4) = (λ − 1)(λ2 − 1) = (λ − 1)2 (λ + 1).
(b): The eigenvalues of A are precisely the roots of its characteristic polynomial. Hence, the eigenvalues of A are
−1 and 1.
(c): For λ = −1 : The corresponding eigenspace is the nullspace of the matrix −I − A :
     
4 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1
1 3R 1 + R2 → R 2 
−I − A =  −6 −4 −2  R1  −6 −4 −2  0 −1 1 
2 3R1 + R3 → R3
−6 −2 −4 −6 −2 −4 0 1 −1
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

 
2 0 2
R2 + R3 → R3  0 −1 1 
R2 + R1 → R1
0 0 0
Letting unknowns be x, y, z it is clear from the latest matrix that the variable z is free and so the dimension of the
eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue −1 is 1, and its basis consists a single vector that, for instance, may
be found by putting z = 1. If z = 1 then it is clear from the last matrix that (x, y, z) = (−1, 1, 1). Hence, the set
 
 −1 
 1 
1
 

is a basis for the eigenspace of A corresponding to the eigenvalue −1.

For λ = 1 : The corresponding eigenspace is the nullspace of the matrix I − A :
   
6 2 2 6 2 2
R + R → R
−I − A =  −6 −2 −2  1 2 2 
0 0 0 
R1 + R3 → R3
−6 −2 −2 0 0 0

Letting unknowns be x, y, z it is clear from the latest matrix that the variables y and z is free and so the dimension
of the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 is 2, and its basis consists two vectors that, for instance, may
be found by putting y = 1, z = 0 and z = 1, y = 0. If y = 1, z = 0 then it is clear from the latest matrix that
(x, y, z) = (−1/3, 1, 0); and if z = 1, y = 0 then it is clear from the latest matrix that (x, y, z) = (−1/3, 0, 1).
Hence, the set    
 −1/3 −1/3 
 1 , 0 
0 1
 

is a basis for the eigenspace of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. If you do not like fractions you may, for instance,
   
 −1 −1  
multiply the basis vectors say by 3 and so the set  3  ,  0  is also a basis for the eigenspace
0 3
 
(d): By parts (a) and (c) we see that

eigenvalue algebraic multiplicity geometric multiplicity

−1 1 1
1 2 2

(e): A is diaogonaizable
 because the sum
 of dimensions of distinct eigenspaces of A is 3.
−1 −1/3 −1/3
We put P =  1 1 0  . Then for this P we know that (or one may check that) P −1 AP =
1 0 1
 
−1 0 0
 
 −1 −1 −1
 0 1 0  . You may also take P =  1 3 0  . Then for this P also we know that (or one may check that)
0 0 1 1 0 3
 
−1 0 0 
P −1 AP =  0 1 0 
0 0 1
   
−1 0 0 −1 −1/3 −1/3
(f ): By part (e) we know that P −1 AP =  0 1 0  where P =  1 1 0  . Let us put D =
0 0 1 1 0 1
 
−1 0 0
 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

Then P −1 AP = D and taking the 1881th power of both sides we see that

P −1 A1881 P = D1881 , implying that A1881 = P D1881 P −1 .

As D is a diagonal matrix we can calculate easily that

(−1)1881
   
0 0 −1 0 0
1881
D = 0 11881 0  =  0 1 0 .
0 0 1 1881 0 0 1

To calculate A1881 we calculate the right hand side of the equality A1881 = P D1881 P −1 which must be easy because
the matrix D1881 is a diagonal matrix.
We know what is P, but we do not know the matrix P −1 . So we must evaluate the inverse P −1 of the matrix
P :    
−1 −1/3 −1/3 1 0 0 −1 −1/3 −1/3 1 0 0
R + R2 → R2 
[P |I] =  1 1 0 0 1 0  1 0 2/3 −1/3 1 1 0 
R1 + R3 → R3
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 −1/3 2/3 1 0 1
 
−1 0 −1 0 0 −1
2R3 + R2 → R2 
0 0 1 3 1 2 
−R3 + R1 → R1
0 −1/3 2/3 1 0 1
   
−1 0 0 3 1 1 1 0 0 −3 −1 −1
−(2/3)R2 + R3 → R3  (−1)R1 
0 0 1 3 1 2  0 0 1 3 1 2 
R2 + R1 → R1 (−3)R3
0 −1/3 0 −1 −2/3 −1/3 0 1 0 3 2 1
 
1 0 0 −3 −1 −1
R2 ↔ R3  0 1 0 3 2 1  = [I|P −1 ].
0 0 1 3 1 2
 
−3 −1 −1
Hence P −1 =  3 2 1  . Consequently,
3 1 2
1881 −1
A1881 = P
D P   
−1 −1/3 −1/3 −1 0 0 −3 −1 −1
=  1 1 0  0 1 0  3 2 1 
1 0 1 0 0 1 3 1 2
  
1 −1/3 −1/3 −3 −1 −1
=  −1 1 0  3 2 1 
−1 0 1 3 1 2
 
−5 −2 −2
=  6 3 2 =A
6 2 3

The result A1881 = A is not surprising because one sees that A2 = I. There are another simple way of doing
such kind of problems (i.e., calculating the high powers of a square matrix) that we did not studied in class.

 
−1 3 3
Problem 4. Let A =  3 −1 −3  .
3 3 5

(a) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.

 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

(b) Find the eigenvalues of A.

(c) What are the algebraic and geometric multiplicities of eigenvalues of A?
(d) Is A diagonalizable?

Solution: (a):
   
 (λ + 1) −3 −3   (λ − 2) (λ − 2) 0 
 R2 + R1 → R1
 
pA (λ) = det(λI − A) =  −3 (λ + 1) 3   −3 (λ + 1) 3 
=  
 −3 −3 (λ − 5)   −3 −3 (λ − 5) 
 
 (λ − 2) 0 0   
−C1 + C2 → C2  1+1  (λ + 4)
 0 
−3 (λ + 4) 3  = (λ − 2)(−1)

=   0 (λ − 5) 
 −3 0 (λ − 5) 
= (λ − 2)(λ + 4)(λ − 5).
(b): The eigenvalues of A are precisely the roots of its characteristic polynomial. Hence, the eigenvalues of A are
2, −4 and 5.
(c):The algebraic multiplicity of each
 eigenvalue
 is 1. Using the inequality

1 ≤ the geometric multiplicity of c ≤ the algebraic multiplicity of c , which is true for any eigenvalue c, we
see that the geometric multiplicity of each eigenvalue is also 1.
(d): By parts (c) the algebraic and geometric multiplicities of each eigenvalue is equal. Thus, A is diagonalizable.

 
−3 20 2
Problem 5. Determine the eigenvalues of the matrix A =  1 3 −2  .
−3 10 4

Solution:
 The real eigenvalues of the matrix A are precisely the real roots of its characteristic polynomial pA (λ).
The characteristic polynomial of A is of a polynomial of degree 3. The essence of this problem is to find the real
roots of this degree 3 polynomial. However, it is not always easy to find a real roots of a polynomial of degree
3. This implicitly means
 that the characteristic polynomial of A is such a polynomial that its real roots can be
found by inspection.

−2  (λ + 3)R2 + R1 → R1  0 (λ2 − 29) (2λ + 4)

   
 (λ + 3)
 −20 

pA (λ) = det(λI − A) =  −1 (λ − 3) 2  3R2 + R3 → R3  −1
 (λ − 3) 1 

 3 −10 (λ − 4)  =  0 (3λ − 19) (λ + 2) 
 2 
2+1  (λ − 29) (2λ + 4)  2 3 2
 
= (−1)(−1)  (3λ − 19) (λ + 2)  = (λ − 29)(λ + 2) − (3λ − 19)(2λ + 4) = λ − 4λ − 3λ + 18

So the question arises: how do we find the real roots of λ3 − 4λ2 − 3λ + 18? We first check the integer divisor
of the constant term 18. For instance, 3 is an integer divisor of 18 and if we put λ = 3 in λ3 − 4λ2 − 3λ + 18 we
see that it is 0. Hence (λ − 3) must divide the polynomial λ3 − 4λ2 − 3λ + 18. By the polynomial division we get

λ3 − 4λ2 − 3λ + 18 (λ − 3)
− (λ3 − 3λ2 ) λ2 −λ−6
− λ2 − 3λ + 18
−(−λ2 + 3λ)
− 6λ + 18
− 6λ + 18
0
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

Hence,
λ3 − 4λ2 − 3λ + 18 = (λ − 3)(λ2 − λ − 6)
and we all know how to find the real roots of second degree polynomials. Indeed, λ2 − λ − 6 = (λ − 3)(λ + 2).
Consequently,
λ3 − 4λ2 − 3λ + 18 = (λ − 3)2 (λ + 2)
so that the eigenvalues of A are 3 and −2.
The above method given to find real roots of polynomials may not work always! If so, it means that finding
its real roots are extremely difficult and usually cannot be done by using the math learned in our course.

 
1 1
Problem 6. Is the matrix A = diagonalizable?
−1 −1

Solution: We need to find dimensions of the eigenspaces of A. Firstly, we find the characteristic polynomial of
A:  
 (λ − 1) −1  = (λ − 1)(λ + 1) + 1 = λ2 .

pA (λ) = det(λI − A) = 
1 (λ + 1) 
Hence, 0 is the only eigenvalue of A. Therefore, A is diagonalizable if and only if the nullity of the matrix
0I − A = −A is 2 (i.e, the dimension of the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue 0 is 2).
   
−1 −1 −1 −1
−A = − R1 + R2 → R2 .
1 1 0 0

It is clear that the last matrix has rank equal to 1 so that the nullity of it is 1 (not 2). Hence, the nullity of −A
is 1.
Consequently, A is not diagonalizable.

 
−1
Problem 7. Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix with eigenvalues −1 and 2 and corresponding eigenvectors and
0
 
−1
, respectively. Determine A6 .
1

Solution: As the 2 × 2 matrix A has 2 distinct eigenvalues, A must be diagonalizable (because the algebraic
 and

−1 −1
the geometric multiplicities of the eigenvalues must be both equal to 1). We know that if we put P =
0 1
 
−1 0
then P −1 AP = . Therefore,
0 2
 6  
−1 6 −1 0 −1 0
P A P = = . Hence,
0 2 0 64
     
6 −1 0 −1 −1 −1 −1 0 −1 −1
A = P P =
0 64 0 1 0 64 0 1
| {z } | {z }
P P −1
    
1 −64 −1 −1 −1 −65
= =
0 64 0 1 0 64
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

  
1 1
2
Problem 8. Let A be a 3 × 3 whose characteristic polynomial is (λ + 1) (λ − 3). Suppose that 0 and 1 
  
0 0
 
1
are eigenvectors of A corresponding to the one of the eigenvalue, and suppose that  1  is an eigenvector of A
1
corresponding to the other eigenvalue. Find A.

Solution: As the characteristic polynomial of A is (λ + 1)2 (λ − 3), it follows that  the algebraic
 multiplicity
 of
1 1
−1 is 2 and the algebraic multiplicity of 3 is 1. It is clear that the eigenvectors  0  and  1  are linearly
0 0
independent (because, they are not proportional), thus the geometric multiplicity of the corresponding eigenvalue
of A 
  ≥ 2.
must be  As the geometric multiplicity is less than or equal to the algebraic
 multiplicity,
 the eigenvectors
1 1 1 1 1
 0  and  1  must correspond to the eigenvalue −1. Hence, if we put P =  0 1 1 
0 0 0 0 1
   
−1 0 0 −1 0 0
then P −1 AP =  0 −1 0  , or A = P  0 −1 0  P −1 .
0 0 3 0 0 3
We need to find the inverse of P :
   
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −1 0
[P |I] =  0 1 1 0 1 0  − R2 + R1 → R1  0 1 1 0 1 0 
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 1 −1 0
−R3 + R2 → R2 0 1 0 0
 1 −1  = [I|P −1 ].
0 0 1 0 0 1
     
−1 0 0 1 1 1 −1 0 0 1 −1 0
A = P  0 −1 0  P −1 =  0 1 1   0 −1 0  0 1 −1 
0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 1
    
−1 −1 3 1 −1 0 −1 0 4
=  0 −1 3   0 1 −1  =  0 −1 4 
0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 3

Problem 9. Let A be a square matrix whose characteristic polynomial is (λ − 1)2 (λ + 2)3 (λ − 5). What is the
size of A? What is the trace of A? What is rank(5I − A)?

Solution: As the degree of the characteristic polynomial of A is 2 + 3 + 1 = 6, it follows that the size of A is
6 × 6.
As the trace of A is the sum of all eigenvalues of A considered with their algebraic multiplicities, we have
     
tr(A) = 1 + 1 + (−2) + (−2) + (−2) + 5 = 1.

nullity(5I − A) is the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 5. As its algebraic multiplicity is 1, its geometric
multiplicity must also be 1. This means that nullity(5I − A) = 1. As 5I − A is a 6 × 6 matrix, we get:
rank(5I − A) = 6 − nullity(5I − A) = 5.
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

Problem 10. Let A be a 3 × 3 noninvertible matrix. If 2 and 3 are eigenvalues of A, what is the characteristic
polynomial of A?

Solution: As A is not invertible, 0 must be an eigenvalue of A. Then, as A is 3 × 3 matrix, the eigenvalues of A

are 0, 2, 3 so that the characteristic polynomial of A is λ(λ − 2)(λ − 3).

Problem 11. Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix. Suppose that nullity(3I − A) = 2 and nullity(2I − A) = 1.

(a) What is the characteristic polynomial of A?
(b) Is A diagonalizable?
(c) What is the trace of A?

Solution: (a): Firstly, as A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the degree of the characteristic polynomial of A must be 3.
Secondly, nullity(3I − A) = 2 implies that 3 is an eigenvalue of A and its geometric multiplicity is 2. In a similar
way, nullity(2I − A) = 1 implies that 2 is an eigenvalue of A and its geometric multiplicity is 1. Hence, from the
inequalities:
   
1 ≤ the geometric multiplicity of c ≤ the algebraic multiplicity of c ≤ n

we see that the algebraic multiplicity of 3 is ≥ 2, and the algebraic multiplicity of 2 is ≥ 1. Note that the
algebraic multiplicity of 3 must be 2 because otherwise the sum of algebraic multiplicities of distinct eigenvalues
of A is greater than 3. In a similar way the algebraic multiplicity of 2 must be 1. Thus,
eigenvalue algebraic multiplicity
3 2
2 1
Hence, the characteristic polynomial of A is
(λ − 3)2 (λ − 2).
(b): Yes, A is diagonalizable, because the sum of dimensions of distinct eigenspaces of A is 3.



(c): tr(A) = 3 + 3 + 2 = 8.


  
1 0 2 3
Problem 12. What must be a and b if the vector  1  is an eigenvector of  3 a 1 ?
1 2 1 b
    
0 2 3 1 1
Solution: We must have 3 a 1
   1 = c 1  for some real number c. Carrying out the matrix multi-
 
2 1 b 1 1
      
0 2 3 1 5 1
plications we get:  3 a 1   1  =  4 + a  = c  1  Thus, c = 5, and so a = 1 and b = 2.
2 1 b 1 3+b 1
 Ergün Yaraneri
MAT 261E
yaraneri@itu.edu.tr

Problem 13. If c is an eigenvalue of a matrix A with ~v as a corresponding eigenvector, show that ck is an

eigenvalue of Ak , again with ~v as a corresponding eigenvector, for any positive integer k.

Solution: As c is an eigenvalue of A and ~v is a corresponding eigenvector, we have that A~v = c~v . Thus,
Ak~v = Ak−1 |{z}
A~v = cAk−1~v = cAk−2 |{z}
A~v = c2 Ak−2~v = ... = ck~v . Thus, ck is an eigenvalue of Ak , and ~v is a
c~v c~v
corresponding eigenvector.

Problem 14. If c is an eigenvalue of an invertible matrix A with ~v as a corresponding eigenvector, then show
that c 6= 0 and 1/c is an eigenvalue of A−1 , again with ~v as a corresponding eigenvector.

Solution: As c is an eigenvalue of A, then c is a root of its characteristic polynomial pA (λ) = det(λI − A).
Therefore, det(cI − A) = 0. Firstly, c 6= 0 because if we put c = 0 then we get det(−A) = 0. This is impossible
because A is invertible implies that det(−A) = (−1)n det(A) 6= 0.
As c is an eigenvalue of A and ~v is a corresponding eigenvector, we have that A~v = c~v . Multiplying both sides
with the inverse A−1 of A we obtain A−1 A~v = A−1 c~v , implying that ~v = cA−1~v , or (1/c)~v = A−1~v .
Thus, 1/c is an eigenvalue of A−1 , again with ~v as a corresponding eigenvector.