Basic Well Logging By Mandeep Kumar

(only well logging related chapters are available in this

Let me know if any mistake)
CONTENTS

Page No.
List of Abbreviations 02

Chapter 4. Well Logging

4.1 Open Hole Logging
4.2 Cased Hole Logging
4.3 Production Logging

Chapter 7. Log Interpretation

7.1 Qualitative Interpretation
7.2 Quantitative Log Interpretation
7.3 Geo Frame
7.4 ElanPlus

Chapter 9. Correlation and Fault identification from Log Data

9.1 Correlation
9.2 fault Identification

References

1
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
a Tortuosity factor
API American Petroleum Institute
IR Resistivity index (Rt/Ro)
m Cementation index
n Saturation exponent
Rclay Resistivity of clay/shale
Rmc Resistivity of mud cake
Rmf Resistivity of mud filtrate
Ro Resistivity of formation (100% saturated with formation water)
Rt True resistivity of undisturbed formation
Rw Resistivity of formation water
Rxo Resistivity of flushed zone
Shc Hydrocarbon saturation in Virgin zone
Sw Water saturation in virgin zone
Temp. Temperature
U___ Prefix used for undisturbed zone (e.g. UWAT -> water in undisturbed zone)
WAT Water
X___ Prefix used to indicate flushed zone (e.g. XWAT -> water in flushed zone)
ρb bulk density (from log)
ρΦ Density porosity
ρΦ clay Clay porosity calculated from density log
фN Neutron porosity (shale corrected)
фNclay Neutron porosity for clay
фS Sonic Porosity

Ωm ohm meter
µs/ft micro second per feet
cc Cubic centimeter
mV millivolt
ppk Part per thousand
pu porosity unit

CAL Caliper
CBL Cement bond log
CCL Casing collar locator
CFS Continuous Flowmeter
CNCF Field normalised compensated neutron porosity
DAL Dual acoustic log
DLL Dual latero-log
FBS Full Bore Spinner
GR Gamma ray
HDIL High definition induction log

2
HSC Hollow Steel Carrier
HSE Health and explosive safety
MIT Multi-finger Imaging Tool
MLL Micro latero-log
PCE Pressure control equipments
SP Spontaneous potential
SPM Shots per meter
TCL Tubing collar locator
VDL Variable density log
WGI Well geometry indicator
ZDL Density (from electron density)

3
Chapter 4 WELL LOGGING
Well log is a continuous record of measurement made in bore hole, in response to variation in
some physical properties of rocks through which the bore hole is drilled. Traditionally Logs
are display on grid papers. Now the log may be taken as films, images, and in digital format.

Evolution:
In 1912 Conrad Schlumberger gave the idea of using electrical measurements to map
subsurface rock bodies. And in 1919 Conrad Schlumberger and his brother Marcel began to
work on well logs. The first electrical resistivity well log was taken in France, in 1927. The
instrument which was used for this purpose is called Sonde which was stopped at periodic
intervals in bore hole and resistivity was plotted on graph paper.
In 1929 the electrical resistivity logs are introduce on commercial scale in Venezuela, USA
and Russia for correlation and identification of Hydrocarbon bearing strata. The photographic
film recorder was developed in 1936. The dip meter log were developed in 1930 and the
Gamma Ray and Neutron Log in 1941.

Overview:
Logging service companies utilize a variety of logging units, depending on the location
(onshore or offshore) and requirements of the logging run. Each unit will contain many
components such as logging cable, winch to raise and lower the cable in the well, self-
contained 120-volt AC generator, set of surface control panels, down-hole tools (sonde and
cartridges) and digital recording system.
The entire process involves the application of many electronic systems and it gives key
information which helps in lithology and minerals grade/quality identification, inter-borehole
correlation, structure mapping, dip determination, in-situ stress orientation, porosity
calculation and fluid salinity determination. Electric line is the common term for the armored,
insulated cable used to conduct current to down-hole tools used for well logging.

Log types Physical Measurement Scale Source

Density Electron Density 1.8 to 2.8 g/cc Cs-137 (Active)

Neutron Hydrogen index -0.06 to 0.54 pu Am-Be (Active)

Gamma ray Natural Radioactivity 0 to 150 gAPI Passive

SP logging Natural electric potential 0 to 100 mV Passive

Resistivity Resistivity 0.2 to 2000 Ωm Current electrode

Acoustic Transit time 40 to 140 µs/ft Piezoelectric crystal

Caliper Borehole diameter 6 to 16 inches ----------

Table 5 (Logging tools and measurements)

4
 Figure 1 (Logging Assembly, Logging Basics)3

The logging can be subdivided into open-hole operations and cased-hole operations.
Typically the wireline tools are cylindrical in shape, usually from 1.5 to 5‟‟ in diameter.
"Open Hole" tool combinations can extent to over 100 ft. long, "Cased Hole" tool
combinations are often limited in length by the height restrictions imposed by constraints of
"Lubricator" pipe section required to contain the well pressure while deploying cased hole
tools. There are many types of logging tools, ranging from common measurements (pressure
and temperature), to advance rock properties and fracture analysis, fluid properties in the
wellbore, or formation properties extending several meters into the rock formation.

5
4.1 Open Hole Logging:
Open hole logging operations or reservoir evaluation, involves the deployment of tools into a
freshly drilled well. As the tool string traverses the wellbore, the individual tools gather
information about the surrounding formations. A typical open hole log will have information
about the density, porosity, permeability, lithology, presence of hydrocarbons, and oil and
water saturation.

a) Spontaneous Potential (SP) log

The SP log is a measure of the natural potential of the borehole with the help of a fixed
electrode on surface and an electrode on the sonde. SP log is used for:
 Formation water resistivity estimation
 Bed Boundary characterisation
 As an indicator of the permeability
 For calculation the shale volume

Principle: Three factors are necessary for SP current:

 Conductive fluid in the borehole
 Permeable Beds
 Difference in the salinity of the mud and the formation water
The SP deflection originated when SP current originate into the borehole mud which are
caused by the electromotive forces into the formation, these are electrokinetic and
electrochemical in nature.

Electrochemical component involves development of the SP potential when mud and

formation have different salinity and porous-permeable bed is present between two
impermeable shale beds. In this case either +ve deflection is shown by log if salinity of the
mud is more than that of the formation fluid or -ve deflection when mud salinity is less
than that of the formation water.
 As shown in upper part of figure 3, the development of the SP potential in the porous
& permeable sand due to the movement of the charge between high saline formation
water to the less saline mud. Cl- ions travels to the mud because these are having more
mobility than the Na+ ions, so producing a -ve charge into the mud in-front of the
sand bed.
 In lower part of the same figure the movements of the Na+ ions takes place from the
shale into the mud, as shale is semi-permeable membrane for the +ve ions (due to the
-ve charge on its surface). This produce the +ve charge in front of the shale bed.
 due to the combined effect of these two SP current produced as shown in the figure 4 .

Electrokinetic component involves creation of the SP response when an electrolyte flow

through a porous, permeable non metallic medium. It depends on the difference in the
pressure which cause movements to the electrolytes and resistance to the flow of the
electrolytes. Electrokinetic component is negligible in case of formation water is saline
(resistivity less than 0.1 ohm-m) and the differential pressure has normal value (only a few
hundred pounds per square inches or less). However electrokinetic component become

6
important if pressure differential is large ( in depleted formation at low pressure when
heavy drilling mud is used). In that case mud cake and shale electrokinetic potential may
not cancel each other.

Electrokinetic component is also become significant in case of very low permeable

formation so that little or no mud cake is formed, than the hydrostatic head of the mud is
applied to the formation. If formation water is brackish and mud is resistive and formation
is clean (and has some porosity), the electrokinetic effect may be larger, sometime
exceeding 200mV. These effects are difficult to detect and affect the value of the Rw.

SP tools consist an electrode on the sonde, a 1.5V battery is introduces in the circuit for
amplification. Another end of the tools is earthen. Reading of the SP is recorded with the
help of the galvanometer so only change in potential is recorded not the absolute value.

Generally
 If there is more difference between mud and formation fluid the SP curve will spread
widely (SP current spread over large area), and sharp if difference is less.
 For a better resolution the thickness of the beds should be 20 times more than the
borehole diameter.

Shale base line is drawn on the thick shale interval when SP curve does not move for
some interval. And maximum deflection of the SP opposite to the permeable bed is called
static SP. Shale base line shift occur when water of different salinity separated by the
impermeable bed

Water Resistivity: when SP deflection is more the difference in the salinity of the mud and
the formation water more. Negative deflection mean formation water is more saline than
the mud and vice-versa.

Figure 3 (Electrochemical component of SP, Page-220)4

7
 Figure 4 (SP Current, Page-53)9

(Rmf )e
SSP = −Klog (Rw )e
SSP = static SP value; (Rmf)e = equivalent mud filtrate resistivity.
(Rw)e = equivalent formation water resistivity; K = temperature dependant coefficient
(65+0.24*T oC).

Shale volume calculation: Volume of the shale in water wetted shaly-sandstone can be
calculated:
PSP
VVsh % = (1 − SSP ) ∗ 100 PSP = SP read in the water bearing shaly-sand zone
(read from log).
SSP = maximum SP value in clean sand zone

b) Gamma Ray Log (GR)

Natural Gamma ray log is used to detect the intensity and counts natural radioactivity into
the formation. It can be represented in two forms one with the combined effect of the all
radioactive substance [resent into the formations, and another way is: representing the
counts of different peaks (known as spectral gamma ray log). Main elements which
contribute to the radioactivity of the formations are uranium (U), thorium (Th), and
potassium (K).

The tool contains scintillation counters to quantify the amount of Gamma radiation
received. The counter contains:

8
  a high resolution 2”x12” Cesium Iodide (CsI) crystal optically coupled to
 A photo-multiplier tube (PMT), which convert counts into electric signal and hence
we can calculate the intensity and counts of the radioactivity present into the
formation.

Simple gamma ray log is used in depth correlation in different operation in a well. And
also used for lithology identification and calculation of the gamma ray index and then
volume of the shale.
Each element (eg U, Th, K) contribute to the value of the gamma which are abundant in
different minerals. So gamma log should not be used as indicator of shale. In most shale's
K have fairly constant value (around 2% to 3.5%). Since shale is the mixture of the several
types of the minerals yet potassium is a fairly good indicator of the shale. However
potassium occur in feldspar and clay minerals so in sand- shale mixture, both feldspar and
clay minerals have potassium so provide false indication for shale.
Distribution of the uranium is irregular since it is not associated with the main rock
forming minerals. In average shale‟s uranium contributes to 10- 30 % of shale
radioactivity. But in certain cases it increases dramatically. Distribution of the uranium is
not related to the clay volume so it is a poor shale indicator.

Behavior of the thorium is not fully understood. Experiences show that it average content
12ppm (8 to 18 ppm) for typical shale, contributing 40 to 50 % of overall shale
radioactivity. So considering a constant average value and contribution to overall
radioactivity of shale it is considered a good shale indicator.
So for shale indicator good is thorium > potassium

K Th U
Abundance in earth's crust (Serra 1979) 2.59 % 12 ppm ~3 ppm
Gamma ray/ weight (Adam and Weaver 1 1300 3600
1958)
Principal peak used to identify 1.46 2.62 1.76 MeV (U-Ra
(Schlumberger 1972) MeV MeV series)

Table 6 (Abundance of Radioactive Element, Page-76)1

Generally:
 Radioactivity can also occur due to the presence of radioactive minerals in feldspar
minerals in sand and mica, gluconite etc.
 Change in grain size is not always related to the change in shale amount in linear way,
e.g. in turbidites, grain size variation is not related to the variation in the clay volume

Calculation of the shale volume:

GR(log) − GR( min)
Gamma ray index =
GR(max) − GR(min)

9
 Figure 5 (relation Between GR-Index and Vsh, Chapter 4.1 Page-28)6
Out of the above given relations in figure Stuiber's relation is most preferred.

c) Resistivity log

Resistivity log is used to measure the borehole resistivity with the help of some electrode
arrangement. This is one of the most important and the foremost log to be recorded in a
well. The resistivity of the formation is a key parameter in determining water saturation
which is used to find out the hydrocarbon saturation. With a few rare exceptions, such as
metallic sulfide and graphite, dry rocks are good electrical insulators. So the formation
resistivity depends on: the fluid type and permeability for the flowing the current into the
formation. The borehole formations resistivity is usually from 0.2 to 1000 ohm-m. There
are two principles for recording formation resistivity, these are:
 Sending a current into the formation (or measuring the ease of electrical flow through
it). This is used when conductive mud is present into the formation. Because electrical
connection is required between current electrode and formation.

 Inducing an electrical current into the formation (and measuring how large it is).
Generally this is used when the formation mud is non conductive, although it can
work in conductive mud also.

 Choice of the induction or the laterolog depends upon the resistivity of the formation.
If Rmf/Rw is less than three than we use laterolog.

10
 Use induction log if Rmf/Rw is more than three or induction fresh or oil base mud is
used or Rt is less than 80-100 ohm-m.

In a basic resistivity tools initially normal and lateral devices(figure-below) are used
which are differ in the electrode arrangement / spacing and depth of penetration. In these
devices currents were passed through the formation by means of an electrode, and voltages
were measured between receiver electrodes. The measured voltages provided the
information about the resistivity of the borehole formations.
In highly resistive formations, and for the measurements of the deep resistivity focusing
electrode logs, which are called laterologs and spherically focused devices. In these
devices the two current electrode (bucker electrode) are used around main electrode (all
having same voltage) for focusing the current and for finding the deep resistivity (figure-
below). The deep-reading devices include the Laterolog 7, the Laterolog 3, and the deep
laterolog or the DLL - dual laterolog tool.
The DLL (Dual Latero Log) is a focused logging system that is typically used in wells
drilled with high- salinity mud. In a laterolog-type system, the measure current is forced to
flow perpendicular to the borehole (in a `lateral' direction) by the potential lines created by
the focusing currents emitted by the bucker electrodes surrounding the central current
measure electrode.

Figure 6 (Normal and lateral Device, Page 7-2)2

11
 Figure 7 (Focusing electrode, Page 7-7)2

A Dual Laterolog system consists of

 An electronics section
 A mandrel section supports the electrodes which are connected to the active electronic
circuitry housed in the electronics section.
These are low frequency `conduction' type devices and require that the borehole fluids (i.e.
drilling mud) be conductive. The two measurements have different depths of investigation
and are called Deep Resistivity (RD) and Shallow Resistivity (RS).
Two modes of operation for Shallow are: Standard Shallow Mode (StdSh) and Enhanced
Shallow (EnhSh) Mode. The EnhSh mode of operation provides a shallow measurement
with increased depth of investigation.
The Deep is operated in one of two modes; Standard Return Deep (SrtnDp)- when current
return is to the Armor up-hole from tool string; and Groningen Return Deep (GrtnDp)-
when current return is to a Groningen return electrode below tool string. The vertical
resolution is 2 feet.
The most serious limitations for DLL occur in cases where the resistivity contrast between
the formation and the mud are below 1 or above 10000. The laterolog does not operate in
oil based mud or air-filled holes.
MLL (Micro Latero-Log) tool is used to obtain more information about resistivity at
shallower depths of investigations. MLL is a padded tool and it has a smaller depth of
investigation (0.75 inch) and smaller resolution (1.15 inch). MLL is mainly used to get the
resistivity of the flushed zone (RXO). The MLL works in the same principle as the DLL
tool.
The MLL tool contains a measuring pad which contains 9 electrodes out of which
measuring electrode is the central one surrounded by eight guards or focusing electrode.
The MLL also contains a caliper arm. The current to the measure electrode is measured

12
 with respect to earth potential. A bridle is also connected and the bridle electrode for the
MLL is considered to be at earth potential and is used as the reference voltage.

High Definition Induction Log (HDIL):

HDIL tool from Baker Hughes is one of the best ways to measuring resistivity. The HDIL
tool has 6 depth of investigations i.e. 10 inch, 20 inch, 30 inch, 60 inch, 90 inch and 120
inch.
 This tool contains
 transmitter coil
 7 receiver induction coils.
We can vary the focusing of an induction instrument by modifying the coil array to
achieve greater depth of investigation or resolution. The measurements are made by
several simple coil arrays and their signals are combined, in software, to achieve focusing.
The advantage of this technique is that measurements can be combined from arrays at
different points in the well. It is this fact which enables us to reduce the cave effect. So,
another advantage is different focusing schemes can be used in different circumstances.
The HDIL tool also contains a lead electrode at the centre portion for the measurement of
Spontaneous Potential (SP). There are 8 eight operating frequencies and 112 measuring
channels.

Use of Electrical Resistivity log:

 For calculation of the Rw using Inverse Archie in clean sand zone

 Differentiate between water and hydrocarbon bearing zone: resistivity log is used to
differentiate between high resistive hydrocarbon and conductive formation water in
porous and permeable sand.
 For Hydrocarbon saturation:

Using Archie equation we can calculate the water saturation and Hydrocarbon saturation
in a formation is:

SHC = 1 − SW

d) Density Log

It records the response of the bulk density of the borehole formations (including minerals
and borehole fluid). It is used to calculate the porosity, hydrocarbon density (indirectly),
acoustic impedance, lithology indicator and to identify certain minerals. In this formation
is bombard with the medium to high energy gamma rays (0.2 to .02 MeV) and to measure
their attenuation between source and the receiver. Attenuation depends on the number of
electron in the formation so we can have an idea of the bulk density of the formation.

Gamma ray interact with the formation in three ways

13
1. Pair Production: Occur at high energy (>1MeV), as in density tool the source emits
gamma ray of less energy so pair production not occur in the formation.

2. Compton Scattering: It occurs at medium energy (2MeV to 75keV). In this gamma

ray interact with an atom and cause the ejection of an electron from the outermost
shell (compton electron). The gamma ray continues after losing some its energy
(function of scattering angle). The amount of the compton scattering is proportional to
the amount of electron in the formation, so the electron density of the formation can
be derived from compton scattering. And electron density of the formation is closely
related to the bulk density
3. Photo Electric Effect: This occur low energy level (<100keV, <200keV for low
atomic number e.g. H, C, O). When gamma ray collides with an atom, atom absorbs
its energy and emits a kinetic electron. Photoelectric effect is lithology dependant as:
Z 3.62
Pe =
10

Primarily relation between bulk density and electron density used was as:
1 A
ρe = 2 ∗ ∗ ρb forbulk density and electron density to be equal A/Z of an atom should
Z
be related to 1/2 or 0.5. But in case of the hydrogen it is 0.992 so above given relation is
modifies as:

ρb = 1.070ρe − 0.188

The energy spectrum of the gamma ray fall within the Compton scattering is counted for
calculation of the electron density and hence bulk density of the formation.

In this a radioactive source and two detectors are used for borehole compensation, mud
cake correction etc.

The source and detector in the density log are mounted on the plough shaped pad which is
pressed against the borehole wall. So density log refer to the only one side of the borehole
formation/wall.

Normally in the density plot the mud cake and borehole corrections are automatically
applied. Investigation depth of the density log is normally upto 13 cm.

Density log is used to calculate the bulk density of the formation but it is required to
quantify the material involved (mineral) its density and type of fluid:

bulkdensity ρb = ρf fluiddensity + 1 − ∅ × ρma (matrixdensity)

ρ ma −ρ b
Therefore: ∅= ρ ma −ρ f

14
 Errors occur when:

Density varies from actual value we suppose for the borehole formation in estimation of
porosity

 When large cavities are there in bore (i.e. bad borehole)

 And when formation fluid varies, especially when it is a gas.

e) Neutron Log

Neutron log provide the reaction of the formation of the when high density neutron are
bombarded on the borehole formations. Reaction is related to the hydrogen richness of the
formation (hydrogen index). Hydrogen index is related to the %age of the hydrogen in the
formation. So if the formation is filled with water neutron log can act as a porosity
indicator.

It is also used to distinguish between oil and gas zones. When a neutron collide with the
particles of same size (H- nuclei) elastic scattering occur and neutron loses some of its
energy. Collision with other higher nucleus does not cause much lost of the energy. So we
can detect the presence of the Hydrogen with help of the Neutron logging by recording the
lost in the energy of the detected waves at the detector.

Into the tool a chemical source [e.g. plutonium-beryllium (Pu/Be) or americium-beryllium

(Am/Be)] is used in the most of the logging to produce fast neutron. When neutron travels
through the formation it slows from epithermal (having energy of around 1eV) to thermal
stage (~0.025eV), they then diffuse randomly without losing more energy until they are
captures by the nucleus of atoms such as chlorine, hydrogen, or silica. The capturing
nucleus become extremely excited and produces gamma rays of capture. Depending on the
tool type either these capture gamma or neutron (unaffected) are detected.

Neutron energy stage Energy

Fast >100 KeV
Intermediate 100 KeV to 100 eV
Slow <100 eV
Epithermal 0.1 to 100 eV
Thermal < 0.02 eV

Table 1 (Energy stages of Neutron, Page-135)1

Two detectors are used in the neutron logging, which detect on the basis of ionization
capability of the particles. A detector is consist of the target material and Proportional gas
into it (He3 gas is used). The source and detector are placed in a skid pressed against the
borehole wall. Detectors are placed so that these only detect the neutron in the thermal
energy zone.

15
 Figure8 (Neutron tool, Page-136)1

Source produce initial energy around 4 MeV (means velocity of 2800 am/µ sec), but after
some successive collisions (around 100) the fast neutron have slow down from epithermal
to thermal level (0.25 eV of energy and 0.22cm/sec velocity). For this much reduction in
the neutron energy collision required are: 18 (elastic) collision with H-nuclei, or 257 (non-
elestic) collision with silicon nuclei, or 368 with calcium nuclei. So the effect of the H-
collision is dominant. Chlorine have larger capture cross section for the thermal neutron
which creates error in our reading.

f) Acoustic Log
In acoustic or sonic logging travel time measurements are made which are useful for
porosity (primary porosity) determination, lithology indication, qualitative estimation of
permeability, studying the mechanical properties, strength of the formation and fracture
characterization, understanding the anisotropy of the formation and for calculation of
impedance (with the help of density log) for seismic correlation. In open-hole logging
measurements the sonic tool is used for determining the porosity indirectly by measuring
the travel times.
A piezoelectric substance is used as source and detector of the acoustic waves. In source
electric signal is transmitted to the pressure waves and opposite principle for receiver.
Source frequency is typically between 10-40 Hz (10000-40000 cycles per second). At 10-
20 kHz acoustic waves have wavelength between 7.5 – 75 cm over the velocity range of
1500 m/s to 7500 m/s.
Modern sonic tools have both sources and receiver combinations more than one, which
depends on the tool types and with intention to reduce most of borehole& tool noise. BHC
(Borehole compensated sonic tool) has source and two receiver combination, near and far
receiver. The near receiver is designed to travel only through the borehole mud. As too
have its considerable part into the mud so to receive the effect of the formation: we
subtract the „reading of short spaced detector‟ from reading of long spaced to receive‟
(Figure 9 ).

16
 Figure 9 (Sketch of borehole with sonic tool)

But due to the borehole effect the common path of both receivers may become unequal so
a second inverted array is also used to average out the effect of both array to reduce
borehole (or tilt effect).
Path of penetration of the sonic waves is very little (between 2.5 – 25 cm) the penetration
depends on the wavelength of the signal. So for a particular formation penetration is grater
in high velocity formation (λ=v/υ).
1 ∅ 1−∅
Use of log: =V +V as interval transit time = V(velocity)
v L ma

∆t = ∅∆t L + (1 − ∅)∆t ma (this is called Wyllie Equation)

∅ = porosity, VL = velocity of the formation fluid, Vma= velocity of matrix material
Similarly∆t 𝑚𝑎 and ∆t 𝐿 are interval transit times of matrix and formation fluid.

g) Well bore Geometry Indicator (WGI)

WGI or Caliper tool measures the size of the borehole. It consists of:
 six arms (telescopic)
 a disc magnet and,
 A magneto-resistive sensor circuit (or sensor bridge) on both the upper and lower
hinge of the arms.
Working- To push the arms against the borehole a spring is located at the inner side of
each arm. When the arms are pushed outward by the spring, the magnet disc also rotates
making the orientation of the magnetic field changed as measured by the sensor. The
change in magnetic field direction is sensed as a measure of the angle between the arm and

17
 the housing of the tool. The output each sensor bridge is the sine and cosine of the angle
made by the arm. And from the outputs of both the sensor bridges (upper and lower)
tangent is calculated (using software) separately and the effective bore hole diameter is
calculated.
The tool diameter (when the arms are at the closed position) is 92 mm and the tool radius
used in the formula is 44 mm (theoretical). Thus each WGI tool measures six independent
diameters. The resolution of this tool is 0.036 ° and the maximum radius that can be
measured without considerable errors is 13 inch. Any stray magnetic field can affect the
measurement of the magneto-resistive sensor bridge. The uses of WGI tool are:
 To measure the borehole size,
 To get the details of the borehole caving,
 To calculate the amount cement to be used for casing etc.

h) Advanced Logging tools

1. Sonic Scanner Tool:

Schlumberger has designed this tool using the latest acoustic technology for advanced
acoustic acquisition, which can be used in both open and cased well.

In addition to axial and azimuthal measurements, the tool makes a radial measurement
to probe the formation for near-wellbore slowness and far-field slowness. Typical
depths of investigation equal two to three times the borehole diameter.

The new Sonic Scanner acoustic scanning platform provides advanced types of
acoustic measurements, including borehole compensated monopole with long and
short spacing, cross-dipole, and cement bond quality. These measurements are then
converted into useful information about the drilling environment and the reservoir,
which assists in making decisions that reduce overall drilling costs, improve recovery,
and maximize productivity.

Figure 2 (Sonic Scanner Tool)

18
To enable a deeper understanding of acoustic behavior in and around the borehole, the
Sonic Scanner tool allows accurate radial and axial measurements of the stress-
dependent properties of rocks near the wellbore. The Sonic Scanner platform provides
multiple depths of investigation, excellent waveform quality and presentations that
reduce the complexity of sonic logging, without compromising the depth of
information.
The Ultrasonic Imaging Tool (USIT) is a continuously rotating pulse-echo type tool
with nearly 100% coverage of the casing wall. The transducer (“sensor”) rotates,
emitting and receiving signals reflected back from the casing wall. Preferable to run
CBL with it for overall well integrity picture.

2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Tool:

In NMR tool a spinning nucleus acts as a tiny bar magnet oriented along the spin
rotation axis. First, the tool‟s, permanent magnetic field aligns or polarizes the spin
axes of the protons in a particular direction. This process, called polarization,
increases exponentially in time with a time constant. Next the tools oscillating field is
applied to tip these protons away from their new equilibrium position. In the
meanwhile resonance occurs and a magnetic signal is generated. The response occur
only in the hydrogen that are free (are not clay bound) so in this way we can get
response only from the free hydrogen and can get clay free porosity with NMR tool.

NMR is unique since it can provide: Lithology independent total and effective
porosities. Pore size distribution. Irreducible water saturations. Residual hydrocarbon
saturations. Hydro carbon type identification. Permeability estimates. Hydrogen
Index, build up and decay of polarization.

3. MDT:

MDT stands for Modular Dynamic Formation Tester. Through this log we can obtain
the Formation Pressure and Formation Fluid Sample. The formation pressure can be
plotted with respect to the depth. Through these pressure points we can establish the
gas water contact, oil water contact, oil gas contact etc.

MDT tools offer multiple sampling during a single wireline run and rapid pressure
measurements using a new generation quartz gauge that stabilize quickly to accurately
measure formation pressure. The tool can be configured to provide a range of options
not previously available from a wireline tester, e.g. by monitoring the fluid resistivity
as it drawn into the tool and rejecting contaminated fluid, the operator can ensure that
only uncontaminated formation fluid sample are collected. Or by measuring pressure
interference during drawdown, horizontal and vertical permeabilities can be
determined.

19
4. Formation Micro Imager (FMI) Tool:

The FMI provides an electrical borehole image generated from up to 192 micro-
resistivity measurements. Special focusing circuitry ensures that the measuring
currents are forced into the formation, where they modulate in amplitude with the
formation conductivities to produce low-frequency signals rich in petrophysical and
lithological information and a high-resolution component that provides the micro-
scale information used for imaging and dip interpretation. Image calibration is
achieved through calibration with low frequency, deeper resistivity measurements
available from the tool signal or input from other resistivity measurements. Image
normalization further increases the completeness and reliability of this versatile tool
for geological and reservoir characterization.

The combination of measuring button diameter, pad design, and high-speed telemetry
system produces a vertical and azimuthal resolution of 0.2 in. [0.51 cm] for the FMI
tool. This means that the dimensions of a feature larger than 0.2 in. can be estimated
from the image.

The answers provided by the FMI tool help in understanding the reservoir structure,
identify and evaluate sedimentary features and fractures, visualize rock texture, and
complement coring programs. FMI data are increasingly used for geo-mechanical
analysis of the reservoir. Drilling-induced features such as breakouts are readily
identified.

20
4.2 Cased-Hole Logging:

Cased-hole logging operations focus on the optimization of the completed oil well through
mechanical services and logging technologies. At this point in the well's life, the well is
encased in steel pipe, cemented into the well bore and may or may not be producing. A
typical cased-hole log may show cement quality, production information, and formation data.
Mechanical services uses jet perforating guns, setting tools, and dump bailors to optimize the
flow of hydrocarbons.

a) Sonic Logging
Acoustic (sonic) logging, introduced in 1948, has emerged as a very versatile tool for
formation evaluation. The method is based on transmission of sound waves in the vicinity
of the borehole. The old sonic tools (such as BHC) measure formation velocity (or
slowness) of the compressional waves by detecting the first arrivals only and
determination of porosity from velocity using Wyllie eqn. Later tools such as Long
Spacing Sonic (LSS) or Array Sonic (AS) record the full waveform and provide
compressional, shear and Stoneley slowness sand amplitudes.
Working: The near and far receivers record timings of the first arrivals which are P head
waves traveling along the borehole wall with formation velocity. The time difference
between the first arrivals at near and far receivers divided by receivers spacing gives
transit time or slowness.

Sonic tools are comprised of transmitter which converts electrical energy into acoustic
energy and a receiver that do the reverse. The transmitter emits sound wave that travels to
the receiver through borehole fluid, and surrounding formation. The compressional wave
that travels through the formation usually arrives first at the receiver and is the ones of
interest in sonic logging. The typical resulting acoustic wave train reaching the receiver is
given below:

Figure 10 (Sonic waves received by sonic tool, Page-173)4

21
 Wave Propagation Principles:
Normally propagation of seismic wave in formations is visualized mainly by-
 Snell Law: this law gives direction of propagation of waves at interface.
 Fermat Principle: waves will travel least time path.
 Huygens Principle: every point on a wave front acts as source for generation of
spherical secondary wavelets, and envelop to these wavelets will give new wave front.

Uses of Sonic Log are:

 Seismic Data calibration
 Synthetic Seismograms
 Porosity Determination
• Wyllie Time average Equation
• Raymer-Hunt Equation
 Stratigraphic correlation
 Identification of Lithologies
 Compaction and Overpressures

b) CBL-VDL:
This is a sonic logging tool which is run in under cased hole condition. This tool is
basically designed for Cement Integrity Evaluation.
The CBL – VDL tool contains
o transmitter and
o Two receivers (nearest receiver at 3 feet and the other at 5 feet distance).
The transmitter is a piezoelectric transducer and the transmitting frequency is about 20
kHz. There are totally five possible paths through which the return sound signals can be
arrived; through body (attenuated due to its design), through well bore fluid, through
casing, through cement and through formation. The CBL measurement is the amplitude (in
millivolts) of the first arrival signal E1 of the 3 feet receiver.

CBL- measures the casing to cement bond (low DOI)

VDL- measures the cement to formation bond (high DOI)

22
 Figure 11 (CBL tool, Chapter5 Page 5-2)7

CBL:
The CBL measurement is the amplitude in mill volts of the first arrival E1 at the 3 feet
receiver. It is a function of the attenuation due to the shear coupling of the cement sheath
to the casing. The attenuation rate depends on the cement compressive strength, the casing
diameter, the pipe thickness, and the percentage of bonded circumference. A time gate
opens at the first motion detection point. A peak search is performed on the received
signal within this gate. The maximum value of the signal within this gate is the amplitude.
First motion is detected when the receiver signal exceeds the detection level. The first
arrival peak is assumed to be from the wave travelling through the bonded casing. The
amount of compression of wave amplitude in bonded casing arrivals is proportional to the
circumference of the casing bonded to the cement.
CBL also measures the travel time (TT) of the acoustic signal to travel from the
transmitter to the 3 feet receiver. The TT curve can be used in checking tool centralization
and fast formation arrivals.

VDL:
The Variable Density Log takes the measurements from all the different paths of the sonic
wave. The signals will become black lines where the positive half arrivals are greater than
the threshold appeared and white spaces for negative half arrivals. Thus the amplitude and
thus the intensity of the black lines in the log represent the amplitude of the incoming
sonic waves. Usually in a recorded log the lines appears represents the well bore fluid
arrival, the casing arrival, the cement arrival and the formation arrival sequentially from
left to the right.

23
c) Perforations:
To establish the fluid communication between borehole and formation we do perforation.
The desired casing intervals are perforated by guns using shaped charges. A shaped charge
consists of four basic components- the outer case, explosive powder, primer and metallic
liner. Generally, outer case is made of steel or zinc, and the explosive is RDX. The
metallic liner, which is the most important element of the shaped charge, is formed from
mixtures of copper, lead, zinc, tin or tungsten (as shown in figure 15).

Figure 12 (Shaped Charge, Chapter 7 Page 7-1)7

The shaped charges are installed in a perforating gun where a detonating cord (prima cord)
runs along the gun‟s length and makes contact with each charge at its primer region. The
detonating cord is attached with an electric detonating cap. After proper positioning of the
gun in the well, a current is sent into the cap which initiates the detonating cord, which the
premier explosives.
The perforation is carried out in either:-

(i) Over Balanced Condition (ii) Under Balanced Condition

(i) Over Balanced Condition: In this condition mud column pressure is greater than that
of formation pressure. During the job of perforation well fluids are prevented from
entering the well-bore and the job can be executed without any safety hazards.
Following two types of gun used in this technique:
(a) Throw Away Gun (TAG): It can be used single time only.
(b) Hollow Steal Carrier Gun (HSC): It can be reused.

(ii) Under Balanced Condition: In this condition mud column pressure is less than that of
formation pressure conditions. This job is carried out by using pressure control equipment
as the well may become active immediately after perforation. The advantage of this kind
of perforation is that the well can be put on production immediately afterwards.
It can be further divided as:
a) Through Tubing Perforation (TTP)
b) Tubing Conveyed Perforation (TCP)

24
 a) Throw Tubing Perforation (TTP)
Throw Tubing Perforation (TTP) is done in under balanced conditions which require
tubing fitted with pressure control equipment to take care of the possible up surging
flow soon after perforation. Since the charges have to pass through tubing, they are
smaller in size with lesser depth of penetration.
b) Tubing Conveyed Perforation (TCP)
Tubing Conveyed Perforation (TCP) is another technique where the entire perforation
assembly is lowered into the well on the end of the tubing string itself. It can use large
diameter, high performance charges in under balanced condition.

4.3 Production Logging:

Production Logging is the measurement of fluid parameters on a zone by zone basis to yield
information about the
 type of fluid
 Amount of Fluid
 Well completion problems
 Zone from which it is coming
Zone by Zone Perforating Efficiency can be found with the help of Production Logs. This
knowledge would be of great help in deciding the Perforation Policy, Fracture / Acid jobs,
Completion strategy, Field development and Reservoir management.
Production logging is used for the following purposes:
 Evaluation of flowing wells
 Production profile distribution
 Zonal productivity and skin factors
 Monitoring
 Changes in production profile
 Changes in flowing fluids- water or gas breakthrough
 Flow profile
 Zone contribution
 Down-hole reservoir data
 Type of production problems
 Absorption profile for Injector wells
 Diagnosis
 Source of High GOR or Water-cut
 Detection of leaks or cross-flows
 Production enhancement
 Data for workover planning
 Completion and treatment effectiveness
 Flow outside presumed path
 Casing/tubing leak
 Packer, B/P setting

25
The most significant part of production logging operation is that the logging is carried out
during the flowing condition of the well. Before carrying out the operation, Pressure control
equipments (PCE) are installed on the well-head to control any excess pressure coming from
the well bore. The PCE equipments are attached in this order on top of the well-head:
 Blow out Preventer (BOP)
 Tool trap
 Raiser pipes
 Pack-off
BOP is same as that used in drilling but is smaller. Its function is however, the same.
The tool-trap is a special pipe where the cross-section diameter of the pipe can be controlled
from the outside. During the opening of the master valve of the well, the tool may be
subjected to excess pressure and break away from the wireline. The tool trap will prevent the
tools from falling into the well.
Raiser pipes are normal pipes and are used mainly to accommodate the complete tool
assembly as well as to provide enough height to the assembly for pressure control.
Pack-off is the solution to closing the well during experience of excess pressure. It is mainly
made of a rubber with a hole large enough for only the cable to run. It has an inlet and outlet
valve which is attached to a hand pumped hydraulic- system. The rubber expands upon
increase of pressure and catches the wireline.

Tool description and usage:

Gamma Ray tool measures the natural radioactivity of the formation and used for depth
correction and correlation. Increased gamma ray activity is indicative of radioactive
shales.
CCL tool (Casing Collar Locator)identifies the collars/joints in the down-hole tubular and
used for depth ties. It sometimes responds to damages in tubing / casing also.
QPC tool (Quartz Pressure Crystal) measures the pressure in well-bore. It contains a
piezo-electric quartz crystal which sends an electrical signal upon experiencing pressure.
The deflection in signal defines the pressure change. Difference between FBHP (Flowing
Bottom Hole Pressure) and SBHP (Shut-In Bottom Hole Pressure) is indicative of skin
around bore-hole. Pressure gradient is indicative of nature of fluid present in well-bore.
FDR tool (Radioactive Fluid Density) identifies the nature of fluid by measuring its
density. Individual phase holdup calculation needs density data to ultimately calculate
flow rates of different phases. It uses a radioactive source sending a neutron source
collimated only onto borehole fluid.
Temperature tool measures the temperature in the well. It consists of a Platinum rod as a
temperature probe.

26
 Figure 13 Typical production logging tool stack

Capacitance tool indicates the type of fluid and Holdup and its readings are also used for
rate calculations of oil, gas and water. The tool has two capacitor plates and works on the
basis of dielectric constant of the fluid present between the plates. Dielectric constant of
water is 86 and for oil and gas it is 1-6. The capacitance changes with different fluids with
different amount of oil or gas in water. The tool is calibrated for water and air before run-
in. The oscillator circuit present in the electronics gives the result in counts per second
(cps). If water-cut is more than 40%, the electronics show it as complete water producing
resulting in error sometimes.
Flow meter measures the fluid velocity which can be converted to total flow rate:
Flow rate = fluid velocity ∗ (cross sectional area of the pipe)
Flow meters are of 2 types: Full-bore and Jeweled type flow meter.

27
The tool has a very sensitive spinner attached to a sensor. The sensor has 2 magnets
attached placed 180o apart.
The magnet senses the no. of times the spinner blades have cut its magnetic field. The
value is given in terms of counts. Spinner response is directly proportional to relative fluid
velocity.
All the information obtained from the Production Logs will help and guide the Reservoir
Engineer in deciding the future course of actions such as Work Over, Water injection
schemes for Reservoir Pressure Maintenance, Infill Drilling and Completion Strategy etc.

Multi-Finger Imaging Tool (MIT): MIT40 tool was introduced for the first time in
ONGC by Logging services-Mehsana. Tool measures an accurate Caliper measurement of
Casing and provides 3D view of the internal surface of the Casing. It has 40 independent
inner radius measurements at one point by an array of 40 Arms (Fingers).
Processed output is viewed as 3D view using WIVA Software (Procured with tool).

Figure 14 (MIT tool)

Applications of MIT40 tool is for:

 Corrosion assessment
 Casing Deformation
 Perforation Mapping
 3D visualization
 Quantification of scale build-up
 Accurate location of holes or anomalies in casing

Tool specifications:
 No. of Fingers : 40
 Finger length : 7”
 Tool diameter : 2 ¾”
 Measurements range : Casing size : 5.5” to 7”
 Temperature rating : 177 oC
 Pressure rating : 138 MPa ( ≈ 20000 psi )
 Radial Accuracy : ± 0.5mm

28
Chapter 7 LOG INTERPRETATION

A well log contains key information about the formation drilled, in different petrophysical
measurements. i.e.:
 Prospective zones of hydrocarbon.
 Reservoir type and thickness.
 Estimation of Porosity, permeability.
 Fluid type present in the pores and saturation level

Assessment of reservoir information from the log is called well log interpretation. The
interpretation of the well log includes both qualitative and quantitative evaluation. In
qualitative interpretation we identify the lithology, hydrocarbon type etc. by seeing log plots
and in quantitative interpretation estimation of reservoir parameters were done like Vclay,
effective porosity, and hydrocarbon saturation in order to calculate the amount of
hydrocarbon that can be economically produced.

7.1 Qualitative Interpretation:

Steps involved in qualitative interpretation:
Oil
Bearing
Hydrocarbon Bearing
Reservoir Gas
Bearing
Rock Water Bearing
Non Reservoir

The analysis of log data to identify the potential hydrocarbon zone is an important aspect
in log analysis. A scanning technique is required to sort out the reservoir from non
reservoir.
 For differentiating reservoir and non-reservoir zone following logs are used:

Caliper: In sand bearing zone caliper show less diameter due to the mud cake
Gamma Ray: Gamma ray show less reading in sand lithology
SP: SP log show deflection from shale base line in sand bearing zone
Density and neutron logs (commonly called lithologs) are preferably used for
sand-shale differentiation. In water/oil bearing zone neutron-density cross over
occurs.
 And for differentiating water bearing zones from oil bearing following logs are used

29
Log type Response in hydrocarbon bearing zone Response in water bearing zone
SP The SP deflection is reduced (but more than The SP deflection is increased
shale interval)
Sonic log Its gives high porosity value than actual It‟s give true porosity value
Density In gas bearing zones- Bulk density is too low, It give true formation density
log but in case of oil little or no deflection
compared to water bearing zone
Neutron In gas bearing zone give low value; but in It‟s give true limestone-porosity
log case of oil little or no deflection compared to
water bearing zone
Neutron- Negative cross-over in gas bearing zone (both Approx Overlap each other in
density log decrease) water bearing zone.
(lithologs) Approx Overlap each other in water/oil
bearing zone.
Resistivity Its reads high value in hydrocarbon zone It has reads low value in this zone

Table 2 (Response of logs in water and hydrocarbon bearing zone)

7.2 Quantitative Log Interpretation:

The aim of well log interpretation is to identify potential hydrocarbon bearing zone by
determining porosity, true resistivity and then converting the raw log data into estimated
quantities of oil, gas and water occupied in a formation (Ref. 5). The basic steps required
for quantitative interpretations of logs are as below:

a) To obtain information on lithology of formation.

b) Estimation of clay volume
c) Estimation of the porosity
d) Estimation of effective porosity
e) Determine the formation water resistivity(Rw)
f) Estimation of water saturation (Sw)
g) Estimation of reserves of hydrocarbon

a) To obtain information on lithology of the formation: Information on

lithology of formations are in general obtained from cores and cuttings. The well logs
also are of great help in this regard. Pe (photoelectric) log gives valuable information
as some common minerals can immediately be recognized from the log values.

Table 3 gives the log value of some of the common lithologies found in the
formations.
Various cross plots of the logs also help in identification of the lithology of the formation.

30
M Vs N plots also help us in determining the lithology of the formations. M and N are
computed from PHIN, RHOB and DT logs.
Lithology Gamma Ray Neutron/Density Sonic
separation*
Sand Low +6 to +8pu 52.5 - 55.5 msec/ft
Limestone Low 0 pu 47.5 msec/ft
Dolomite Low -12 to -14pu 42.5 msec/ft
Shale High -6 to -30 pu 50 msec/ft
Anhydrite Low Φb = 3.0 g/cc 50 msec/ft
Φn = -1 pu
Salt Low Φb = 2.0 g/cc 67 msec/ft
Φn = 0 pu
Coal ------ Φb = < 2.0 g/cc > 100 msec/ft
Φn = > 40 pu

Table 3 (Lithology response from (N-D ) crossover and Photoelectric log, Page C-2)8

b) Estimation of clay volume: By using SP, GR and Neutron-Density logs shale

volume can be estimated with the following relations :

PSP
 Using SP: Vclay = 1 − SSP × 100 %
Hear PSP is SP log deflection measured from shale base line in front of the sand zone
SSP is the maximum deflection in front of clean sand zone in same formation

GR Log −GR Min

 Using GR:Vclay =
GR Max −GR Min
GRlog is reading of GR log in front of the sand zone
GRmin is the minimum reading of the gamma ray in front of the clean sand
GRmax is the maximum reading of the gamma ray in front of the shale

Фn − Фd
 Using Neutron-Density: for oil and water bearing zoneVclay =
Фnclay − Фdclay
Фnis the neutron log reading in sand zone
Фd is the density log reading in sand zone
Фnclay is the average neutron log reading for shale in that formation
Фdclayis the average density log reading for shale in that formation

We choose the minimum value of the Vclay (Vclaymin) from above three methods.
Preference is given to the D-N>Gamma>SP.

31
c) Estimation of the porosity: Porosity can be estimated using sonic, neutron and
density
 From sonic ∆t = ∅ ∆t L + (1 − ∅)∆t ma
In this ∆t is transit time from the sonic log
∆t l is transit time of the formation fluid, which we need to provide
∆t ma is the transit time of the matrix, which we need to provide

ρ ma − ρ b
 From Density log: ∅d = ρ ma − ρ f
ρmais density of the matrix, which we need to provide (eg. 2.65 for quartz bearing
sand)
ρfis density of the formation fluid (eg. 1 g/cc for water bearing sand zone)
ρmais density from the log

 From Neutron: Neutron porosity (ΦN) can be directly utilised by adding 0.03 (into
fractional value of the porosity) in sand bearing formation

d) Estimation of effective porosity: Can be calculated from Neutron-Density log

by using minimum clay volume (calculated in step-b). Sonic porosity is also effective
porosity, we can compare these both.
 Using Density-Neutron Log
7 ∗ (∅d − Vclaymin ∗ Фdclay + 2 ∗ (∅N − Vclaymin ∗ ФNclay
∅effective =
9
Φd is porosity calculated from density (in step-c) log at the depth for which we are
calculating effective porosity ( i.e. zone of interest)
Vclaymin (calculated in step-b)
Φdclay is the average density porosity for clay in same formation in which our zone
of interest exist
ΦN is neutron porosity (see step-c) at the depth for which we are calculating effective
porosity (i.e. zone of interest)
ΦNclay is the average neutron porosity for clay in same formation in which our zone
of interest exist

e) Determination of the resistivity of water (Rw):The resistivity of water

saturating the formation can be estimated by number of formulas, some of which are
discussed here:

(Rmf )e
 Using the SP log: S SP = −K log (Rw )e
SSP is the SP log value in measures from shale base line
K is a constant K = 65 + 0.24 ∗ Temprature( in ℃)

32
 K = 61 + 0.133 ∗ Temprature( in ℉)
(Rmf)e is mud filtrate resistivity at formation temperature
(Rw)e is resistivity of the formation fluid at formation temperature
As we know the resistivity of the mud filtrate at surface temperature so we can use
chart provided by the Schlumberger for calculating the Rmf at formation temperature

Table 16 (Rw versus Rweq and Formation Temperature by Schlumberger)

33
 By using this chart we can switch Rw from one zone to another zone in a formation.
For rough estimation If Rmf at 75oF is lower than 0.1 then we can use(Rmf)e = Rmf.
 Using Resistivity-porosity cross plot
This plot also known as “Hingle plot” is a plot constructed on a linear- logarithmic
scale. Each point of the reservoir zone is plotted on the graph and a straight line is
drawn from the 0% porosity mark passing through the most North westerly or the
upper left points.

Figure 17 (Hingle Plot, Page-655)9

34
 This line passes through the 100% water saturated points of the reservoir in the zone.
Any point below this line represents a water saturation of less than 100%. The Y
intercept indicate a value of Ro. Porosity of the 100% water saturated point is
calculated and then formation factor is calculated by Humble equation or Archie
equation.

The formation water resistivity Rw is then calculated by the relation;

Rw= Ro/ F where Ro (=Rt) is the resistivity of rock when 100% water saturation lone
cut Rt axis.
F is formation factor which depends on the formation matrix property
F = a /фm.
Where a: tortuosity factor (generally taken 1 for rough estimation), m: cementation
factor (generally taken 2 for rough estimation) and Φ is porosity (effective porosity)
The above given relation is modified for the most formation called
Humble Relation: F = 0.62/ф2.15
 From inverse Archie: Select a clean sand zone which has zero clay content and have
100% water saturation.
F.Rw
So in this case Ro=Rt and Archie equation becomeSw n =
Ro
n is generally taken 2 (saturation exponent)
For this relation Formation factor can be calculated from effective porosity by
formula given above.

f) Estimation of Sw:
 Estimation of Sw for clean formation: The formation free from clay (shaly) content
is generally called as clean formation. The clean formation is free from any type of
conducting material except formation fluid which is present in the pores of the
reservoir. In such formation water saturation of the porous layer in the formation can
be estimated using:
 Archie water saturation equation which is only applicable in clean formation:
n F.Rw a
Sw = and F = (calculated in previous step)
Rt ∅m

Usually n = 2 and m= 2.16, a=0.62

Rw for using in this formula first need to be corrected for formation
temperature from figure-17
 Sw in Shaly sand: Shale is a sedimentary rock composed of clay mineral, silt and
carbonates etc. Clay particle are having cation (+ve ions) exchange capacity. When
they are immersed in water, the Coulomb force holding the positive ion on surface of

35
 clay are reduced by dielectric properties of water. So by this way clay also contributes
in conductivity of the formation so in clay bearing formation resistivity reading
different from resistivity of the sand. So if the resistivity of the shale is less than that
of the water bearing formation than in that case clay content will contributes to the
increase in water saturation when we use Archie equation. So if enough shale is
present in a reservoir, it may be very difficult or perhaps impossible to determine if a
zone is productive(Hilchi1987).
Measurement Effect
SP SP decreased with respect to shale baseline
GR GR value increased
Sonic Read high porosity due to increased DT
Neutron Read high porosity due to water is part of clay structure
Density Read high or low depends upon shale density in formation
Resistivity Read high or low depends upon shale and formation fluid
resistivity in formation
Table 4 (Effect of the clay content on log reading)
The first step in shaly sand analysis is to determine the volume of clay (calculated in
step-b. The minimum value of shale volume among volume estimated using different
logs, is taken as volume of shale at that point in the formation.
 The value of shale volume (Vsh), thus determine is used for porosity correction in
shaly formation through the following relation (Dewan,1983)

The water saturation in shaly formation can be estimated by equation given below
(Page-72)10
 Indonesian equation:
(−2/n)
(−1/n) Vsh (10V sh /2) ∅(m/2)
Sw = R t ∗ +
R sh (a ∗ R w )
Vsh is volume of clay calculated in step-b
And Rsh is the average resistivity of the shale for same formation in which we are
calculating the value of the Sw
 Simandux Equation:
Sw n = a ∗ R w ∗ ∅−m ∗ 1/R t − Vsh ∗ Sw /R sh
For Mehsana area the Indonesian formula for water saturation is being.

36
 g) Estimation of reserves of hydrocarbon: As we can estimate the saturation of
the hydrocarbon by Shc=1-Sw
And areal extent and thickness of the formation can be calculated from the correlation
for pay sand from different wells in a reservoir. Hence we can calculate the volume of
the hydrocarbon bearing sand in a reservoir.

So volume of the extractable oil of a formation in a reservoir can be calculated by

using effective porosity, Shc, movability of the hydrocarbon, effective porosity.

7.3 GEO-Frame:
Geo-frame is software designed by the Schlumberger for the Petro-physical, Reservoir,
Geological, seismic related processing and interpretation work in the field of geosciences. In
the oil industry Geo-Frame is use for the:
 Well Log processing and interpretation. (Petrophysical Analysis)
 Seismic data processing and interpretation before of the development of the oil field
 Reservoir Modelling etc.

Petrophysical Modules In Geo-frame:

Following modules are used for the correction, interpretation, processing and presentation
of the borehole log data.
1) Well Composite Plus: This module is used to display, presentation of the log curves.
2) Well Edit Plus: This modules is used to editing, merging, splicing the log data of
different stages.
3) Preplus: For applying environment correction to the log data.
4) Elan Plus: For processing of the log data and generation of a paralog.
5) Res Sum: For calculation of the average reservoir parameters in a borehole.

7.4 ElanPlus
ElanPlus is a Petrophysical modules of the Geo-Frame which is used to „solve‟ all the
response equations simultaneously to compute volumes of minerals/rocks and fluids. It has
the flexibility to process different intervals with different mineral combinations using same
suit of logs and combining them linearly or probabilistically to give realistic results with
minimum number of measurements.

37
 Petrophysical Model:
A petrophysical model consisting of Quartz and Clay as minerals/rocks and, gas, oil and
water as fluids is used for processing of log data. Four response equations corresponding
to RHOB, NPHI, CUDC_IND and GR were used for computing different volumes. The
ElanPlus program evaluates formation according to a petrophysical model that has three
primary components: tools, volumes and response parameters.
Logs are reconstructed theoretically by solving the “Forward Problem”. Volumes of
formation components are determined by solving the “Inverse Problem” and Response
parameters can be estimated by solving the “Calibration Problem” all by suitable
rearrangement of response equation.
Solving the simultaneous system of logging tool response equations through statistical
approach by using weighted least square minimization technique performs inversion of
logs. It involves minimization of objective function i.e., summation of square of errors
between measured and reconstructed logs by incorporating the total uncertainties on tools,
parameters and response equations. Global minimum for objective function is ensured
only for a particular combination of input and output parameters.

Volumetric Analysis
Volumes of various formation components have been computed using a shaly sand
petrophysical model consisting of Quartz, Clay as minerals/rocks and, Gas, Oil &Water as
fluids. Computations are validated through reconstruction of theoretical logs and matching
with the measured logs within the desired limit of Standard Deviation of
Reconstruction(SDR) value.

Solution Technique of ElanPlus Model3:

The ElanPlus analysis is a statistical method designed for quantitative formation
evaluation of open-hole logs. The evaluation is done by solving simultaneous equations
described by one or more interpretation models. Log measurements, or tools, and response
parameters are used together in response equations to compute volumetric results for
formation components (minerals and fluids). The following system of equations is built to

Figure 18 (Solution Matrix of Response parameter, tool response and volumes used in Elan Plus)3

38
 conduct a volumetric analysis:
Where:
αi,j =response parameters
A, B, C, D, E, and F = minerals and fluid Volumes to be evaluated
1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 = tool responses

Tool Responses Illite Kaolinite Chlorite Calcite Dolomite Quartz Siderite

Neutron Porosity 0.352 0.507 0.583 0.000 0.018 0.000 0.184
Comp. Slowness (μs/ft) 130 130 80 47.8 43.5 55.5 44.0
Gamma Ray (gAPI) 160 100 74 11 8 20 0
Bulk Density (g/cc) 2.61 2.55 2.81 2.71 2.847 2.65 3.89
Potassium 0.043 0.001 0.004 0.008 0.000 0.000 0.000
Thorium 20.0 25.0 11.0 1.00 0.100 0.00 0.4
Clay CEC 0.16 0.09 0.15 - - - -

Table 5 (Typical response parameters for an ElanPlus analysis)3

The above system of equations is solved at every depth level for minerals and fluid
volumes. To help optimize the solution, a set of constraints can fix the upper and lower
limits on the output volumes. Once the volumes are calculated, the tool responses are
reconstructed using the same system of equations. The reconstructed logs are compared
against input data to determine the quality of volumetric results. The deviation of
reconstructed tools from the true log readings, taking into consideration the uncertainty of
each tool, is called the incoherence function. It is this function that the solver tries to
minimize to achieve the most probable answer.

Figure 19 (work flow chart of the E-Lan Plus, Page-40)11

39
Chapter 9 CORRELATION AND FAULT FROM LOG DATA
9.1 Correlation:
Correlation is a technique of the identification of the lateral extent of different formation by
studying lithology from log data of different wells.

In many basins, interpretation of well log data is the primary method for development of a
stratigraphic framework which can be used for mapping and prediction of reservoir intervals.
Unlike correlation of beds in outcrop where surfaces can be physically traced, correlation of well
logs requires predicting lithofacies from well to well. With this approach, different surfaces need
to be identified in wells and mapped, which may contains unconformities and flooding surfaces.

Figure 25 (Correlation of three wells)

40
  Recognition of basic stratal elements is the first step toward building a sequence
stratigraphic framework whether working with subsurface data or outcrops (study of
fault from outcrop pattern of beds etc.). Clearly, lamina, laminasets, beds and bedsets
are below resolution of some subsurface tools such as seismic reflection data, but
these stratal elements are resolvable with different types of well log data.
 This method is facilitated by identification of stacking patterns of different beds from
well log signature.
 Stacking patterns of different sedimentary structures provides a useful method for
interpretation of physical processes that have affected various depositional
environments and how these environments evolved through time.

9.2 Fault Identification:

When faulting tale place then there is displacement of beds which cause repetition or
reduction of the number of beds which are reconstructed from well log data from wells
drilled through fault plane.

 First of all we required to identify all of the sand formations and giving them all some
names. Identification of the different formation and giving them names (as given in
figure R1 to R10) depends upon the field experience and the variation of the lithology
from one formation to another formation, when we study from top to the bottom.
 In case of the normal fault(see figure below): If the two of the three wells cuts the
fault plane then we can see maximum number of the formation in the well which is
not cutting the fault plane.
a) Then if the top of the formation of different wells is almost same in all wells
then we can conclude that top of all three wells are in same side (up-thrown or
down-thrown side).
b) The well which is nearer to the top of the well appears to have missing
formation (compared to well in undisturbed zone) at less depth.
c) well which is far from the top of the well appears to have missing formation at
more depth.
d) So if we have plotted the wells section assuming the well are in a line then we
can draw a line which pass through the missing formation in both wells which
represent fault.
e) Now for the attitude of the formations between two wells we need the
formation data of another well which drilled through the fault plane between
previous two wells. As formations are not so smooth as shown in figure near
the fault due to the shearing in the formation nearer to the fault, because fault
is not just a line it is a region in which movements take place.
 In case of the reverse fault: If the two of the three wells cuts the fault plane then we
can see minimum number of the formation in the well which is not cutting the fault
plane. This occur because in reverse fault & thrusts relative movements of fault
blocks is toward each other, due to which formation undergoing faulting are repeated
in a well cutting the fault plane.

41
 a) See the formation in the well and identify and note the repeating formation.
Now plot a section cutting three well in a line (if not cutting three wells
assume so) by choosing appropriate vertical and horizontal scale.
b) If we look at the formation in wells (cutting fault plane) then we can pick the
depth which has same formation at its top and bottom.
c) Now we can mark such depth as fault plane in well. Similarly we can mark
that depth in both of wells cutting the fault plane.
d) If we meet these two points we can get the fault plane. But for getting the true
information about the attitude of the fault plane we need data of other wells
drilled through fault plane.

………Sand

……. Shale

……. Coal

R1-R10 Beds of sand and coal

Figure 26 (Normal fault modified from, Page-7)13

In This figure double arrow shows the movements of the normal fault.

42
RFERENCES

1. The Geological Interpretation of Well Log, Second Edition Rivesed, 2002 Dr. M.

Rider

2. Log Interpretation Principle/Application, 1989 M/s Schlumberger

3. Crain's Petrophysical Handbook, M/s Crain

4. Petrophysics MSc Course Notes, Dr. Paul Glover

5. Petroleum Geology of Cambay Basin, Gujrat, 2004 LR Chowdhary

6. Shaly-Sand Petrophysics, 2011 WATFA

7. Schlumberger Cased_Hole Principles by M/s Schlumberger

8. Baker Hughes Wellsite Geology Reference Guide, April 1996 M/s Baker Hughes

9. Well Logging for Earth Scientist Second Edition, Darwin V. Ellis

10. Well Logging and Formation Evaluation, 2005 Toby Darling

11. Formation Evaluation Based on Logging Data of of Upper Assam Basin,

Pradyut Bora, Senior Geologist Geology & Reservoir Department OIL

12. ONGC Ltd, 7th international Conference and Exposition on Petroleum Geophysics
Hydrabad (2008).P-123 Evolutionary History of Pericratonic Cambay Basin, India
by S. Rangarajan.

13. Optimizing Exploitation Strategy of Multi Layered Reservoir for Higher Recovery
(A Case study of an Aging Field, Cambay Basin) By P.K. Dubey, P.K. Mishra,
Ashok Walia, J.P. Lohiya ONGC Ltd. (research paper presented at SPE Oil and
Gas India conference and Exhibition Mumbai)

43