School of Health and Natural Sciences

CENTER FOR NATURAL SCIENCES

Course Descriptive Title: Biochemistry

INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY

I. Overview

Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to living
organisms. It is a laboratory-based science that brings together biology and chemistry. By using chemical
knowledge and techniques, biochemists can understand and solve biological problems.

Biochemistry focuses on processes happening at a molecular level. It focuses on what’s happening

inside our cells, studying components like proteins, lipids and organelles. It also looks at how cells
communicate with each other, for example during growth or fighting illness. Biochemists need to
understand how the structure of a molecule relates to its function, allowing them to predict how
molecules will interact. It covers a range of scientific disciplines, including genetics, microbiology,
forensics, plant science and medicine. Because of its breadth, biochemistry is very important and advances
in this field of science over the past 100 years have been staggering. It’s a very exciting time to be part of
this fascinating area of study. It is also known as the study of the chemical substances and processes that
occur in plants, animals, and microorganisms and of the changes they undergo during development and
life. It deals with the chemistry of life, and as such it draws on the techniques of analytical, organic, and
physical chemistry, as well as those of physiologists concerned with the molecular basis of vital processes.

Biochemistry is the chemistry of living organisms. Biochemists study the chemical reactions that
occur at the molecular level of organisms. Normally it is listed as a separate field of chemistry. However,
in some schools it is part of biology, and in others it is separate from both chemistry and biology.
Biochemistry really reaches out and combines aspects of all the fields of chemistry. Because carbon is the
element of life, organic chemistry plays a large part in biochemistry. Biochemistry is similar to molecular
biology; both study living systems at the molecular level, but biochemists concentrate on the chemical
reactions that are occurring.

Biochemistry asks how the remarkable properties of living organisms arise from the thousands of
different lifeless biomolecules. When these molecules are isolated and examined individually, they
conform to all the physical and chemical laws that describe the behavior of inanimate matter—as do all
the processes occurring in living organisms. The study of biochemistry shows how the collections of
inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact to maintain and perpetuate life animated
solely by the physical and chemical laws that govern the nonliving universe. 2
II. The Biomolecules

A. Biomolecules
Biomolecules are defined as any organic molecule present in a living cell which includes
carbohydrates, proteins, fats etc. Each biomolecule is essential for body functions and manufactured
within the body. They can vary in nature, type, and structure where some may be straight chains,
some may be cyclic rings or both. Also, they can vary in physical properties such as water solubility,
melting points.

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the maintenance
and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules are the actual foot-soldiers
of the battle of sustenance of life. They range from small molecules such as primary and secondary
metabolites and hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids
etc.

1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or
compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. In layman’s terms, we acknowledge
carbohydrates as sugars or substances that taste sweet. They are collectively called as saccharides
(Greek: sakcharon = sugar). Depending on the number of constituting sugar units obtained upon
hydrolysis, they are classified as monosaccharides (1 unit), oligosaccharides (2-10 units) and
polysaccharides (more than 10 units). They have multiple functions’ viz. they’re the most
abundant dietary source of energy; they are structurally very important for many living organisms
as they form a major structural component, e.g. cellulose is an important structural fibre for
plants.

Carbohydrates are comprised of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Sugars are common carbohydrates. Carbohydrates serve several functions inside cells:
a. Major energy source
b. Provide structure
c. Communication
d. Cell adhesion
e. Defense against and removal of foreign material
2. Proteins
Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules, which make up around 50per
cent of the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the form of
polypeptide chains. The structure of proteins is classified as primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary in some cases. These structures are based on the level of complexity of the folding of
a polypeptide chain. Proteins play both structural and dynamic roles. Myosin is the protein that
allows movement by contraction of muscles. Most enzymes are proteinaceous in nature. Proteins
are comprised of amino acids. Proteins serve several functions inside living things:
a. Structure of hair, muscle, nails, cell components, and cell membranes
b. Cell transport
c. Biological catalysts or enzymes
d. Maintaining cell contact
e. Control cell activity
f. Signaling via hormones

3. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the hereditary
information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids namely,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main function of nucleic acid is the
transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins by processes known as translation and
transcription. The monomeric unit of nucleic acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a
nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’
phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar makes the nucleotide
distinct. There are 4 major nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil. The DNA structure is described as a double-helix
or double-helical structure which is formed by hydrogen bonding between the bases of two
antiparallel polynucleotide chains. Overall, the DNA structure looks similar to a twisted ladder.

A wide variety of biomolecules including fats, oils, waxes and steroid hormones. Lipids do
not dissolve in water (they are hydrophobic) and are primarily comprised of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (O). Lipids serve several functions in living things:
a. Form biological membranes
b. Fats may be stored as a source of energy
c. Oils and waxes provide protection by coating areas that could be invaded by microbes
(i.e. skin or ears)
d. Steroid hormones regulate cell activity by altering gene expression

4. Lipids
Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents, are
related to fatty acids and are utilized by the living cell. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble
vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids, etc. Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and
nucleic acids, lipids are not polymeric molecules. Lipids play a great role in the cellular structure
and are the chief source of energy.
 All of the information needed to control and build cells is stored in these molecules.
Nucleic acids are comprised of nucleotides which are abbreviated A, C, G, T, and U. There are two
main types of nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA):
a. DNA
DNA has a double helix structure comprised of nucleotides A, C, G, and T.
DNA is located in the nucleus of the cell.
DNA is the storage form of genetic information.
b. RNA
RNA is typically single stranded and comprised of nucleotides A, G, C, and U.
RNA is copied from DNA and is the working form of the information.
RNA is made in the nucleus and mRNA is exported to the cytosol.

B. Major Classes of Small Biomolecules

The large organic molecules, which are most abundant in all cells, are the carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. A remarkable uniformity exists in the molecular components of
organisms--in the nature of the structural makeup, as well as in the ways in which they are assembled
and used. The assembly of these complex workhorse macromolecules is from smaller organic building
blocks, which I will refer to as small biomolecular precursors (monomers). They are the simple sugars,
the fatty acids, the amino acids, and the nucleotides. These small biomolecules have been found in all
known cells and living systems. The essential feature of these monomer precursors is their capacity to
form chemical bonds to at least two other monomer precursors forming linear, chainlike polymers, as
well as cross-linked, network polymeric products.

1. Simple sugar
Each sugar molecule consists of a backbone of carbon atoms linked together in a linear array by
single bonds. Each of the carbon atoms of the backbone is linked to a single hydroxyl group, except
for one that bears a carbonyl (CPO) group. If the carbonyl group is located at an internal position
(to form a ketone group), the sugar is a ketose, such as fructose. If the carbonyl is located at one
end of the sugar, it forms an aldehyde group and the molecule is known as an aldose, as
exemplified by glucose. Because of their large numbers of hydroxyl groups, sugars tend to be
highly water soluble.
2. Fatty acids
Fats consist of a glycerol molecule linked by ester bonds to three fatty acids; the composite
molecule is termed a triacylglycerol. We will begin by considering the structure of fatty acids. Fatty
acids are long, unbranched hydrocarbon chains with a single carboxyl group at one end. Because
the two ends of a fatty acid molecule have a very different structure, they also have different
properties. The hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic, whereas the carboxyl group (— COOH), which
bears a negative charge at physiological pH, is hydrophilic. Molecules having both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions are said to be amphipathic; such molecules have unusual and biologically
important properties. The properties of fatty acids can be appreciated by considering the use of
a familiar product: soap, which consists of fatty acids. In past centuries, soaps were made by
heating animal fat in strong alkali (NaOH or KOH) to break the bonds between the fatty acids and
the glycerol. Today, most soaps are made synthetically. Soaps owe their grease-dissolving
capability to the fact that the hydrophobic end of each fatty acid can embed itself in the grease,
whereas the hydrophilic end can interact with the surrounding water.

Soaps consist of fatty acids. In this schematic drawing of a soap micelle, the nonpolar tails of the
fatty acids are directed inward, where they interact with the greasy matter to be dissolved. The
negatively charged heads are located at the surface of the micelle, where they interact with the
surrounding water. Membrane proteins, which also tend to be insoluble in water, can also be
solubilized in this way by extraction of membranes with detergents.

3. Amino acids
Proteins are polymers made of amino acid monomers. Each protein has a unique sequence of
amino acids that gives the molecule its unique properties. Many of the capabilities of a protein
can be understood by examining the chemical properties of its constituent amino acids. Twenty
different amino acids are commonly used in the construction of proteins, whether from a virus or
a human. There are two aspects of amino acid structure to consider: that which is common to all
of them and that which is unique to each. We will begin with the shared properties.

All amino acids have a carboxyl group and an amino group, which are separated from each other
by a single carbon atom, the a-carbon. In a neutral aqueous solution, the a-carboxyl group loses
its proton and exists in a negatively charged state (—COO-), and the a-amino group accepts a
proton and exists in a positively charged state (NH3+). Amino acids also have asymmetric carbon
atoms. With the exception of glycine, the a-carbon of amino acids bonds to four different groups
so that each amino acid can exist in either a D or an L form.

During the process of protein synthesis, each amino acid becomes joined to two other amino
acids, forming a long, continuous, unbranched polymer called a polypeptide chain. The amino
acids that make up a polypeptide chain are joined by peptide bonds that result from the linkage
of the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of its neighbor, with the elimination
of a molecule of water.

4. Nucleotides
A nucleotide is the basic structural unit and building block for DNA. These building blocks are
hooked together to form a chain of DNA. A nucleotide is composed of 3 parts which are fivesided
sugar, phosphate group and the nitrogenous base (nitrogen containing). The sugar and phosphate
group make up the backbone of the DNA double helix, while the bases are located in the middle.
A chemical bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar of a neighboring
nucleotide holds the backbone together. Chemical bonds (hydrogen bonds) between the bases
that are across from one another hold the two strands of the double helix together.

a. Bases
There are four types of bases in DNA. They are called adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
(G) and thymine (T). Bases are the part of DNA that stores information and gives DNA the
ability to encode phenotype, a person’s visible traits. Adenine and guanine are purine
bases. These are structures composed of a 5-sided and 6-sided ring. Cytosine and thymine
are pyrimidines which are structures composed of a single six-sided ring. Adenine always
binds to thymine, while cytosine and guanine always bind to one another. This
relationship is called complementary base paring. These complementary bases are
 bonded together via hydrogen bonds, which can be easily broken apart when the DNA
needs to unzip and duplicate itself.

C. Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are a group of organic nutrients, required in small quantities for a variety of
biochemical functions that, generally, cannot be synthesized by the body and must therefore be
supplied in the diet.

The lipid-soluble vitamins are hydrophobic compounds that can be absorbed efficiently only
when there is normal fat absorption. Like other lipids, they are transported in the blood in lipoproteins
or attached to specific binding proteins. They have diverse functions—for example, vitamin A, vision
and cell differentiation; vitamin D, calcium and phosphate metabolism, and cell differentiation;
vitamin E, antioxidant; and vitamin K, blood clotting. As well as dietary inadequacy, conditions
affecting the digestion and absorption of the lipid-soluble vitamins, such as a very-low-fat diet,
steatorrhea, and disorders of the biliary system, can all lead to deficiency syndromes, including night
blindness and xerophthalmia (vitamin A); rickets in young children and osteomalacia in adults (vitamin
D); neurologic disorders and hemolytic anemia of the newborn (vitamin E); and hemorrhagic disease
of the newborn (vitamin K). Toxicity can result from excessive intake of vitamins A and D. Vitamin A
and the carotenes (many of which are precursors of vitamin A), and vitamin E are antioxidants (see
Chapter 45) and have possible roles in prevention of atherosclerosis and cancer, although in excess
they may also act as damaging pro-oxidants.

The water-soluble vitamins are vitamins B and C, folic acid, biotin, and pantothenic acid; they
function mainly as enzyme cofactors. Folic acid acts as a carrier of one-carbon units. Deficiency of a
single vitamin of the B complex is rare since poor diets are most often associated with multiple
deficiency states. Nevertheless, specific syndromes are characteristic of deficiencies of individual
vitamins, for example, beriberi (thiamin); cheilosis, glossitis, seborrhea (riboflavin); pellagra (niacin);
megaloblastic anemia, methylmalonic aciduria, and pernicious anemia (vitamin B12); megaloblastic
anemia (folic acid); and scurvy (vitamin C).

Inorganic mineral elements that have a function in the body must be provided in the diet.
When the intake is insufficient, deficiency signs may arise, for example, anemia (iron), and cretinism
and goiter (iodine). Excessive intakes may be toxic.

1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Thiamin, or vitamin B1, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme in
carbohydrate and branched-chain amino acid metabolism. Thiamin is in food sources such as
enriched and whole grains, legumes, and pork. The RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance) of
thiamin for adults is 1.1 mg/day for women and 1.2 mg/day for men.

2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme in
redox reactions. Riboflavin is present in food sources such as enriched and whole grains, milk and
dairy products, leafy vegetables, and beef. The RDA of riboflavin for adults is 1.1 mg/day for
women and 1.3 mg/day for men.
3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Niacin, or vitamin B3, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme to
dehydrogenase enzymes in the transfer of the hydride ion and an essential component of the
electron carriers NAD and NADP. Niacin is present in enriched and whole grains and high protein
foods like meat, milk, and eggs. The RDA of niacin for adults is 14 mg/day of NEs (niacin
equivalents) for women and 16 mg/day of NEs for men.

4. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Pantothenic acid, or vitamin B5, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a key
component of coenzyme A and phosphopantetheine, which are crucial to fatty acid metabolism.
Pantothenic acid is widespread in foods. The AI (adequate intake) of pantothenic acid for adults
is 5 mg/day.

5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vitamin B6, or pyridoxine, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme
for amino acid, glycogen, and sphingoid base metabolism. Vitamin B6 is widespread among food
groups. The RDA for vitamin B6 for adults is 1.3 mg/day.

6. Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
Biotin, or vitamin B7, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme in
carboxylation reactions that are dependent on bicarbonate. Biotin is found widespread in foods,
especially egg yolks, soybeans, and whole grains. The AI of biotin for adults is 30 mcg/day.

7. Vitamin B9 (Folate)
Folate, or vitamin B9, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme in
single-carbon transfers in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism. Folate is in enriched and
fortified grains, green leafy vegetables, and legumes. The RDA of folate for adults is 400 mcg/day
of DFEs. The recommendation is that women of childbearing age consume an additional 400
mcg/day of folic acid from supplements or fortified foods to decrease the risk of neural tube
defects.

8. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin B12, or cobalamin, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as coenzymes
for the crucial methyl transfer reaction in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine and the
isomerization reaction that occurs in the conversion of L-methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA.
Vitamin B12 is only present in animal products because it is a product of bacteria synthesis. Many
foods are also fortified with synthetic vitamin B12. The RDA of vitamin B12 for adults is 2.4
mcg/day. It is recommended for older adults to meet their RDA with fortified foods or
supplements because many are unable to absorb naturally occurring vitamin B12.

9. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is an essential water-soluble vitamin that acts as a reducing
agent in enzymatic reactions and nonenzymatically as a soluble antioxidant. Vitamin C is found
primarily in fruits and vegetables, except for animal organs like the liver and kidneys. The RDA of
vitamin C for adult women and men is 75 mg/day and 90 mg/day, respectively. Smokers require
an additional 35 mg/day of vitamin C.

10. Vitamin A (Retinol)

Vitamin A, or retinol, is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that plays numerous roles in vision,
cellular differentiation, gene expression, growth, the immune system, bone development, and
reproduction. Vitamin A is found primarily in animal products. Fruits and vegetables are a source
of provitamin A carotenoids that can be converted to retinol in the body at a lesser amount. The
RDA for vitamin A for adults is 900 mcg/day for males and 700 mcg/day for females.

10. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)

Vitamin D, or cholecalciferol, is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that plays essential roles
in calcium metabolism, cell growth and development, and bone health. Vitamin D can be found
in fish oils, and in small amounts in plants in its less biologically active form. Interestingly, vitamin
D synthesis occurs in the skin with exposure to UV light making dietary sources unnecessary in
certain cases. The RDA for vitamin D for adults is 10 to 15 mcg/day.

11. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

Vitamin E, or tocopherol, is a fat-soluble vitamin that is an antioxidant and may play roles
in cell signaling, platelet aggregation, and vasodilation. Vitamin E, in the form of α-tocopherol, is
found in certain vegetable oils, including sunflower, safflower, canola, and olive oil, whole grains,
nuts, and green leafy vegetables. The RDA for vitamin E for adults is 15 mg/day.

12. Vitamin K (Phylloquinone; Menaquinone)

Vitamin K is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that is the coenzyme in the carboxylation of
glutamic acid to form γ-carboxyglutamic acid reaction, which is essential to the proteins involved
in blood coagulation. Vitamin K is present in green leafy vegetables, canola oil, and soybean oil.
The RDA of vitamin K for adults is 120 mcg/day for men and 90 mcg/day for women.

13. Calcium
Calcium is an essential macromineral that is responsible for numerous structural
components such as bones and teeth and physiological mechanisms in the body. Calcium exists in
dietary sources such as dairy, cereals, legumes, and vegetables. The RDA for calcium for adults is
1,000 mg/day.

14. Magnesium
Magnesium is an essential macromineral that is responsible for numerous functions in the
body, including signaling pathways, energy storage, and transfer, glucose metabolism, lipid
metabolism, neuromuscular function, and bone development. Magnesium is present in food
sources such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, dairy, meat, and fortified foods
like cereal. The adult RDA for magnesium is 400 mg/day.

15. Phosphorus
Phosphorus is an essential macromineral that is a structural component of bones and
teeth, DNA, RNA, and plasma membrane of cells. It is also critical metabolically to produce and
store energy. Phosphorus is pervasive throughout food sources, with the greatest contributors
being milk, dairy, meat, and poultry. Phosphorus is also an additive in processed foods as a
preservative. The RDA for phosphorus for adults is 700 mg/day.

16. Sodium
Sodium is an essential macromineral and electrolyte that plays critical roles in cellular
membrane transport, water balance, nerve innervation, and muscle contraction as the most
abundant extracellular cation. Sodium is available in dietary sources such as salt, processed foods,
meat, milk, eggs, and vegetables. The AI for sodium for adults is 1,500 mg/day; however, the
average sodium intake in industrialized nations is 2 or 3 fold in comparison at 3,000 to 4,500
mg/day.

17. Potassium
Potassium is an essential macromineral and electrolyte that plays critical roles in muscle
contraction, nerve innervation, blood pH balance, and water balance as the most abundant
intracellular cation. Potassium is obtainable in dietary sources such as fruits and vegetables. The
AI for potassium is for adults is 4,700 mg/day.

18. Chloride
Chloride is an essential macromineral and electrolyte that plays critical roles in digestion,
muscular activity, water balance, and acid-base balance as the most abundant extracellular anion
in the body. Dietary chloride is almost always present in dietary sources associated with sodium
in the form of NaCl, or table salt. Chloride is in processed foods, meat, milk, eggs, and vegetables.
The AI for chloride for adults is 1,500 mg/day.

19. Iron
Iron is an essential trace mineral that has a critical role in oxygen transport and energy
metabolism. Dietary iron is from sources such as meat, fortified grains, and green leafy vegetables.
Animal foods contain a more bioavailable form of iron called heme iron, while plant foods and
fortified grains contain a less bioavailable form called non-heme iron. The RDA for iron for adults
is 8 to 18 mg/day.

20. Zinc
Zinc is an essential trace mineral that functions structurally in proteins and catalytically as
a component of over 300 different enzymes. Zinc appears in a variety of foods, especially shellfish
and red meat. The RDA for zinc for adults is 10 mg/day.

21. Copper
Copper is an essential trace mineral that acts as a component of numerous proteins,
including many important enzymes. Copper is in a variety of food sources but the highest
concentrations in organ meats, nuts, seeds, chocolate, and shellfish. The RDA for copper for adults
is 1 mg/day.
 22. Iodine
Iodine is an essential trace mineral necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis. Iodine is
present in meats and plant foods based on the soil content of the region of food production.
Otherwise, iodized salt is the main food source of iodine in regions with low soil iodine content.
The adult RDA for iodine is 150 mcg/day.

23. Selenium
Selenium is an essential trace mineral that is an essential component of selenoproteins
that play biological roles in antioxidant defense and anabolic processes in the human body.
Selenium occurs in grains and vegetables, but the amounts vary based on the selenium content
in the soil that the grains and vegetables were grown in. Brazil nuts are known for having high
concentrations of selenium. The RDA for selenium for adults is 55 mcg/day.

III. Reactions in the Living Systems

A. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis reactions use water to breakdown polymers into monomers and is the opposite of
dehydration synthesis, which forms water when synthesizing a polymer from monomers. Hydrolysis
reactions break bonds and release energy. Biological macromolecules are ingested and hydrolyzed in
the digestive tract to form smaller molecules that can be absorbed by cells and then further broken
down to release energy.

Polymers are broken down into monomers in a process known as hydrolysis, which means “to
split water,” a reaction in which a water molecule is used during the breakdown. During these
reactions, the polymer is broken into two components. If the components are un-ionized, one part
gains a hydrogen atom (H-) and the other gains a hydroxyl group (OH–) from a split water molecule.
This is what happens when monosaccharides are released from complex carbohydrates via hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis reaction generating un-ionized products.: In the hydrolysis reaction shown here,
the disaccharide maltose is broken down to form two glucose monomers with the addition of a water
molecule. One glucose gets a hydroxyl group at the site of the former covalent bond, the other glucose
gets a hydrogen atom. This is the reverse of the dehydration synthesis reaction joining these two
monomers. If the components are ionized after the split, one part gains two hydrogen atoms and a
positive charge, the other part gains an oxygen atom and a negative charge. This is what happens
when amino acids are released from protein chains via hydrolysis.
 Hydrolysis reaction generating ionized products.: In the hydrolysis reaction shown here, the
dipeptide is broken down to form two ionized amino acids with the addition of a water molecule. One
amino acid gets an oxygen atom and a negative charge, the other amino acid gets two hydrogen atoms
and a positive charge. This is the reverse of the dehydration synthesis reaction joining these two
monomers.

These reactions are in contrast to dehydration synthesis (also known as condensation)

reactions. In dehydration synthesis reactions, a water molecule is formed as a result of generating a
covalent bond between two monomeric components in a larger polymer. In hydrolysis reactions, a
water molecule is consumed as a result of breaking the covalent bond holding together two
components of a polymer.

Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions are chemical reactions that are catalyzed, or “sped up,”
by specific enzymes; dehydration reactions involve the formation of new bonds, requiring energy,
while hydrolysis reactions break bonds and release energy.

In our bodies, food is first hydrolyzed, or broken down, into smaller molecules by catalytic
enzymes in the digestive tract. This allows for easy absorption of nutrients by cells in the intestine.
Each macromolecule is broken down by a specific enzyme. For instance, carbohydrates are broken
down by amylase, sucrase, lactase, or maltase. Proteins are broken down by the enzymes trypsin,
pepsin, peptidase and others. Lipids are broken down by lipases. Once the smaller metabolites that
result from these hydrolytic enzymezes are absorbed by cells in the body, they are further broken
down by other enzymes. The breakdown of these macromolecules is an overall energy-releasing
process and provides energy for cellular activities.

Hydrolysis reactions in living organisms are performed with the help of catalysis by a class of
enzymes known as hydrolases. The biochemical reactions that break down polymers, such as proteins
(which are peptide bonds between amino acids), nucleotides, complex sugars or starch, and fats are
catalyzed by this class of enzymes. Within this class are lipases, amylases, proteinases, hydrolyzed fats,
sugars, and proteins, respectively.

Cellulose-degrading bacteria and fungi play a special role in paper production and other
everyday biotechnology applications because they have enzymes (such as cellulases and esterases)
that can break cellulose into polysaccharides (ii.e., polymers of sugar molecules) or glucose, and break
down stickies. For example, proteinase could be added to a cell extract, to hydrolyze the peptides and
produce a mixture of free amino acids.

Hydrolysis, the opposite of condensation, is a chemical reaction in which water breaks down
another compound and changes its makeup. Most instances of organic hydrolysis combine water with
neutral molecules, while inorganic hydrolysis pairs water with ionic molecules, such as acids, salts and
bases. Though primarily studied as an aspect of chemistry, hydrolysis performs vital functions in the
biology of living organisms.

The addition of water to certain elements causes them to break down into simpler substances.
Hydrolysis means “splitting by water,” and begins when a water molecule encounters a reactant and
divides into a hydrogen cation, or proton, and a hydroxyl anion. These attach to the components of
the reactant, which have also separated into individual molecules. The water’s oxygen atom slowly
forms a covalent bond with the reactant component, while the two hydrogen ions attach rapidly. In
some reactions, a third element, such as a base or acid, can increase the rapidity of hydrolysis.

1. ATP Hydrolysis
In biology, the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate, a coenzyme energy transport commonly
abbreviated as ATP, fuels metabolism and drives fundamental cell processes. As the body oxidizes
nutrients, energy becomes stored in ATP molecules. The introduction of water breaks down the
ATP storage unit and creates adenosine diphosphate. The removal of a single phosphate from an
ATP molecule through hydrolysis liberates approximately 7,000 calories of energy per mole. Cells
use this energy to transport molecules and ions across membranes, and perform the biosynthesis
that converts simple compounds and fuses them into macromolecules.

2. Digestion and Hydrolysis

The digestion process relies upon hydrolysis to render the biochemical reactions that break down
food. The digestive tract secretes enzymes, such as proteases, carbohydrases, nucleases and
lipases that, along with water, catalyze the hydrolysis that releases various nutrients. Through
hydrolysis, the digestive system uses proteinases to break down proteins into amino acids, lipases
to turn fats into glycerol and fatty acids, amylases to render starch into maltose and sucrases to
break down sucrose. Another enzyme, lactase, catalyzes the hydrolysis reaction that breaks down
lactose so the body can digest milk. Many people do not naturally produce lactase into adulthood,
which renders them lactose-intolerant.

3. Other Examples of Hydrolysis

An ester is an organic compound, typically derived from carboxylic acids, that renders alcohol or
various other acids through hydrolysis. The combination of water, esters and alkalies triggers a
type of hydrolysis called saponification, which allows for the creation of soap from oils and fats.
Esters also provide the fragrance of flowers and sweetness of fruits; they also have industrial uses
as solvents for paint and varnish. Hydrolysis occurs with nonorganic, ionic compounds as well. For
example, the introduction of sodium acetate, a salt, into water causes the salt to break down into
acetic acid.

B. Oxidation-Reduction
Oxidation-reduction (or "redox") reactions are a very large class of chemical reactions in which
both oxidation and reduction necessarily occur.

An oxidation is defined as loss of electrons in the course of a chemical reaction. If a species

gains electrons, it is undergoing a reduction. Since electrons are "conserved" in a chemical reaction
(they are not created or destroyed),one chemical species' loss is another's gain. Thus, a reduction
cannot occur with a corresponding oxidation, and vice-versa - a kind of yin-yang principle. The term
"redox" also nicely encapsulates how inextricably tied together oxidation and reduction are in reality.
Other terminology used in discussing redox chemistry: A chemical species that gets reduced is acting
as an oxidizing agent, or oxidant, while the species undergoing oxidation is acting as the reducing
agent, or reductant.

Oxidation-reduction reactions are of central importance in organic chemistry and

biochemistry. The burning of fuels that provides the energy to maintain our civilization and the
metabolism of foods that furnish the energy that keeps us alive both involve redox reactions.

Aldehydes and ketones can be formed by the oxidation of alcohols. Conversely, aldehydes and
ketones can be reduced to alcohols. Reduction of the carbonyl group is important in living organisms.
For example, in anaerobic metabolism, in which biochemical processes take place in the absence of
oxygen, pyruvic acid ( CH3COCOOH ) is reduced to lactic acid ( CH3CHOHCOOH ) in the muscles.

CH3COCOOH → CH3CHOHCOOH

Human cells—and those of other living organisms—are excellent at harvesting energy from
glucose and other organic molecules, such as fats and amino acids. Here, we’ll go through a quick
overview of how cells break down fuels, then look at the electron transfer reactions (redox reactions)
that are key to this process.

In respiration, the biochemical process by which the oxygen we inhale in air oxidizes foodstuffs
to carbon dioxide and water, redox reactions provide energy to living cells. A typical respiratory
reaction is the oxidation of glucose (C6H12O6), the simple sugar that makes up the diet of yeast:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

The reactions that allow energy to be extracted from molecules such as glucose, fats, and
amino acids are called catabolic reactions, meaning that they involve breaking a larger molecule into
smaller pieces. For example, when glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen, it’s converted
into six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules. The overall reaction for this process can be
written as:

This reaction is simply a combustion reaction, similar to what takes place when you burn a
piece of wood in a fireplace or gasoline in an engine. Does this mean that glucose is continually
combusting inside of your cells? Thankfully, not quite! The combustion reaction describes the overall
process that takes place, but inside of a cell, this process is broken down into many smaller steps.
Energy contained in the bonds of glucose is released in small bursts, and some of it can be captured
in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a small molecule that is used to power reactions in the
cell. Much of the energy from glucose is still lost as heat, but enough is captured to keep the
metabolism of the cell running.

As a glucose molecule is gradually broken down, some of the breakdowns steps release
energy that is captured directly as ATP. In these steps, a phosphate group is transferred from a
pathway intermediate straight to ADP, a process known as substrate-level phosphorylation. Many
more steps, however, produce ATP in an indirect way. In these steps, electrons from glucose are
transferred to small molecules known as electron carriers. The electron carriers take the electrons to
a group of proteins in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, called the electron transport chain.
As electrons move through the electron transport chain, they go from a higher to a lower energy level
and are ultimately passed to oxygen (forming water). Energy released in the electron transport chain
is captured as a proton gradient, which powers production of ATP by a membrane protein called ATP
synthase. This process is known as oxidative phosphorylation. A simplified diagram of oxidative and
substrate-level phosphorylation is shown below.

Simplified diagram showing oxidative phosphorylation and substrate-level phosphorylation

during glucose breakdown reactions. Inside the matrix of the mitochondrion, substrate-level
phosphorylation takes place when a phosphate group from an intermediate of the glucose breakdown
reactions is transferred to ADP, forming ATP. At the same time, electrons are transported from
intermediates of the glucose breakdown reactions to the electron transport chain by electron carriers.
The electrons move through the electron transport chain, pumping protons into the intermembrane
space. When these protons flow back down their concentration gradient, they pass through ATP
synthase, which uses the electron flow to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This
process of electron transport, proton pumping, and capture of energy from the proton gradient to
make ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation.
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1. Lehninger PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY, David L. Nelson (University of Wisconsin–Madison) &
Michael M. Cox (University of Wisconsin–Madison)
2. Biochemistry for Dummies, John T.Moore, EdD and Richard Langley,PhD
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