A.D.

1541
First known written bill of fare
used by Duke Henry of Brunswick.
1750
American colonist Thomas Pepper provides
first “table d‘hôte” menu at his tavern.
1765
M. Boulanger displays the first “à la carte” menu
on posters at his Paris restaurant.
The first known written menu appeared at an elaborate banquet in 1541. Duke
Henry of Brunswick glanced at a sheet of paper beside his plate. When asked
about its contents, the Duke explained that the chef had written a list of dishes
he would serve and the order of their presentation. By referring to the list,
the Duke could be sure to leave room for what he liked best. Soon other
hosts and their chefs adopted the idea, creating large bills of fare to
sit at the end of the banquet table. Over time, the bill of fare
became smaller, and the custom of providing an individual
menu to each guest was born.

1831
The Delmonico brothers pioneer the wine menu at their New York restaurant.

1990
The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act requires that menu nutritional claims be documented.
 The Menu
KEY TERMS
menu
à la carte
semi-à la carte
A menu is a list of dishes offered or served at each meal.A menu also is called a bill
prix fixe
table d’hôte of fare.The menu,however,is much more than just a list of choices that customers must
fixed menu consider before placing an order.The menu impacts every phase of a foodservice operation,
cycle menu
including the type of customer the establishment will attract.It affects the kitchen layout
target market
price factor method and type of equipment required,the number of workers needed and the skills they must
competitors’ pricing method possess,and the type and quantity of supplies the foodservice operation will order.A well-
psychological pricing method
planned menu can increase sales by offering guests an appealing variety of choices as it
descriptive copy
clip-ons facilitates peak efficiency and cost-effectiveness behind the scenes. 63
table tents
menu board Menu Types
Menus are classified according to the way food and beverages are priced and ordered and the
regularity with which a food is offered. The most common pricing structures for sales menus
include à la carte, semi-à la carte, prix fixe, and table d’hôte. Many menus combine elements of one
or more pricing structures. In addition, the menu can be either a fixed or a cycle menu. Restaurant
menus also may combine fixed and cycle elements, offering a repeating cycle of daily specials in
addition to a fixed listing of basic offerings.
À la carte The à la carte menu prices and serves each item separately. The customer chooses
and pays for the exact dishes or beverages he or she orders.

The à la Carte Menu

The à la carte menu dates back to 1765 at the small Paris shop of an unemployed chef

named Boulanger. In Boulanger’s day only inns, hostelries, and caterers could legally provide

meals to guests. Because Boulanger was not a member of the caterer’s guild, he was able to

sell only drinks and broths. Boulanger challenged the letter of the law, and in time offered

more substantial dishes, which he listed on a slate or poster along with the prices. Boulanger

set out tables and chairs for his customers and created a model for what would later become

the modern restaurant.

Semi-à la carte The semi-à la carte
menu prices and serves some items
together and other items separately.
See Figure 6-1. For example, entrées often
are priced with a salad and side dish, but
appetizers, soups, desserts, and beverages
are priced separately. Because the semi-à la
carte menu typically includes the most
popular accompaniments as part of the
entrée price, customers often believe that
this menu offers good value.
Prix fixe The term prix fixe is French for
“fixed price.” The prix fixe menu charges a
set price for the entire meal. See Figure 6-2.
Regardless of what the guest chooses from
each course, the price is the same. A sup-
plement may be charged for a small selec-
tion of items containing costly ingredients.

F i g u r e 6 - 1
Restaurants often use a semi-
à la carte format for the din-
ner menu.
Table d’hôte The table d’hôte menu is
similar to the prix fixe menu in that it
offers a complete meal for a set price.
However, the degree to which a guest may Table d’hôte
choose individual dishes may be more
limited on the table d’hôte menu than on The term table d’hôte means “host’s table” in
the prix fixe menu.
French. Originally, the phrase referred to the manner
Fixed menu The fixed menu offers the
same dishes every day for an extended in which innkeepers served meals to their guests.
period of time. Restaurants that serve a
different clientele every day or offer a wide Guests ate together at a communal table, sharing
variety of selections may choose a fixed
whatever dishes the innkeeper (the “host”) had
menu. Hotels, fast-food operations, ethnic
restaurants, and most commercial restau- prepared. The ancient table d’hôte menu offered no
rants typically use a fixed menu.
real choices to guests, other than whether to accept
Cycle menu The cycle menu changes
daily for a set period and then repeats. See or decline a dish. It also punished those who ate
Figure 6-3. The cycle menu is most common
in institutions that serve the same people slowly or politely. Regular customers claimed the
day after day, such as schools, hospitals,
best seats near the center of the table, where the food
and military foodservice facilities.
was placed, and followed the practice of “first come,
first served.” A traditional table d’hôte menu is still
offered in some small hotels and inns.

F i g u r e 6 - 2
Elegant upscale restaurants
sometimes use a prix
fixe menu.

F i g u r e 6 - 3
Some cycle menus, such
as this one, repeat every
other week. Monthly
and weekly cycle menus
are also common.
Who Plans the Menu?
When developing a menu,it is a good idea to
utilize the expertise of a variety of people.
Successful menu development takes time.
Depending on the foodservice operation,
menus may be planned by the executive chef
working in combination with management
staff such as the food and beverage director.
In chain operations, the corporate chef is
involved in menu planning. For institutions
such as schools, hospitals, and retirement
facilities, a registered dietitian (R.D.) also
may collaborate in menu planning.
Factors to Consider When
Planning the Menu
There are a multitude of factors to consider
when planning a menu. In commercial
foodservice operations, profit is a driving
factor; in noncommercial operations, the
facility must be able to bring in enough
money to pay for the costs in order for the
facility to remain operational. Successful
menu planning has occurred when the
needs of both the foodservice operation
and the target market are met.
Target market The target market is the
group of people a foodservice operation will
serve or attract. The menu is a foodservice
operation’s primary marketing tool, so the
menu must appeal to the needs and
lifestyles of the target market. For example,
a fast-food or take-out restaurant serves
people who want an inexpensive, easily
transported meal in a hurry. Since parents
often take children to fast-food restaurants,
the menu needs to appeal to the tastes of
both parents and children. An upscale
restaurant usually draws customers who are
interested in a leisurely meal served by
experienced servers. These customers are
attracted to the quality of the food and
often the originality of its preparation.
Type of food The dishes listed on the
menu should appeal directly to the target
market. An establishment that seeks to
attract a clientele of people in their retire-
ment years may offer foods that meet the
nutritional requirements and preferences
of this age group. On the other hand, an
upscale restaurant that sees itself as a pace-
setter will have a menu that reflects the lat-
est in food trends and presentations, and
an ethnic restaurant will offer foods that
are representative of a particular culture,
region, or country.
Price structure There are several ways
to establish menu prices. Restaurants with
a past history of successful performance
may use the price factor method. To
apply the price factor method, the chef
must first determine the food cost of the
items being served and the desired food
cost percent the restaurant wants to
achieve. The food cost of all items served
on a plate can be calculated using a stan-
dard recipe costing sheet.
The desired food cost percent is a goal, a
forecast that the restaurant strives to
achieve. It represents the percent of sales
that is used to purchase the products
needed to produce the menu item. Most
successful food operations work within a
range of 25%–35% food cost. After the
desired food cost percent and the food cost
of the menu item have been determined, a
factor is established to help set menu prices.
To use the factor method, first determine
the desired food cost percent and the total
cost of the menu item.
100% divided by the Price
desired food cost % = factor
If the desired food cost percent is 25%:
100% divided by 25% = 4.0
To determine selling price:
Pricing x Food cost
= Selling
factor of menu item price
If the food cost of the item is $2.45:
4.0 x $2.45 = $9.80
The selling price of the menu item would
be $9.80.
The pricing factor method is the first
step in determining the selling price. The
pricing factor method helps determine
the lowest selling price of an item if the
operation wishes to achieve its desired food
cost percent. Most managers adjust this
selling price using additional considerations
as described in other methods that follow.
Another method for determining menu
price is the competitors’ pricing method.
With this method the restaurant establishes
its menu prices in relation to those of its
competitors. To appear more upscale, a
restaurant may charge slightly more than the
competition.To attract customers who might
be lured by a bargain, a restaurant may
charge slightly less than the competition.
Although the competitors’ pricing method
can be used by a start-up restaurant,it carries
some risks. Overhead, labor, and food costs
can differ from restaurant to restaurant,
making it difficult to determine whether
charging the same as a competitor will
provide sufficient funds to cover expenses
and supply a reasonable profit.
The psychological pricing method
helps restaurants refine their menu prices.
After a reasonable price is determined
using other pricing methods, the restaurant
considers psychological factors before setting
the asking price. For instance, a customer
may be more willing to pay $13.95 for an
entrée than $14.00. To allow for future price
increases, starting a menu item with a price
at the low end of a dollar figure gives the
restaurant more room to raise the price
before entering the next dollar category.
This may be important because of
customer reaction to price increases. A
65
price change from $13.95 to $14.25 may
sound like more than one from $14.25 to
$14.95, even though the second example
actually is a greater increase than the first.
Equipment analysis Menus must be
planned with restaurant equipment in
mind.Both the types and the capacity of the
equipment must be considered. If a restau-
rant has limited broiler space, then the
number of broiled offerings on the menu
should be limited. Care also must be taken
to spread the workload across equipment. It
is not cost-efficient to run a heated oven
partially full while the fryer runs nonstop.
Skill level of employees Menu plan-
ners must consider the skill level of
employees when determining what to offer.
A kitchen staff without baking experience
will be unable to meet the demand for
home-baked desserts or breads. The menu
also should strive to equalize the workload
between members of the kitchen staff.
Distributing the workload throughout the
day helps control the demands on kitchen
staff during peak times. Offering some
items that can be partially made ahead of
time balances the workload.
Geography Geography affects the menu
through product availability and customer
expectations. Restaurants usually can obtain
fresh seafood more easily and affordably near
the coastline than farther inland, so it makes
sense to offer more fresh seafood products in
coastal restaurants. Regional expectations
 also affect menu offerings. A menu found in
the South may include biscuits or grits as a
side dish,but a menu in the Pacific Northwest
would be unlikely to feature these items.
Religious and cultural background
Menu planners might consider customers’
religious and cultural backgrounds when
planning what to offer. Members of some
religious groups do not eat certain foods,
such as pork or shellfish. Some vegetarians
avoid all meat,including fish.Others eat fish
or shellfish, but no other animals. Vegans
avoid all animal products, including eggs
and milk. Most restaurant menus offer
sufficient choices so that even those who
follow restricted diets can find appropriate
selections. Foodservice operations that
offer fewer options,such as those in schools,
hospitals, camps, military institutions, the
workplace, and retirement facilities, should

F i g u r e 6 - 4
A well-planned menu demonstrates good
composition by providing variety and balance
in food choices, cooking technique, texture,
appearance, and serving temperatures.
be especially careful to consider the reli-
gious and cultural backgrounds of their
guests when planning menus.
Nutritional concerns Lifestyles dictate
a need for a variety of healthful food
choices, and this is reflected on the menus
of most restaurants and foodservice opera-
tions. More than ever, fruits, vegetables,
grains, fish, and legumes are common
menu offerings. Although a restaurant can-
not force its customers to choose nutritious
meals, offering a variety of choices that
reflect the nutritional and cultural consid-
erations of guests enables the establishment
to meet the needs of a greater customer
base. A primary concern when planning a
menu for a hospital, retirement facility,
camp, or school is nutrition.
See Chapter 9: Nutrition for
more information.
Menu Components
Age and health issues The body’s need
for calories and nutrients changes over
time.Young children, adolescents, and older
people all have different nutritional needs.
People with certain health conditions and
those who are recovering from illness also
have special dietary considerations. The
foodservice operation whose primary mis-
sion is to serve a special population must
take extra care to meet the daily nutritional
needs of its guests. Many people must fol-
low a low-fat diet because of heart disease,
cancer, weight control, or other health con-
cerns. High-fiber, low-fat foods with plenty
of fruits, vegetables, whole-grain breads
and cereals, and lean meat and fish are
important offerings for those on special
diets. People with diabetes also may require
special diets because the disease affects the
body’s ability to convert blood sugar to
energy. Diabetics must balance food, por-
tion sizes, exercise, and sometimes medica-
tion to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Food
allergies can cause some people to have
severe reactions to particular foods they
eat.Detailed menu descriptions can provide
information about ingredients in each dish.
In addition, staff should know the contents
of menu offerings so that they can respond
to guests’ questions about potential food
allergens.
After the needs of the guests and the food-
service operation have been considered,
additional principles are used to plan
successful menus. See Figure 6-4.
Variety
Variety adds interest to the menu and
whets the appetite. Variety can be achieved
in a number of different ways.
Serving temperature One of the easiest
ways to provide variety is through differ-
ences in the serving temperature of foods,
such as a meal containing warm bread, a
cold salad, and a hot entrée. The number of
hot and cold items on a menu may change
from season to season, with a summer
menu including more cold offerings than
its winter counterpart. Regional differ-
ences, affected by climate, also may affect
the proportion of hot and cold menu items.
Cooking techniques Varying food
preparation is another way of providing
variety. A restaurant that specializes in fish
and shellfish can offer entrées that are
roasted, broiled, or fried. Appetizers might
include sushi and steamed shellfish.
Texture Texture includes the way a food
feels in the mouth, as well as whether the
food is soft or firm. Food textures can be
liquid, soft, solid, chewy, and crispy. A
food’s richness also can be related to tex-
ture. A menu consisting of a cream soup,
followed by a salad with creamy dressing
and an entrée with a heavy sauce lacks
variety in texture. Even though some guests
may select dishes with similar textures, the
food service should offer a variety of dishes
with a range of different textures.
Height The appearance of foods offers
another type of variety. A plate on which
everything is one height lacks appeal.
The dramatic effect offered by a tall food
presentation is diminished if everything
else on the plate is vertical.
Taste Avoid offering too many foods that
contain the same ingredients or the same
intensity of flavor.A menu with half the items
containing garlic lacks variety, as does one
that offers only bland dishes. Cheese should
not be the dominant flavor in an appetizer if
the main dish is pasta stuffed with cheese.
Unless planning a menu for a specialty res-
taurant, such as a steak house, seafood
restaurant, or pasta house, offer a wide
variety of meat,fish,and nonmeat choices for
the main course. In addition, pairing sweet
with tart or mellow with strong can heighten
the guest’s appreciation for the taste of a dish.
Shapes Varying the shape of foods on a
plate can offer diversity. Serving vegetables
such as long, thin asparagus spears or car-
rots sliced into thin disks is an excellent
way to introduce different shapes and con-
trasting colors to a plate.
Balance
A menu can achieve balance by offering an
appropriate range of food items within
each menu classification. Appetizers,
entrées, and desserts could include both
hot and cold items. Unless a concept is
designed around a specific theme, such as
Mediterranean seafood, Southwestern
steak house, or Indian vegetarian, offerings
should be varied to include selections from
meat, fish, cheese-based, starch, and veg-
etable categories. The number of items
within each category should also be bal-
anced. In most cases, it would be inappro-
priate to offer seventeen appetizers, ten
entrees, and three desserts. Balance in
cooking techniques also provides interest
and minimizes the chance of overloading
particular work stations.
Composition
It is important to consider the composition
of each plate when deciding on menu
items. Composition refers to a plate’s visual
and sensory appeal. Generally, an odd
number of foods on a plate is more visually
appealing than an even number. One side
or section of a plate should not overwhelm
another. Food should be served in appro-
priate portion sizes. Keep in mind that a
plate overladen with food looks heavy and
unappealing and a plate with too much
open space can look sparse. Plates with all
soft food or food with little variation in
color lack interest and appeal.
See Chapter 10: Sensory
Perception for more
information on presentation.
Descriptive Copy
Descriptive copy is menu text that
describes each menu item. See Figure 6-5 on
page 68. Descriptive copy may include infor-
mation about the method of preparation,pri-
mary and secondary considerations, portion
size, geographical origin of the recipe or the
ingredients, or an explanation of accompani-
ments or garnishes. Descriptive copy makes
use of correct food terminology such as
toasted, whipped, grilled, glazed, and
sautéed. Adjectives used in descriptive copy
should reflect the concept and theme. Words
such as magnificent, colossal, and thick and
juicy may be appropriate for a casual concept
and less appropriate for fine dining.
Truth in Menu
Federal law requires that certain menu
statements be accurate. Menu information
about items such as quantity, quality, price,
brand names, product identification, origin,
merchandising terms,preservation methods,
food preparation, and verbal and visual
presentation must be accurate.See Figure 6-6
on page 68 for guidelines.
Menu Labeling Regulations
In 1990, Congress passed labeling regula-
tions under the Nutrition Labeling and
Education Act (NLEA) stating that claims
about the health benefits or nutrient content
in packaged food must be substantiated
with scientific evidence. In 1997, the FDA
extended this regulation to foodservice
establishments.
If a foodservice establishment makes a
health benefit or nutrient claim, it needs to
supply proof to customers if asked.If no such
claims are made,the regulations do not apply.
Menu Classifications
The menu is divided into categories or clas-
sifications of food items, each with its own
heading. The number of menu classifica-
tions or headings is dependent on the type
of restaurant. Usually menu classifications
are listed in the order in which the food 67
items are consumed. Standard menu classi-
fications include: appetizers, soups, salads,
hot entrées, cold entrées, sandwiches,
accompaniments, desserts, and beverages.
Appetizers Appetizers are meant to stim-
ulate the palate before the main part of the
meal. They are generally served in small
portions and can be hot or cold. They
include meat, fish, shellfish, fruits, vegeta-
bles, or combinations of these items.
Soups Some menus group soups and
appetizers together under the same menu
heading. Soups, which can be cold or hot,
fall into four categories: clear soups, thin
soups, thick soups, and specialty soups.
Salads Salads can be offered as a first
course, as accompaniments to a main
course, or as a cold entrée. A first course
salad may take the place of an appetizer or
soup and may contain grilled vegetables,
fruit, fish, meat, or seafood. The accompa-
nying salad, generally served right before
the entrée, is a light salad of mixed greens.
In the European tradition, however, green
salads usually come after the entrée and
before the dessert. The main course salad
can be a cold entrée, such as chicken salad,
lobster salad, or a mixture of greens with
grilled meats or vegetables. Main course
salads also can be a combination of hot and
cold items, such as a grilled chicken Caesar
salad.
 Figure 6-5
Descriptive Copy ELEGANT FINE DINING (SIMPLE, TO THE POINT )
Grilled beef tenderloin with cabernet sauvignon reduction and black
truffle butter

ELEGANT FINE DINING (MORE VERBOSE)

Addieville East Farm wild pheasant consommé baked in a Westport
Macomber turnip “bowl” garnished with pheasant quenelles and a
julienne of shiitake mushrooms and golden chanterelles

C A S UA L D I N N E R H O U S E
A full one and one-half pound rack of mouth-watering baby back ribs,
coated with our own barbecue sauce and served with house baked
beans, creamy coleslaw, and buttery jalapeño cornbread

Figure 6-6
Tr u t h - i n - M e n u G u i d e l i n e s

Guideline
1. Brand names must be
represented accurately.
2. Dietary and nutritional claims
must be exact.
3. Description of food preservation
methods must be accurate.
4. Quantity must be correct.
5. Origin of ingredients must
be truthful.
6. Quality or grade must be exact.
7. Cooking techniques must
be accurately described.
8. Pictures must be precise.
9. Food product descriptions must
be accurate.
10. Pricing structure must be
clearly stated.
11. Menus must indicate if
substitutions are made.
12. Merchandising terms must
be accurate.
Examples
Examples of brand name products include Hunt’s® ketchup, Hellmann’s®
mayonnaise, Green Giant® frozen vegetables, and Butterball® turkey.
To protect customers from potential health hazards, health claims and
nutritional information must be correct. For example, low-sodium or
fat-free foods must be correctly prepared to ensure the protection of
customers. Nutritional claims must be supported with statistical data.
The preservation of foods is as follows: frozen; chilled; dehydrated;
dried, such as by sun or smoking; bottled; and canned. If used, the
terms must be accurate. For example, fish cannot be listed as “fresh”
on the menu if it has been frozen.
Whenever a menu indicates that the appetizer consists of a certain
number of items, that number must be served. Weights given for
steaks or other cuts of meat should be identified on the menu as
weight prior to cooking.
If Dover sole is on the menu, the fish must originate in Dover. Pancakes
with Vermont maple syrup must be served with syrup from Vermont,
not New Hampshire.
The quality or grade listed for dairy products, meat, poultry, and
vegetables or fruits must be correct. If you state that a cut of meat is
“primesirloin,” it must be exactly that. You cannot use choice meat
and label it “prime” on the menu.
Where a cooking technique is given on the menu, i.e. broiled the chef
must prepare the food item using the described technique.
Apple pie à la mode must be apple pie with ice cream. Pictured
portion sizes should be the same as an actual serving.
A menu that describes shrimp salad as being made with jumbo
shrimp should not arrive to the guest with medium-sized shrimp.
The product description is incorrect.
The menu must make known if the price includes a cover charge,
gratuity, or service charge. Any supplement charged for side items
with more costly ingredients should be listed.
Substituting one item for another is a common practice because of
delivery problems, availability, or price. Examples of substitutions
include maple syrup and maple-flavored syrup, and capon and chicken.
Foodservice establishments may exaggerate in their advertising of food
items as long as they are not misleading customers. Saying, “We are the
best in town,” or “We serve only the finest beef,” is acceptable, but
implying that the beef is prime when it is not is misleading.
Hot entrées Hot entrées are the largest
menu classification. The ingredients and
manner of preparation for hot entrées vary
greatly. Hot entrées may include meat such
as beef, lamb, pork, and veal, as well as
poultry, fish, and shellfish. Casserole items
and vegetarian dishes are common hot
entrées found in many restaurants.
Cold entrées Cold entrées can include
sliced meats, main course salads, or cold
fruit and vegetable plates. An assortment
of fruits and cheeses may be offered as a
cold entrée.
Sandwiches Hot and cold sandwiches,
such as grilled chicken and tuna salad,
sometimes appear only on the lunch menu.
The sandwich section of a menu may list a
choice of breads, spreads, and condiments
appropriate for the sandwich offerings.
Accompaniments Vegetables, pasta,
rice, and potatoes are some of the accom-
paniments that may appear on the menu.
Accompaniments should complement the
list of entrées.
Desserts Guests often decide to order
dessert after they have eaten their meals.
For this reason, desserts may be listed on
a separate dessert menu or shown on a
dessert tray. Ice cream, sorbet, fruits, and
an assortment of tarts, cakes, and other
pastries are popular desserts.
Beverages Beverages include hot and
cold drinks, such as juices, specialty waters,
soft drinks, milk, coffee, and tea. Separate

F i g u r e 6 - 7
A menu board allows
for quick changes to
menu items and prices.
wine and bar menus are standard in most
restaurants, though some establishments
include these beverages on the same
menu.
Menu Style and Design
The menu’s primary goal is to convey
information and make a sale. In doing so,
the menu must create a favorable impres-
sion. The menu’s style and design must be
chosen to present information in a clear
and understandable format. It also must
present an image consistent with the
establishment’s own vision. Details such as
the cover design, color, style of lettering,
type of paper, and choice of language
influence the message a restaurant pre-
sents to its customers.
The Printed Menu
The most common menu form is the
printed menu. The guest reads the printed
menu and reviews clip-ons fastened to it.
Clip-ons draw attention to new products
and seasonal offerings. They also may
highlight daily specials, specialty drinks, or
desserts. Ready access to a computer and
printer enables a foodservice operation to
publish its menu or clip-ons daily.
Some restaurants supplement the
printed menu with a spoken menu,
whereby the server presents daily specials
or explains the menu. A spoken menu
allows a server to establish a rapport with
the customer. Some guests view the spoken
menu as a sign of well-trained servers.
Others believe that the spoken menu makes
it difficult to make a decision or carefully
consider all the menu choices.
Table Tents
Like clip-ons, table tents list specials, sea-
sonal offerings, specialty drinks, desserts,
and new products. Table tents are folded
cards placed on the diner’s table or
inserted into a stand that sits on the table.
Sometimes a photograph illustrates each
item listed on the table tent.
Menu Board
A menu board contains a handwritten
menu printed on a chalkboard, white 69
board, or easel. See Figure 6-7. A menu
board is easily updated to reflect daily
menu changes. It presents a casual, infor-
mal message suited to delicatessens and
casual dining establishments, as well as
the upscale restaurant that wants to
emphasize its freshness and creativity.