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J O B S AT I S FA C T I O N A N D
EMPLOYEE PERCEPTION OF
THE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT IN THE
H E A LT H C A R E M A N A G E M E N T
INDUSTRY

ERNEST W. BREWER, DOO HUN LIM, AND MARCIA E. CROSS

This study examines the relationship between job satisfaction and perception of the learning envi-
ronment of administrative employees and differences in job satisfaction in terms of age, education,
ethnicity, gender, location, marital status, position classification, and years of service. A total of 261
administrative employees of a national health care management organization participated in the sur-
vey. Major findings of this study revealed significant differences in some subcategories of job satis-
faction and perceptions of learning environment in the respondents’ ethnicity, age, and office location.
Significant relationships were also found between job satisfaction, the perceived learning environ-
ment, and facets of the learning environment.

Introduction based on automation and advances in technology (Wexley &

The rapid transformation from an industrial to a technolog-
ical, service-oriented workplace has employee innovation in
performing jobs and tasks. Just as the nature of work has
changed, the nature of employees has also changed (Hays &
Kearney, 2001; Williams, 2001). Van Buren (2002) indicated
that corporations recognize the necessity of identifying
unique ways to develop the workforce of today and tomorrow,
Latham, 1981; Williams, 2001).
Organizations pursue leveraging training outcomes to fos-
ter competitive workplace performance in rapidly changing
business environments (Branham, 2005). As noted,
employee training and development is a key factor in the
human resource management (HRM) area to improve orga-
nizational effectiveness (Hays & Kearney, 2001). One critical

JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES, Volume 1, Number 4, 2008

© 2008 University of Phoenix
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) • DOI:10.1002/jls.20031 37
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approach of business strategy involves developing and retain-
ing talented people. Qualified, properly trained employees
become empowered to perform their jobs confidently, develop
a stronger sense of accomplishment and, in turn, become
loyal to the organization through increased job satisfaction
(Mason, 1999; Peterson, 1999).
The correlation between job satisfaction and business suc-
cess has generated renewed interest among researchers and
human resource (HR) practitioners (Reiner & Zhao, 1999).
From research findings, effective leadership and employee
empowerment are influential variables to job satisfaction and
increased productivity (Mason, 1999). Employees who
expect advantages from training are likely to be more com-
mitted because a strategic approach is linked to individual
and organizational benefits (Bartlett, 2001). Employee per-
ception of organizational training and development oppor-
tunities is positively correlated to organizational commitment
(Bartlett, 2001; Montesino, 2002; Spears & Parker, 2002;
Tansky & Cohen, 2001). An organization that provides
challenging opportunities for individual growth generates
employee satisfaction, employability of the best performers,
and simultaneously, adds to net income (Pfau & Kay, 2002)
by increasing productivity and organizational effectiveness
(Spears & Parker, 2002). Therefore, it supports the prem-
ise that training is an essential tool for resolving challenges
and for the efficient management of human resources
(Tracey, Hinkin, Tannenbaum, & Mathieu, 2001; Wexley &
Latham, 1981).
Rationale and Significance of the Study
Smith and Dowling (2001) indicated that more evidence is
needed for theory development in company-sponsored train-
ing. Montesino (2002) declared that the connection between
awareness of and commitment to strategic direction is sel-
dom investigated in HRM. A possible disconnect exists by
HRM experts who overly emphasize “state-of-the-art train-
ing delivery devices at the expense of the critical connection
between training site and work environment that enhances
transfer of training” (p. 90). Corporations lose money
on training of poor quality, ineffective delivery, or lack of
measurement, albeit employees may consider programs valu-
able (Paddock, 1997; Pfau & Kay, 2002; Williams, 2001).
According to Wexley and Latham (1981), many fads have over-
shadowed the importance of determining whether training
is fostering self-awareness, decision-making and problem-
solving skills, or motivation.
38 JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 1 • Number 4 • DOI:10.1002/jls
Another issue in the HRM area is employee retention and
job satisfaction. As Garber (1999) reported, two major trends
influenced the importance of employee retention. First, data
relating to the direct costs associated with the voluntary exit of
employees from organizations failed to explain the hidden
costs of turnover. Second, the rise and cost of high performer
turnover created the need to identify strategic approaches for
retention (Garber, 1999; Spears & Parker, 2002). Although
job satisfaction is multidimensional (Spector, 1997; Sweeney,
Hohenshil, & Fortune, 2002), measuring individual elements
of job satisfaction, such as developing people, aligning training
programs to meet employee needs, and measuring the learning
environment, should be considered essential to examining
remedies for employee turnover (Huselid, 1995; Tannenbaum,
1997). Research is needed to determine incentives and reten-
tion strategies for dissatisfied employees, especially those in the
middle and latter career levels (Hellman, 1997). Furthermore,
Oakland and Oakland (1998) reiterated that little research has
been devoted to the links between employee satisfaction, cus-
tomer satisfaction, and business results. Employee reaction to
corporate training and related feedback is associated with job
satisfaction (Spears & Parker, 2002), but further research is
needed to identify how and what aspects of training are asso-
ciated with job satisfaction under what organizational condi-
tions and with what employee characteristics.
Theoretical Framework
STUDIES OF JOB SATISFACTION
As confirmed by many research studies, job satisfaction plays
a key role in the study of human behavior at work (Brewer &
McMahan-Landers, 2003a, 2003b; Cranny, Smith, & Stone,
1992; Hopkins, 1983; Spears & Parker, 2002; Sweeney et al.,
2002; Topolosky, 2000). The studies of job satisfaction can
be traced back to the 1920s and 1930s testing of the signifi-
cance of personal differences in job satisfaction to justify a
humanization of the workplace (Bruce & Blackburn, 1992;
Herzberg, 1968; Spector, 1997; Topolosky, 2000). Among
them, Herzberg (1968) examined two dimensions in hygiene
and motivator measures that led to job satisfaction. Building
on Herzberg’s study, Bruce and Blackburn (1992) proposed
11 managerial behaviors that improve employee job satisfac-
tion. Darrow (1971) also tested Herzberg’s two-factor theory
and found that the four motivators (recognition, achieve-
ment, the work itself, and responsibility) and the nine hygiene
factors (status, supervision, personal life, work conditions,
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salary, security, and interpersonal relations with supervisors,
coworkers, and subordinates) contributed more to positive
job attitudes than to negative job attitudes. In a study to
investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and
turnover, George and Jones (1996) found a statistically sig-
nificant three-way interaction of the combined effects of job
satisfaction, value attainment, and positive mood on
turnover intentions and revealed that low levels of job satis-
faction lead to turnover intentions for some workers.
Another study by Hellman (1997) indicated that job satis-
faction was a consistent predictor of turnover or intent to
leave. Cangelosi, Markham, and Bounds (1998) used a cor-
relation analysis to determine the factors that were related to
nurse retention and turnover and found a strong association
between job satisfaction and job-related stress and between
loyalty to the organization and job satisfaction. Topolosky
(2002) studied the relationship between employee satisfac-
tion and financial results at a Fortune 100 company and
found significant relationships between employee satisfaction
and financial results in shareholder value-added variables.
Other variables that support job satisfaction include super-
visor support (Baruch-Feldman, Brondolo, Ben-Dayan, &
Schwartz, 2002), gender (Brewer & Shapard, 2004; Smith,
Smits, & Hoy, 1998), and pay level (Gaertner, 1999).
FACET SATISFACTION THEORY
As Bruce and Blackburn (1992) claimed, the study of job sat-
isfaction often creates uncertainty among both managers and
scholars as to why it occurs and whether it is a relevant issue
to be examined. Therefore, examining individual factors that
affect job satisfaction is essential for explaining the causes and
identifying the sources. According to facet satisfaction the-
ory (FST), job satisfaction can be divided into facets to meas-
ure job contents and group job factors; facets can be united
to one or more aspects of the work environment and of the
job itself (Cranny et al., 1992; Spector, 1997). Cranny et al.
(1992) argued that assessing facet satisfaction achieves more
specific measures than overall satisfaction. They also sug-
gested that a classification system is needed to best predict
the associated type of facet satisfaction that results in both
positive and negative job attitudes and consequential behav-
ior. Sweeney et al. (2002) advocated that the FST offered an
alternative to the global theory.
While Herzberg’s (1968) two-factor theory of job satisfac-
tion concluded that the work environment provides the pri-
mary source for job satisfaction, Reiner and Zhao (1999)
JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 1 • Number 4 • DOI:10.1002/jls
argued that two competing sources of job satisfaction included
demographic and work environment characteristics. Demo-
graphic characteristics may be described as race, gender, edu-
cational background, age, and work assignment. Dimensions
for work environment characteristics include job meaning-
fulness (skill variety, task identity, and task significance),
responsibility for the job (personal accountability), and the
extent of knowledge about the results from an employee’s
efforts (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Reiner and Zhao
(1999) found a lack of consensus concerning the sources for
job satisfaction and claimed that the causal relationships
among job satisfaction, demographic attributes, and work
environment remained unclear.
JOB BURNOUT
Job burnout is defined as a syndrome of three aspects: emo-
tional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal
accomplishment (Maslach, 1982). Potter (1980) described
job burnout as the extinction of motivation to work. Job
burnout can cause such problems as absenteeism, substandard
work, high turnover, and decreased employee involvement
and organizational commitment (Brewer & Clippard, 2002;
Brewer & McMahan, 2003c; Potter, 1980). The symptoms
include frustration, interpersonal problems, emotional with-
drawal, depression, physical problems, drug usage, and declin-
ing performance and efficiency (Potter, 1980). Studies of job
satisfaction and job burnout indicate that possible relation-
ships exist between satisfaction variables and the causes of
burnout (Brewer & Clippard, 2002). To validate and improve
the original Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), Demerouti,
Bakker, Nachreiner, and Schaufeli (2001) explored measuring
job burnout independent of occupational circumstances using
a new burnout instrument, the Oldenburg Burnout Inven-
tory (OLBI), and they tested the theoretical framework for
the job demands-resources model (JD-R). The model pre-
supposes that burnout develops when job resources are lim-
ited and job demands are high, irrespective of occupation.
The authors predicted that exhaustion and disengagement
would result when high demands and limited resources were
present in jobs, representing the burnout syndrome.
JOB SATISFACTION AND STRATEGIC
ALIGNMENT
Employee satisfaction and organizational effectiveness and
performance have been important issues for business organ-
izations (Woodruffe, 1999). Union leaders and managers
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agreed that job dissatisfaction led to high turnover, tardiness,
loafing on the job, disruptions, poor workmanship, and
indifference to customers and clients (Katzell & Yankelovich,
1975). According to Maister’s (2001) study using clustered
survey statements, the top 20% of organizations that
achieved the best on a financial performance index did bet-
ter in categories such as listening, valuing input, trusting,
coaching, communicating, practicing what management
preaches, and treating others with respect. The statements
were composed of nine statistically related factors in (a) qual-
ity and client relationships, (b) training and development, (c)
coaching, (d) commitment, enthusiasm, and respect, (e) high
standards, (f) long-term orientation, (g) empowerment, (h) fair
compensation, and (i) employee satisfaction. Overwhelm-
ingly, the most financially successful organizations did better
in 69 out of 74 survey items, with an average that was sig-
nificantly higher than the balance of the organizations. In
the successful organizations, the data showed that when
employees agreed that management practiced excellence in
performance, greater net worth was realized. These studies
revealed that the strategic alignment of goals and job satis-
faction is related and is an important consideration for
organizations. Whereas employees must understand the stra-
tegic direction and goals of organizations, companies must
provide adequate communication and planning, efficiency,
and effective policies that improve productivity.
Training, Job Characteristics,
and the Learning Environment
Another area of research that is focal to our research interest cen-
ters around the theme on how different factors in training, job
characteristics, and learning environment influence employee
and organizational development for performance improvement.
TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS AND THE
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Workforce development and the transfer of training to the
job are important concerns of organizations that make sub-
stantial investments in developing their human resources. In
response to this trend, recent attention has focused on the
development of an integrative theory of training motivation.
Numerous studies have tried to link interrelated constructs,
such as achievement motivation, anxiety, locus of control, job
involvement, organizational commitment, career commit-
ment and planning, self-efficacy, valence, supervisor and peer
support, and positive learning climate (Colquitt, LePine, &
40 JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 1 • Number 4 • DOI:10.1002/jls
Noe, 2000). Among them, Burke and Baldwin (1999) studied
the effect of relapse prevention (RP), a technique in which
individuals are trained to identify threats to maintaining
skills that could potentially resort back to old behavior
patterns and found that RP and the work environment is
a significant factor in determining the application of skills to
the job. From this study, major findings revealed that the
trainees who used cognitive and behavioral transfer strategies
exhibited more of the skills learned, which is consistent with
empirical research relating to training transfer effectiveness.
In another study, Harris and Brannick (1999) affirmed that
alignment of training to the core culture of the organization
is required for a clear connection and for impact on the oper-
ational performance and employee earnings ability, which
leads to increased retention. Tracey et al. (2001) developed
and tested a multidimensional model that links individual and
organizational factors with training effectiveness models
and found that the work setting has an influence on train-
ing and development activities. A relationship was found to
exist between training methods and training effectiveness.
Carter (2002) revealed a strong correlation between training
methods and factors of cognitive ability. Integrative learning
(IL), a system emphasizing the elimination of traditional
barriers to learning, such as negative reinforcement, fear of
failure, boredom, and anxiety, received a much more positive
reaction from participants (Bretz & Thompsett, 1992).
JOB AND LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
AND TRAINING OUTCOMES
Investigation of the relationship between job and learner
characteristics and training effectiveness has been an impor-
tant topic of study. Westbrook and Veale (2001) studied con-
tinuous learning, organizational practices, individual
dedication to work-related learning, and core values that
either enhance or hinder learning. These researchers found
that most employees (a) preferred to dedicate more time to
work-related learning, (b) were uncertain about dedicating
time at work to self-directed learning, (c) dedicated few hours
at home to work-related learning, (d) were aware of the avail-
ability of educational benefits and funds available for work-
related learning activities, and (e) wanted a greater
importance placed on work-related learning reflected in per-
formance evaluations. In their study, significant differences
were also found between work-related learning attitudes
and the demographic variables of age, gender, education, and
occupation. Younger participants were less comfortable when
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individuals entered their workspace while they were reading
professional journals, newsletters, or textbooks. Female respon-
dents, in a significantly higher degree than males, reported
not having enough time for work-related learning and felt
significantly less comfortable if a peer or top-level executive
entered their workspace while reading. Workers with more for-
mal education devoted more time to reading work-related lit-
erature and preferred more time to stay current compared to
those with less education. Respondents with a high school
diploma were less informed about benefits and funds available
for development. Respondents in manufacturing and process-
ing jobs were significantly more likely to not recognize work-
related benefits compared to respondents in other occupations.
TRAINING AND STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT
Training and development is a people management activity
that is linked to employee satisfaction and exceptional busi-
ness results (Oakland & Oakland, 1998). Providing appro-
priate training is one key link for positive business results
(O’Toole, Stromberg, Haynes, & McCune, 2002) that must
be integrated with other human resource policies and prac-
tices (London, 1989). Several studies provided evidence to
support the importance of strategic alignment between train-
ing and business strategy (London, 1989; Neary & O’Grady,
2000) as it realizes immediate and maximized return of train-
ing investment. Oakland and Oakland (1998) claimed that
successful companies include training and development pro-
grams designed according to job-related skills. Tannenbaum
(1997) recognized that organizations with stronger learning
environments demonstrated greater organizational effective-
ness and the learning environment dynamics can reinforce or
disrupt continuous learning. The results of Tannenbaum’s
study showed that familiarity with company goals and direc-
tion was related to increased self-competence and satisfaction
with developmental opportunities.
Strategic roles of the HRM systems consist of the ability
to learn and capitalize on new opportunities and design a dis-
tinctive set of best practices that are unique to each organi-
zation (Becker, Huselid, Pickus, & Spratt, 1997). Investments
in training, for example, should be designed for their intended
purposes and must align with other HRM practices while
supporting business priorities. The most substantial challenge
for HRM to aid the organization in developing a competi-
tive edge is to foster leaders who believe that the intellectual
capital of an organization is truly its most prized asset
(Huselid & Becker, 1999). From a study measuring the
JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 1 • Number 4 • DOI:10.1002/jls
connection of the training program with the strategic direc-
tion of the organization, Montesino (2002) found that
employees who saw a clear connection between the two were
better able to apply the skills learned in the training programs
than employees who did not see that connection. Aligning
the training departments with business strategy is difficult to
do, given that business strategies change (Lin, Hitchens, &
Davenport, 2001). To accommodate the rapidly changing
business environment, learning should be accelerated through
managers. Also, training departments should partner with
senior leadership during strategy formulation so they can
effectively position learning endeavors, in alignment with the
business strategy. Many studies confirmed the overall effect of
the learning organization concept on organizational financial
performance (Baldwin & Danielson, 2002; Ellinger, Ellinger,
Yang, & Howton, 2002; Watkins & Marsick, 1997).
The researchers’ intention in conducting this study was to
determine whether job satisfaction and employee perception
of the learning environment are related among administra-
tive employees of a nationally based health care management
organization. Job satisfaction is multifaceted (Cranny et al.,
1992; Spector, 1997; Sweeney et al., 2002), and measuring
the antecedents of job satisfaction could provide the ability to
total the sum of the parts for an alternative to the global the-
ory. For that reason, the respondent’s level of job satisfaction
and perception of corporate training program were compared
to the demographic factors of age, education, ethnicity, gen-
der, location, marital status, position classification, and years
of service of this study. Recognizing whether these charac-
teristics are significantly related could enable human resource
managers to adjust, augment, or cultivate training techniques
and programs to enhance learning for improved employee
productivity, retention, and commitment. Another objective
was to distinguish whether relationships existed between fac-
tors of job satisfaction and the learning environment. Results
and findings could provide direction for evaluating whether
improvements should be made to the learning environment,
and possibly for consideration of retention strategies. The
results of this study could provide essential information for
planning, development, and enhancement of training pro-
grams, improvement of the learning environment, and for
promoting job satisfaction.
Methods
A correlational research design was used to assess job satisfac-
tion and perception of learning environment of administrative
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employees in a health care management organization. To
investigate the five null hypotheses, data were collected from
a representative sample of the population. The independent
variables for this study included age, education, ethnicity, gen-
der, location, marital status, position classification, and years of
service. The dependent variables were the administrative
employee’s level of job satisfaction and perception of the learn-
ing environment as they related to corporate training programs.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
The target population for this study was 1,000 full- and part-
time administrative employees of the health care manage-
ment organization. Using a stratified random sampling
method, 480 participants were identified to conduct the
study. Study participants worked in 24 locations throughout
the United States in positions including accountants, admin-
istrators, analysts, assistants, coordinators, coders, collectors,
directors, managers, receptionists, recruiters, sales associates,
schedulers, software engineers, and technicians. The partici-
pants worked in the three primary divisions in (a) the affili-
ate, which devoted resources to contracting services, staffing,
credentialing, and scheduling in the client facilities, and the
operation of a medical call center; (2) the financial services
division (HCFS), which focused on billing and reimburse-
ment functions for services rendered, patient services, and the
operation of both call and billing centers; and (c) the head-
quarters division (corporate), which was dedicated to the
administration and decision-making aspects, the financial
control and direction, and strategic planning and leadership.
INSTRUMENTS
For data collection, two survey instruments, the Job Satis-
faction Survey (JSS) to measure job satisfaction and the
Learning Environment Survey (LES) to measure the learn-
ing environment, were used. The JSS, the most popularly
used instrument for measuring job satisfaction (Spector,
1997), is designed to measure nine facets of job satisfaction:
pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent
rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work,
and communication. The instrument includes 36 items
using a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from “agree very
much” to “disagree very much.” The coefficient alpha for the
total scale was .91.
The LES was developed to test empirically the salient
aspects of a company’s work environment to influence
continuous learning (Tannenbaum, 1997). The researchers
decided to use the first 51 items of the instrument, which
42 JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 1 • Number 4 • DOI:10.1002/jls
pertained to this study. The scales incorporated a 7-point
Likert-type scale (1 ⫽ strongly disagree; 4 ⫽ neither agree nor
disagree; 7 ⫽ strongly agree). The LES was identified as a valid
instrument for measuring the learning environment from the
hierarchical regression to examine the relationship between the
sources of learning and several of the scales and exploratory
regressions with other organizational variables (Tannenbaum,
1997). The overall reliability coefficient was .95, and the
resultant alphas for the subscales ranged from .49 to .93.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The cover letter, demographics questionnaire, and JSS and
LES instruments were distributed to the study participants
via surface mail. A self-addressed, stamped envelope was
enclosed to return the survey instruments, and two follow-
up letters were mailed to nonrespondents. Of the initial 480
surveys distributed, 261 surveys were returned completed,
providing a response rate of 55% .
Data analysis methods included descriptive statistics and
analysis of variance (ANOVA) at the .05 level of probability
on each hypothesis. The researcher performed a multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) on subscales to determine
whether any of the JSS or LES subscales differed significantly
with any of the demographics variables. Tukey’s HSD post
hoc tests were used when differences occurred to identify how
specific variables differed. Means were run to identify any
patterns. Data analysis also included Pearson r to assess
any existing correlations.
Results
Participants were asked to complete demographic informa-
tion on the factors of age, education, ethnicity, gender, loca-
tion, marital status, position classification, and years of service.
Table 1 presents the demographic information of the 261
respondents. In position classification, one respondent did
not designate his or her position status.
Ho1: There will be no significant difference between
participants’ age, education, ethnicity, gender, location,
marital status, position classification, and years of serv-
ice, and the total scores and the subscale scores of job
satisfaction as measured by the JSS.
An ANOVA test was conducted to determine any signifi-
cant difference between administrative employees’ age,
education, ethnicity, gender, location, marital status, position
classification, and years of service and their level of job
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Table 1. Demographics Information of the Sample (n ⫽ 261)

Demographic variable Category Frequency Percentage

Age 20–26 30 11.5

27–35 83 31.8

36–45 84 32.2

46 and over 64 24.5

Education High school or equivalent 90 34.5

2-year college degree 54 20.7

4-year college degree 55 21.0

Graduate degree 44 16.9

Other 18 6.9

Ethnicity Minority 51 19.5

Nonminority 209 80.1

Missing value 1 .4

Gender Female 205 78.5

Male 56 21.5

Location Affiliate 102 39.1

HCFS 114 43.7

Corporate 45 17.2

Marital status Married 161 67.7

Single 55 21.1

Divorced, separated, or widowed 45 17.2

Position Exempt 147 56.3

Nonexempt 113 43.3

Missing value 1 .4

Years of service 2 years or less 78 29.9

2–5 years 110 42.1

6 or more years 73 28.0

Ho1: There will be no significant difference between participants’ age, education, ethnicity, gender, location, marital status, position classification, and
years of service, and the total scores and the subscale scores of job satisfaction as measured by the JSS.

satisfaction as measured by the JSS. The results of the
ANOVA were found significant for ethnicity and location
variables. ANOVA results for ethnicity were F (1, 225) ⫽
4.718, p ⫽ .031. The mean score for minority participants
was 3.9, whereas the mean score for nonminority partici-
pants was 4.2. Minority participants had less job satisfaction
than nonminority participants. Results for location were
F(2, 225) ⫽ 6.188, p ⫽ .002. To determine how each location
differed, Tukey’s HSD multiple comparison procedures was
used. Table 2 indicates the results of Tukey’s HSD compari-
son. The mean scores were 4.1 for an affiliate, 3.8 for HCFS,
and 4.1 for corporate location, respectively.
A MANOVA test was conducted to determine statistically
significant differences between the demographic variables
and the JSS subscales. The MANOVA showed that there
were no significant differences with age, education, gender,

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marital status, and years of service demographic variables. demographic variables on the JSS subscales. To detect how
Table 3 illustrates that the MANOVA revealed significant the three subscales were significantly different, an ANOVA
differences with ethnicity, location, and position classification test for each subscale was performed.
From the ANOVA results, minority participants were less
satisfied with benefits and operating conditions than non-
Table 2. Tukey’s HSD Test for Multiple Paired
minority participants. In location, several subscales differed
Comparison Differences by Location
significantly, as seen in Table 4. To determine how each
Location Mean difference Std. error Sig. subscale score differed, Tukey’s HSD multiple comparison
HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.3905 .10441 .001* procedure was run on location (see Table 5). The results of
Tukey’s post hoc test revealed that participants at HCFS
HCFS–Corporate ⫺.3681 .13713 .021*
had lower satisfaction with supervision, contingent rewards,
Corporate–Affiliate ⫺.0224 .13929 .986
and coworkers than participants at an affiliate or corporate
*Significance at p ⬍. 05 level (two-tailed). location. Participants at HCFS locations had lower satis-
faction with nature of work than participants at affiliate
locations. The mean score for corporate location did not
Table 3. MANOVA for JSS Subscales
differ with either affiliate or HCFS locations for nature
Demographic Hypothesis of work.
variables F df Error df Sig. Regarding employee position classification, the ANOVA
Age .973 27 625.633 .506 results showed that only pay and contingent rewards differed.
Means were calculated for pay and contingent rewards accord-
Education 1.047 27 625.633 .401
ing to position classification to determine if a pattern was
Ethnicity 2.162 9 214.000 .026*
observable. The results showed that for position classification,
Gender .772 9 214.000 .643 the mean score for pay was 3.6 for exempt employees and 3.0
Location 2.495 18 428.000 .001* for nonexempt employees. The mean score for contingent
Marital status 1.191 18 428.000 .264
rewards was 3.9 for exempt employees and 3.5 for nonexempt
employees. Nonexempt administrative employee participants
Position 2.508 9 214.000 .010*
were less satisfied with pay and contingent rewards than
Years of service 1.359 18 428.000 .148 exempt. Because there were differences in ethnicity and loca-
*Significance at p ⬍ .05 level (two-tailed). tion according to the JSS total scores and also differences in

Table 4. ANOVA for JSS Subscales with Ethnicity, Office Location, and Position

Dependent variable Mean (SD) p-value (Ethnicity) p-value (Location) p-value (Position)

Pay 3.49 (1.28) .065 .066 .004*

Promotion 3.42 (1.10) .065 .149 .811

Supervision 5.22 (.96) .649 .001* .140

Fringe benefits 3.73 (1.11) .008* .406 .467

Contingent rewards 3.98 (1.25) .071 ⬍.001* .016*

Operating conditions 3.77 (.97) .004* .049* .251

Coworkers 4.72 (.98) .402 .005* .372

Nature of work 4.97 (.86) .578 .003* .223

Communication 4.04 (1.17) .097 .049* .720

*Significance at p ⬍ .05 level (two-tailed).

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Table 5. Tukey’s HSD Test for Multiple Comparison of Location

JSS dependent variable Location Mean difference Std. error Sig.

Supervision Affiliate–Corporate .0407 .17889 .972

HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.4717 .13486 .002*

HCFS–Corporate ⫺.4309 .17630 .040*

Contingent rewards Affiliate–Corporate .1771 .22888 .720

HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.7917 .17254 ⬍.001*

HCFS–Corporate ⫺.6146 .22557 .019*

Coworkers Affiliate–Corporate ⫺.0703 .18098 .920

HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.4688 .13644 .002*

HCFS–Corporate ⫺.5391 .17837 .008*

Nature of work Affiliate–Corporate .3239 .15735 .101

HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.3603 .11862 .008*

HCFS–Corporate ⫺.0364 .15507 .970

*Significance at p ⬍ .05 level (two-tailed).

ethnicity, location, and position classification according to the
JSS subscales, null Hypothesis 1 was rejected.
Ho2: There will be no significant difference between
participants’ age, education, ethnicity, gender, location,
marital status, position classification, and years of ser-
vice and the total scores of the learning environment
as measured by the LES.
An ANOVA test was conducted to determine any signifi-
cant difference between administrative employees’ age,
education, ethnicity, gender, location, marital status, position
classification, and years of service and their perception of
the learning environment as measured by the LES. From the
ANOVA results, all the p values for demographic variables
were greater than .05; therefore, the results of the ANOVA
revealed no significant difference between overall perception
of the learning environment and the demographic variables.
The Ho2 was not rejected.
Ho3: There will be no significant difference between
participants’ age, education, ethnicity, gender, location,
marital status, position classification, and years of
service and the subscale scores of learning environment
as measured by the LES.
A MANOVA test was conducted to determine statistically
significant differences between the demographic variables and
the LES subscales. The MANOVA revealed significant differ-
ences with age and location variables on the LES subscales.
Results for age were F(24, 635.768) ⫽ 1.929, p ⫽ .005 and
results for location were F (16, 438) ⫽ 2.860, p ⬍ .001. An
ANOVA was performed for all subscales to determine which
ones differed significantly for age. Results indicated that for
age, significant differences were found between older and
younger age groups with the Assigns to Avoid Errors subscale
(see Table 6). Means were also calculated for Assigns to Avoid
Errors subscale according to age group. The mean scores for
age was 4.4 for ages 20–26, 4.02 for ages 27–35, 4.05 for ages
36–45, and 3.5 for ages 46 and older. These analyses indi-
cated that as age increases, participants were less likely to
think the organization would assign employees to jobs they
can perform without error. The younger the participant, the
more likely he or she was to think the organization would dis-
courage people from attempting tasks unless they were confi-
dent they could perform the task successfully.
Regarding location the ANOVA results indicated that sig-
nificant differences were found with the Assigns to Provide
Opportunity to Learn and the Open to New Ideas and
Change subscales. Means were calculated for Assigns to Pro-
vide Opportunity to Learn and Open to New Ideas and
Change subscales according to location to find out if a pat-
tern emerged (see Table 7).

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Table 6. ANOVA for LES Subscales Differences by Age and Location

Dependent variable Mean (SD) p-value (age) p-value (location)

Assigns to provide opportunity to learn 4.83 (.95) .286 .020*

Tolerates mistakes as part of learning 5.26 (1.17) .198 .059

Assigns to avoid errors 3.90 (1.19) .031* .430

High performance expectations/accountability 5.29 (1.04) .588 .080

Open to new ideas/change 4.87 (1.27) .310 .010*

Policies and practices support training 4.25 (1.33) .091 .179

Coworkers support new ideas 4.94 (1.49) .079 .245

Training is viewed positively 4.57 (1.40) .059 .808

*Significance at p ⬍ .05 level (two-tailed).

Table 7. ANOVA for the Two LES Subscales and Location

Dependent variable Location Mean difference Std. error Sig.

Assigns to provide Affiliate–Corporate ⫺.1010 .17237 .828

opportunity to learn HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.4224 .13032 .004*

HCFS–Corporate ⫺.5235 .16965 .006

Open to new ideas/change Affiliate–Corporate .0022 .22836 1.000

HCFS–Affiliate ⫺.5529 .17266 .004*

HCFS–Corporate ⫺.5506 .22476 .040*

*Significance at p ⬍ .05 level (two-tailed).

The results showed that for location, the mean score for
Assigns to Provide Opportunity to Learn subscale was 4.9
for affiliate, 4.5 for HCFS, and 4.9 for corporate locations.
The mean score for Open to New Ideas and Change was 5.0
for affiliate, 4.4 for HCFS, and 4.9 for corporate locations.
Tukey’s HSD multiple comparison procedure was run on
location. Results of Tukey’s HSD post hoc test revealed that
administrative employee participants at HCFS locations had
a lower perception of opportunity to learn and a lower per-
ception that the organization was open to new ideas and change
than did the affiliate and corporate locations. Because there
were differences in location and age according to the LES
subscales, null hypothesis 3 was rejected.
Ho4: There will be no significant relationship between
administrative employee job satisfaction and admin-
istrative employee perception of the learning envi-
ronment as measured by the JSS and the LES.
A correlation analysis was performed to test Ho4. Results
from the correlation analysis regarding job satisfaction and
perception of the learning environment indicated a moder-
ate to high, positive correlation between the total JSS and the
total LES (r ⫽ .657, p ⫽ .01). The correlation was signifi-
cant at the .01 level of significance. Based on these findings,
as job satisfaction increased, the perception of the learning
environment increased positively. Likewise, as the perception
of the learning environment increased, job satisfaction
increased. Therefore, since a correlation was found, null
hypothesis 4 was rejected.
Ho5: There will be no significant relationship between
the total JSS and the subscales of the LES.
To test Ho5, a Pearson product moment correlation coef-
ficient analysis was performed on the total JSS scores against
the LES subscale scores. The Pearson r results showed that a

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Table 8. Pearson Correlations of Total JSS and LES change than participants in other locations. Higher
Subscale Scores levels of job satisfaction correlated with higher levels of the
perceived learning environment. Strong correlations existed
Pearson
between total job satisfaction and facets of the learning
LES subscale correlation Sig.
environment.
Assigns to provide opportunity .366 ⬍.001*
to learn
Discussions and Implications
Tolerates mistakes as part .575 ⬍.001*
Numerous researchers have identified job satisfaction as an
of learning
important organizational variable that is linked to corporate
Assigns to avoid errors .142 .022* profits (Peterson, 1999; Topolosky, 2000; Woodruffe, 1999),
High performance .428 ⬍.001* correlated to turnover (Cangelosi et al., 1998; Hellman,
expectations/accountability 1997) and can be determined by measuring facets of job sat-
Open to new ideas and change .657 ⬍.001* isfaction for improvement in the work environment (Cranny
et al., 1992; Oakland & Oakland, 1998; Spector, 1997). The
Policies and practices support .560 ⬍.001*
learning environment has been another important organiza-
training
tional variable because studies revealed significant relation-
Coworkers support new ideas .468 ⬍.001*
ships between training effectiveness and the alignment of
Training is viewed positively .559 ⬍.001* learning to organizational objectives (Harris & Brannick,
*Significant at p ⬍ .05 level (two-tailed), n ⫽ 259. 1999; Oakland & Oakland, 1998; Tannenbaum, 1997).
Contributing to previous research studies, this study revealed
significant, positive correlation existed between the overall several meaningful findings regarding the various aspects of
JSS and four LES subscales and a moderately strong correla- job satisfaction and learning environment that may influence
tion existed between total job satisfaction and two LES sub- organizational productivity and effectiveness. First, work
scales. The four subscales with strong correlations are as location and the local culture of organizations may play a key
follows: (a) tolerates mistakes as part of learning, (b) open to role in determining job satisfaction and perceptions of the
new ideas and change, (c) policies and practices that support learning environment regardless of the corporate philosophy.
training, and (d) training is viewed positively. The subscales Although each location has individual cultural characteris-
with a moderately positive correlation were Assigns to Pro- tics, organizations with multiple locations should encourage
vide an Opportunity to Learn and Assigns to Avoid Errors. support of corporate values and facilitation of learning cul-
Higher scores of overall JSS tended to have higher scores on ture in the divisions. Second, job satisfaction is realized from
the LES subscales. As job satisfaction increased, so did posi- training and feedback provided during performance evalua-
tive perception of the learning environment concerning indi- tions (Spears & Parker, 2002). The strong and positive cor-
vidual subscales. Table 8 shows the correlations between the relation between job satisfaction and perception of the
overall JSS and the LES subscales. Because a correlation was learning environment provides a good rationale to use per-
found between the overall JSS and the LES subscales, Ho5 formance evaluations to assess the level of job satisfaction of
was rejected. an employee and connect it to appropriate training oppor-
In summary, major findings of this study revealed that tunities to improve job satisfaction. Third, minority and
minority and billing center location participants were scored nonexempt participants had less overall job satisfaction or
low on overall job satisfaction; nonexempt participants were less job satisfaction in specific facets that measured job satis-
dissatisfied with pay and contingent rewards, and older par- faction. Programs need to be considered that include com-
ticipants perceived the organization was less tolerant of errors munication, development for promotional opportunities,
and that the organization provided opportunities to use rewards, and recognition in production centers in which the
newly acquired skills. Billing center participants had lower majority of the nonexempt employees worked and a higher
perception regarding opportunities to learn than participants level of turnover may exist.
in other locations. Billing center participants had lower per- In uncertain times, especially for the health care industry, with
ception that the organization was open to new ideas and rising medical costs, declines in managed care reimbursement,

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professional liability expenses, and overhead, organizations
need to find ways to strategically align job satisfaction with
organizational goals. To address these issues, as Topolosky
(2000) claimed, organizations must provide security and
encourage risk taking for improved job satisfaction in an
unstable market. The findings in this study showed a strong
correlation between job satisfaction and the fact that the
organization tolerated mistakes, was open to new ideas and
change, supported training, and viewed training as positive.
Job satisfaction may increase and turnover may decrease
when organizations encourage risk taking and tolerate mis-
takes. Job satisfaction is a consistent predictor of intent to
leave (Hellman, 1997). Constantly training new employees
can be more costly than creating strategies to retain experi-
enced employees. Rather, an organization that develops its
employees in a continuous learning environment may realize
the benefits of improved quality, productivity, and retention
of a skilled workforce.
Advances in technology and the transformation to a service-
oriented workplace require a positive learning environment
for cost-effectiveness, efficiency, and job satisfaction for a
diversified workforce population. Among many organiza-
tional facilitators for this purpose, first, supervisor support is
needed to promote a positive learning environment and
enhance job satisfaction of employees (Baruch-Feldman et
al., 2002). Supervisors in high production businesses tend to
be aware of possible burnout and boredom of employees.
Supervisors demonstrating constructive feedback and offer-
ing opportunities for employees to learn and use new skills
would support a continuous learning environment and pro-
mote higher commitment, productivity, efficiency, and
satisfaction. To augment supervisor support, coaching and
mentoring new supervisors or instilling new ideas for expe-
rienced supervisors is required to encourage a supportive
environment. Second, providing employees with challenging
opportunities for individual growth and allowing risk and
potential mistakes would encourage a positive learning envi-
ronment. Third, assessing training needs is key to facilitate
continuous learning (Tannenbaum, 1997). Although addi-
tional training might not be the solution for enhanced job
satisfaction or for resolving performance problems, the qual-
ity and appropriateness of training must be considered as
part of contributing to a positive learning environment. Also,
integrating nontraining interventions such as task force or
project team assignments, learning forums to share knowl-
edge and compare experiences, and coaching and mentoring
48 JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 1 • Number 4 • DOI:10.1002/jls
opportunities are viable options to improve learning culture
of the organization.
Future Studies and Limitations
Further research would be beneficial based on the results of
this study and the conclusions drawn from it. According to
Spector (1997), relationships between the demographic vari-
ables of ethnicity and gender have been extremely inconsis-
tent across studies. This study revealed no differences in
gender; however, differences existed with ethnicity. Further
examination may be needed to determine why job satisfac-
tion was lower for minorities in this study. Relationships exist
between job satisfaction and age (Spector, 1997). A longitu-
dinal study should be considered to test adequately possible
curvilinear relationships between age and job satisfaction.
Additional research is needed that identifies relationships
between employee satisfaction and intent to leave, a contin-
uous learning environment, supervisor support, and positive
financial results.
Several limitations in the study were found to be beyond
our control and could affect the study results. Most of all,
certain caution must be used in interpreting our study find-
ings with those subscales with low reliability alphas in the
survey instruments. Second, the sample was limited to the
selection of administrative employees of a national health
care management organization. Third, this study used
employees’ perception data to assess employees’ job satisfac-
tion and learning environment of the health care manage-
ment organization. Fourth, caution should be used to
interpret some of the findings affected by the low reliability
alphas of some of the subscales of the JSS and LES instru-
ments. Due to these limitations, the generalization of the
study findings may be limited to the population with simi-
lar organizational and cultural settings.
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Ernest W. Brewer is a Professor and Principal Investigator in
Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at the University of
Tennessee, Knoxville (UTK). He also served as Department
Head at UTK and as Executive Director of a Comprehensive
Human Resources Institute. He received his doctorate degree from
UTK in education. His current research interests, which are fre-
quently intertwined, include job satisfaction, occupational stress,
and job burnout. Ernest can be reached at ewbrewer@utk.edu.
Doo Hun Lim is an assistant professor in the College of Business
at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville (UTK). He received
his MS and Ph.D. in Human Resource Development at the
University of Illinois. He contributed to the instructional design
and technical development of the delivery system of the online
graduate degree program in Human Resource Development over
the last several years. Doo can be reached at dhlim@utk.edu.
Marcia E. Cross has held a variety of positions in human re-
source management with four organizations. She is an active
member of the Society of Human Resource Management
(SHRM) and WorldatWork (formerly American Compensation
Association (ACA)). She holds a BA in sociology and an MS in
Human Resource Development at UTK. Marcia can be reached
at Marcia_Cross@teamhealth.com.