O c u la r

D r aw t u b e
-

'

B od y T u be a
Rac k P in ion
Coar s e Ad j u s tm e n t

N o se p i e c e ,

M i c r o m e t e r H e ad o f
Fi n e A dj u s tm e n t s

Ob j e c t i v e s

g
S ta e _

Fi n e Ad j u st m e n t
U pp e r I r i s D i ap h r a m g Pi llar
g
Su b st a e R i n g
Con d e n ser M ou n t i n g
L o w e r Ir i s Di ap h ra m g
W as h e r
'
Pr ism

Co n d e n s e r Foc u s i n g S
M i r r or
I n c li n at i o n Joi n t
M irr or Fo r k

M i r r or B ar Pi llar

H orse Sh oe B ase

Illustrating the p arts of a compoun d m i croscope .

( From S tev ens ) .
PHA RMA C E U T IC A L BO T A N Y

BY
‘

HEBER W YO U NG K EN PH G
. .
, .
, A IVI,

P RO F E S S O R OF B OT A N Y A N D P HAR MA C OGN OS Y A T T H E M E D I QO— C H T R U RGT C A L

’
A S S IS T AN T
CO L L E G E ; M E MB E R OF T HE A M E RI CA N P H A RMA CE U T IC A L A S S OCIA H d N A mEm t A N
’

A S S O CI A T I ON F O R T HE A DV A N C E M E N T OF S CI E N CE, E r e ,

E D IT ED BY

F . E . ST EWA RT , M D . .
,
PH G
, .

P R O F E S S OR OF MA T E Rr
-
A ME D I C A ,. D E PA R T ME N T S O F P HA RM A C Y
A N 'D C HE M IS T RY; M E DIOO OH I 'RU RG I CA L COLLE GE ; A U T HO R
L '

' '
OF CO M P E N D O F P H A RMA CY

ILLU ST RAT E D

P H I L A D E L P HI A
CO
’

P B LA K I S T O N S S O N .

1 0 1 2 W A L N U T S T RE E T
 PREFA C E
T he ai m has been to eliminate from this book all tho se topics that
are of minor importance to the student and practitioner of P harmacy .

A s apharmacist and teacher the writer feels that the bota n ical prepa
,

ration for Pharm oc ogn osy and M ateria M edica i n those colleges where ,

B otany is given f or one year should include mainly the structural and
,

systematic aspects of the science In the M edico Chir urgical C ollege

.
-

of P hiladelphia B otany is taught the fir s t year extending over ap eriod

, ,

of r 55 hours T he a u thor has introduced in this concise volume the

.

important s ubj ect matter of his lectures given to first year students ,

and has omitted laboratory directions for the obvious reason that fixed
sub j ects for laboratory study are unnecessary It is not a bo ok on .

P harmacogno sy howe v er since it do es not describ e how one drug

, ,

differs from another of the same group in all of its detail s .

T h e work is included in two parts P art I is largely devoted to the

.

m o rphology ( gross and minute ) and to a less extent the physiology of

, ,

the A ngiosperms P art II deals with the taxo nomy of plants mainly
.
,

but not wholly of medicinal value together with the parts used and the
,

names of the o fficial and non ofii c i al drugs obtained from these
-

T h e author do es no t claim sole originality for the facts presented ,

but has consulted many sources of information mention of which will ,

be fo und in the bibliography of the text .

A cknowledgment is here made to his esteemed friends D r Francis ,

.

E. Stewart of the M edico C hirurgical C ollege and D r John M

-
. .

M acfarlane of the U ni v of P enn a for v aluable assistance i n the

.
,

reading of the proofs and preparation of the index .

H . W . Y .

P HI LAD E LP H I A .
 FO REWO RD
'
In a monograph entitled A n Ol d System and a N ew Science ,

published in 1 88 2 I advocated a return to the classification in which

,

knowledge relating to the M ateria M edica is embraced under the

'
general head P h armacology ; in my address as C hairman of the
'

Sec tion on M ateria M edica P harmacy and T herap eutics delivered at

, ,

the f orty sev en th annual m eeting ( 1 8 96 ) of the A merican M edi cal

e

A ssociation the sam e was again suggested ; and in numerous papers on

,

th e subj ect since contributed to medical and pharmaceutical societies

and press the same plea was repeated
, It is therefore gratifyi n g to
.

note the adoption of this cla s sification by the N ational C ommittee

R epresenting the B oards and Schools of P harmacy of the U nited
'
S tates for its P harmaceutical Syllabus and also to note its i n
a
,

co rporation into the N ew Y ork S tate P harmacy L aw and adOpti o y

t he B oard of R egents of the Stat e of N e w Y ork for the guida nc e of
t eachers of pharmacy in that state .

P harmacology in its widest scope embraces the study of dr ugs from

every po ssible po i nt of V iew A s limited to the study of the changes
.

incited in li v ing organisms by the administration of drugs we have

,

e xcellent text bo oks by C u sh n ey So llman and others

,
. B ut these
works dem and for their prop er study more extended education than
required by the national syllabus or the needs of the pharmaceutical
student T he obj ect of the Stewart P harmacologic M anual s is to supply
.

text books suitable for pharmacists and pharmaceutical colleges and ,

prepared in accordance with the national syllabus .

F . E . S .
 C O NT ENT S
P A RT I

T er m i n ology and M or p hology

C HA P T E R I

PA G E S
DI V I S I ON S OF B OT AN Y I Structural B otany or P lant M orphology
.
—
. . 2 .

P hysi ologi cal B otany 3 G e ographi cal B otany 4 E con om i c or

. . . .

A ppl ie d B otany 5 G e ologi cal B ot any

. . 6 Syst emati c B otany or . .

Veg e tabl e T axonomy 7 Veg etable E cology . . .

CLASSI FI CAT I ON OF P LAN T S N a tural Syst em : typ e ; .

—
class ; se ries ; ord er ;
.

f a mi ly ; g en us ; sp ecies ; ind ivi dual ; varie ty ; ra c e ; hybri d

SU B DIV I S I ON OF T HE VE G E T AB LE K I N G D OM P hanerog ams ; C ryptogams ; .
—

A ngi osp erms ; G ym nosp erms ; M onocotyl edons ; D i cotyle do n s

VE G E T AB LE CYT OL OGY ( Cellula r S tructure) C eU ; P rotopl asm ; P rotoplasmi c —

Cell C o nt ents ; N on P rotoplasmi c Ce ll C ont ents

-

VE G E T AB LE HI ST OL OGY ( Plant T i ssues) Li st o f T i ssues and D efini ti on s .

—

CH A P T E R II

P LAN T ORGAN S AND Veg etativ e Organ s : Roots ; P l an t Hai rs ;

OR G A N I S M S .
‘
—

S t ems ; an d L eav es Reproducti v e Organs : Flow ers ; F rui ts ; an d S eeds

. 1 4
—
1 5
T H E ROOT D efini ti on ; f uncti o ns ; root h ai rs ; root cap ; g enerati v e ti ssu es
.
-

di ff e r enc es b e tween root and st e m

CL AS SI FI CAT I ON OF ROOT S A S T o F ORM P r i mary root ; s e co n d ary roots ; .
—

f orms of roots ; an omalous roots ; adv en ti t i ous roots ; ep iphyti c roots .

C LAS SIFI CAT I O N OF P L A N T S A CCORD IN G T o D U RAT I O N OF RO OT A nn u al — '

Bienni al ; P erenni al
ROOT H I ST OL OG Y M onocotyl edon s ; D i cotyl edo ns
.
—

T HE B U D —
D e fini ti on ; first bud ; sc aly buds ; nak ed buds ; leaf buds ; flowe r
b uds ; mi x ed buds ; bud pos i ti o ns 1 9
—
20

T H E ST E EL D efini ti on ; f uncti o ns ; st em s iz e ; di re cti on of g rowth ; elonga ti o n ;

—

durati on ; abov e ground st ems ; underground st ems ; exo genous ; e ndoge

n ous . 2 0— 23

ST E M H I ST O L OG Y A E x ogens: I A nn ual Di cotyls

.
—
. 2 P e r ennial Di cotyls
. . .

an d thei r trans i ti o nal ch ang es L enti c els an d T hei r Forma ti on : D e fi .

ni ti on ; structur e ; f u n ct i o n A nnu al T hi ck ening of St e ms : M e thod o f

.

' '
f orma ti on ; annual ring Bark : D efini tion ; D i stin ction b etween
.

Ph a rm a cog ni c a nd C omm e rc ial d e si gna ti o n O f z o ne s ; P E RID E RM B .

E ndogem : M onocotyls .
X CO N T E N T S

PL AN T H AI RS OR T RI C H OME s .
—
D e fini ti on ; f orms ; f un cti ons
T HE LE A R —
D e fini ti on ; f uncti ons ;
p arts ; C omple t e Leaf ; s essile ; p e tiolat e ;
exstipula t e ; stipulat e ; structur e of blade Leaf Venati on : p arallel .

re ti cul at e ; p innately an d p alma t ely v eine d .

FO RMS OF LE AV E S Si mpl e an d C ompoun d .

—
( a) G ene ral O utli ne : ov at e ; .

ellipti cal ; Oblong ; obl ique ; orb icular ; p elta te ; fili for m ; obova t e ; O blance
olat e ; cu neat e ; sp a tula te ; a c e rose ; deltoi d ( b ) A p ex : a cute ; a cumi nat e ; .

obtus e ; truncat e ; mucrona te ; cusp ida te ; aristate ; e ma rginat e ; re tuse ;

obcordat e ( c ) Base : corda te ; renif orm ; hasta te ; a uricula t e ; sagi tta te
. .

( d ) M argi n : enti re ; s e rra t e ; dent at e ; crenat e ; r ep an d ; sinuat e ; inci se d

'

runcina te ; lob ed ; clef t ; p art ed ; divide d F orms o f C ompound L eav es . .

LE AF T E X T U R M embranous ; succule n t ; scar i ous ; coriac eous

E
—

LE A F C O L O R Va ria tions i n color

—
.

LE AF SU RF A CE G labr0 us ; gl aucous ; p elluci d pu n ct a te ; scabrous ; pub escen t

'
- -
. .

vi llos e ; seri ci ous ; hi sp id ; tomentos e ; sp inose ; rugos e ; v e rrucos e

LE AF D U RA T I O N E v ergr een ; d e c i duous ; c a
—
r du c ou s ; f ug a c i ous ; e iI ec t of

cli mat e .

LE AF IN SE RT I ON D efini ti on ; radi cal ; c a ul ine ; ramal ; p er f olia t e ; cl asp ing ;

.
-

conna te p erf oliat e ; equi tant

-
.

PH YLLOT A X Y D efini ti on ; alte rna t e ; opposi te ; v erti cilla t e or whorle d ; f a

.
—
s

c iele d or tu f ted ; law of sp iral a rrang em ent ; leaf rank s

VE RN AT ION D efini ti on ; i nfl ex ed ; condupli cate ; ci rcinate ; pl i cat e ; involut e ;
.
—

r evolute
IN F LORE S CE N CE OR A N T H OT A X Y D e terminat e Indeterminat e ; M ixed ; P arts .
—

of I n fl ores ce n c e s Forms o f D e t e rmi n a t e a n d Ind e t e rm ina t e I nflor esc e n ces 3 7 40

—

PRE FL ORAT I ON ~
.

V alvat e ; v exillary ; con torted

.
—
40
—
41
T HE FL OWE R D efini ti on ; floral p arts ; di stingui shing charact eri st i cs ; P e ri
—

gone .
41
—
42
T HE C A LYx D efini ti on ; p arts ; physi ca
.
—
l characteri sti cs ; co nna tion ; kinds
and f orms ; p ersi st enc e ; ad nati on 4 2 43
—

T HE C O ROLLA D efini ti on ; physi cal ch aract eri sti cs ; p arts ; f uncti o n s ; f orms
.
—

of C oroll a a n d P e rian th 43 44
—

T HE A N DROE CI U M O R ST AME N SYST E M ~D e fini tl0 n ; structur e ; t erms d enoting .

-

n umb er of stamens i n flower ; t erms denoting connection b etween sta mens ;

te rms den oting posi tion ; te rms denoting attachm ent o f anothe r to fila
m en t ; dehi sc enc e P ollen: descriptio n ; f orms . .

T HE G Y N O E CI U M O R P I ST IL SYST E M D e finltl0 n ; G ymnosp ermous a

, nd .
—

A ngi osp ermous ; p arts ; th e p i sti l a modified l eaf ; carp el : d eh i sc en c e ;

compound p istil ; an ovul e a tran sf orm e d bud ; posi ti o n of ovules i n ovary ;
G ymnosp ermous a n d A ng i osp e rmous ovul e s ; structur e of A ng i osp e rmous

ovule ; shap e of ovul e

T H E P LACE N T A D efini ti on ; pl ac ental arr ang em ent
.
—
.

P O L LI N A T I ON ~ D e fini ti on ; C los e a
. n d C ross P ollina t i o n ; t rms applie d to e

pl an ts pollinat ed by various age nc i

FO RMAT I O N OF M A LE A N I FE M A L E )

FE RT I L I ZAT I ON I N A N G I O SFE RMs P roc e ; f or m ati on o f embryo and c m lo .

—
ss

sp e rm 4 9 50
—
 C ON T E N T S

T HE FR U IT .
—
modifica tions ; distri bution
D e fin i ti on ; .

FRU I T ST RU CT U RE P er ic a rp ; exoca rp ; endoc a rp ; ep i carp ; s a rcoca rp ; m eso

.
-

c a rp ; putam en ; dehisc enc e SO S I

'

CL ASS IF I CAT I ON O F FRU IT S Si mpl e ; A ggrega t e ; M ul tipl e ; dry de hi sc en t

.
— '

dry in d eh i sc ent ; fl e shy ind ehiscent

T HE SE E D .D efini ti on ; structur e app en d ag es
—
,

M ODE OF FORM AT I ON OF D I FFE RE N T T YP E S OF A LB U M E N P e ri sp ermi c ; endo .

—

Sp er rni c ; p eri sp e rmi c a n d en dosp e rm i c ; exalbumin ous a n d albumi n o us

s eeds 54 55

P A RT II
T ax onom y
T A
H L LO P H YT A D e fini ti on C ha ra cters of the M yx omycetes Schi zophyta
.
—
.
, ,

A lg a e F ung i a
,
n d Li ch ene s Lif e H istory O f Cl av i ceps purp ur ea
,
. P l ants .

of th e group y ieldi ng ofli c i a l dr ugs .

B RYOP HY T A De fl ni ti on C hara ct ers of th e Hepati c aaand M usci Lif e

.
—
. .

history of a typ i cal tru e moss

P T E RID OP HY T A D efini t i on.
—
Ch ara ct ers of th e Lycopo di al es E q ui s e tal e s
.
,

an d Fili cal es L if e H i sto ry of atyp i cal f ern P lan ts of the group yield
. .

in g Ofli c i al drugs
SPE RM AT OP HYT A D efl n i ti on Ch aract ers of th e A ngi osp e r m i aa
.
—
. n d of th ei r

cl ass es and f ami l ie s y ieldi n g dr u g s T able s of ofii ci al an d unofli c i al .

dr ugs w ith the nam es of plants and p arts consti tuting th e dr u g C ha r .

ac t ers of th e G ym nosp er m i aand of th e f ami ly y ieldi n g O fli ci al dr ugs

T abl e of O fli c i a
l and uno fficial dr ugs y ield e d by G ym n osp erms
 T E XT —
B OOK OF
P H A RM A C E U T I CAL B OT A N Y

P A RT I

T E RM I N O LO G Y A N D M O RP H O L O G Y

D IVIS IO N S O F B OT A NY

I . Structural B ota
ny or P l a
nt M orph ology treats of the various

organs or parts of a plant as root stem flower fruit etc with their
, , , , ,
.
,

special forms and modifications It also includes Vege tabl e H istology ,

.

that p art of structural botany which considers the minute or micro

scopi c al structure Of plant tissues and Ve ge ta b l e Cytology , which treats
O f plant cells a n d their contents .

2 P hysi ol ogi ca
. l Bota ny explain s how the various parts of the plant

perform their work of growth reproduction and the preparation of food

,

for the support of ani mal life from substances not adapted to that use .

3 G eogra
.
ph ica l B otany treats of the distribution of plant life on

the glob e .T h e centre O f distribution for each plant is the habitat or

origin al source from which it spreads oft e n over widely distant regions
, .

4 E con om i c or A ppli e d B ota

. ny deals with the science from a pr a c

tical standpoint showing the special adaptation of the vegetable king

,

dom to the needs Of everyday life .

5 G eologi ca
. l B otan y treats of the pla nts of former ages trac eable
-

in their fossil remains .

6 System a
. ti c B otany or Ve ge table T ax onom y considers the classi

fic ati on or arrangement of plants i n groups or ranks according to their

res emblances or differences .

7 Ve g e ta
. bl e E c ol ogy treats of plants in relation to th eir
e nvironment .

CLA S SIFICA T ION OF P LA N T S

B y grouping together thos e plants which are in some respects simi

lar and combining these groups with others it is possible to form som e ,
2 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT A N Y

thing like an orderly system of cla ssification Such a system b ased .

' '
upon natural resemblances is called a n atural sy stem .
T ype s represent general plans of structure .

A Cl a ss is formed by special modificati o n of a type Classes re .

sembling each other are called S eri e s .

A n O rder is a group of the same class related by a common ,

structure .

A Fa m il y is a group of the same order related by a common ,

structure .

A G e nu s i s a still smaller group having the same essential

structure .

A S pe ci e s is the smallest group whose structure is constant .

A n Ind ivi du a l is a unit of organic life forming a complet e animate ,

existence .

A Va r i e ty is a peculiarity of Ra ce R aces and varieties are both

.

sub di v isions of species

-
.

A Hyb ri d is a cross breed of two v arieties or species rarely O f two

-

genera .

SU B DIV ISIO N S OF T ILE VE G E T A B LE K IN G D OM

T he two great sub divisions of the v egetable kingdom are

-

P ha n e roga m s or flowering plants and Cryptoga m s or fl owerle ss

plants .

T h e P hanerogams are further divided into

A n gio spe rm s , characteri z ed by having their seeds enclosed within
a box like covering
-
.

Gym n o sperm s , which h a ve their seeds borne naked ( T hey are .

polycotyledonous ) .

T h e A ngiosperms are classified according to the numb er of their

cotyledons or seed leaves in the emb ryo into :
, ,

M ono c otyl e donou s pl a n ts , which have one cotyledon a s Indian ,

Corn an d Ginger and ,

D ico tyl e donou s plan ts , which have two cotyledons as B urdock , ,

and Ip ecacuanha .

VE G E T A B LE CYST OLOGY

CE LLULA R S T RU CT U RE

T he b o dies of all plants are m ade up of one or more units of st r u c

ture called cells .

4 PH AR MA CE U T IC A L B OT A N Y

A ccording to the position of the cells in which plastids occur and

the work they perform they differ in color v i z : , ,
.

Le u copla sts are colorless plastids found in the underground portio n s

of a plant and also in seeds and th e egg cell T heir fun ction is to build
,
.

up reserve starch from sugar and other carbohydrates as well as to

change the reserve starch back into sugar when it is needed for the
growth of the plant .

Ch loropla sts are plastids found in cells exposed t o light and contai n

the green pigment chlorophyll ,

.

Chr om opla sts are plastids found in c ells independent Of their rela

tion to light or darkness and contain the yellow o r o range pigment

called c hromophyll .

D uring cell di v ision another protoplasmic body appears called a

c e n tr o s o m e .

N ON P R OT OP L A S MI C CE LL C O N T E N T S
-

A S SI MIL A T I ON
S ta
.

I ' r ch
RE SE RV E .

2 . Inuli n .

3 . S u gasuch as DE X T ROS E LE V U L OSE S ACCH A RO SE

rs , , ,
M ALT OSE ,
G EN T I A N OS E M A N N I T OL
,
.

Cell sa -

p c olor s ( in solution of cell sap ) .

Alka lo i ds .

Glu co sides .

N e utra l P ri nc ipl e s .

Feebly ba si c substa n ce s .

Ale uron e gr a i ns .

ROS E T T E A G G RE G A T E S .

M ON O C L I N I C P R I S M S .

1 0 Ca
. lcium O x al ate CRY S T A L F IB RE S .

RAP H I DE S .

M I CR O CRY ST A L S -

I r Cystoli th s
. .

1 2 T a
. nni n .

I3 Gum s a
. nd Muc ila ge .

I4 O ils
. .

I 5 Re si n s
. .

P R OT E OL Y T I C .

1 6 E n zym e s
. D I AS T A SE S .

I N V E RT A S E S .
 PL AN T T I S SU E S
5

P LAN T T ISSUE S
A ti s sue is an aggregation of cells of common source structur e ,

and function in intimate union .

A ccording to structure the following tissues are found in various

forms of higher plants :

1 . M E RI S T EM LA T I CLFE R OU S T I SSU E

2 . P A RE N CH YME CRIB I F ORM OR SI E V E T I SS U E

3 . COLL E N CH YME W OOD Y F IB RE T I SSU E

4 . SCLE R E N CH YME HAR D B A S T
5 E P ID E R MI S
.
T R ACH E AR Y T I SS U E
6 E N D ODE RMI S
. M E D U L L AR Y R A Y S
7 . C ORK

A mass of tissue so united in the plant as to constitute a distinct

u nit i s called a ti ssu e system T hree systems of tissues are commonly
.

distinguished in high er forms of plants :

T A
H E E P ID E RM L OR T E G U M E N T AR Y S Y S T EM

T H E F U N D ME N T A AL S Y S T E M
T H E F IB ROV A SCU LA R S Y S T E M
M e ri stem , frequently called emb ryon ic tissue is undi ff erentiated ,

tissue composed of c ells in the state of rapid di v ision .

Pa m e nta
r e n chym e or Fu n da l T i s su e is the soft ground tissue of
plants co n sisting of cells about equal i n length breadth and thickness ,

( iso diametric ) with thin cellulose cell walls enclosin g protoplasm and
a nucleus T hre e important kinds of parenchyme viz : Chlorophyll
.
,
.

pare nchym e containing chloroplasts and found in gre en parts of plants ;

,

res e rve paren chyme o ccurring in seeds and underground parts O f ,

plants and containing starch aleurone grains fixed Oils etc ; conducting
, , ,
.

parenchyme fou n d distributed in various parts Of plants and servi n g for

th e t ransferral of food .

Coll e n ch ym e consists of e longated prismatic cells whose walls are

of cellulose T he angl e s of the cells are thickened with a coll oidal
.

substance I t is fou n d b ene ath the epide rmis of many pl ants rarely
.
,
' '
alo ngside the endodermis and forms the ribs of stems such as i n
B urdock C araway etc Its function is that of support
, ,
. .

' '
S c l erenchym e or stony tissue is mad e up O f ston e cells vario usly
sh ap e d T hese were formerly pare nchyme cells whos e walls becam e
.

2
6 P HA RMA CE U T I C A L B OT A N Y

thickened by deposits of ligni n layer within layer until the cells are
,

O ften nearly filled with this sub s tance A lumen is fou n d within the .

centre of a st o ne cell which is in comm u nication with radial pore canals

leading outward and in communicati o n with the pore canals of adj acent
stone cells Stone cells are distributed in fruits as gritty particles
. ,

in b ark s and seeds T hey are supporting structures

. .

FI G . Stone c ells f rom di f er en t sources

2 .
—
I , From coff ee ; 2 , 3 a
. n d 4 , f rom st e m
O f clov e ; 5 a nd 6 , f rom t ea l eaf ; 7 , 8 an d 9 , f rom powde r e d st ar ani s e s ee d
-

( Fr om .

S lezens a f ter M oeller ) .

is the outer covering ti ssue O f a plant and is protective

E pide rm i s
in function Its cells may b e brick shaped polygonal equilateral or
.
-

, ,

wavy in outline T heir outer walls are cutini z ed ( infiltrated with a

.

waxy like sub stance called cutin )

-
A mong the epidermal cells of
.

leaves and young green stems may b e found numerous pores or stomata
( sing stoma ) surrounded by pairs of crescent shaped cells called guard
.
-

c ells .T h e stomata are in direct communication with air chamb ers

b eneath them which in turn are in communication with intercellular
sp aces of the tissue b eneath T he function O f the stomata is to give
.

ofi watery vapor and take in or give off carbon dioxide water and ,
 W OOD Y F I BE R S
7

oxygen In addition to stomata some lea v e s possess groups of water

.

s tomata which di fl e r from transpiration stomata in that they always

remain Open are circular in outline giv e off water in droplets directly
, , ,

and lie ove r a quantity of small celled glandular material which is in —

con n ection with one or more fibrov asc u lar bu ndle s .

E ndode rm i s is the starch

sheath lay e r of cells constituting ,

th e in nermost layer of cortex

whose radial walls are more or
less sub erized .

Cork o r suberous tissue is com

posed Oi cells Of tabular Shape ,

whose walls possess sub eri z ed

layers Its cells are mostly filled
.

with air containing a yellow or

browni sh substance It is de rived .

from the phellogen or cork cam

bium which cuts Ofl cork cell s
outwardly Cork tissue is devoid
.

O f intercellular a i r spaces It i s .

protecti v e in function .

La ti c i f erou s ti ssue is to be seen

in many groups of plants principal
a mong which are the A sclepi a
FIG 3 I E p i dermi s of oak l eaf ; 2
dac e a
—

e E uphorbiace a e A pocynac e a
. .
, ,
e
, , ep idermi s of I ri s l eaf both vi ewed f rom ,

U r ti c ac e m and P apa v erace a e Its th e surf ace ; 3 group of c ell s f rom p etal
. ,

O f Vi ol a tri color ; 4 two ep i d erm al c ells i n

cells are elongat e d tub ular often cross secti on showing thi ckened outer wall
, , -
,

branched and penetrate all th e diff er en tia ted in to thr ee layers nam ely , ,

an outer Cuti cle cutini z e d laye r ( shade d )

organ s Of plants in which they are and an inner cellul os e l ayer ; 5 and 6 , ,

found T hey contain a milky ep i dermal outgrowths i n th e f orm of

.

scales an d h ai rs ( 3 af ter S tras burger 4

white or colored em ulsion of gum ater S achs and ater de B ary )
.
,

f 5 f ,
.

r e sins fat wax caoutchouc and

, , , ,

in some cases alkaloids t a ,

nni ns salts ferments etc
, , ,
.

Cri bif orm or S i ev e ti ssue consists of sup e rimposed elongated , ,

tubular thin walled cell s whose transverse walls called S iev e plates ar e
,
-

, ,

p erfor at e d permi tting O f th e passage Of albuminous subst ances from

,

one cell to another .

Woody Fibre s are elongated thick walled and taper ended li gnefie d
,
-

,
-

el ements found in the xylem regi o n of the fibrov ascu lar bundle a e com
8 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

panying the trache ae ( ducts ) T h e walls of these fibres Show oblique

.

por e s Woody fibres are the supporting elements of the xylem

.
.

Ha rd Bast is composed of elongated spindle shaped thick walled ,

-

,
-

elements called b ast fib res T he characteristic thickening Of the walls

.

FI G .
4 .
—
ve ss els f rom the cortex of root Of Scorozonorahisp anic a
La ti c ife rous .

A, as s een u nd er low powe r and B a sm aller porti on un der hi gh power ( Fr om

, , .

S tezens a
f ter S achs ) .

of these fibres is due to deposits of lignin upo n the inner surface of the
cellulose cell wall Like the woody fibres the lumina of th ese contain
.

air and the fibre walls are provided with oblique pores B ast is the .

supporting tissue of the phlo em .

 M E D U L L A RY R AY S 9

T a a ti ssue consists of trach e a

r ch e r y e ( ducts or vessels ) and tracheids ,

both of which are found i n the xy lem region of the fibrov ascular b undle
and have as their function the conduction of water with mineral salts in
solution from the roots upwar d T h e t rach ea : or ducts are e longated
.
,

slightly li gnefie d tub es with O ccasional cross walls and ha v ing character -

i sti c thickenings on their in ner surface T rach em are classified as : .

A N N U L AR with ring like thickenings

,
-

SP I R A L with spiral thickenings

,
.

RE T I CU L AT E with reticulate thickenings

,
.

P OR OU S or P IT T E D with spherical or oblique S lit pores .

'

FI G s ecti on through a portion of a root

C ross A cor n s calam as A
5
— — . .
. .

C orti c al p ar en chym a ; B endod e rmi s ; C p e ri cycl e ; E phloé m F x yl e m

. .
At . . .

Y Y a
,
r e la
,
rge tra ch eal tub es whi ch were f orm ed last th e narrow tub es near th e
, ,

p e riphe ry of th e x yle m b eing f orm ed fir st A t th e c en ter of th e root Wi thi n the Ce l e

.

occ ur thi n walle d p arenchyma

.
,

o f va scul ar bundl e s ,
tous p i th c ells (From S ayre
-
.

a
f ter Fr ank ) .

rach e ids are undeveloped ducts havi ng bordered pores and f r e

T
quently scalariform thickenings .

M e d ull ary Rays are b a n ds of parenchymatous cells extending radi

ally from the cortex to the pith ( primary med rays ) or from a part of the .

xyl e m to a p art of the p hl oem ( seconda ry m ed rays ) . .

IO P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT AN Y

FI G . Clos ed bundl e of ste m of Z ea m ays

6 .
—
V G , B undl e sh ea th ; L , in t e r
.

c ellular Sp ac e ; A , ring f rom an annular tracheal tub e ; SP , Sp i ral tra ch eal tub e ;
M , pi tt ed vess els ; V , sieve tub e s ; S , comp ani on c ells ; CP , crush ed pri ma ry s iev e
tub es ; F , thi n walle d p a renchyma of th e ground or f unda mental tissu e ( Fr om
-
.

S ayre S tra sburger ) .

FIG . ransve rs e se cti on of a conc entric bundle f rom the rh izo m e of I r i s

7 .
—
T .

Xyle m surround i ng th e phlo em l T rach ea . e ; l

, protoxyl em ; s s iev e tub es ; g
l
, , .

comp ani on cells of the Internal phlo em port ion (Fr om S ayre af ter V i nes )
.
.
I 2 PH A RM A CE U T IC A L B OT A N Y

D
Stage s i n t h e d ev elopment Of th e el e m en ts of th e xyl e m
'

FI G . IO .
—
A , pr og re s
.

s ive steps i n the dev elbprri ent Oi atr ach eal tub e 1 , Row of procamb ial or camb ial
'
‘

c ells th at ar e to take p art i n th e f ormati on of a tub e ; 2 , th e sam e a t a later stage

enlarged i n all di mensions; 3 , th e c ells i n 2 have grown larger , thei r c rosste walls
'

h av e b een dissolved out , and the w all has b ecom e thi c kene d an d p i tted ; 4 , the
'
'
'

walls i n 3 have b e co me mor e thi ckened , th e p i ts hav e an ove rh anging borde r , the
walls hav e b e come li g ni fie d as indi ca te d by the stippling , and finally the protoplasts
have di sapp eare d , an d th e tube i s mat ure an d d ead B , Stag es i n the f orma tion
.

of tr a ch ei ds f rom proc a mbi a l or camb ial c ells T he st eps are th e s a m e a s i n A ,

.

excepting tha t the cross wallsi rernai n and b ecom e p i tte d C, st eps i n th e d ev elop
'

-
.
‘

m en t of wood fib e rs f rom cambial cells I , Cambial cells ; 2 , th e s am e growth

.

la rger i n all di m en s i on s w i th c ells shoving p a st ea ch oth e r a s th ey elo n ga t e ;

l
 FI BRO VA S CU L A R B U N DLE S 1 3

Fib rovascu l ar B un d l e sare groups of fibres vessels and cells cours ,

ing through the various organs of a plant and ser v ing f or conduction
and s u pport A ccording to the relative
.

structura l arrangement of their xylem

and phloem masses they may b e classed
a b cd h
as follows
I CL OS E D C O LL AT E RAL consisting
.
,

of a mass of xylem lying alongside of a

ma s s of phlo em the xyl em facing to ,

ward the centre the phloem facing to ,

ward the exterior Stems of most .

M onocotyledo ns and H orsetails .

II O P E N C O LL A T E RAL consisting of
.
,

a mass Of xylem facing toward the pith

and a mass of phloem facing toward the
exterior and separated from each other
by a cambium Stems and lea v es o f .

D icotyledons and ro ot s of D icotyls and

FI G I I S tages i n the d ev el
Gymnosperms O f secondary growth
—
. .

O p m e n t O f s ie v e tub e s comp ani on

.

III B I COLL AT E R A L characteri z ed cells and p hl o em p aren chym a

.
, ,
.

A aa nd b T wo rows of proc a m
by a x ylem mass b eing b etween an i n bial cells i n c an d d ahas divi ded , ,

; ,

ner and an outer phl oem mass T here longi tudi nally and c i s to b e come .

are two layers of cambium cells one be comp ani o n cell s ; d a siev e tub e , ,

an d b phloém par enchy ma B c ,

,
.
, ,

tween the xylem and inner phloem mass Comp ani on cells and d a b eginning , , ,

s ie v e tub e f rom c a n d d r es pe cti v ely

the other b etween the xylem and outer i n A T h cross walls i n d are ,

e .
-

phlo em mass S een chiefly in stems of p itt ed ; b phlo em p aren chyma

.
,

the Cn cn bi tacece
r
grow n l arg e r th an in A C T he ,

sa me as B wi th th e p i ts i n the cross
.

I V C ON C E N T RI C characteri z ed by walls of th e siev e tub es b ecom e pe r

.
,

f ora ti ons a nd th e n ucl ei go ne f ro m

ac e n t ral xylem m a ss surrounded by a ,

t he cells composing the tub e .

phloem mass or vice v ersa N o cam (Fr om S tevens ) . .

bium present .

la te r stage wi th cell s long er and more pointed and walls b e comi ng thi ckene d and
p i tted ; 4 comple te wood fib e rs wi th walls mor e thi c kene d than i n the pre vi ous stag e
,

an d li g ni fie d as S hown by the stippling T he protopl asts i n thi s last st age hav e

,
.

di sapp eare d an d th e fib e rs are dea d D steps i n th e f orma ti o n of wood par enchyma

.
,

f rom ca mb ial or procamb ial cells I G roup of c a m b ri al or procamb ial c ells ; 2

.
, ,

th e s am e enlarg e d i n all di men si ons ; 3 th e sam e wi th wall s thi ckene d and p i tte d ;
,

4 a nd 5 show th e s a m e sta g e s a s 2 a n d 3 but h e r e th e c ells hav e enl arg e d r a d ially

,

or tang en tially mor e th an th ey hav e ve rti cally T h e walls of the s e cells ar e apt to .

b e com e li gni fie d but the cells a re longe r li ved than the wood fib ers (From
,
.

S tevens ) .
I4 PH A RM A C E U T IC AL B OT AN Y

( a) Concentri c with xylem central in bundle Seen in stems and

,
.

leaves of nearly all ferns and the Lycopodi acece .

(b) Concentri c with phloem central in bundle Seen in st ems and

,
.

leaves of some M onocotyledon s E x : C alamus . .

V RADI AL Characteri z ed by a numb er of xylem and phl oem masses

.
,

alternatin g with one another S een in the roots of all S p erm atophytes .

and P ter i dop hytes .

XYLE M is that part of a fib rov asc ular bundle that contains wood
cells and fib res It may also contain trache a
. e tracheids seldom sieve , ,

tub es .

PHL OE M is that part of a fibrov asc u lar bundl e that contains sieve
tubes phl oem cells and Often bast fib res
, ,
.

Cla ssi fica ti on of T is su e s A ccording to Fu ncti on A ccording to .

—

their particular function tissues m ay b e cla s sified as follows ,

P ar enchym e ( F u nd am en t a
l ti ssu e) .

Xyl em c ells .

I . CON DU CT IN G T I SSU E T r ach ea

e ( ducts) .

Phl o em cells .

Siev e tub es .

E p i d ermi s ( out er cell walls cutiniz ed)

II PROT E CT IV E T I SSU E S
C ork ( sub eri z ed ti ssu e)
.

B ast fibr es .

I II . M E CHAN I CAL T I SSU E S Wood fibr es .

S tone c ell s .

PLA N T O RG A N S A N D O RG A N I SM S

An a is a part of an organism made up of several tissues and

org n

ca pable of performing some special work .

A n organi sm is a living entity composed of diff erent organs or par t s

with functions which are separat e but mutually dependent and es , ,

senti a l to the life of the individual .

T he organs of flowering plants are either V e g e tative or Reprodu c

tiv e T he vegetative organs of high er plants are P L A N T H A I RS ROO T S
.
, ,

S T E M S and LE AV E S,
T hey are concerned in the absorption and elab o
.

ration of food materials either for ti ssue building or storage -

T he reproductive organs of higher plants include those structure s

whose function it is to continue the speci e s v i a the flower fruit and , , ,

seed .
 T HE R OOT I 5

T he
ripen ed seed i s the product of reproductive processes an d the ,

starting point in the life of all P hanerogams T he living p art Of the .

seed i s the em bryo which when developed consists of four parts the
, , , ,

caulicle or rudimentary Stem the lower end of which is the b eginni ng

, ,

of the root or r adicl e A t the upper extremity of the stem are two
, .

thicken e d bo dies clos e ly resembling leaves known as cotyledo ns and

, , ,

b etween thes e a small bud or plumule .

T h e function of the cotyledon is to build up nourishment for the

rudimentary plantl e t until it develops true leaves of its own .

T H E ROO T

T he
root is that part of the plant that grows into or toward the
soil that never develops leaves rather rarely produces buds an d
, , ,

whose growing apex is covered by a cap .

T h e functio n s of a root are absorption storage and support It s , .

FI G . 1 2 .
—
Cross —
s e cti on of rootle t in the regi on of the root hai rs .
(Fr om S i ezens ) .

principal function is the abso rption of nutriment and to this end it

generally has branch e s or rootlets covered with root hairs which largely
increase the absorbing Sti rf ace T hes e root hairs are of minute and .
.

simpl e structure b eing mer ely elongations Of the epi derm i s of the root
,

b ack of th e root cap into slender tub e s with thin walls .

T h e tip of each rootlet is protected by a sheath or scale like cover -

ing known as the R OO T C A P which not only protects the delicate grow ,

ing point b ut serves as a m echanical aid in pushing its way through

,

the soil T he generati v e tissues in the region of the root cap are :
.

P LE RO M E producing fibrov asc ular tissue ; P E R IB L E M producing cortex ;

, ,

D E R M A T OG E N producing epidermis ; and C A L YP T RO G E N producing th e

, ,

root cap .
1 6 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

D I FFE RE N C E S B E T WE E N RO OT A N D ST E M
T he Root T he S tem
L . D escen ding axis O f plant . I . A scen ding axi s of plant .

2 . G ro wi ng point sub ap i c al —
. 2 . G rowi n g po int ap i cal .

3 . C o ntains no chlorophyll .
3 . C hlorophyll som e tim es pr es en t .

4 . Br a nc h m arr an g ed irr egul arly .

4 . B r anch es wi th m a th em ati cal r eg ul ari ty .

5 . D o es n ot b ear l eaves or l eaf rudi 5 . B ears leaves and modi ficati ons .

m ents .

6 . S tructur e comp ar a tiv ely Simpl e . 6 .

Structur e b e tt er d efined .

Cl assific a
tion of Roots as to Form s I PRI MARY or F I RS T R OO T a —
.

direct downward growth from the seed which if greatly in excess of the , ,

lateral roots is called the M AI N or T A P RO O T

,
E x : T araxacum R adish . .
, .

2 SE CON D A RY R O OT S are produced by the later growths O f the stem

.
,

such as are covered with soil and supplied with moist ure B oth pri .

mary and secondary roots may b e either fibrous or fleshy .

T h e grasses are good examples of plants having fibrous roots .

Fle shy roots m a y be multipl e as tho s e o f the D ahlia O r may assume

, ,

simple forms as f ollows : ,

Fu si for m or sp i ndle sha

, fi d like that of the radish or parsnip
-

, .

N api f or m or tur ni p sha ped Somewhat globular and b ecoming ab

-

,
l

r u pt ly S lender then terminating in a conical tap root as the roots of '

the turnip .

Coni ca l ha v ing the largest diameter at the b ase th en tapering as

, ,

in the M aple .

3 A N OM AL OU S ROOT S are of irregular or unusual habits subservi ng

.

o ther purposes than the normal .

4 A DV E N T I T I O U S ROOT S are s uch as occur in ab normal place s o n

.

the plant E x : R oots dev eloping on B ryophyllurn l eaves

. .
.

5 E P I P H YT I C R OOT S the roots of epiphytes common to tropica l

.
, ,

forests for example never reach the soil at all but cling to the b ark
, , ,

of trees and absorb nutriment from the air E x : Roots of V anill a . .

.

6 T h e roots of parasitic plants are known as H A U S T O R I A

.
T hese .

penetrate the b ark of plants upon which they find lodgment known ,

as hosts and absorb nu tri ti O iI s j uices from them T he M i stletoe

, .
,

Dodder and G er adi aare typical parasites .

D ura tion of Root P lants are classified according to the duration

—

of the root as follows : ,

I A N N U A L P L A N T S are her bs with roots containing no nourishment

.

for future use T hey complete their growth pro ducing flower fruit and
.
, ,

seed in a single season then die , .

 RO O T H I S T O LO G Y I 7

2 B I E N N I AL plants dev elop but one set of org ans the first year and
.
,

as in the b eet and turnip etc a large amount of reserve food mat e rial
,
.
,

is sto red in the root for the support of the plant the following season
whe n it flowers fruits and dies , ,
.

3 P E RE N N I AL P L AN T S live indefinitely as trees

.
, .

Root Hi stology M ON OCO T YLE DON S . T he histology of mono .

—

cotyledonous roots vari es depending upon relati ons to their surround

,

ings which may b e aquatic semi aquatic mesophytic or xerophytic

,
-

, ,
.

FI G 3 . Sarsapa rill a, Mexi can

I .
— C ross s e cti on of root .
(3 2 diam ) A , Roo t
-
. .

hai rs ; B , cork ; C , p aren chyma Of cortex ; D , endode rmi s ; E , wood p arenchyma

.

and fib ers ; F , wat er tub e ; H , phloém ( P hoto m i crograph ) ( From S ayre )

. . .

In this con n ection we will di scuss only the typ e of greatest p harma
cogni c impo rtance i e the mesophytic type as seen in its most typical
,
. .
,

form in the transverse section of an Onion root .

E xami ni ng such a section from periphe ry toward the centre one ,

not es the following :

I E pidermis with thin cuticle
.
.

2 Cort ex consisting of broad zone of rounded cells getting larg e r

.
,
I 8 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

and then smaller in calibre T hese store starch and enable sap to pass .

through .

3 E ndodermis or innermost layer of cells in the cortex with l en

.
,

ti c ularly thick e ned radial walls .

4 P eri c a
. m bi u m a z one of one two or three layers of rounded
, , , ,

thin walled actively dividing cells which may give ris e to side rootlets
-

, ,
.

5 Radial fib rov asc ular bundle which in most monocotyledons

.
,

consists Of eight twelve or fifteen alternating patches of phlo em with

, ,

radiating xylem arms between P hloem tissu e consists of phloem cells .

and sieve tub es X yl em at tips of arms made of spiral trach ea the

.
,

first xylem elements to mature Internal to these ar e small pitted .

vessels later striking pitted vessels and considerable woo d fib re

, ,
.

6 P ith
. .

D I CO T YLE DON S T h e typ ical dicotyl root is a tetrarch one four

.
—
,

xylem alternating with four phloem patches T hese roots have an .

unlimited p ower of growth .

A Of P r i m a
. ry Gr owth .

A trans section of a dicotyl root in its young growth shows the fol
-

lowing structure from periphery toward centre .

I E pidermis with cutini z ed outer walls

. .

2 H ypodermis
. .

3 Cortex with usu a

. lly small intercellul ar spaces .

4 E ndodermis or innermost layer of cells of the cortex with r a

.
,
di allv
thick ened walls .

5 P eri c a
. m bi u m of one to two layers O f actively growing cells which
m ay produce side rootlets .

6 Radial fibrov asc ula

. r bundle of four rarely two or three or fi v e ,

or Si x phloem patches alternating with as many xylem arms N ot .

uncommon to find bast or phloem fibre along outer face Of each p hloem
patch Xylem has spiral trach ea internal to th ese a few pitted vessels
.
,
.

T hen as root ages more pitted vessels also xylem cells and wood
, , ,

fibres make their appearance

B Of S econdary Gr owth ( M ost Official roots )
. . .

A t about six weeks one notes cells di v iding by tangential walls in

the inner curve of phloem patches T his is intrafascicular cambium . .

A S ingle layer of flattened cells starts to cut Off on its inner side a quan
tity of secondary xylem and pushes out the patches of bast fib res adds ,

a little secondary phloem on the outer side Secondary xylem finally .

fills up the patches b etween the arms T he patche s of b ast fibres get .
2O PH A RM A C E U T I C A L B OT A N Y

LE A F develop leaves
B U DS .

FLOW E R B U D S are unexpanded blossoms .

M E CE D B U DS contain both flower and foliage .

A s to position buds are either ter m i nal or ax i llar

y either located at ,

the apex of the stem or b ranch or in the axi ls of the l eaves If th ey .

occur o n other situations on the stem or upon roots or leaves they are ,

termed a dventi ti ous buds If as O ften happens more than o ne b ud

.
, ,

forms in or near the axi l of the leaf it is called an accessory bud ,

.

T HE ST EM

stem is that part of th e plant axi s whi ch b ears leaves or mo di

T he
fica
'

ti ons of leaves and its branches are usually arran ged with m athe
ma ti c al regularity .

T he functions of a stem are to b ear leaves or branches connect ,

roots with leaves and conduct sap ,

.

Wh en the stem rises above ground and is apparent th e plant is ,

said to b e coalescent .

When no stem is visible but o nly flower or leaf stalks the plant is
, ,

said to b e acaulescent .

Stems vary in Size from scarcely one twenty fif th of an inch in — -

length as in certain mosses to a remarkabl e height of 40 0 ft upward

, ,
. .

T he giant Sequoia Of C alifornia attains the height of 4 2 0 ft .

D irecti o n of S tem G r owth Generally the growth of the stem is

—

erect V ery frequently it may b e :

.

A S CE N D IN G or rising obliquely upward

,
.

RE CLI N IN G or at first erect but afterward b ending over and trailing

,

upon the ground E x : R aspb erry . . .

PROCU MBE N T lying wholly upon the ground

, .

DE CU MBE N T when the stem trai ls and th e apex curves upward

, .

E x : Vines of the Cucurbitace a

. .

RE PE N T creeping upon the ground and rooting at the nodes , as the

,

Strawb erry .

Stem E longa tion A t the ti p of the ste rn there is found a group of

—

very actively dividing cells ( meristem ) which is the growing point of

the stem A ll the tissues of the stern are derived from the cells of the
.

growing point whose activity gives rise in time to three generative

regions which are from without inward : ,

( I ) D E RMA T OGE N forming epidermis ; ,

 HE RB A N D T RE E 21

(2 ) P E RIB LE M, formingthe cortex ; and

(3 ) P LE ROM E forming the fibr ov asc ula
,
r e lements .

Durati on Of S tem s HE RB A CE O U S dying down to th e ground at

.
—
,

the close of the season .

A NN U AL an herb whos e li fe terminates with th e season

, .

B IE N N I A L where the stem di es at the end of th e first season the

, ,

unde rgrou n d parts perfecti ng themselves and retaining their vitality

to th e next season when seeds are pro duced and the plant dies
,

completely .

P E RE N N I AL when the underground parts retain their vitality

,

indefinitely .

A bov e gr ound Stem s

-
A T WIN IN G stem winds around a sup port
.
—
,

as the stem of a b ean or M orning Glory .

A CU LM is a j ointed stem of the Grasses and S edge s .

A CL IMB I N G or scandent stem grows upward by attaching itself

to som e support by means of aerial rootlets tendrils or petiole s ,
.

T he S C AP E is a stern rising from the ground and b earing flowers

b ut no leaves as the dandelion violet or bloo d root
, , ,
.

A T E N DRI L is a modification of some special organ as of a leaf ,

stipule or branch capabl e of coiling spirally and used by a pl ant in

,

climbing P res e nt in the Grape P e a etc

.
, , .

A S P I N E or thorn is th e i ndurated termination of a stern tapering to

apoint as the thorns of the H oney L ocus t
,
.

PRI CK L E S a re outgrowths of th e b ark only and are seen in the roses .

A S T OL ON is aprostrate bra n ch the end of which on comi ng in con , ,

tact with th e soil takes root so giving rise to a new plant E x : Cur
, ,
. .

r ant and Raspb erry .

A n U N D E RSHRUB or SU FF RU I T COS E stem is a stem of small si z e and

woody only at the bas e .

A S H RU B B Y or FRU IT COS E stem is a woody stem larger than the pre

c e ding and freely branchi ng n ear the ground .

H E RB AND T RE E

A T RE Eis aperennial woody plant of considerable size ( 2 0 ft or m or e .

in h e ight ) and havi ng as th e ab ov e ground parts a trunk and a crown of -

leafy branches .

A n H E RB is a plant whose stem does not become woody and perma

n ent b ut dies , at least down to the ground after flowering
,
, .

3
2 2 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

U nd ergrou n d S tem s A RH I ZO ME is a creeping underground stern

—

more or less scaly sending off roots from its lower surface and stems
'
,
_

from its upper T h e rhi z ome grows horiz ontally v ertically or Oh

. ,

li q u ely b earing a terminal bud at i ts tip

,
Its upper surface is marked .

with the scars of the bases of aerial stems O f previous years .

T h e T U B E R is a short and excessively thickened underground stem ,

borne usually at th e end Of a slender creeping branch and having , ,

numerous eyes or buds E x : T ub ers of th e P otato A conite and . .

, ,

Jalap .

FI G . 1 5
. FI G . 1 6 .

FI G . I 5 .
—
P hotomi crogr aph
cross se cti on Of v e ry young cornstalk whe r e th e
of -

proca mbi um strands h av e j ust gone ov e r into v ascul ar bundl es For comp arison .

wi th Fi g 1 6 (From S tezen s )
. . .

FI G 1 6 P h o to rni crogr a
.
ph of cross s e cti on of corn st alk some wha t O ld er th an
.
— -

i n Fi g I 5
. C omp ar e wi th Fi g I 5 a
. n d n ot i c e th a t th e n umb e r of v a scul a r bundl e s i s
.
,

approx i mately the sa me i n both and the numb er of ce lls i n the f un da m ental tissue
,

i s approxi ma tely the sam e G rowth i n Fi g I 6 h as b een a ccompli she d by th e enl arge
. .

ment of the c ells already pre sent i n Fi g I 5 a E pi de rmi s ; b cortex an d p e ri cycle ; . .

, ,

c, c,
f un dam en t al or groun d t i ssu e corr espond ing to p i th a n d m e dull ary rays wi t h
vascular bundles inte rsp e rs e d through i t (Fr om S tezcns ) . .

T he is an underground stem excessively thickened and solid

CO RM

and characteriz ed by the production of b uds from the centre of the

upper surface and rootlets from the lower surface .

A B U LB is a very short and scaly stern producing roo ts fr om the ,

lower face and leaves from the upper .

T U N I CA T E D B U LB S are completely co v ered by br o ad scal es which

form concentric coatings E x : Onion Squill D aff odil . .
, , .
 H I S T OL OG Y OF AN N U A L D I C OT YL ST E M 23

SC AL Y have narrow imbricated scales the outer ones not eu

B U LB S ,

closing the inner E x : L ily . . .

T U B E R S A N D CORM S are annual B ulbs and Rhiz omes are perennial

. .

Ex og e nou s a n d E n d og e nou s Stem s E X OG E N OU S ST E MS a . r e typical

—

of Gymnosperms and D icotyledons and can increase m aterially in thick

ness d u e to presence Of a cambium Such stems Show difl erenti ati on .

into an outer or cortical region and an inner or central cylinder region .

E N D O G E N OU S S T E MS are
typ ical of M onocotyledons
and can n ot increase mate
ri a lly in thickness due to a b
senc e of cambium S uch .

stems S how no diff e rentia ’

tion into cortical and central

regio n s .

Hi s tology of Annu a l
Di cotyl S tem ( In both an
.
-

nual and peren nial dicotyl

e don ou s stem s endodermis
and peri c am bi um are rarely
seen since each has b ecome
so similar to cortex through
passag e of food etc ) ,
.

.I E pidermis Ci l tl nlz e d , FI G I 7 , P hotomi crogr aph of c ross s e cti on

. .
— -

o f st em of A ri stolochi a s ipho wh e r e c a mb ia l
with hairs activi ty i s j ust b eginni ng a E p iderm i s ; b
,

, ,
.

.2 C ortex Composed O f collen chy ma ; c thin wall ed p aren chym a Of th e -

ex the innermost cell l a

,

three z ones an outer or exo cort

:
,
yer of Whi ch i s th e
starch S h eath or endodermi s ; d scleren chyma ,

cort e x whose cells are thl n ring of th e p eri cycle ; 6 thi n walled p ar enchyma
, ,

of th e p eri cycl e ; f p ri mary m e dull ary r ay ; g

walled and contain Ch10 r0 phlo em h xyl em i interfasci cul ar cambi um
_
'
, ,

; ; , ; j , ,

pla st s ; a middle or m e di O medull a or pi th X 2 0 (From S tevens ) . . .

cortex consisting Of cells of

,

i n durated walls giving extrem e pliability and stre ngth an inner or e ndo ,

cortex a v e ry broad z one of thin and thicked walled parenchym e cells

,
-
.

3 T h e innermost layer of cells of the cortex called th e e n dodermis

. .

( N ot generally distinguishable ) .

4 P eri c a
. m bi um ( N ot generally di stinguishable )
. .

.
5 Fibro v ascular b undles of Open collateral typ e arra n ged in a
circle with primary m edullary rays b etween the bun dl es .

.6 P ith .
24 P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT AN Y

Pi t h

FI G . I 8 .
—
Adiagram to S how the characte r of the ti ssues and th eir d ispos i tio n in a
young ste m of the typ i cal di cotyledon typ e (From S tevens )
.

. .
 PE RE N N I AL DI COT YL ST E M 2 5

Growth of P e r enni al D ic otyl S tem a

nd i ts H i stology A perennial .
—

dicotyl stern in the first year does not difl er in structure from an annual .

B y the clos e of the year a cork cambium ( phellogen ) has originated be

Io

FI G . 1 9 .
—
D iagr am si mil ar to the pre c eding but r epres en ti n g a la ter stage an d show
i ng t h e ti ssu e s f orm ed by th e camb i um
.
( Fr om S tevens ) .

side the epidermi s In origin of cork cambium one of t wo m ethods :

.
—

( a ) e ither the epidermis may divide into an outer layer of cells that re
m ain s epidermis and an inner l ay e r of cells that b ecomes cork cambium ,
26 PH ARM A CE U T I CA L B OT AN Y

or ( b ) the outermost layer of cortex cells underneath the epidermis b e

,

com es active after b eing passi v e for one year and lays down walls the , ,

inner layer b e coming cork cambium th e outer b ecoming alayer of cork ,

.

T h e cork cuts Off water and foo d supplies from epidermis outside and so
epidermis separates and falls Off as stringy layer T he cork cambium .

produces cork on its outer face and secondary cortex on its inner .

B etween the bundles certain cells Of the primary m edullary rays

b ecome very acti v e and form interfascicular cambium which j oins the
cambium of the fir st formed bundles (intrafascicular cambium ) to form
-

a compl e te cambium r i ng B y the rapid multiplication of these cam

.

bial cells new ( secon dary ) xylem is cut Off internally and n ew ( s e condary )
phloem externally pushing inward the fir st form ed or P RO T OX Y LE M
,
-

, ,

and outward the first form ed or P RO T OP H L O E M thus increasin g the

-

, ,

diam eter Of the stem T he primary m edullary rays are deepened

. .

Cambium may also gi v e rise to secondary m e dullary rays .

Som etimes as i n Grape V in es H oneysuckles an d A sclepias instead

, , , ,

O f cork cambium arising from outer cortex cells it may arise at any

point in cortex It is the origin of cork cambium at v arying depths

.

that cau s es ext ensive sheets Of t ssue to separate Ofl T hat is what i .

gives the stringy appearance to the stems of climb ers .

A t close O f first year n P er enni al D i cotyl S tem we note :

i

E pi d er m i s dev elopm ent of derm atog en or p eribl em i n proc ess Of p eeling

— —

off l a t er on en t ir ely abs en t

, .

C or k ti ssue or p er i d erm .

C ork camb i um or ph ellog en .

Som etim es z o ne of thi n wall ed cells co ntai ni ng chloroplasts cut O I by

—

cork camb i um on inner f ace known as ph ellod erm .

C ort ex ln p er en nial st em cells of cort ex m a

—
y u n dergo modi fic a ti o n into
muci lag e c ells into tanni n r e c eptacl es c rystal c ell s sp ir al c ell s e tc
, , , , .

6 . Fibrov ascul ar bu ndl es Of Op en collater al typ e whi ch ar e now arr ang ed

into a comp act circl e and b e tween whi ch are f ou n d pr im ary and of ten
,

s eco ndary m edul l ary ra ys .

From wi thout in ward th e f ollo wing ti ssu es m ak e up f v b u ndl es . . .

P rotophl o em Hard Bast long t enaci ous b a s t fibr es

—
.

S eco nd ary Phlo em So f t B ast phlo em cells a nd siev e tub es

—
.

C am bi u m ac ti v e l ay er giv ing r i s e to s eco ndary phlo em o n out er an d sec

fi

o n da ry xyl e m o n i nner f a c e a nd a dd ing to d epth of m e d r a

,
ys . .

Seco ndary x yle m wo o d fibr es p i tte d v ess els tr ach ei ds

fi

, , .

P rotox yl em sp i r al tr ach ea
—
.

P i th.
28 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

lessen ed and small ducts and

much mechan ical woo dy
fib r e are formed T hus th e .

open loosely arranged prod

,

u et of the spring growth

abuts on the densely ar
ranged product O f the last
summer and autumn growth
an d the sharp contrast
marks the periods Of growth .

T o th e two di ff e r ent r egio n s

of growth is given the
' '
term Of annual ring By .

counting th e numb er of
these rings it is possible to
estimate the age of the tree
or b ranch .

Ba rk B ark or bork is a
—

term applied to all that por

tion of a woody e xogenous
plant axi s outside Of the
cambium line .

In ph arm acogni c work ,

b ark is divided into three

z ones thes e from without
,

inward b eing :
I O U T E R B AR K or CO RK
. .

2 .M IDDLE B AR K or COR
T I C A L P AR E N C H Y M E .

FI G . P art of a cross s e cti o n through

2 2 .
— -
3 . IN N E R B A RK
bran ch of Cyti su s labur nu m ( T h e bran ch was
.
PH L OE M .

cut f rom th e tree a t the en d of O ctob e r ) From .

A to E th e l ast annu al rin g of wood ; f rom A to C ommercially ,

b ark is
B th e sp ring growth wi th l arge tr ach eal tub e s
divided into two zones
( T , T , T ) ; b e tw een B and C and D an d D ar e ,

wood fibers ; b e tween C and D and D and E ,

-
which are passing from with
,
wood p ar en chym a ; f rom E to F, c anbi u m ; F to out inward :
G, blo em porti on ; G to H corti cal p aren chyma ;
'

M me dullary ray Below A the l ast wood

.
I B AR K ( CORK)
OU T ER .

fibers a nd wood pa renym af orm e d th e pr ev i ous

yea r (Fr om S ayre af ter H aberlandt )
. . 2 I N N E R B A R K ( C OR T I C A L
.

P ARE N C H Y ME A N D P H LO E M) .
 PL AN T H A IR S 29

P e ri derm .
—
P eriderm
is a name applied to all th e tissue produced ,

extern a lly by the cork cambium (P H E L L O G E N ) T his term appears .

often in ph arm acogni c and materi am edica texts .

H i stol ogy of T ypi ca l M ono c otyl Ste m s (E n doge n ous ) Passm g .

—

from e xterior toward centre th e following structures are seen

I
. E pidermis whos e cells are cutinized in their outer walls .

2
. H ypodermis generally ,

coll enchymatic .

3 Cortex
. .

4 E ndodermis or innermost
.

l ayer of cortex generally with

greatly sub e rized cell walls .

5 A large central z one of

.

parenchym e matrix in which are

found scattered fib rov asc ular
bundles of the closed collateral
or rar e ly concentric typ e (am
phi v asa l) In this latt er typ e
.
,

which is typical of Old mono

cotyl stems th e xylem grows
,

completely around phloem so

that phloem i s found in the
centre and xylem without and
surrounding it .

FI G 2 3 Ci nchon acali s aya C ross s e c

. .
—
.
-

ti on of b ark A C or k cells ; B corti cal .

, ,

PL A N T H A I RS O R T RI CH O M E S p arenchym a ; C stone cells ; D phloém por , ,

ti on ; E sof t bast ; F ph ellog en formi ng , ,

b ark ; G m e dull ary rays ( T he bla ck line

T h 6 5 6 are o u t grow th S O f f rom G shou ld b e ex t en de d to the p ar ench m a
. .

y
the epidermal cells which have cells b e tween the phloem portions ) H Bast .
,

fibers ( From s a y' ) '

b ecom e greatly elongated and

may b e unice llular or multicellul ar T hey may be of various forms .

s i m p le consisting of a singl e row of ce lls ; b ranchi ng ; clavat e

,
or club ,

shap e d ; stellate or star shaped ; b arb ed hoOk e d forked etc

—
, , ,
.

T he terminal cell is often mo dified into asecretion sac for gummy ,

r e sinous or o dorous products Such hairs are called glandu lar E x :

. . .

Glandul ar hairs from strob i les of H umulus lupul us .

T h e co tton of commerce which is the hairs of the seed of the

cotto n plant Gossypium herb aceum is a good example of S impl e
, ,

h airs .
 30 P HA RMA CE U T I C A L B OT AN Y

B ranched hai rs can b e seen upon the leaves of the common fiel d
weed M u llein
, . Geranium and the Stinging nettle afl ord examples
of glandular hairs .

P lant hairs are adapted to many di ff erent purpos e s T h e y absorb .

nourishment i n the form of mo i sture and mineral m att e r in solution .

T hose which s e rve as a protection to the plant m ay b e barb ed and

si li c i fie d rendering them unfit for an i mal food
,
or as in the n e ttl e , , ,

charged with an irritating fluid penetrating ,

the skin when touched inj ecting the poison ,

into the wound A dense covering of hairs

’

also prevents the r avages of ins e cts and the

clogging of the stomata by an accum ul a tion
of dust T hey fill an important ofli ce in the
.

di spersion of seeds and frui ts as wi th their aid ,

such seeds as thos e of the milkwe ed are read

ily scattered by the wind .

T he reproductive organs of many Cr yp

tog am s are modified hairs as the sporangia ,

Of Ferns .

T H E LE AF
FI G . 24 .
—
D i fie r e n t
f orms ep id ermal out
of
( folia) are stem appendages which
L ea v es
gr owths I Hook ed hai r
have their origin j ust b ack of th e apex of the
.
,

f rom P h ase olus m ultifl or u s ;

2, cli mb ing hai r f rom ste m stem are regularly arranged upon it and con
, ,
of H umul us L up ulus
; 3 rod sist of expansions of its tissues
,
lik e wa x co atin g f rom th e .

st e m of Saccha rum ofli ci T h e functions of a leaf are photosynthesis

narum ; 4 cli mbing hai r of ,
,

L o as a hi spi d a ; 5 stin ging assimilation respiration and transpiration

,
, .

hai r of U rti ca ur ens (Fi g 3 T h e most essential function Of plants is

. .

a f ter de Bar y; the rem ai nder

f ro m H a ber landt )
the
.
con v ersion of inorganic into organic
matter ; this takes place ordinarily i n the green
parts containing chlorophyll and in these when exposed to su nl ight
, , .

F oliage is an adaptatio n for increasing the extent of green surface .

T h e leaf when complete consists of three parts L AMIN A P E T I OLE

, , ,

and ST I P U LE S T he lamina or blade is the e xpansion of th e stem into

.

a more or less delicate framework m ade up of the branching vessels ,

of th e petiole .

T he petiole is the leaf stalk T h e stipules are leaf like appendag e s

.
-

appearing at the base of the petiole .

 T HE LE AF 31

T he leaf of the T ulip P oplar or Liriode ndron a ffords a good ex ampl e

of a Com p lete Lea f .

Sometimes the lamina or blade is attached directly to the stem

by its b as e and is then said to b e sess i le If the petiole is present .
,

p eti olate .

When leaf stipules are a bsent the leaf is said to be ex sti p ulate
, ,

when present sti p u late

, .

T he petiole is seldom cylindrical in form but usually channelled ,

—
S te re ogra m l eaf structure Part of a v einl e t i s shown
of . on th e right .

In tercellul ar Sp a ces ar e Sh ad ed (From S tevens )

. .

on the upper S ide flattened or compressed T h e stipul es are always

, ,
.

in pairs and closely resemble the leaf in structure .

T h e blade of the leaf c o nsists of the framework made up of branching ,

v e ssels of the petiole which are woody tub es per v ading the soft tissue
,

called mesophyll or leaf parenchyme and serve not only as supp o rts
, ,

b ut as v eins to conduct nutritive fluids V eins are ab sent in S imple .

lea v es such as many Of the M osses .

Le af Ve n ati on FU RCA T E or FORK E D VE N A T I O N is characteristic

.
-

of many Cryptogam s .
32 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

P AR ALL E L VE N AT I O N is typical of the M onocotyledon s as P alm s , ,

Li li es G ra
,
ss es etc ,
.

RE T I CU L A T E or N E T T E D VE I N S characteri z e the Di cotyledon s as ,

the P op lar or Oak .

FI N N I V E I N E D or FE AT H E R V E I N E D leaves consist of a mid vein

-
- -

with lateral veinlets extending from mid v ein to margin at frequent —

intervals and in a regular manner E x : C alla . . .

PA LMA T E L Y VE I N E D leaves consist of a number of veins o f nearly

the sam e siz e radiating from petiole to margin E x : M aple leaf
,
. . .

T h e Form s of Le a ve s SI MP LE L E AV E S are those having a single

.
—

blade either sessile or petiolate

,
.

CO MP O U N D LE AV E S are divided into two or more distinct s u bdi v i

sions called leaflets which may b e either sessile or petiolate
,
.

Simple lea v es and the separate blades of compound lea v es are de

scrib ed as to general outline apex b ase m arginal indentations surface , , , ,

and texture .

( a) GE N E RA L O U T LI N E ( form v iewed as a whole without regard to

indentations of margin ) D ependent upon kind of venation . .

When the lower v eins are longer and larger than the oth e rs the leaf ,

is Ovate or E gg shaped P arallel v eined leaves are usually linear

,
-
.
—
,

long and narrow of nearly equal breadth throughout or lanceolat e like , ,

the linear with the exception that the broadest part is a little b elow the
centre .

E L LI P T I CAL somewhat longer than wide with rounded ends and

, ,

Sides . E x : L eaf of P ear

. .

OB LON G when longer than broad margins parallel E x : M atico

, ,
. . .

OB LIQ U E margin longer on one S ide than the other as the H am am eli s
, ,

and E lm .

O RB I CU LAR circular in shape E x : N asturtium

, . . .

P E LT AT E or shield shaped having the petiole inserted at the

,
-

centre of the lamina E x : the N asturtium P odophyllum . .

, .

FI LIF ORM or T H RE A D LI K E very long and narrow a

, s A sp a
-
ragu s , ,

lea v es .

O V A T E broadly elliptical E x : D igit alis Obovate reversely

, . . .
,

ovate .

OB LAN CE O LA T E reversely lanceolate E x : C himaphila

, . . .

C U N E A T E shaped like a wedge with th e point b ackward

, .

SP A T U LA T E like a spatula with narrow b a s e an d broad r o unde d

, ,

apex E x : U v aU rsi
. . .
 M AR G I N OF LE A F
33

A CE ROS E or A CI CU L AR tipped with a needle like point as Ju n i per ,

-

D E LT OI D when the shape of the Greek letter A a s C henopo di u m

, , .

( b) A pex of Le a f A CU T E when the margins form an acute angle

.
—

at the tip of the leaf E x : E riodictyon . . .

A CU MI N AT E when the point is longer and more tapering than the

,

acute E x : P ellitory
. . .

O B T U S E blunt or round E x : B uchu

, . . .

T RU N CA T E abruptly obtus e as if cut square off

, , .

M U CR O N A T E terminating in a short soft point

, ,
.

C U S PI D A T E like the last except that the point is long and rigid
, , .

A RI S T AT E with the apex terminating in a bri s tle

, .

E MA RG IN A T E n otched E x : P ilocarpus
,
. . .

RE T U S E with a broad shallow S inus at the apex

, , .

OB C ORDA T E inversely heart Shaped ,

-

( c ) B ase Of Lea f C O RDAT E heart shaped . E x : L ime

-

,
—
. . .

RE N IF O RM kid n ey shaped ,
E x : Ground I v y —
. . .

H A S T A T E or halbert shaped when the lobes point outward from

, _
-

the petiole E x : A ristolochia S erpentaria

. . .

A U RI CU L AT E having ear like appendage at the base

,
-

SA G I T T AT E arrow shaped ,
E x : B indweed -
. . .

( d) M argin of Lea f E N T I RE wh en the m a rgin is an e v en line

.
—

, .

SE RR A T E with sharp teeth which incline forward like the teeth

,

of a hand saw E x : P epp ermint

-
. . .

D E N T A T E or toothed with outwardly proj ecting teeth

,
C hestnut ,
. .

CRE N A T E or S calloped similar to the preceding forms but with

, , ,

the teeth much rounded E x : D igitalis Salvia . .

, .

RE P A N D or U ndul ate margin awa v y line

, ,
—
.

SI N U A T E when the margin is more distinctly sinuous than the last

,
.

I N CI SE D cut by Sharp irregular incisions E x : H awthorn

, ,
. . .

RU N CIN A T E the pecul iar form of pinnately in cised leaf obser v ed

,

in the D andelion and som e other Composit a in which the teeth are
recurved .

A L OB E D leaf is one in which the indentations extend nearly to the

mid vein or mid rib as it is usually called the segments or sinuses
-

,
-

, , ,

or both b eing rounded E x : Sassafras

,
. . .

CL E F T is the same as lob ed exc ept that the sinus es are deeper and , ,

commonly acute E x : D andelion . . .

A P A RT E D leaf is one in which the incisions extend nearly to the

mid rib E x : G eranium macul atum
-
. . .
34 PH ARM A CE U T IC A L B OT A N Y

In the D IV I DE D leaf the incisions extend to the mid rib b ut the —

,

s egments are not s talked E x : Watercress . . .

If the v enation is pinnate the preceding forms may b e describ ed ,

as pinnately incised lob ed parted or di v ided If the venation is

, , ,
.

radiate then the terms radiately or palmately lob ed incised etc

, , ,
.
,

are employed .

T h e transition from Simple to C ompound L ea v es is a very gradual

one so that in many instances it is difficul t to determine whether a
,

gi v en form is to b e regarded as simple or compound T h e numb er .

and arrangement o f the parts of a compound leaf correspond with the

mode of v enation and the same descriptive terms are applied to outline
, ,

margin etc as in simple leaves

,
.
,
.

L ea v es are either pinnately or radiately compounded T hey are .

said to b e abruptly pinnate or paripinnate when the leaf is terminated

by a pair of leaflets ; odd pinnate or imparipinnate when it terminates
with a single leaflet When the leaflets ar e alternately large and small
.
,

the leaf is interruptedly pinnate as the P otato leaf When the term ,
.

inal leaflet is the largest and the remaining ones diminish in siz e toward
,

the b ase the f o rm is known as lyrate illustrated in the leaf of the ,

T urnip .

R adiately or palmately compound lea v es have the l eaflets attached

to the apex of the petiole When these are two in numb er th e leaf
.

is bifoliate or binate ; if three in numb er trifoliate or ternate ; when

, , ,

four in numb er quadrifoliate etc If each of the leaflets of a palmately

, ,
.

compound leaf di v ides into three the leaf is called bi ternate ; if this ,
-

form again divi des a tri ternate leaf results B eyond this point the
,
-

l eaf is known as decompound E xample of decompound leaf s e en in .

C imicifuga .

Le af T ex tu r e L ea v es are de s crib ed as
—

M E MB RAN O U S when thin and pliable as C oca

, , .

SU CCU LE N T when thick and fleshy as A l o es and L i v e F orever

, , , .

SCARI OU S when dry and scaly

,
.

C O RI A CE OU S when thick and leathery as E ucalyptus U v aU rsi and

, , ,

M agnolia .

Le a f C olor P E T AL OI D whe n of some brilliant color di fferent from

.
—

the usual green as the Coleus and B egonia and other plants which are
, ,

prized for the b eauty of their foliage rather than their blossoms .

Le af S urfa c e A ny plant surface is :

—
36 PH A RM A CE U T I CA L B OT AN Y

L ike roots they di ffer greatly as to duration in different latitudes

,
.

E vergreen trees are m o st comm o n in the tropics and it is probable ,

that many of our deciduous trees ha v e b ecome such by adaptation to

the colder climate .

Le af In se rtion T h e point of attachm ent of the leaf to the stem is

.
—

called the insertion A leaf is : .

RA DI CA L when inserted upon an underground stem

,
.

C AU LI N E when upon an a erial stern

,
.

RA MA L when attached directly to a b ranch

,
.

When the base of a sessile leaf is extended completely around the

stem it is P E RFOLI AT E the stern appeari ng to pass through the blade
,
.

E x : U r ula
. r i aperfoliata or M e a ly B ellwor t .

When a sessile leaf surrounds the stem more or less at the b ase it is ,

called CL ASP I N G E x : P oppy (P apa v er somniferum )

. . .

When the bases of two opposite lea v es are so united as to form

one piece they are called C ON N A T E P E RF OLI A T E as E upatorium or
,
-

B oneset .

L ea v es are called E Q U I T AN T when they are all radical and succes

si v ely folded on each other as the Iris ,
.

Phyllo ta xy Phyllotaxy is the study of leaf arrangem ent upon the

.
—

st em or branch and this may b e either alternate opposite whorled or

, , , ,

verticillate or fascicled It is a general law in the arrangem ent of

,
.

leaves and of all other plant appendages that they are spirally disposed ,

or on a line which winds around the axis like the thread of a screw T he .

Spiral line is formed by the union of two motions the circ ul ar and the ,

longitudinal and its m o st common m odi fic ati On is the circle

, .

In the AL T E RN A T E arrangem ent there is but one leaf produced at

each node .

O PP OSIT E when a pair of leaves is de v eloped at each node on oppo

, ,

site S ides of the stem E x : M ints L ilac . .

,
.

WH ORLE D or VE RT I CI LL A T E when three or more form a circle about ,

the stem E x : C anada Lily and Cul ver s root

. .
’
.

FA S CI CLE D or T U F T E D when a cluster of leaves is borne from a single

,

node as in the L arch and P ine

, .

T he spiral arrangement is said to be two ranked when the third l eaf -

is over the first as in all Grasses ; three ranked when the fourth is over
,
-

the first E x : Sedges T he fiv e ranked arrangem ent is the most

. . .
—

common and in this the sixth leaf is directly o v er the first two turns
,

b eing made around the stem to reach it E x : Cherry A pple P e ach . .

, , ,
 V E RN A T I ON 37

Oak and Willow etc A s the distance between any two lea v es is two
,
.

fif th s of the circumference o f the ste m the fiv e ranked arrangement is ,

-

expre ssed by the fractio n 2 / 5 In the eight ranked arrangement the

.
-

ninth leaf stands over the fir st an d three turns are required to reach it
, ,

hence the fraction expresses it Of the series of fractions thus ob .

ta i ne d the numerator represents the numb er of turns to complete a

,

cycle or to reach the leaf which is directly over the fir st ; the denom i
,

nator the number of perpendicul ar rows on the stem or the n umb er

, ,

of l e aves counting along the Spiral from any one to the one directly
, ,

above it .

Vernati on P RE F OL I A T I ON or VE RN AT I ON relates to the way in

.
—

which leaves are disposed in the bud A study of the individual leaf .

enables us to distinguish the following forms When the apex i s b ent .

inward toward the b ase as in the leaf of the T ul ip T ree it is said to b e

, ,

I N F L E X E D or RE C LI N A T E V E RN A T I ON ; if doubled on the midrib so that

the two sides are brought together as in the oak it i s CON DU P LI CAT E ; ,

when rolled inward from one margin to the other as in the Wild ,

C herry it is CON V O LU T E ; when rolled from apex to b ase as in F erns it

, , ,

i s CI R CIN A T E ; when fo lde d or plaited like a fan it is P LI C AT E ; if rolled , ,

inward from each margin as the leaf of the common V iolet I N V OLU T E ;
, ,

when rolled outward from each margin as Rumex RE V OLU T E T h e inner ,

.

surface is always that which will form the upper surface when expanded .

Infl oresce nce or A nth ota x y A typical flower consists of four whorls
.
—

of leaves modified for the purpose of reproduction and compactly placed ,

on a stem T he term Inflorescence A nthotaxy is applied to the arrange

.
, ,

m ent of the flowers and their position on the plant both of which are ,

gov erned by the same law which determines the arrangement of leaves .

For this reason flower buds are always either terminal or axillary In .

either case the bud may develop a solitary flower or a compound i n

fl oresc en ce consisting of se v eral flowers .

D E T E RMI N AT E C YM OS E D E SCE N D I N G or CE N T RIFU G AL inflorescence

, , ,

is that form in which the flower bud is terminal and thus determines or ,

completes the growth of the plant E x : Ricinus communis . . .

IN DE T E RMI N AT E A SCE N DIN G or CE N T RIP E T AL I N FLORE S CE N CE is

, ,

that form in which the flower bud s are ax i llary while the terminal bud ,

co n ti n ues to develop and increase the growth of the plant indefinitely .

E x : th e G eranium
. .

M IX E D I N F LO RE SCE N C E is a combination of the other two forms .

E x : H orse C h estnut
. .
38 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

T he flower stalk is known as the P E D U N C LE and its prolongation the ,

R A CH I S or axis of the inflore s cence

,
.

T he flower stalk of a single flower of an inflorescence is called a

P E DI CE L When borne without such support the flower is S E SSI LE
.
.

A peduncle rising from the gro und is called a SC A PE previously m en ,

ti on ed under the subj ect of stems .

T he modified lea v es found on peduncles are term ed B RA CT S T hese .

vary much the sam e as leaf forms are describ ed in a similar manner
, ,

and may b e either green or colored When collected in a whorl at the

.

b ase of the peduncle they form an I N V O L U CRE the parts of which are ,

sometimes imbricated or overlapping like shingles T his is generally ,

.

FI G 2 8
. T yp es of ra c emos e in flor esc en c e ; A , A r ac e me
.
'
B , A sp ike . . C, A c a tkin .

D , A corymb E , A n umb el
. T h e flowe rs ar e r epr e sen t e d by c i rcl e s ;
. th e age of the
flower i s indi c ate d by th e siz e ( From H am aker )
. .

green but sometimes petaloid as in the D ogwood T he modified

, ,
.

leaves found on pedicels are called B RA CT E O LA R LE AV E S .

T h e SP AT H E is a large bract enveloping the inflorescence and often

colored as in the C alla or membranous as in the D aff odil
, , ,
.

In the indeterminate or axillary anthotaxy either flowers are pro ,

du c e d from base to apex those blossoming first which are lowest down
,

on the rachis or from margin to centre T h e principal forms of this .

type are : A solitary indeterminate is one in which the flowers occur

singly in the axils of the leave s .

RA CE ME or simple fl o wer cluster in which the flo w er s on pedicels of

,
-

nearly equal length are arranged along an axi s E x : C onvallaria . .

,

Cimicifuga a n d C urrant,
.
 A V E RT I CI LLA ST E R 39

C O R YMB , a
short broad cluster difl eri ng from the racem e mainly in
, ,

its S horter axis and longer lower pedicels which giv e the cluster a flat ,

appearance by bringing the individual florets to nearly the sam e l evel .

E x : C h e rry
. .

U MB E L which resembles the racem e but has a very Short axis a

,
nd ,

the n e arly e qual pedicels radiat e from it like the rays of an umbrella .

M any examples of this mode of inflorescence are seen in the order

U m belli fer ce as indicated by the name including A nise F ennel and
, , ,

other ofli ci al plants .

A SP I K E is a cluster of flowers sessil e or nearly so borne on an elon , ,

gated axis T h e M ullein and common P lantain a fford good il lus

.

tr ati ons .

T h e C ATK I N or A ME N T resembles the Spike but differs in that it has ,

scaly instead of herbaceous bracts as the staminate flowers of the Oak , ,

H a z el Willow etc
, ,
.

T h e HE A D or C AP IT U LU M is like a Spike except that it has the rachis ,

shortened so as to form a compact cluster of sessile flowers as in the ,

D andelion M arigold Clo v er and B urdock

, , ,
.

T h e ST ROB ILE is a compact flower cluster with large scales conceal

ing the flowers as the inflor e scence of the H op
,
.

T h e SP ADIX is a thick fleshy rachis with flowers closely sessile or

,

embedded on it usually with a Spathe or shea thing bract E x : C alla

,
. .
,

A corus C alamus A rum triphyllum

, ,
.

T h e compound racem e particul arly if irregul arly compounded is

call e d a P A N I CLE .

D E T E RMI N A T E A N T H O T AX Y is one in which the first flower that opens

is the terminal one on the axis the other s appearing in succession from ,

apex to base or from centre to margin T he principal varieties are : .

T he SOLIT ARY D E T E RMIN AT E in which there is a single flower borne ,

on the scape as in the A nemone or Wi ndfl ow er and H ydrastis

, , ,
.

T h e C YME a flower cluster resemblin g a corymb except that th e

, ,

buds develop from center to circumference E x : E l der If the cym e . . .

be rounded as in the Snowball it is a globose cym e

, ,
.

A SCO RP OI D C YME imitates a raceme having the flowers pedicelle d ,

and arrang e d along a lengthened axis .

A G L OM E RU LE i s a cymose inflorescence of any sort which is con

de n se d into a head as the so called head of C ornus fl orid a
,
—
.

A VE RT I CI LL A S T E R is a compact cymose flower cluster which r e ,

sembles awhorl but really consists of two glom erules situated in the
-

,
40 PH A RMA CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

axils of opposite leaves Clusters of this kind are seen in C atnip . ,

Ho rehound P eppermint and other plants of the L abiat a

,
.

T h e racem e corymb umbel etc are fr e quently compounded

, ,
T he ,
.
,
.

compound racem e or racem e with branched pedi cels is ca ll ed a panicl e

, ,
.

E x : Y ucca and paniculate inflorescence of the oat

. .

A T H YRS U S is a compact panicle of a pyramidal or oblong shap e ,

.

E x : Lilac Grape and Rhusgla

.
, bra .

A M I X E D A N T H OT AX Y is one in which the determinat e an d i n de ter

minate plans are combined and i llustrations of this are of frequent ,

o ccurrence .

T h e order of flower developm ent is termed ascending when as in ,

FIG . 29 .
—
C ymos e i nflor esc enc e s terminal flower G A simpl e cym e
. F, A .
, . H, A
compou nd cym e ( Fr om H am aker ) . .

the racem e the blossoms open first at the lowest point on th e axis and
,

continue to the A pex E x : White L ily and m any other plants of the
. .
,

sam e family In the cym e the developm ent is centrifugal the central
.
,

florets opening first while in the corymb it is centripetal or from m argin

, ,

to center .

Pre fl ora ti on B y prefl or ati on is m eant th e arrang em ent of the

.
—

floral envelopes in the bud It is to the flower bud what vernation is to .

the leaf bud the sam e descriptive term s being largely employed as
, ,

co nvolut e involute revolute plicate imbricate et c

, , , ,
.

In addition to those already defined the following are important , .

VA LV A T E P RE FLORA T ION in which the m argins m eet but do not over ,

lap Of this variety the induplicate has its two margins rolled inward
.
 T HE F LO W E R 41

as in Clematis In th e reduplicate they are turned outward as the

.
,

sepals of A lthea .

V E XI LLA RY the variety shown in the corolla of the P e a where the

, ,

two lower petals are overlapp ed by two lateral ones and the four in ,

turn overlapped by th e larger upp e r ones .

C O N T ORT E D where one m argin is invariably ext erior and the other
,

interior givi ng the b ud a twisted appearance as in the Oleander and

, ,

P hlox .

T HE FL O W E R

T he flower is a shoot which has undergone a m etamorphosis so as to

ser v e as a means for the propagation of the indi v idual .

FI G 3o
. Diagrams of flor al structur es
.
— A , shows th e r ela ti on s of th e flor al
.

p arts i n a hyp ogyn ous flower B , T he sam e i n a _p erigynous flower C, T h e

. .

s am e i n an ep igyn ous flowe r D , A s tam en E , A Si mple pi sti l i n longi tudi nal

. .

s e c ti on F , T he sam e i n cross se cti on G , T r ansi tonal f orms b e tween tru e p e tals

.
-
.

( l e f t ) an d tru e sta m e ns ( ri ght ) H , Sl i ght

. u ni o n of two c arp els to f orm a compound

p i stil I and J , U ni on of carp els more comple te K an d L, Cross s e cti ons of com .
-

pound p isti ls , of three c arp els I n B : a, st am en ; b, p e tal ; c , s ep al ; d, pi sti l ; e ,

.

re cepta cle ; f , p e di c el I n D : a, anther c ell ; b, conne cti ve ; c , fil am en t I n E a,

.
.

sti gma b, style ; 6 , ovules ; d, ovary (Fr om H am aker )

‘

;
.
.

T heparts of the flower are SE P A L s P E T A LS ST AM E N S and C A RP E LS , , , ,

all of which are inserted upon a shorten e d axis call ed the RE C E P T A CL E

or T ORU S T his is usually flat or con v ex but may b e conical and fleshy
. ,

as in the S trawb erry ; c o n c av e as in the R ose and Fi g ; or sho w a disc like -

m odi fication a s in the Orange

,
T h e axis of a flow e r cluster if short is
.
, ,

som etim escal led a common receptacle as in the floral axes of the D ande ,

lio n and L ettuc e .

42 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT A N Y

A Com p lete F lower possesses the four whorls of floral organs

arranged upon the torus .

T h e stam ens and pistils constitut e th e essenti a l organs and a flower ,

is said to b e P erfect when these ar e present and functional .

A Regu lar F lower possesses parts of the sam e shape and si z e .

It is S ym m etr i c al when the parts of each whorl are of the sam e num
b er or multiples of the sam e numb er
,
.

A n I m p erfect F lower shows one set of essen ti a l organs wanti ng

’

When either petals or sepals or both are present in m or e than the , ,

' '
usual numb er the flower is said to b e dou ble as the cultivated
, ,

A ster Rose and C arnation

, ,
.

If the pistils are present and stamens wanting the flower is called ,

p i sti llate or female ; if it possesses stam ens but no pistil it is described

, ,

as stam i n ate or male ; if both are absent n eu tr al as marginal flowers of

, , ,

Vi burnum Some plants as the B eg onias and C astor oil b ear both
.
,

staminate and pi s tillate flowers and are called M on ceci ou s When , .

the staminate and pistillate flowers are b orne on diff erent p lants of
the same species they are term ed Di ce ctons as the Sassafras and
, ,

Willow When staminate pistillate and herm aphrodite flowers

.
,

are all born e on one plant as on the M aple trees they are , ,

p olygam ou s .

T h e P eri gon e T h e perigone or peri anth is the floral en v elope con

.
—

sisting of calyx and corolla ( when present ) .

When both whorls t e calyx and corolla are present the flower is
,
. .
, ,

said to be dichlamydeous ; if only calyx is present monochlamydeous

lyx ~T h e C alyx is the outer whorl of modified lea v es
, .

T h e Ca . Its .

parts are called S epa ls and may be distinct ( C horisepalous from a

, ,

Greek word m eaning disj oined ) or more or less united ( Gamosepalous ) .

T hey are usually green foliaceous or leaf like b ut m ay b e b rilliantl

— —
y
-

colored hence the term petaloid ( like the petals ) is applied E x

, .

T ulip L ark spur and C olumbine

, .

In a G A MOS E P A L OU S C A L YX when the unio n of sepals is incomplete , ,

the united portion is called the tub e th e free portion the limb the ori , , ,

fice of the tube the throat , .

In form the calyx m ay b e regular or irregular ; regular if its parts are

evenly develop ed and irregular if its parts differ in size and shap e T h e
, .

m ore common forms are tubular resembling a tub e ; rotat e or wh eel , ,

shape ; campanulate or bell shape ; urceo late or urn shape ; hypocrat eri
,
-

,
-

form or salv er shap e ; bilabi ate or two lipped ; correspo n ding to th e

,
-

,
-
44 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

bling each other in form and color as in the T ulip an d Lily the flower , ,

i s called LI LIA CE OU s .

A GA LE AT E C OROLL A is one in which the upp er petal is arch ed in the

shap e of a helmet called th e Galea as in A co nit e
, ,
.

T he LI G U L A T E or ST R AP S H AP E D COROLL A is nearly confined to the

-

fam i ly Composit a e It is usually tub ul ar at the base th e remain der

.
,

resembling a singl e petal E x : M arigold and A rnica Flowers

. .
, .

LA B I A T E or B i L AB I AT E havi n g two lips the upper composed of two

,
-

, ,

petals , the lower one of thre e T his form of corolla gives nam e to the
.

LAB I A T zE , whi le in the fam i ly L E GU MI N OSE this arrangem ent is

som etim es reversed T he corolla m ay b e e ither ringent or gaping
.
, ,

as in S age or personate when the throat is nearly closed by a

, ,

pro j ection of the lo wer lip as in Snapdragon , .

ROT A T E WH E E L SH APE D when the tub e is short an d the division of

,
—
,

th e limb radiate from it like the spokes of a wheel E x : T h e P otato . .

blossom .

CRAT E RIF ORM SA U CE R SH A P E D like the last e xcept that the m argin
,
-

, ,

i s turned upward or cupped E x : K almia latifolia ( M t L aurel )

. . . .

HYP OCRA T E RIF ORM or SA LV E R SH AP E D ( more corr e ctly hypocrateri

,
-

morphous ) when the tube is long and sle n der as in P hlox or T rai ling
, ,

A rbutus and abruptly expands into a flat limb T he nam e is derived .

from that of the ancient S alver or hypoc rateri um with the stem or ,

handle b eneath .

When of nearly cylindrical form the corolla is T U B U LAR as in th e ,

H oneysuckle and Stramonium

,
.

FU N N E L FORM ( Infundibuliform ) such as the corolla of th e common

-

M orning Glory a tub e gradually enlarging from the b ase upward into
,

an expanded border or lim b .

CAMP AN U L A T E or B E L L S H A P E D a tub e whose length is not more

,
-

than twi ce the breadth and which expa n ds gradually from base to apex
, .

E x : C anterbury B ell H areb ell

.
,
.

U RCE OL AT E or U RN SHA P E D when the tube is globose in shape and

,
-

the limb at right angles to its axis as in the ofli c i al U v aU rsi Chim aphila , ,

and G aultheria .

T h e Andrce cium , or S ta m e n S ystem T h e Stam ens or m icro —

sporophylls are th e m ale organs of reproduction and each complete

,

stam en consists of a filament or stalk and an anther or pollen sac , , , ,

which is the essential portion and contains apow dery substance call e d
poll en .
 T HE ST AME N S Y ST EM 45

When few in number stamens are said to b e DE FI N I T E ; when v e ry

,

num erous and not readily counted they are IN DE FI N IT E T he follow

, , .

ing terms are in common use to express their number :

M O N AN DROU S for a fl ower with b ut one stam en
, .

DI A N DR OU S with two stam en s

, .

T RI AN DRO U S with three

, .

T E T RAN D RO U S with fou r , .

P E N T A N DROU s having five ,

.

HE XAN DROU S six ,

.

P O L YAN DR OU S an indefinite num ber

, .

A s to insertion they are : ,

H YP O G YN OU S situated on the receptacle

, .

P E RI G YN OU S on the calyx tub e or disc

, .

E P I G YN O U S on the top of the ovary

, .

GYN AN DRO U S borne upon the pistil as in the Orchids

, , .

T he stam ens may be of equal length ; unequal or of di fferent l ength , .

D I D YN AM O U S when there are two pairs one longer than the other
, , .

T E T RAD YN AMOU S thre pairs two of the same l ength the third
e , , ,

short e r
.

T erms denoting connection b e tween s tam ens are

M ON ADE LP H OU S ( i n one brotherhood) coalescence Of the filam ent ,

i nto a tub e .

D I AD E LP H OU S ( in two brotherhoods ) coalescence into two sets , .

T RI ADE LP H OU S with filaments united into three sets

, .

P OL YADE LP H OU S when the sets are numerous

, .

S YN G E N E SI OU S when the anthers cohere

,
.

S tam ens may be E RE CT extending directly upward spread i ng pro

, , ,

c ee di ng upward and outward ; CO N N IV E N I brought close together a nd

’ ‘

turned inward ; RE F LE X E D turned downward ,

.

T he attachment of the anther to the filament m a y b e in one Of sev

e ral ways as follows :
,

IN N A T E attach e d at its base to the apex of the filam en t

,
.

A DN AT E adherent throughout its length

,
.

VE RS A T I L E when the anther is attached near its center to the top

,

O f the filam ent so that it swings freely

,
T he adnate and versatil e are .

I N T RO R S E when th ey face inward E X T R O R S E when they face o utward , .

In order that the pollen m ay be discharged at the proper time th e ,

anth e r O pen s along a line or sut ure called the line of dehiscence e ither ,

longitudinal or t ransverse or the poll en escapes through apical or v al

,
46 P H A RM A CE U T I CA L B OT AN Y

a openings T he p ollen is usually a powdery sub stance which

v ul r .

shows under the m icroscope distinct grains of characteristic forms siz e s ,

and m arkings Like starch grains each represents a particular source

.
, ,

hence the variety that m ay b e examined is limited only by the number '

of kinds of flowers a v ailable for the purpose In order to stu dy poll en .

grains take up by m eans of forceps a stam en whose anther is j ust de

,

hi sci ng or letting free its contents and tap upon a sheet of white paper ;
, ,

then examine with a C ompound M icroscop e .

T h e following a r e some of the forms of pollen grains :

FOU R SP O RE D AU G H T E R cells hanging togeth er as in the C at T ail
f orming a pollen grain .

E L O N G A T E D si m ple pollen grains as in Zost era .

D U MB B E L L shaped as the pollen of the P ines

-
.

T RI AN G U L AR as in the M exican P rimrose ,

.

E C H I N A T E as in the M alv a . cem .

SP H E RI C A L as in Geranium ,
.

L E N S shaped as in th e L ily .

T h e Gyn a ec i um , or P i stil S yste m T h e C ARP E L or m egasporophyll .

—

is the female organ of reproduction of flowering plants In the Spruce .

,

P ine etc , it consists of an op en leaf or scale which b ears but does not
,
.

enclose the ovu les In angiosperms it forms a closed sac which en v elops
.

and pr o tects th e ovu les and when compl et e is composed of three parts
, ,

the ovary or hollow portion at th e base enclosing the ovu les or r udi m en
tary seeds the s ti gm aor apical portion which recei v es the poll en grains
, ,

and the style or connective which unit es these two T h e last is non
,
.

essential and when wanting the stigma i s called sessil e T h e carp el .

clearly shows its relations to the leaf though greatly changed in form , .

T he lower portion of a l eaf wh en f olded len gthwise with th e m argins

,

incur v ed represents the ovar y ; the unfolded surface upon which the
,

ovul es are borne is th e placenta a prolongation of the tip of the l eaf the
, ,

stigm a and the narrow interm ediate portion th e styl e A lea

,
f thus , .

tr a nsfor m ed i nto a n ovu le bea ri n

g or gan i s called aca
-
r et
p T h e carpels .

of the C olumbine and P e aare m ade up of single carpels In the latt er .

th e young peas occupy a double row along one of the sutures ( seams ) of
the pod T his portion corresponds to the infolded edge of the leaf and
.
,

the pod splits O pen along this line called the ventral suture , .

D ehiscence or th e natural opening of th e carpel to l et free the con

,

ta i n ed seeds takes place al s o along the line which correspond s to the

,

mid rib of the l eaf , the dorsal suture

-
.
 T HE PL A CE N T A 47

CO MP OU N D PI S T are composed of carpels which ha v e unit ed

IL S

to form th em and therefore will ha v e j ust as ma ny cells as carpels

When e ach simple ovary has its placenta or seed~
, .

be a r i n g line at , ,

the inner angle the resul ting compound ovary has as m any ax i l e
or central placent a: as there are ca rp els but all m ore or less consoli
dated i nto one T he partitions are called dissepiments and form part
.
, '
of the walls of the ovary If however the carpels are j oined by their
.
, ,

e dges lik e th e petals Of a gamop e talous corolla there will b e but one
, ,

cell and the placenta will b e parietal or on the wall

, ,
.

T he OV U L E S are transform ed bud s destined to b ecom e seeds in t he ,

m atur e fruit T heir numb er varies from one to hundreds In position

. .
,

they are erect growing Upward from the base of the ovary as in the
, ,

Com posi tze ; ascending turning upward from the side O f the ovary or cell ;
pendulous like the last except that it turns downward ; horiz ontal when
,

directed straight outward ; suspended hangin g perp endicularly from the ,

top of the ovary .

In Gymnosperm s th e ovules are naked ; in A n giosperms they are

enclosed in a seed v essel .

A compl e te angiosp ermous seed o vule c onsist s of a N U CE LLU S or

body ; two coats the outer or P RI MI N E and the inner or SE CU N DI N E ; and
, ,

a F U N I CU LU S or stalk Within the nucellus is found the E MB RYO SA C

,
.

containing the OV U M or female reproducti v e cell .

T h e coats do not completely en v elop the nucellus b ut an opening ,

at the ap ex called the F O RAME N or MI CROP YL E admits th e pollen tub e

,
.

T h e point wh ere the coats are attached to each oth er and to the nucellus
is called the CH AL A ZA T h e H I LU M m arks th e point where the funicul us
.

is j oined to the o v ule and if attached to the ovule through a part of its
,

l ength th e adherent portion is called the RA P H E T h e shape of the

,
.

ovul e m ay be ORT H O T ROP O U S or straight ; C AMP YLO T R OP OU S b ent or

, ,

curved ; A MP H I T ROP OU S partly in v erted ; and AN A T ROP OU S inverted

, ,
.

T h e last two forms are most common A campylotropous o v ul e is one.

whose bo dy is b ent so that the hilum and mi c r opyle are approxim ated .

T HE P L A CE N T A

T he placenta is the nutriti v e tissu e connecting the ovules wit h the

wall of the ovary T he vari o us types Of placenta arrangement ( pla
.

c e nt ati on) are grouped according to their relati v e complexity as

follow s :
48 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT A N Y

r, B asilar 2 Sutural 3 P arietal 4 C entral 5 Free C entral

.
,
.
,
.
,
.
, .

B asilar pl acentation is well illustrated in the P olygonacem ( Smart

Weed Rhub arb E tc ) in P iper and Jugla ns H ere at the apex of the
, ,
. .

axis and in the cent e r Of the ovarian b ase arises a single o vul e from
a small area of placental tissu e .

Sutural placentation is seen in the L eguminos a e ( P e a B ean , ,

H ere each carp el has prolonged along its fused e dges two cord like -

placental twigs from which start the funiculi or o v ule stalks

,
.

P arietal placentati on is seen in Gloxinia Gesn eria E tc H ere we , ,

.

find two or more carpels j oined and placental tissu e running up along
edges of the fused carpels b earing the ovules .

C entral or axile placentation is seen in C ampanulace a (Lob eli a ) ,

where the two three or more carpels have folded inward until they
, ,

meet in the center and in the process h ave carried the originally
pariet al placenta with them T hi s then may form a c entral sw elling .

b earing the ovules over the surface .

F r ee C entral placentation o ccurs perfectly in the P rimulace a ,

P lant aginace a e and a few other families In this the c arples simply .

cover over or roof in a central placental pillar around which the

ovules are scattered .

P o lli nation P ollination is the transfer of pollen from anther to

.
—

stigma and the consequent germination thereon It is a necessary step .

to fertilization .

When the pollen is transferred to the stigm a of its own flower the
process is called CLO SE or SE LE P OLLI N AT I ON ; if to a sti gma of another
flower CROS S P OLLIN A T I O N
,
If fertiliz ation follows th es e processes
.
,

are term ed respectively C lose or Self F ertiliz ation and C ross F ertiliza
,

tion Close F ertilization m eans in tim e ruination to the race and hap
.

pily is prevented in many cases by ( a ) the stam ens and pisti ls standing
in extraordinary relation to each other ( b ) by the anthers and pistils ,

m aturing at diff erent tim es ( c) by the pollen in many cases germ i nat
,

ing better on the stigma of another flower than its own .

T he agents which are responsible for cross polli nation are the wind ,

insects water currents small animals and birds

, , , .

WI N D P OLLIN AT E D floweri ng plants are called A N E MOP HI L OU S ; their

-

poll en is dry and powdery flowers inconspicuous and inodorous as in

, ,

the P ines Wheat Walnut Hop etc

, , , ,
.

IN S E CT P OLLIN AT E D P L A N T S are called E N T OMOP H IL OU S

-

T hese .
,

being dependen t upon the visits of insects for fertilization possess bril ,
 F E RT I LI Z AT I ON 49

li an tly colored corollas have fragrant odors and secrete nectar a sw ee t

, , ,

liquid very attractiv e to insects which are adapted to this work through
the possession of ap ollen carrying apparatus E x : Orchids
-
. . .

PL A N T S P OLLI N AT E D T H RO U GH T H E A G E N CY OF W AT E R CU RRE N T S
are known as H YDROP H IL OU S T o this class b elong such plants as
.

liv e under water and which produce flowers at or near the surface Of
the sam e E x : Sparganium
. . .

Som e plants a s the H oneysuckle and N asturtium are fertili z ed by

humming birds .

B efore the pollen grain has b een deposited upon the stigm a a series
of eve nts aff ecting both the pollen grain and the embryo sac occur .

T h e microspore ( pollen grain ) divides into two cells the MO T H E R a nd ,

T U B E CE LL S of th e mal e gam etophyte T h e nucleus O f th e mother

.

cell divides to form two generativ e nucl ei T he N U CLE U S of the m ega.

spore or embryo sac undergo es division until eight DAU GH T E R N U CLE I

are produced which are separated into the following groups :
( a ) T hree of these nuclei occupy a position at the apex the lower ,

nucleus of the group being the egg or ovum the other two nuclei b eing ,

th e S YN E R G I D S or A SSI ST I N G N U CL E I .

( b ) A t the opposite end of the sac are three nucl ei known as the
AN T I P O DA L S which apparently ha v e no special function .

( c) T h e two remaining nuclei ( P O LA R N U CLE I ) form a group lying

near the centre of th e embryo sac which unite to form a single nucleus
from which after fertilization the endosperm of nourishing material
, ,

is derived . T his stage of the embryo sac constitutes the female

gam etophyte .

Fe rtili z ation A fter the pollen grain reaches the stigma the viscid
.
—

moisture of the stigma excites the outgrowth of the male gam etophyte
which bursts through th e coats of the poll e n grain forming apollen
tub e T h e pollen tube carrying within its walls two generativ e an d
.

one tub e nucleus penetrates through th e loose cells of the styl e until it
reaches th e micropyl e of the ovule then piercing the nucellus it enters
,

th e embryo sac T h e tip of the tub e breaks and one of the gen e rative
.

nuclei unites with the egg to form the oospore T he Oospore develops .

at onc e into an embryo or plantlet which lies passi v e until th e seed

,

unde rgoes germination T he other generative nucleus unites with the

.

previously fused polar nuclei to form the endosperm nucleus which soon
unde rgoes rapid di v ision into a larg e number of nuclei scatt ered about
through the protoplasm of the embryo sac T hese accumulat e proto .
50 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

plasm about them cells walls ar e laid down endosperm resulting

, ,
.

Germinati o n is the b egin ning of growth in a seed or plant T h e con .

di ti on s favorable to germination are warm th moisture and presence Of ,

air .

T HE FRU I T

T he fruit consists O f the matured o v ary and cont ents and m ay include ,

other organs Of the flower ext e rnal to the pistil but connected with it as , ,

in C lematis where the long feathery style renders the fruit b uoyant
, , ,

and lik e the fruits Of the T histle and D andelion in which th e modified
, ,

calyx serves a similar purpos e is easily scatt ered by the wi n d In the

,
.

Strawb erry and Q uince th e receptacl e b ecom es thick and succulent ,

and constitutes the edible portion of the fruit Other modifications .

are seen in the hooks or spines by m eans of which certain fruits ,

compel animals to assist in their dispersion E x : C ocklebur B ur . .

,

dock B idens E tc
, ,
.

D i strib u tion of Fruits a nd S ee d s Som e fruits as the co coanut are.

—

, ,

transport ed by water currents and are adapted to withstand for a

,

lon g perio d the action Of salt water A nother O f the peculiar m eans .

provided by nature for the dissemination of seeds and fruits is that

shown in the Sandbox T ree the fruit of which is hygroscopic and by
, ,

absorption of water bursts the p ericarp with such explosiv e force as to

cause a loud report and to scatter the seeds in every dir e ction B irds .

and fruit eating m ammals including man also play a part in th e work
-

, ,

O f distribution .

FRU I T ST RU C T U R E

T h e P E RI C A RP ,
or S E E D V E s sE L is the ripened wall of the ovary , ,

and in general the structure of the fruit wall resembl es that of the ovary
but undergoes num erous modification s in the course of de velopment .

T h e numb er of cells of the ovary m ay increase or decrease the ,

external surface m ay change from soft and hairy in the flower to hard ,

and becom e covered with sharp sti ff prickles as in the D atura , ,

S tramonium or Jam estown we e d T ransform ations in consistence .

m ay take place and the texture of the wall of the ovary m ay b ecome
hard and bony leather y as the rind of the Orange or assum e the forms
, , ,

s een in the Gourd P each Grape etc

, , ,
.
52 P HA RM A CE U T I C A L B OT A N Y

A j ointed indehiscent legum e called a lom ent breaks up natural ly

, , ,

into transverse one seeded di v i sions T h e C ochle ais a coiled or spiral

,
-
.

legume E x of Lom ent : C assia fistula

. . .

A C AP SU LE is a dry dehiscent fruit of two or mor e united carpels ,

and shows several forms of dehiscence as in the P oppy C ardamon , , ,

etc .

T he P YXIS is a modification of the capsule which op en s transversely ,

the upper half forming a lid as in P ort ul aca or Hyoscyamus ,

.

A SILIQ U E is a long slender capsul e with two parietal placent a e ,

the valves opening from below upward as in the C rucifer a e ,

.

Dry Ind ehi s c e nt Frui ts ( O ften erroneously regarded as seeds ) .

T he A K E N E is a dry one chambered indehi scent fruit in which the -

, ,

pericarp is firm and m ay or may not be united with the seed the style ,

remaining in many cases as an agent of dissemination and may b e ,

winged feathery or hooked E x : Frui ts of the C omposit a

, ,
e A nem one . .
,

and Ranunculus .

T h e SA MARA is a winged akene like fruit as in the B irch E lm A sh, —

, , ,

B ox E lder and M aple .

T he U T RI CLE is like the akene except that the pericarp is loose and ,

bladder like E x : Chen opodiu m

-
. . .

A CARY OP SI S or Grain di ffers from the last in having the cell com
, ,

pletely filled by the see d and the peric a rp very thin T his fruit is
/
.

more likely than any other to b e mistaken for a seed E x : Wheat

.
. .
,

Rice B arley Oat etc

, , ,
.

A N U T i s a hard one celled one seeded frui t like the akene but
,
—
,
-

larger and usually produced from a compound ovary T he nut is

, .

often enclosed in a kind of involucre term ed a C upule as the cup of the ,

acorn or the leaf l i ke covering of the H a z el nut

- —
.

A CRE MOCARP is the characteristic fr ui t O f the U mbellifer a e family .

It consists of two inferior akenes or m ericarps separated from each other

by a stalk called a carpophore T he m ericarps separate as soon as the .

fruit ripens and are seen to b e longitudinally ribbed with num erous
oil glands between the ribs .

Fl eshy Ind ehi sce n t Fru its T h e D R U P E is a one c arpelle d fruit

— -

such as the Plum P ac h P rune Sabal Rhus etc and calle d stone
'
f , , , , , .
,

fruit beca use the endocarp or putamen is composed wholly of stone

,

cells .

A n E T E RIO consists of a collection of little drupes on a torus a s

the Raspb erry .

 T HE SE E D 53

T he B E RRY is fleshy frui t with a thin membranous epicarp and a

succul ent interior in which the seeds are imbedded E x : C apsicum . .
,

T omato B elladonna Gr a
, p e C urrant etc , , ,
.

T he HE SP E RI DIU M is a variety of the berry and the name is a pplied ,

only to memb ers of the Orang e family It is a fleshy frui t with leathery .

rind which contains numerous oil glands .

T h e P E P O or G OU RD E RU I T of which the Squash and Gourd are

—
,

types is the characteristic fruit of the order C ucur bi tace m fleshy

, ,

internally and ha v ing a tough or very hard rind Fruits of thi s

, .

f amily are true berries .

T h e P OME is a fleshy frui t the chi e f bulk of whi ch consists Of t h e

adherent torus Q uince A ppl e and P ear ar e examples T h e carpels
.
,
.

constitute the core and the fleshy part is developed from the torus
,
.

M u lti pl e Fr uits T he SYCON I U M is a mul tipl e fruit consisting of a

.
—

succ ul ent hollow torus enclosed within whi ch ar e akene like bodies -

products of many flowers E x : Fi g . . .

T h e SO ROS I S is represented by the M ul berry th e grains of which ,

are not the ovaries of a single flower as in the B lackb erry but b elong , ,

to as m any separate flowers In the P ine appl e all the parts are blended
.
-

into a fleshy j uicy seedless mass and the plant is propagated by

, , ,

cuttings .

T h e ST R OB I L E or C ON E is a scaly mul tipl e frui t consisti ng of a ,

scale b earing axis each scal e enclosing one or more seeds T he name
-

,
.

is applied to the fruit of the Hop and also to the fr uit of the C on i fer a e ,

in which the naked seeds are borne on the upper sur face of the woody
scales .

T HE SE E D

T he seed is the fertilized and matur e d ovul e having the embryo ,

form ed within it L ik e the ovule it consists of a nucellus or k ernel e u

.
,

closed by integum ents and the descriptive terms used are the same
,
.

T h e seed Coats corresponding to those of the ov ul e are two in numb er

, , ,

th e T E S T A and T E G M E N T he testa or outer seed shell di ffers greatly

.
, ,

in form an d texture If thick and hard it is crustac eous ; if smooth

.
,

and glossy it is polished ; if roughened it m ay be pitted furrowed , , ,

ha
,

iry reticulate etc

, ,
.

T h e testa may Often present outgrowths or seed a ppendages whose

functions are to make the seeds buoyant wh ereby they may b e dis ,

5
54 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT A N Y

seminated by wind currents E xamples of thes e are seen in the M ilk

.

weed which has a tuft of hairs at one end of the seed called a Com a
,
,

and in the Official Strophanthus which has along b ristle like appendage
,
—

attached to one e n d of the seed and called an awn T h e wart like .

-

appendage at the hilum or micropyle as in C astor Oil S eed is called , ,

the C aruncle .

T h e tegm en or inner coat surrounds th e

nucellus closely a nd is generally soft and

B delicate .

A third i n tegum ent or accessory seed ,

covering is occasionally present an d is

C ,

called the A RIL E x : E uonymus ( suc . .

culent) .

When such an in t egum ent arises at the

Frc 31
. . Secti on o f a
—

grain of wheat A P eri c arps m icropyle of the seed as in the N utm eg it

,
, , ,

an d f ee d coats ; B layf r O f is known as a

,
n ar i llode
c ells i n endosp erm co ntai ni ng
. .

aleurone grains ; C cells of th e T he N U CE LLU S or K E RN E L COD Sl stS O f

a
,

i gi g rbfifilfiifijfi
mh tissue containing album en when this sub
z
s er l
,

stance is present and the embryo A lbu ,

.

m en is the n am e given the nutritive matter stored in the seed .

M O DE OF FO RM A T IO N OF D IF FE RE N T T YP E S O F A L B U M E N

If the egg cell within the embryo sac segm ents and grows into
the embry o and stretching fills up the cavity without food m ate
, ,

rial laid down around it it happens that the nutritive mat e rial lin
,

gers in the cells of the nucellus pres sing around the embryo T his is .

called P er i s p er m i c A lbu m en S een in the P olygonace a

. e .

In by far the greater numb er of A ngiosper m s the endosperm nu ,

c le u s after double fertili z ation

,
divid e s and redivides giving rise to
, ,

numerous nucl e i imb edded in th e protoplasm Of the embryo sac out

side oi the developing embryo Gath ering protoplasm about th em .

selves and laying down c ell wall s they form the e ndosperm tissue
outside Of the embryo I nto this tissue foo d is passed constituting
.

l
th e E nd OSperm i c albumen .

In the M arantac ea e P iperace a

e etc
, nutritive mat erial is pass e d
,
.
,

into the nucellar cells causing them to swell up while to one side a ,

small patch of endosperm tissue accommodates a mo derat e amount

of nourishing substa n ce thus resulting in the f o rmation of abundant
,

perisperm and a small reduced endosperm .

 F ORM AT I ON OF A LB U ME N 55

w hich albumen t red

s o

emb ry o duri ng t he grow th of

‘

A lbu m i nou s se ed s are tho se in which t h e nourishmen t is not stored

.

the embryo until ger m ination take s place .

 P A RT II

T AK ON OMY

DIV IS ION I .
—
T HALLO P HYT A

Plants consi s ting Of a thallus a body undifferentiated into root , ,

stem or leaf T he group nearest to the beginning of the plant kingdom

.

presenting f orms howing rudim entary structures which are modified

C

through di v ision of labor di fferentiation etc in higher groups

, ,
.
,
.

SU B DIVI SION I .
—
M YX OM Y CET E S , O R SLIM E M OLD S

T errestrial or aquatic organisms frequently classified as b elonging ,

to the a nimal kingdom and found commonly on decaying wood lea v es , ,

or humous soil in forests T heir v egetati v e body consists of a n aked

.

m ass of protoplasm called the plasmodium which has a creeping and

rol ling motion putting ou t an d retracting regions of its body called
,

pseudopodia .

SU B D IVI SI ON II .
—
SC HIZOP H YT A

T his group comprises the fission plants whose m emb ers possess
a common m ethod of asexual reproduction whereby the cell cleaves or
splits into two parts each of which then b ecom es a separate and
,

independent organism .

r . CYA N OP H YCE JE

which are som etimes termed blue green alg a

P la n ts e T h e v contain -

chlorophyll a green pigm ent and phycocyanin a blue pigment a com

, , ,

bination gi v ing a blue green aspect to the plants of this group

-

Found .

everywhere in fresh and salt water and also on damp logs rocks bark , ,

of trees stone walls etc E x : Oscill atoria Gloeocapsa and N ostoc

, ,
. .
, , .

2 . SCI II ZO MYCE I E S
-
’ ‘
—
B A CT E RI A

B a ct eria are minute u n icellular vegetable organisms destitute of

,

chlorophyll T hey ser v e as agents of decay and ferm entatio n an d are

.

56
 A P P E A R A N CE OF B A C T E RI A L COL ON I E S 57

fre quently employed in industrial processes A ccordi ng to the vari o us .

'

phenomena they pro duce they m ay be classified as follows : a Zymo .

gens producing ferme n tation ; b A erogens producing gas ; c P h o togens . .

producing light ; ( 1 C hromogens producing color ; e Saproge ns produc

. .
,

ing putrefaction ; f P athogens producing disea s e .

,
.

P HYSI CAL A P PE ARAN CE OF BACT E RI AL C OL ON IE S AN D IN DIV I DU A L FORMS

B ecaus e of th eir minut e siz e a sp ace th e siz e of a p i nh ea d m ay hold 8 b illi on —

of th e m th e studen t comm enc es hi s study of b acterial growths i n colonies or c ul

—

tur es each ki nd poss essing ch ar acteri sti cs by whi ch th ey may b e di stingui sh ed and
,

di fl er e n ti ate d .

T he indiv i du als i n th e colony d ep endi ng upo n th e kind of b act eria under ex ,

a mi na ti o n m ay b e glob ul ar rod shap ed or sp ir al Bacteria ar e classed accor di ng

, ,
-

, .

to sh ap e as ,

C OCCI ( singular coccus) glob ul ar or b erry sh ap ed ,

-
.

B A CILLI ( Singul ar b aci ll us ali ttl e rod) rod sh ap ed,

—

,
-
.

SP I RI LL A ( singul ar Spi ri llum) Spi ral or cork scr e w shap ed

, ,
-
.

S por ulati o n A l arg e n umb er O f b act er ia poss ess th e power of d ev elop ing i n to
—

a r esting stag e by a process known as sporula ti on or spor e f orm atio n Sp orula ti on .

i s r eg ard ed as a m e thod of r esi st ing u nf avorabl e env i ro nm ent T hi s i s illu str at ed .

by th e anthr ax b acilli whi ch ar e r ea dily kill ed i n twenty minutes by a I O p er cent .

solutio n of carboli c aci d an d abl e wh en i n th e spor e co nditi o n to r e si st the s a m e

, , ,

disinf ectant f or a lo ng p eri od i n a co nc en tr a ti on of 50 per c en t A nd whil e th e .

,

v eg e tativ e f orms Show li ttle mor e r esi stanc e against moi st h ea t than the v e g e tativ e
f orm of oth er b act er ia th e spor es will wi thsta nd th e acti o n o f li v e st ea m f or as lo n g
,

as te n to tw elv e minutes or mor e .

Wh enev er the sp or es are brought i nto f avor able co ndi ti o n f or b act erial growth ,

as to temp er a tur e moi stur e an d nutri ti on th ey r etur n to th e v eg etati v e f orm and

, ,

th en ar e c ap abl e of multipli c ati o n by fissio n i n th e ordi nary way .

Repr odu cti on Bact eria mul tiply and r eproduce themselv es by cl eav ag e or
.
—

fissi o n . A young in d iv i du al incr eas es i n siz e up to th e li mi ts of th e a dul t f orm ,

when by si mpl e cl eavage a t right angl es to th e lo ng axis th e c ell div i des into two ,

indi vi du als .

M orph ology Du e to C le avag e A ccordi ng to li mi ta ti o ns i mpos ed by cl eav ag e .

—

di r ectors th e cocci assum e a ch ain app eara n c e or a gr ap e lik e app ear anc e or a
,
n ,
-

arr ang em ent i n p ack ets or cub es hav ing thr ee di amet ers T his giv es ri s e to th e .

ST AP H Y LO CO CCU S ( pl ur al st aphylococci ) f rom a G r eek word r ef erring to th e

, ,

sh ap e of a b u nch of grap es .

ST RE PT OCOCCU S ( plur al str eptococci) f rom a G r eek word m eani ng ch ain

, ,

S h ap e d .

S A R CIN A p a ck ag e sh ap ed or cub i cal

,
.

F orm of C e ll G rou p s af t e r C l eav a g e T h e indiv i dual b act eri a af t er cl eav ag e —

m ay s ep ar at e or coh er e T h e amount of coh esi o n tog eth er wi th th e plane of c le av

,
.
,

ag e d e termi nes th e v arious f orms of the cell groups T hus a mong th e cocci diplo
,
.

or doubl e f orms m ay r es ult g iv ing ri s e to di s ti n ui shing morpholog i c a l ch ar a ct er g

58 P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT AN Y

i sti cs . Similarly
a mong th e b acilli ch ar acteristi c f orms r esult as singl e in div i duals
and oth ers whi ch f orm chains of v arious l engths .

Rapid ity of Gr owth a nd Multipli c ati on T he r ap i di ty wi th whi ch b act er ia .

—

grow and multiply i s dep end ent upon sp ecies and env iro nm ent T h e r ap i di ty of .

th e growth i s surprising U nder favor abl e co ndi ti o ns th ey m ay elo nga t e and div i de
.

ev ery 2 0 or 3 0 m i nut es I f th ey should continu e to r eproduce a t thi s r a t e for tw enty

.

f our hours a singl e indiv i dual wo uld h av e 1 7 m illi o n d esce n d a nts I f ea ch of th es e .

sho uld co ntinue to gr ow a t th e sa me r at e ea ch would h av e i n twenty f o ur hours ,

-

mor e 1 7 m illi o n ofl spri ng and then th e numb er s would dev elop b ey o nd co nc ep ti o n

, ,
.

H owev er such m ul tipli ca ti o n i s not possibl e u nd er natural or ev en artificial co ndi

,

tio ns both on account of la ck of nutri tiv e m a terial and b ec a us e of th e inhib i tio n

,

of th e gr owth of the b a ct eria by th eir o wn products I f th ey di d mult iply at th i s .

r a te i n a f ew d ays th er e wo uld b e no room i n th e world but b act eria

Ch em i cal Com positi on of Bac ter ia~T h e quanti t a tiv e ch emi cal composi t io n
.

—
.

of b a ct er ia i s subj e ct to wi d e v a r ia ti o ns d ep enden t upo n th e nutri tiv e m a ter ials

,

f ur ni sh ed th em A bout 8 0 to 8 5 p er c ent of the b act erial body i s wat er ; pr o

. .t ei d
substances co nsti tut e about so to 8 0 p er c ent of th e dr y r esi du e Wh en th se e ar e . .

ex tr acted th er e r em a
, i n f ats i n som e cas e s wa x i n som e b a ct er ia tr aces of cell ul os e
, ,

app ear and th e r emaind er co nsists of r to 2 p er cent ash

, . .

T h e prot ei ds co nsi st p artly of nucl eo prot ei ds globulins a nd prot ein subst anc e s
-

, ,

di ff ering m aterially from ordi nary prot ei ds T oxi c subst ances k nown as endotoxins .

to distingui sh th em f rom b act erial p oi so ns s e cr e ted by c ertain b ac t eria during th e

proc ess of growth also occur , .

SU B D I VI SION I II .
—
AL G fE

Low forms of thallophytes of terrestrial and aquatic distribution

consisting for th e most part of S ingle cells or rows of single cells
j oined end to end to form filaments T hey contain chlorophyll or som e .

other pigm ent and so can use the C0 2 and H2 0 in the same manner
,

as higher plants e g in assim i lating and providi ng for their own

,
. .
,

nutrition .

CLASS I .
-

CH LO R OP H YCE E ,
T HE GRE E N A L GE

In this group th e cells are observed to possess distinct nucl ei and

bodies whose pores contain an oil like pigment called chlorophyll
,
—
,

the chloroplasts T he following form s are typical : Spirogyra , D iatoms

.
,

Pleurococcus V olvox Confer v a and C hara

, , ,
.

CLA S S IL -

PI I /E OP H YCE zE , T
-

HE B RO W N A L G E
M ostly m arine forms sh owing great diversity in the form of their
vegetative bodies T heir bodies are us ually fixed to som e support in the
.
 A LG A -

LI KE FU N GI 59

water and are often highly difl eren ti ate d both as to form and tissues .

Som e reach hundreds of feet in length as for example M acrocystis , ,

which grows in the P acific Ocean off the coast of C alifornia Other .

forms typical of the group are E ctocarpus L aminaria and Fu c us , ,

.

CLA S S T I L —
RH ODOP H YC E JE , T HE R E D A L G AE

A gre atly diversified group comprising the maj ority of marine alg a
e .

T heir vegetativ e bodies vary from simple branching filaments through

all gradations to forms differentiated into branching stems holdfasts ,

and leaves . T heir color may b e red purple violet or reddish , , ,

brown and i s due to the presence of phycoerythrin a red pigm ent ,

.

A mong this group are classed Chondrus N emalion C orallina etc , , ,

.

C hondrus is the sol e Official alga in the U S P and belongs to the . . .

family Gi garti nac eee .

SU B D IVI SIO N I V .
—
FU N G I

T his great assemblag e Of thallophytes is characteri z ed by the total

absenc e of chlorophyll an d so its m embers possess no indepen dent
power of m anufacturing food materials such as starches sugars etc , ,
.
,

from C 0 2 and H2 0 C onsequently they a

. re either parasites depend ,

i ng for their nourish ment upon other livi ng plants or animals called ,

hosts ; or saprophyt e s depend ing upon decaying animal or vegetable

,

m atter in solution Some forms are abl e to live either as saprophyt e s

.

or par asi tes while others are restricted to either the parasitic or sapro
phytic habit T h e vegetative body O f a fungus is known as a mycelium
. .

It consists of interlacing and branching filaments called hypha a which ,

ramify through decaying matter or invade the tissues of li v ing organ

ism s and derive nourishment therefrom In the case of p arasites the .
,

absorbing connections which are m ore or less speciali z ed and de finit e

are called haustoria In the higher forms the hyph a
. e become consoli

dated into false ti ssues and assume definite Shapes according to the
,

S pecies. Of this character are the fructifying organs which constitute

th e above ground parts of P u ff B alls C u p Fungi M ushrooms etc , , ,
.

CLA SS I .
—
PH YCOM YCE T E S , OR A LGA -

LI KE FU N G I

T h e P hycomycete s represent a small group Of fungi showing close

a ffi nity with the green alg a
e T heir mycelium is comp o sed of c oenocytic
.
60 PH A RM A CE U T IC A L B OT AN Y

hyp hm which suggests a close relation with the Sipho nales group of
green alg a
e .T heir sexual organs are like wise similar in structur e .

FI G 3 3
. .
—
P orti on of

H orn -
shap e d sclerotium
Of Cla s i ceps pur pu r ea,
b e aring f our stal ked re
ce p t ac le s ( Fr om S ayr e )
. .

FI G 3 2
. Cla .s i ceps pu r pu r ea
-

A Y ou ng . .

scl erotium , s , wi th Old sph ac elia, s p T h e . .

ap ex of th e d ead ovary o f r ye B U pp e r . .

p art of A , i n longi tudinal s e ction , showing

sph ac elia, s C T ransv ers e s e cti o n through
. .

th e sphac elia , more hi ghly magnifie d m T h e . .

myceli um , surrounded wi th th e hyph a e; b, FI G .

34 .
—
L0 ng i tu di
b ear i ng conidia ; p conidia f all en off ; w, the
.
n al s e cti on of are c ept a cl e ,

w all of the o v a ry D G e rm ina ting co nidi a

. . ,
m agni fied show ing th e,

f orming spor idi a,r ( Fr om S a .

yre af ter B acks )
. . p eri th ec ia (Fr om S ayr e )
. .

SU B —
CLA S S A . OOMY CE T ES

( Sexu al app ar a tus he t erog a mous )

O r d e r I C hytridi al e s E x : S ynchytrium a form parasitic on

. .
—
.
,

seed plant s and forming blister like swellings -

.

O rd e r 2 S aprol e gni al e s Wat er m old s w hich attack fishes frogs

. .
—
, ,

water insects and decaying plants and animals E x : Saprolegnia

,
. . .
 T HE SA C F U N G I 61

O r der 3 P eron osporal e s M ildews destructive parasites li v ing

. .
—

, ,

in the tissues of their hosts and effecting pathologic change s E x . .

A lbugo the bli s ter blight a whit e rust attacking m embers Of the
, ,

Cr uc i f er a
: and P hytophthora producing p o tato rot , .

SU B -
CL A S S B .
—
ZYG O MY CE T ES

( S ex u al app ar a tus shows i sog amy )

O r de r I M uc ora
les , the black molds mostly saprophytic
.
,
. Ex
M ucor M u ce do Rhiz opus nigricans ,
.

C L A SS I I .
—
A S C O M YCE T E S, T HE SA C FU N G I

M ycelium compo s ed of septate filam ents and life history character

FI G .
35 .
—
singl e p eri the ci um of Claz'i ceps
A FIG 3 6 . A sc i con tain
.
—

pu r pu r ea ,
m agnified showing th e con taine d
, i ng th e lon g , sl en de r asco
asci .
(Fr om Sayre .
) pores (From S ayre )
. .

by the appearance of a sac called an ascus in which ascospores are

i ze d
formed T he largest cl ass of fungi
. .

O rde r I P r oto ascal es , th e yeasts ( Saccharomycetes ) ( position

.

doubtful ) .

O r der 2 P e zi zale s or cup fungi E x : P ez i z a and A scobolus

. . . .

O r der 3 T ube ra le s the tr ufll e s

. , .

Ord e r 4 P le ctasca le s , the blue and green molds

. E x : A spergillus . .

and P e nicillium .
62 PH ARM A CE U T IC A L B OT A N Y

Ord e r 5 Pyr e nomyc e tal e s , the mildews and black fungi comm on as
.

s uperficial parasites on variou s parts O f plants T o the black fungi .

di v ision O f this order the E rgot fungus Claviceps purpurea b elongs , ,

.

LIFE HI ST OR Y OF C LAV I CE P S P U RP U R E A

T hrough the ag ency of winds or in s ects th e Spor es ( a scospor es or co ni dia) of this

org ani sm ar e brought to th e young ov aries Of th e ry e ( S ecale cer eale) T h ey g ermi ~ .

nat e into lo ng fila ments call ed hypha e whi ch b eco m i ng en t a ngl e d to f orm a m yce ,

li um spr ea d ov er th e ov ary ent er i t sup erficially s ecr e te a f erm en t and ca us e

, , , ,

de compos i ti o n of i ts tissu e and th e r esultant f orm atio n of a y ell ow mucus substanc e -

c alled ho ney dew whi ch sur rou nds ch ains Of mo nili f orm r eproductiv e bodies k nown
—

as co ni di a T he ho ney dew a ttra cts certain i n sects whi ch di ssemina te th e di s eas e

.
—

to other h ea ds of gr ain .

T h e myc elial thr ea ds p enetr a t e d eep er an d d eep er into th e ov ary and soo n f orm
a d ens e ti ssu e whi ch gr a dually co nsum es th e entir e substanc e of th e ov ary and hard
e n s in to a pur pl e som e wh a t curv ed body c all e d a scl e rot i um or Official ergot th e ,
—

r esting stag e of th e f u ngus C lav i ceps ,

.

T h e ergot f all s to t h e grou n d and i n th e f ollowing spring sprouts into s ev er al

stalk ed h ea ds E ach ( f rui ting) h ead or ascocarp h as i mb edd ed i n i t s s ur f ac e nu
.

m er ous fl a sk sh ap e d inv ag ina ti o ns call e d p er i th e c ia f rom th e b as e s of whi ch s ev er al

-

s acs or asci d ev elop Wi thin ea ch ascus are d ev elop ed eight fili for m Spor es ( a sco
.

spor es) whi ch wh en th e ascus ruptur es ar e disch arg ed an d ar e carr ied by th e wind
, ,

to oth er fields of gr ain th er e to b egin ov er a n ew life cycle

,
.

C L A SS III .
—
B A SI DI O M YCE T E S , OR B A S I DI A FU N G I

his large class of fungi including the smuts rusts mushrooms

T , , ,

gill and tooth fungi etc is characteri z ed by the occurrence of a basid

,
.
,

ium in the life history A basidium is the swollen end of a hypha .

consisting Of one or four cells and gi v ing rise to bra n ches c alled steri g
m ata each of which cuts Off at its tip a spore
, .

SU B -
C L SS A A .
—
PR O T OB ASI DI O MYCE T ES

( Basidi um f our c ell ed —

,
each c ell b earing a Spor e)

Ord e r I U sti l agi n al e s , the smuts D estructive parasit e s which

. .

attack the flowers of v arious c ere als occasionally other parts of thes e ,

plant s E x : U stilago M aydis the corn smut

. .
, .

O rd e r 2 U r e di n al e s , the rusts E x : P uccin ia g ram i ni s one of

. . .
,

the wheat rusts livi n g i n the i ntercellular spaces O f young wheat

, .
64 A
P H RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

L ichenesare ,like the F ungi divided into several sub groups A perfect
,
-
.

lichen usually consists of a thallus or vegetable apparatus ; apothecia , ,

or organs of f r u c tific ati on and Spermogonia or organs of fertiliz ation

, ,
.

DIVIS IO N II .
—
BRYOP HYT A

howing a b eginning of definite alternation of generation s

P lants S ,

i e gam etophyte ( sexual phase ) alternating with sporophyte ( asexual

. .
,

ph ase of developm ent) in their life history the two phases b eing com ,

bi n e d in one plant .

SU B D IVI SION I .
—
HE PA T I CZE O R LIV E RWORT S

of aquatic or terrestrial habit whose bo dies consist Of a rather

P lants
flat f u r chat e branching thallus or leafy branch which i s dorsiventral
,

( ha v ing distinct upper and lower surface ) ; the upper surface consists of
se v eral layers of cells containing chlorophyll which gi v es the green ,

color to the plants ; the lower surface gi v es origin to hair like out —

growths oi the epidermal cells ser v ing as absorpti v e parts and called
rhi z oids U pon the dorsal surface of this thalloid bo dy ( the gameto
.

phyte ) cup like structures are produced called cupul es which contain
-

special reproducti ve bo dies called gemm a these b eing able to develop ,

into new gametophytes T he sex organs are of two kinds m ale and
.
,

female T h e male organs are termed antheridia the female arche

.
, ,

gonia T he antheridia are more or less club shaped som ewhat stalked
.
—
,

o rgans consisting O f an outer layer of sterile cells investing a mass of

sperm m other cells from which are form ed the spira lly cur v ed bici liate
antherozoids or male sexual cells T h e archego nia are fl ask sh aped
,
.
-

organs consisting of an investing layer of sterile cells surrounding an

axial row of c ells the nec k canal cells ventral canal cells and th e
, ,

egg or female sexual cell E v ery cell Of the axial row breaks down
.

in the process of maturation with the exception of the egg which remains
in th e basal portion B ot h antheridia and archegonia generally arise
.

on special stalks above the dorsal surface A fter the egg is fertilized .

by an anthero z oid the young embryo resulting grows into a Sporo

,

gonium ( the sporophyte) consisting of a stalk portion partly im bedded

in the archegonium surmounting a sporangium or capsul e in which
spores are produced When mature the capsul e splits Open discharging
.

the spores T he spores on germination de v elop into a protonema or

.

filam entous outgrowth which later develops the thallus .

 MU SCI OR MO S SE S 65

O rder I M ar cha nti a

le s , including M archantia and Riccia
. .

O rder 2 Jungerm an i a les , the leafy liverworts includi ng P orella

.
,
.

O rder 3 A nth o cerotal e s having th e mo st complex sporophyte gen

.
,

e rati o ns am ong liverworts including A nthoceros and M egaceros , ,

.

SU B D IVI SIO N II .
—
M U SCI OR M OSSE S

P lants found on the ground o n rocks trees and in running water , ,

.

T heir life histories consist of two generations gametophyte and sporo ,

phyt e similar to the li v erworts but diff er from liverworts generally by , ,

the ever present diff erentiation of the gametophyte body into distinct
-

stem and simple le aves and the formation of the sexual organs at the
,

end of an axis Of a shoot T hey are either m onoecious when both ki nds
.
,

of s e xual organs are borne on the s am e plant or di oe ci ous in which case , ,

t h e antheridia and archegonia a rise on di fferent plants .

O rder I Sphag nal e s , or B og M osses including the simple genus

.
, ,

Sphagnum P ale mosses Of swampy habit whose upper extremities r e

.

p e at th eir growth periodically whil e their lower portions die away grad
ua lly a n d form peat hence their frequent nam e of P eat M osses
,
.

O r der 2 A ndr e aa l es , including the single genus A n dre aa a xero

.
,

phytic habit occurring on siliceous rock .

O r der 3 Brya les , or true mosses comprising the most hi ghl y e v ol v ed

.

typ e Of bryop hytes E x : P olytri c hu m Funaria Hypnum and M inium

. .
, , ,
.

LI FE HI S T ORY or P OLY T RICH U M C O MMU N E (A T Y P I CAL T R UE M o ss )

P oly tri chum commune i s q ui te commo n i n woods f ormi ng a carp et li k e cov ering ,
-

on th e grou nd b eneath t all t r ee c anop ies I t i s di oe ci ous th e pl ants b eing of two

.
,

kinds m al e a
,
nd f e m al e .

B eg inni ng wi th a spor e whi ch h as f all en to th e da mp soil w e n ote i ts b eg inni ng ,

o f growth ( g ermi na ti o n ) a s a gr ee n fil a m en tous body call e d a proto nem a T hi s .

proto nem a soo n b e com es br anch ed giving ris e to hair li k e outgr owths f rom i ts
,
—

lower porti o n c all ed rhi z oi ds and la t er al b uds abov e th es e whi ch grow into l eafy
st ems commo nl y k nown as moss plants ' A t th e tips of som e of th es e l eafy stems .

anth eri di a ( m al e s ex u a l org ans) ar e f orm ed whi l e on oth ers arch ego nia ( f emal e
s ex u al org ans) a r e f orm ed T h es e org ans a
. re surrou nd e d a t th e tips by d eli c a t e

h airy proc ess es call ed p ar aphys es as well as l eav es f or prot ecti o n T h e antheri dia .

b ear th e an th eroz oi ds th e arch egoni a th e eggs or ov a as i n th e li v erworts Wh en

, , ,
.

an ab u ndanc e of moi stur e i s pr es ent th e anth eroz oi ds ar e li b er a t ed f rom th e anth er

i dia swi m thr ough th e wa ter to an arch ego ni um and d escend th e neck canal one
, ,

f ertiliz ing th e egg by uni ting wi th i t T hi s compl et es th e s ex u al or g am etophyt e

.

g ener a ti o n T h e f er tili z ed e g no w undergo es di v isi o n u ntil an elo ng ated stalk

.
g

b earing upo n i ts summi t a capsul e i s fina l ly produc ed thi s b eing k nown a s th e spor o ,

6
66 P HA RMA CE U T I C A L B OT AN Y

go ni um T h e b as e of th e stalk r emains i mb edd ed i n th e b as al porti o n of th e arch e

.

go ni um a t th e tip of th e l eafy stalk and f orms a f oot or absorb ing proc ess I n .

growi ng upward th e Sporogo ni um ruptur es th e neck of th e arch ego ni um and c arr ies
i t upward as th e cov ering of th e capsul e or c alyp tra T h e c alyp tr a i s thr own off
,
.

b ef or e th e Sp or es ar e m a tur e d wi thin th e c aps ul e T he upp er p art of th e caps ul e

.

b ecom es co nv er t ed into a li d or op er cul um a t th e m argin of whi ch an annulus or

ring of c ells f orms T h e c ells of th e annulus ar e hygroscop i c and exp and at m a tur i ty
.
,

thro wing off th e li d and a l lowing th e Spor es to es cap e T h i s compl et es th e as ex ual

.

or sporophyt e g ener ati o n T he Spor es f all ing to th e cla mp soil g er mi na t e into

.

proto nem a ta thus compl eting th e lif e cy cl e i n which i s s een an altera tio n of g ener a
,

ti o ns th e two ph as es g ame tophy t e alt er nati ng wi th sp orophyt e

, ,
.

D IVI SION lII .

—
PT E RID OPHYT A

most highly developed cryptogam s showing a distinct alt er

T he
nation oi generations in their life history T hey di ff er from the .

B ryophytes in prese nting independent leafy vascular root b earing , , ,

-

sporophytes .

SU B DIVISIO N I —
. L Y COPOD IA LE S OR CLU B M OSSE S

Small perennial vascular dichotomously branched herb s with stems

,

thickly covered with awl shaped leaves T he earliest forms of vascular

-
.

plants diff ering from ferns in being comparatively simpl e in structure ,

of sm all size leaves sessile and usually possessing a single vein E xcept
, .

in a few instances the sporangia are borne on leaves crowded together ,

and forming cones or spikes at the ends of the branches Homosporous . .

FAMILY I L Y COP O DI A CE E including the single genus Lycopodium

.
,

with widely distributed species T he spores of Lycopodium clavatum

.

are official .

FAMI LY 2 SE L A G I N E LLA CE E in cluding the si n gl e genus Selaginella

.
, ,

with speci es for the greater part tropical P lants Similar in habi t to the .

Lyc opodi ace a but showing heterospory .

FAMI L Y 3 I S OE T A CE E
. in clu di ng the singl e genus Isoetes whose
,

species are plants with short and tub erous stems giving rise to a tuft of
branching roots b elow and a thick rosette of lo n g sti ff awl shaped ,
-

leaves above H eterosporous

. .

S U B DIVI SI ON I I .
—
E Q U ISET ALE S

( T he Hors e tails or S couring Rush es)

T he E quisetales ,
commonly known as the Horsetails or Scouring
rushes are perennial plants with hollow cylindrical j ointed and fluted , ,
 FI LI C A LE S 67

stems sheath like whorls of united leaves and terminal cone like fru e
,
- —

ti fic ati ons T heir bodies contain large amounts of silicon hence the
.
,

nam e sco uring rushes .

In som e varieties the fruiting cone is borne on the ordinary stem in ,

others on a speci al stem of slightly difl erent form In the latter the .

S pores are provided with elaters whi c h b eing hygroscopic coil and u n
, , ,

coil with increase or decrease i n the amount of moisture present thus ,

aiding in the ej ection of spores from the sporangia T h e numb er of .

species is small and included under one g enus E quisetum .

SU B DIVI SION III .

-
FILI CAL E S

T he group Filicales is the largest among th e vascular cryptogam s

and includes all the plants commo nl y known as Ferns T he mai n axis .

of a typical fern is a creeping underground stem or rhizome which at

its v arious nodes bears rootl ets below and fronds above T hese fronds .

are highly developed each be i ng provide d with a petiole like portion

,
—

called a stipe which is extended into a lamina usually showing a forked

venation Som e ferns possess lamin a which are lob ed each lob e being
.
,

called a pinna If a pinna be further divided its divisions are called

.
,

pinnules T he unfolding Of a frond is circinat e and it increases in length

.

by apical growth On the under surface of the lamin a pinn a o r

.
, ,

pinnul es m ay b e seen small brown patches each of which is call ed a

sorus and usually covered by a m embrane called the indusium E ach
,
.

sorus consists of a number of sporangia ( spore cases ) d eveloped from

epiderm a l cell s In som e ferns the entire leaf becomes a spore bearing
.
—

organ ( sporophyll ) M ost sporangia have a row of cells around the

.

m arg i n the whole b eing called the annulus E ach cell of the annulus
,
.

h as a U shaped thickened cell wall Water is present within these

-
.

cells and when it evaporates it pulls the cell wal ls together straightening ,

the ring and t e aring open the weak S ide T he annulus then recoils .

and hurls the spores out of the sporangium U pon coming in contact .

with damp earth each spore germinates producing a green septat e ,

filam ent called a protonema T his later b ecomes a green heart shaped
.
-

body called a prothallus It de v elops on its under surface ant h eridia

.

or m ale organs and archegonia or female organs as well as num erous

rhiz oids Within the antheridia are developed mo ti le sperm whil e
.
,

ova are produced within the archegonia T he many ciliat e sperms .

escape from the anth eridia of one prothallus during a wet season and
68 P HA RM A CE U T I C A L B OT AN Y

moving through the water are drawn by a chemot actic influence to

the archegonia of another proth allus pass down the nec k canals of ,

these and fu s e with the ova fertiliz ing them T he fert i liz ed egg or
,
.

FIG .
37 .
—
Dryopteri s fili x —
mas— Plan t se cti on through sorus .
(F rom S ayre )
.

oo spore di v ides and redivides and soon b ecom es di fferentiated into

stem bud first leaf root and foot T he foot obtains nourishm e nt
, , ,
.

from the prothallus until the root grows into the soil when it atrophies ,

and the sporophyte b ecom es independent U nequal growth and divi .

 SP E RM A T OP H Y T A 69

sion of labor continue until a highly di ff erentiated sporophyte results ,

the m ature fern plant '

'
.

CL AS S I . FILICI N E E OR T RU E FE RN S ( HOMOSP OROU S )

FAMI L Y P OLYP ODIA CE 1E .
—
Sporangia with annulus vertical and
incompl e te .

T h e rhi z omes of D ryopteris fili x mas and D ryopteris marginalis —

are o fficial in the U S P T he fibrov asc ular bun dles of these are con
. . .

centric in typ e b ut difl er from the concentric i v bundles of some mono . .

cotyledo ns i n that xylem is innermost and phloem surrounds the

xyl em .

CLASS 2 . H YDROP T E RI DIN E zE , O R WA T ER FE RN S ( HE T E R OS P ORO U S )

FAMIL Y SA LV ACE E flo a ting ferns wi th broad floating l eaves and
IN I ,

subm e rged dissect e d leaves which bear sporocarps E x : Salvi nia and . .

A zolla .

DIVIS ION IV .
—
S PE RM A T OP HYT A ( P HA N EROGA M IA )

P lantspro ducing real flowers and se eds . T he highest e v olve d

division of the vegetable k i ngdom .

SU B D IVISION I .
—
A N G IOSPE RM I A OR AN GI OSP E RM S

( P lan ts w i th cov er e d s eeds)

C LA S S A —
. M O N OCOT YL E DON S

A class of A ngi osper m i a characterized by the foll owing pe c u l

iari ti es :

One cotyledon or seed leaf in the embryo .

S tems endoge nous with closed collateral or concentric fibrov asc ula r

bundles which are scattered

,
.

L eaves generally para ll el veined .

Flowers trimerous ( having the parts of each whorl in 3 s or mul tipl e

’

thereof ) .

Se condary growth in roots generally absent .

M edull ary rays g e n erally absent .

70 PHA RMA CE U T I C A L B OT ANY

FAMI L Y r . A RACE E herbs with OR A RU M FA MILY —

P erennial
fleshy rhi z omes or corms and long petioled leaves containing an acrid
, ,

or pungent j uice Flowers crowded on a spadix which is usually

.
,

surrounded by a Spathe Fruit a berry Seeds with large fleshy . .

embryo .

Official dru g Pa
use d
rt B otani cal nam e
Cal a mus U np eel ed rhi z om e A cor ns cala mus
U n official
dru g
Skunk cabb ag e Rhiz om e Symplocarpus f ati dus
Indian turnip C orm A r i s am a triphyllum
FAMIL Y GRAMIN A CE E OR GRA S S FA MI LY M ostly herbs with
2 . .
—

cylindric hollow j ointed stems whose nodes are swollen T h e l eaves

,
.

are alternate with long split sheaths and a ligule Flowers g enerally
,
.

hermaphroditic and borne i n spikelets making up a spicate inflo rescence .

Lowest floral leaves of each spikelet are called glumes which ar e empty ,

and pa i red Fruit a caryopsi s or grain E mbryo with scutell um

.
,
. .

P art us B otani ca
ed l na me
Rhizom e A gropyro n r ep ens
Refined sug ar S accharum offic i n ar um
and S orghum sp ? .

M altum Seed p artially g ermina

, te d H ord e um disti chum
and dried
S tyl es an d sti gm as Zeam ays

F AMI L Y 3 . PA LME a
ropical or sub tropical
OR P ALM F AMI L Y .
—
T —

arborescent plants having unbranched trunks which are terminated by a

,

crown of lea v es in the axils of which the flowers are produced T he

, .

leaves are well developed with pinnate or palmate blades and a fibrous
sheathed clasping petiole Inflorescence lateral with small flowers .
.

Fruit a berry or drupe .

O ffi c ia
l dru g P art us e d B otani c al nam e
Sab al Frui t S er eno a s errul a t a
U noffici al
C oco anut oil Fix ed oi l C o c osnucif er a .

Carnaub a wax Wax f rom l eav es Coper ni c ac erif er a

A r eca nu t S eed A r eca Ca t echu

F A MI L Y 4 . LILI ACE E OR LI L Y FAMI LY .

—
Herbs with regular and
symm etrical almost always six androus flowers T he perianth is parted -

into six segments the calyx and c orolla being alike in color A nthers
, .

introrse Ovary three locular with a single style Fruit a capsul e or

.
-

berry .
 P HA RMA CE U T I CA L B OT AN Y

FAM IL Y 7 . GI N G E R FA MI LY T ropical plants

ZI N GIB E RACE E OR .
—
,

perennial herbs with fleshy rhiz om es and large elliptical pinn ately
veined leaves T he leaf sheaths are folded tightly around each other
.

so as to give the appearance of a stern Flowers zygomorphic .

,
.

O fficial drug Pa
rt u s ed B otanical nam e
Zingib er Rhi z om e Zingib e r ofli ci na le
Car dam om u m Frui t E l et tar ia r ep ens

CL A S S B —
D I COT YLE DON S
P lants having the following characteristics
T wo seed leaves ( cotyledons ) in embryo
—
.

N etted veined leaves .

Open collateral fibrov ascular bundl es radially arranged about pith ,

.

E xogenous stems .

M edul lary rays present .

Cambium .

Roots developing s econdary structure .

Flowers tetra or pentamerous ( parts of each whorl four or fi v e or ,

m ul tipl e thereof .

SU B -
A
CL S S A .
—
A RCH I CH LA MY DE E
.

T hose di cotyledonous plants in which the petals are dist i nct and
separat e from one another or are enti rely wanti ng T hat group of the .

A r chi chlam ydeawhose flowers S how the absence of petals and frequently
of sepals is called the A petal a T he group whose plants ha v e flowers .

sho wing the parts of their corolla (petals ) separat e and di stinct is called
the Chlori petala .

T h e A pe tala .

F AMI LY 1 . PIPE RA CE E family of aromatic

OR P E PP E R FAMILY .
-

A
herbs and shrubs with j ointed stems opposite verticillate or som e , , ,

ti mes alt ernate leaves without sti pules and spiked or racemose flowers , .

Offic ia
l dr ug P ar t u s e d B otanical na me
C ub eb a U nr ip e f r ui t Pip er C ub eb a
U nr ip e f rui t Pip er nigrum
M a ti co Leav es Pip er angusti f oli um
U no ffic ial
Methysti cu m Pi per m ethys ti c u m
 W I LL O W F AMI LY 73

F AM I L Y 2B E E CH FAMIL Y ( C upulifer a) A petalous

. FA G A C E /E OR .
—

trees or shrubs having alternate pinnately veined leaves monoecious ,

flowers the m ale in drooping am ents the female solitary clustered or

, , , ,

in scaly catkins Fruit a one celled one seeded nut T he beech oak
.
- -
.
,

and chestn ut are the principal genera

,
.

Ofli ci a
l dr u g Pa
rt u se d B otan i cal nam e
G all a E x cr escenc e Q u ercus inf ectoria
Cr eosot u m P roduct of di stil lati o n Fagus f erruginea
Q u ercus B a rk Fagus sylv a ti c a e tc ,
.

U n offi c ial Q u ercus alb a

Cast anea L eav es Cast anea d ent at a

T hecork of comm erce is Obtained from the bark of Q uercus Sub er

and Q uercus occidentalis plants indigenous to Spain and France ,
.

F AMIL Y 3 B E T U L ACE E OR B I RCH FA MI L Y A famil y of trees or

. .
—

shrubs disti nguished by monoecious flowers wi th sca ly bracts and

astringent r e sinous bark D iffers from Fagace a by superior o v ary
.

and absence of cupul e T O this famil y belong the ha z elnuts birches

.
, ,

alders the ironwood and the hornbean

, ,
.

Offic ial dr ug Pa
rt u
sed B otanical nam e
O l eum Betul a V ol atil e oil B etul a l ent a

FA MI L Y 4 JU G LA N DA CE zE A fam i ly of apetalous
exogenous trees —
. .

th e walnut family with alternate Odd pinnate leaves

—
and mon oecious -

flowers the steri l e in catkins the fertil e solitary or in a small cluster

, ,

or spike T h e fruit is a dry drupe with a bony nut Shell and a four
.
—

lob ed seed It embraces fiv e genera of which Cary ( Hicoria ) and

.
,

J u glans are r epresented in the U nited S tates a n d about 3 5 species , .

U n offici a
l dru g Pa
rt us ed B otani cal nam e
J ugl ans Root b ark J uglans ciner ea

F AM I L Y 5 .WI L LOW FA MIL Y A fam il y of apetalous

SA LIC A CE E OR .
—

S hrubs or trees the willow family havi ng alternate un divided lea v es

— —

and dioe cious flowers ( one to each bract) in catkins It embraces two .

gen e r a S ali x th e willows and P op u lu s the poplars and from 1 8 0

—
, , ,
—

to 3 0 0 species found chiefly in n orthern temperate and frigid regions

, ,

ther e being none in A ustralia or the South P aci fic islands .

Ofi c i a
l dr ug Pa
rt u se d B otani cal nam e
Sali ci n G lucosi d e S ev er a
l sp eci es of Sali x and
P opulus
74 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

FA MIL Y 6 . M YRI ST order of apetalous tr e es the

I C A CE JE .
—
An —

nutmeg family —
comprising the single genus M yri sti ca of about 8 0 ,

species .

M yri sti ca A large tropical genus O f fragrant apetalous trees

.
—

the nutmegs coextensive with the nutm eg fa m ily having alternate

-

, ,

entire often punctat e leaves small dioecious regular flowers and a

, , ,

succulent two valved one celled fruit with a solitary seed usually
,
- -

co v ered by a lancinate aril .

M fr agr ans a handsome tree 2 0 to 30 feet high O f the M alay

.
, , ,

archipelago supplies the nutmegs and mace of comm erce

,
.

Officia
l drug P art u sed B otani c al nam e
M yri sti ca Ker nel of s eed M yri sti ca fr agr ans
O l eum M yr i sti ca V olatil e oil M yri sti ca f r agr ans

F A MI L Y 7 . family of arom atic

LA U RA CE fE OR LA U RE L FA MI L Y .
—
A
'

tree s or shrubs with alternate coriaceous pellucid punctate l ea v es , ,

containing considerable v olatile Oil ; flowers polygamous each ha v ing ,

a calyx of four or six col o red s epals .

Official drug Pa
rt u s ed B otani cal nam e
C amphor a S t earopt en Cinna momum C a mphor a
Sassaf r as Bark of root Sa ssaf r as v ar ii f oli u m

Sass af r as M edulla Pi th Sass af r as v ar i i f oli u m

C innamomum Zeyla ni c u m Bark C i n namomum zeyla ni c u m

Ci nna momum Sai goni c u m Bark U n d et ermine d sp e cies o f

cinnamo n
Ol eum Cinnamomi V ola til e Oil C innamomum cassia
U noffi c ial
D r i mys
wint eri
Laurus nob ili s

FA MI L Y 8 . M YRI CA CE ZE
B A YB E RRY FA MI L Y A family of e v er ,
OR .
—

green O r deciduous apetalous mostly dioe cious shrubs an d trees i n

, ,

cluded within the single genus M yrica Flowers in mostly single ,

.
,

seldom closely set aments leaves single occasionally ( M yrica aspleni , ,

folia ) pinnately cleft Fruit a w axy drupe .

, .

T he outer waxy layer Of the fruit is used in m aking a superior candle

while an infu s ion or fluid extract of the bark and leaves is used as a
specific in vario us a ffections of the mucous m embranes diarrhoea , ,

dysentery etc ,
.

FAMIL Y 9 P U LYG ON A C E JE O R B U C K W H E A T FA MIL Y

. A petalous .
—

'

herbs shrub s or rarely trees with alternate entire lea v es the s ti pules
, , ,
 E LM F AMI L Y 75

fo rm ing a sh e ath abov e the swollen joints of the stem ; flow e rs sm all ,

and with a two to S i x parted perianth ; fruit an angled ak ene

—

, .

O fficial dru g P ar t us ed B otanica l name

R h e um O fli ci nale
Rh e um Rhiz om e Rh e um p alm at um an d
th e v ar ie ty t anguti cum
U n offic ial
Rum ex Rum ex cri spus

FAMIL Y 1 0 . P H YT
famil y of apetalous trees shrubs
OL A CC A CE E —
A , ,

or woody herbs the pok eweed family with alternate entire leaves
— —

and flowers resembling those of the g oosefoot family ( Chen opodi acece) ,

but diff ering in having the s everal celled o v ary composed of carp els -

united in a ring and f o rming a b erry in fruit It embraces 2 1 genera

, .
,

and 55 species tropical and sub tropical

,
—
.

Offic ia
l dr ug Part u s ed B otani cal nam e
P hytol a cc a Root P hytol a cca d ecandr a

FA MIL Y 1 1 . CH E N OP ODI A CE E
family of mor e or less succul ent .
—
A
apetalous annual or perennial herbs the goosefoot fam i ly with — —

usually alternate exstipul ate lea v es and minut e gr e enish flower s It .

embraces about 8 0 genera and over 50 0 species amo ng them b eing ,

s e v eral garden v egetables and an um ber of w e eds .

Officia
l dru g P art us ed B otani ca
l nam e
Ol e um Ch e nopo dii V ol atil e oi l Ch enopodi um anth elm inti cum
Sa cch arum Refined sug ar B e ta v ulg ari s

F AMIL Y 1 2 . OL O CH I A CE E
small family of ap etalou s
A RI S T .
—
A
plants the birthwort family chi efl y climbers or twiners and tropical
— —

with irreg ular dingy O ften o ff ensively sm elling flowers T h ere are
, ,
.

five gen e ra and about 2 0 0 species .

Offi c ia
l dru g P art used B otani c al nam e
A r i stolochi a s erp entar i a
S erp en tari a Rhi z om e and roots
A ri stolochia r e ti c ul ata
U n ofli c i al
A s arum Rh iz om e and roots A s arum cana dens is

FAM IL Y 1 3 . U L M A CE /E OR E L M FA MIL Y
trees indigenous —
Forest
to the temperate and tropical z one s characteri z ed by b eing woody ,

pl ants with pi n n ately veined leave s and caducous stipul es and without
,
76 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

milky j uice T heir flowers are unisexual or herm aphroditic with

.
Si x

or four parts to the perianth Fruit a samara .

,
.

O fli ci a
l dru g Part us ed B otani cal nam e
U lmus Inner b ark U lmus f ul v a

F A MI L Y 1 4 . M ORA C E ZE OR M U LB E RRY FA MIL Y .

—
M ostly shrubs or
trees rarely herbs perennials with small axillary clustered or solitary
, , , ,

unisexual flowers v ariously colored ; leaves o v ate with serrate m argin

,

and ha v ing caducous stip ul es ; fruit an akene enclosed bv the perianth .

M ilky j uice present .

Offici a
l dr ug Pa
rt us e d B otani c al nam e
C annab i s Indi ca Flower ing tops of p i stil Cannab i s sa ti v a
l at e pl an t
Frui t Fi cuscari ca
S trob il e H um ul us lupulus
G l andul ar tr i chom e H umulus lupul us

F A MIL Y 1 5 . vast group of

E U P H O RB IA C E ZE OR SP U R G E FA MI L Y .
-

A
apetal o us trees shrubs or herbs m ainly natives of warm countries
, , ,

with milky acrid juice normally alternate entire leaves ; fruit a three
, , ,

locular capsule containing seed s with 0 i endosperm Som e plants .

furnish rubber .

O fli c i al drug B otani cal nam e

E lasti ca H ev ea sp e cies
S tillingi a S tillingia sylv ati ca
O l eum Ri ci ni Ri cinus com m u n u s
Ol eum T i gli i C roto n tigli um
U n ofl‘i c i al
Casc ari lla Croto n e lu t er i a
T ap i oca M anih ot uti lissim a
K amal a M allotus phi li pi nensi s

T h e Ch lori pe tala (P olype tala)

Fl o wer sha v e b o th calyx and corolla the latter being composed Of ,

distinct petals .

FA MIL Y 1 6 M A G N OL I A CE E O R M A G N OLI A FAMI L Y T rees and

. .
—

S h r ubs ha v ing alternate lea v es and single l a rge flowers with calyx and
corolla colored alike Sepals and petals deciduo u s anthers adnat e
.
,
.

P istils an d stamens num erous B ark ar omatic and bitter . .

Offic ial
dru g P art us ed B otani cal nam e
Ol eum ani si V olati l e oi l Illi ci um v erum
 C A S H E W FA M I L Y 77

FAMIL Y i 7 RO SA CE ZE A family of polypetalous plants the

. .
— —

ros e famil y with alternate simple or c ompound stipulate leaves and

—

reg u lar flowers with usually num ero us distinct stam ens inserted on th e
urn S haped calyx It embrac es 8 0 genera and nearly 2 0 0 0 species
-

.
, ,

found in all parts of the world .

T re es shrubs and a few herbs

,
T h e flowers bear comparatively .

m any petals T he fruits vary greatly and m ay b e fleshy an akene

.
, ,

b erry or a drupe M any of th e fruits are edible . .

Offic ia
l dr ug B otani c a
l na me
O l e um R os a Rosa d a m ascena
A mygd ala A mar a P run us amygdalus v ar ie ty a mar a
A mygd al a D ulci s P ru nus a mygdalus v ariety dulci s
P ru n us Vir giniana P ru nus s erotina
Rub us Rubus vill osus R c unei f ol i us
,
.
,

and R ni grob a ccus

.

Bark Q uill ajas apo naria

P ani cl es of p i still at e Hag eni a abyssi n i c a
flo wers
P e tals Ros a g alli ca

P runus l aur oc er asus

C ydo nia vulg ar i s

FA MILY 1 8 . A N A C A R DI A C E E
family of ,
OR C A S H E W FA MI L Y .
—
A
ch lori pe talo u s trees or shrubs with res i nous acrid m i lky juice alternate , , , ,

leaves sm all flowers and a mostly drupaceous fruit E xhalations of

, ,
.

m any m embers frequently poisonous e specially from the Rhus v ene

n ata and R T oxicodendron ( P oison I v y )
,
. .

Ofli ci a
l drug P art
used B otani cal nam e
M as ti ch e Resinous ex ud ati o n Pi sta cia l en ti scus
Rhus glabr a F rui t Rhus gl abr a
U n offi cial
Rhus T oxi cod endro n Rhus toxi cod endro n
Rhus A rom a ti ca Rhus aroma ti ca

FA MIL Y 1 9 . RA N U N CU L A CE E
order of herbaceous or woody .
—
An
plants the crowfoot or buttercup fam i ly with radical or alternate
— —

p almately vei n ed lea v es and terminal racemose or panicled flower , , ,

clusters the flowers r e gul ar or irreg ul ar with all parts distinct and u n
, ,

connected T her e are 30 genera and 1 3 50 species

. .

M edium si z ed shrubs or herbs with acrid jui ces Fruit is an akene

-
.
,
78 PH A RM A CE U T IC A L B OT A N Y

po d or berry C hi e fly temperate or co ld climate s S eeds contai n

. .

albuminous matter .

Ofli ci a l drug Pa r t us e d B otanica l nam e

Hydr asti s Rhiz om e and roots Hy drasti c canad ensi s
A co ni tum T ub erous root A co ni tum nap ellus
S taphi sagria S ee d D elphini um St aphi sagria
Ci mi cif uga Rhiz om e and root Cimi ci f ug a r ac emosa
U n official
A ne mo ne p uls ati l a
P uls atill a E ntir e h erb
A ne mo ne pr a t ensi s
l
C opti s E ntir e h erb C op ti s tr if olia
Hell eborus Rhiz om e a n d roots H ell eborus nig er
A do ni s E ntir e h erb A do nli s v er nali s

FAMIL Y 20 . LE G U MIN OS E v ast family of polypetalous herbs

.
—
A ,

shrubs and trees the bean family with alternate st ipulate usually
— —

, ,

compound leave s and papilionaceous or som etim es regul ar flow e rs with ,

usually I O m onadelphous diadelphous or rar ely distinct stame ns and

, , ,

a simple pistil b ecom i ng generally a legum e in fruit It embraces three .

well marked groups 2 4 tribes 4 2 7 genera and 7 0 0 0 species

-

, , ,
.

Officia l dru g P art u s e d B otanica l nam e

A ca cia G ummy ex ud ati o n A cacia Se n eg al and oth er sp e cies
T r agacantha G ummy ex udati o n A str agalus gum m i f er an d oth er
sp ecie s
Balsamum P eruvia num Balsa m T ol uif er a p er eir a
B alsamum T olu tanum B alsam T ol ui f er a Balsamum
Ham atox ylon H eartwood Ham atox ylon c am pec hi anu m
Santalum R ubrum H eartwood P t erocarp us s a nt a li nu s
G lycyrrhi z a gl abr a
G lycyrrh iz a Rh iz om e and root
G lycyrrhiz a gl an dul i f er a
C assia acutif olia
Cassia angustif olia
Cassiafist ul a
T amari ndus indi ca
C op aib a sp ecie s
V o ua ca pou aar arob a
P hysostigma v e nenosu m
P t erocarpus M arsup i um
Cy ti sus S cop a r i us

T rigonell a f oenu m graCu m

-

P i sci dia erythr ina

Indigof er a tinctoria
T ri fol i um pr a t ens e
D ipt eryx odor at a
80 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

FA MI L Y 2 6 . small family of tropical A m erican

C AN E LL A CE E .
—
A
p olypetalous aromatic trees the canella family with alternate ex
,
— —

stipulate entire leaves and axillary cymos e perfect flowers It em

, , ,
.

braces two genera Canellaand Ci nnam odendr on and about f our species
, ,
.

U n official dru g Pa
rt us e d B otani ca
l nam e
C anell ac ortex Canell a alb a

FAMIL Y 2 7 . fam ily of polypetalous shrubs or tre es

C ORN A CE ZE .
—
A
the dogwood or come] fami ly of all parts of the world with usually —
,

alternate coriaceous entir e leaves and terminal or axillary cymose clus ,

ters of sm all flowers It embraces I 5 genera and 8 0 species

. .

U n offic ial dru g Pa

rt us e d B otanical nam e
C ornus Bark C or nus fl ori da

FAMIL Y 2 8 . fam i ly of tre es or shrubs the

T H YME LE A CE ZE .
—
A ,

spurge laurel or m ez ereum family having very tough bark opposite , ,

entire lea v es an d sm all perfect regular flowers , ,

.

Offic ia
l dru g Pa
rt us ed B otani cal nam e
M ez ere um B ark D aph n e M ez er eum

F AMIL Y 9 GE RA N I A CE E
2 . A family of polypetalous herbs shrubs .
—
,

or trees the geranium family usually with lobed or dissected leaves

— —

and axillary peduncles Of Often showy perfect flowers It embraces ,

.

se v en tribes 2 5 genera and about 98 0 species widely sc attered in tem

, , ,

perate and sub tropical regions -

O fficial dr ug P a
rt u s e d B otani cal nam e
G er ani um Rhiz om e G er ani u m m acul a tum

FA MI L Y 3 0 . HA MA ME LI DA C E ZE
family of polypetalous shrubs or .
—
A
trees the witch ha z el family with alternate simple lea v es two
— — —
,

deciduous stipules and heads or spikes of monoecious or polygamous

,

flowers It includes 1 9 genera and about 40 species

. .

T he leaves and twigs contain highly arom atic volatile O ils .

O fficialdrug P art us ed B otanic al nam e

Ham am eli di s f oli a L eav es Ha ma m eli s v ir g iniana
Ham am eli di s cort ex Bark and twigs Ham am eli s v irginiana
S tyrax B alsam Liq ui d amb ar orien t ali s

FA M I L Y 3 1 . LI N A CE /E .
—
A famil y of polypetalous herbs shrubs or , ,

rarely trees —
the flax family —
with alternate simple and usually entire
 P A S SI FL ORA CE JE 81

le aves and regular symmetrical h ypogynous flowers which are four

, , ,

t o fiv e m emb ered thro u ghout the petals blue yellow or white an d

-

, , , ,

fugacious It embraces 1 5 genera and ab out 2 3 5 specie s distributed

.
,

over the world .

Offic ia
l dru g B otani cal nam e
Linum L inum usi t ati ssi mum

FA M I L Y 3 2 . GU T
family of polypetalous trees or shrubs
T I FE RZE r -

A
—
the gamboge family with resinous j uice opposite coriaceous leaves
—

, , ,

and terminal or axillary clusters of regular dioecious flowers It em .

braces 2 6 genera and about 3 7 0 species all nati v es of the tropics ,

.

Ofii c i al dru g Pa
rt us e d B otani cal nam e
C am bogi a G um r esin Garcinia h anburii
F A MI L Y 33 M A LV A CE E O R M A L L ow FA MI L Y A family of chlori
. .
—

p etalous herbs shrubs or trees abounding in mucil age and usually

, ,

with the ab o v e ground portion covered with trichom es ; the leaves are
-

alternate an d palm ately ner v ed ; the flowers reg ul ar the corolla beau ,

t i f ully c olored funnel or bell shaped stam ens mo n adelphous ; fruit a

,
—
,

several celled pod

-
.

Offic ia
l dru g B otani cal n am e
A lth a
ea A lth a
aaofli c i n ali s
G o ssypii C ort e x G ossyp i um h erb ac eum
G ossyp i um P ur i fic atu m G ossyp i um h erb ac e um
Ol eum G ossypii se m i ni s G ossyp i um h erb ac e um

FA MI L Y 3 4 A CE E
. P A P AV
A fam i ly of polypetalous plants
ER .
—

the poppy family usually with milky or colored juice alternate ex

—

stipulat e lea v es and l o ng one flow er e d peduncles the flowers usually

,
—
,

with two caduco u s sepals and four cruciate petals It embraces .

ab out 2 0 genera an d 8 0 species .

H erbs or low shrubs with m ilky or colored narcotic j uices Flowers ,

.

showy Fruit usually a m any sided caps ul e T emperate and tropical

.
-

regions .

Offic ial drug Pa

rtus ed B otani cal nam e
Op i um C o ncr e t e milk y ex uda t e P ap av er som ni f erum
Sang ui naria Rh iz om e Sangui na r ia c ana d en si s

FA MIL Y 3 5 . f amily of polyp etalous shrubs

P A S S I FL ORA CE E .
—
A ,

trees or rarely herbs the passion flower family often climbin g with
,
— - —

altern at e palm ately lob e d or compoun d leav es and solit ary or r acemose
, ,
82 PH ARM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

ofte n handsome flowers with five monadelphous stamens It embraces

,
.

fi v e tribes 2 7 genera an d 2 3 5 species all tropical or sub tropical

, , ,
-
.

U n offi c ial dru g Part u se d B otani cal nam e

P ap ain Cari ca p ap aya
Passi fl or a Pas si flor ainc ar na t a

FAMIL Y 3 6 . M E N I SPE RMA CE /E ,

OR M O ON SE E D FA MI LY .
—
Chlori
petalous woody climbing tropical plants with alternate simpl e leaves ;
,

flowers green to white ; fruit a one seeded succul ent drupe T h ey —

.

usually contain tonic narcotic or poisonous bitter principles

,
.

Official drug P art us ed B otani cal nam e

C alumb a Ja teorhiz a p alm ata
P ar eir a C ho n dod en dro n tom en tosum
U n officia
l

Fru i t A nami r t ap ani cul ata

Rhiz om e an d roots M eni sp erm um c ana d ens e

FA MIL Y 3 7 . M YRT trees or

A C E fE O R M YR T LE F AMI LY —
E v ergreen
shrubs of warm er climates with Opposite entire exstipulate leaves of an
, ,

elliptical shape and having a vein running close to the margin A ll the .

organs pro v ided with roundish glands containing hydrocarbo n prin

c i ple s giving them an arom atic odor
, F lowers with imbricate calyx .

lobes numerous stam ens and an inferior ovary

, .

Offic i a
l drug Pa
rt us ed B otani c a
l nam e
E uc alyptus E ucalyptus globul us
E ucalyptol E ucalyp tus glob ulus
C aryophyll us E ug enia aroma ti ca
E ug en ol E ug enia arom a ti ca
P i m en t a P i m ent a ofli ci nali s
U n offi cial
M yrcia V ol atil e oil and l eav es M yrcia a cri s
FA MIL Y 38 . P O L Y GA L A CE /E
family of polypetalous herbs .
—
A ,

shrubs or rarely small trees the milkwort family having alternate

,
— —

simple entire leaves and irregular hypogynous flowers with four to eight
diadelphous or monadelphous stamens .

Officia
l dr ug Pa
rt us ed B otani cal nam e .

S eneg a P olyg ala Seneg a

FA MI LY 39 . RU T
A CE E O R RU E FA MI LY A fam i ly of pellucid .
—

punctate polypetalous woody plants rarely herbs ha v ing ex stipulate

, ,

opposite simple or compound lea v es and v ariously shaped i nfl or e sc enc e s

,
84 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

or yellow flowers It emb races . 1 8 genera and 1 1 0 species mainly tr op

,

ical in distributio n .

Offic ial dru g P art us e d B otani cal nam e

f G ui ac u m Oflfici n ale
G u i ac u m Resin
l G ui ac u m s an ctum

FA M I L Y 44 T E R N S T RO E MI A CE E
. A family O f polypetalous trees .
—

or shrubs the tea or cam ell i a family having alternate simple leaves
— —

and Often large showy m ostly fiv e part ed flowers with num erous
, ,
-

stam en s It embraces 4 1 genera and 3 1 0 species nearly all n atives

.
,

of the tropics .

Ofii c i al drug P ar t
us e d B otani cal nam e
Cafl ei n a Feebly b asi c principl e h ea chinen si s
'

FA MI L Y 4 5 . SAP IN DA CE E
family of polypetalous trees or shrubs .
—
A
the s oapberry family ha v ing alternate Often e v ergreen compound
-

, ,

leaves and small unsymm etrical odorless fl o wers with eight stam ens
,
.

It embraces 1 2 2 genera and 9 50 species m ainly tropical , ,

.

Official dr ug P art
us e d B otani cal na m e
G uar ana Pa ste of crush ed s eeds P a ullinia C up ana

FA M I L Y 4 6 ST E RCU LI A CE E A family of polypetalous shrubs or —

trees~th e cola nut or sterculia family

. .

—
having usually opposite —

single or three to nine foliate lea v es and a variously shaped i nfl ores

,
—

cence of reg ul ar perfect flowers with frequently monadelphous stam ens

havi ng two celled anthers
-

Offi cial dru g Pa

rt u s ed B otani c al nam e
O l eum th eo bro m ati s Fixed oi l T h eobroma Ca ca o
U n official
C ol a acumina ta

F A M IL Y 4 7 . U MB E LLI F E RJE OR PA RS LE Y FA MIL Y .

—
A family of
pol ypetalous herbs or shrubs characteri z ed as follows :
Inflorescence an umbel ( simple or compound) of small flowers each
, , ,

with five petals and five stam ens and ovary two celled inferior calyx -

, ,

adnate to o v ary .

Fruit a cremocarp consisting of two seed li k e dry carpels or m eri

, ,
—

carps which often separate when fruit is ripe E ntire plants possess .

arom atic volatil e oils .

 RU B I A CE E 85

Offi cial dru g Pa

rt u se d B otani c a
l nam e
A ni sum Ri p e f r ui t P i mp i nell a A ni sum
Foeni culum N early rip e f rui t Fa sni c ul u m vulg ar e

S umbul Rhiz ome a n d roots U nd et ermined

C arum Frui t C arum C arv i
C o ni um U nrip e f rui t C o ni um ma cul atum
A s af oe ti d a G u m r esin Ferula f oe ti da
C or iandr um Rip e f ru i t C oriandrum s a tiv um
U n offic ial
A ng eli ca archang eli ca
A p i um p e tros eli n u m
A p i um gr av eol ens
D or em a A mmo niacum

FA MIL Y 4 8 . E RYT shrubs or trees

H ROX YLA CE [EL —
Chlor i pe talou s
with small z ygomorphic flo w ers exhibiting a fiv e lobed calyx ,fi v e petals -

I O hypogynous stamens and a superior ovary ; fruit a drupe Indige .

nous to torrid and temperat e z ones .

O ffi cial dru g Pa

rt us ed B otan ical nam e
E rythroxylo n C oca
Leav es
l E rythroxylo n T r ux ill ense
FA M I L Y 4 9 VI T A CE /E OR GRAP E FA MIL Y Ch lori petalou s shrubs
. .
—

with abundant watery sap whose stem s climb by m eans of tendrils

,

O pposite th e lea v es ; fl o wers hypogynous ; fruit a berry .

O ffi c ial dru g P arted us B otanic a l n am e

Vinum A lbum Ferm ent ed j ui ce of f rui t Vi ti s vini fer a
Vinum R ubrum F erm en t ed j u i c e of f r ui t Vi ti s v ini fera
i n pr es enc e of th ei r skins .

FAMIL Y 50 . A T E FA MIL Y Chl ori pe ta

P U N I CA CE E ,
OR P OME G RA N .
—

lous tre e s of small siz e with Opposite ovate lanceolate entire leaves -

, ,

scarl e t recepta cle calyx and corolla ; fruit an edible berry with hard
'

rind .

Officia
l dr ug P art us e d B otani cal nam e
G ranatum B ark of stem an d root P u ni ca G r anatum

SUB -
C LA SS B . SY M PE T A LE GAMOP E T AL E
di v i sion of di cotyledonous plants i n which the flowers possess both
A
calyx and corolla the latter with petals more or less united into one
,

piece .

F A MIL Y I RU B I A C E E
. A larg e family of gam o petalous trees
.
—

shrubs or herbs the M adder family with simple opposite or whorled

,
— —
86 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

leaves connected by int erposed stipul es and p erfect often dimorp h ous
, , , ,

flow ers It embraces 2 5 trib es 3 7 5 genera and 4 50 0 species in all parts

.
, ,

of the world .

U sually contain valuabl e alkaloids .

Offi c ial dr ug P art u s ed B otani cal nam e

C in cho na ofli ci na li s
Cincho na B ark j Cinchona C ali s ay a
l Cincho na l edg eri an a ari d hybri ds ,

B ark Cincho na su cci r ubr a

f C ep hali s Ip ec a cu anh a
Root
l C ephaeli s acumina ta
E x tr a ct O ur oup aria G amb ir
Feebly b asi c substanc e C o ff ea ar ab i c a

FAMI L Y 2 . C ON V di spersed family of

OLV U LA CE JE .
— ~
A large wi delv
gamopetalous chiefly cl i mbing herbs rarely shrubs or trees the con
, ,
—

v olvulus or bindweed family with alternate leave s and showy pen —

ta m erou s axillary flowers It embraces about 3 6 genera and 8 7 0 species

. .

C ontains milky juice s .

B otani cal nam e

E x ogo ni um P ur ga
C o nvolv ulus S ca mmo nia

FA MIL Y 3 VALE RI AN A CE AE A family of gamopetalous herbs

. .
—

the v alerian family ha v ing Opposite exstipulate leaves and cym es of

—

small Oft en irregular flowers with stam ens fewer than the corolla lob e ,

and inserted on its tube T here ar e nine genera and 2 7 5 species. .

V a ler i ana the type gen us distinguished by its triandrous flow ers i n
, , ,

clu d es the co m mon or o ffi cial v alerian .

Official drug Pa
ed
rt us B otan i cal nam e
Val eriana Rhiz om e an d roots Valeriana offici nali s

FAM IL Y 4 . SA P O T A CE E the .
~A fam i ly of ga m opetalous plants —

star apple or the sapodilla family b ei ng mainly trees or shrubs with

— —

milky juice alternate leathery lea v es and large flowers with perfect
, ,

stam ens It embraces 3 8 genera and 4 0 0 species all natives of the

.
, ,

w arm er cou ntri es .

A n important resin produci n g fam i ly —

.

U n official drug P ar t
used B otani cal nam e
G utta —
p ercha C o ncr e t e ex ud ati o n P al aqu i um gutta
88 PH ARM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

northern hemisphere having opposite lob ed or odd pinnate lea v es the

,
-

inflorescence usually cymose with perfect regul ar or irregular flowers ,

and a baccate or drupaceous fruit It includes 1 3 genera and about 2 0 0 .

species the honeysuckle V iburnum elder etc

, , , ,
.

O ffic ial
dru g Part used B otani cal nam e
Viburnum Opulus Bark Viburnum Opulus
f Viburn um prunif o li um
V i bur num P r uni foh u m Bark Vibur num lentago

Flowers Sambucus ca na densis

FA MI L Y Io .family of gamopetalous frequently

SO L A N A CE ZE .
—
A ,

narcotic poisonou s plants the nigh tshade family having col o rless
,
— —

juice alternate simple leaves regular pentam erous and pentandrous

, ,

flower s and many seeds It embraces 7 2 genera and 1 7 50 species

.
, ,

found in all warm countries particularly A merica S olan zm z the type

,
.

'
,

genus include s S tu ber osu m the cultivated p otato ; S M elongen a the

,
.
,
.
,

egg plant ; S ni gr u m the black nightshade ; S Du lcam ar a the bitter

-

.
,
.
,

sweet ; S C ar oli nen s e the Ho r s e N ettle

.
,
.

Official dr ug P art u se d B ota n i c al n am e

B ell a donna F oli a Leav es A trop a Bell a do nna
B e ll adonna aRa dix Root A trop a Bell a do nn a
Str amoni um L eav es D atur a Str a mo ni um
Hyoscy amus L eav es and flower Hyoscy amus nig er
Scopol a Rhiz om e S copol a C ar ni oli ca
C apsi cum Frui t C apsi cum f a s ti g i atu m

U n offi c ial
D ul camar a S olan um dulc am ar a
D uboi sia D ubo i sia m yOp or oi de s
T ab acum N i c o ti an at ab a cum

FAMIL Y I I . CA MP A N U LA C E E
gamopetalous herbs .
~A family of

the bellwort family of nor thern temperate regions with alternate

—

simple l eaves and regular blue or white b ell shaped fiv e parted flowers - -

embracing 53 genera ( including the Lobel zaceae) and a thousand species

’

Offic ial dru g us e d P art B otan i cal na m e

L ob elia Le av es and flow ering tops L ob el i ai n fl ata

FA M I L Y I 2f amily of g am opetalo u s t r e e s s h r ub s
. E RI CA CE ZE —
A
or perennial herbs~th e heath f am i ly~ wi th commonly altern ate u m
.
, ,

divided often evergreen leaves v ariously shaped clusters of sym m e t

, ,
 MI N T F A MI L Y 89

al tetramerous or pentamerous flowers and capsul ar baccate

ri c
, ,
or dru
pac eo u s fruit T hey are natives of temperate or cold climates
.
.

L ea v es
have a bitter astringent taste due to glucosides . B lossoms
bell shaped or w en shaped
- —
.

Offi cial dr ug P art us ed B o ta

ni c al nam e
C h i maphi l a C hi m aphilaumb ell at a
U V aU rsi A rctostaphylos U v aU rs i
Ol e um G a ulth eria G a ulth er ia procumb ens

FA M I L Y I 3 . OL E A CE zE
family of gamopetalou s erect or climb .
—
A
ing shrubs trees or rarely herbs the olive family with O pposite
, ,
— —

simple or pinnate l eaves and perfect or unisex u al flo wers with four lobed -

calyx four cleft corolla and two or rarely four free stamens It em ~
,
-

, .

braces 1 9 genera and ab o ut 3 0 0 species distributed over the warm

, ,

or temperate regions of the world .

P art us e d B otani cal nam e

Fixed oi l O l ea europ ea
Sa cch ar ine ex uda te Fr axinus or nus

FAM I L Y I 4 . SCR OP H U LA RI A CE JE
fam i ly of gamopetalous plants .
—
A
—
the figw or t
family c hi efl y herbs with v arious form s of lea v es and
—

inflorescence the fl ower s distinguish e d by ha v ing a persistent fiv e

,

lobed calyx and a two lipped corolla with four didynamous stamens -

and often one staminode inserted on its tub e and the fruit atwo ,

celled usually m any seeded capsule with axil e placent a

,
e -
It embraces .

1 66 gen era and more than 2 0 0 0 species C ontains bitter acrid

, .
, ,

poisonous principles .

P art u s ed B otani c al na me
L eav es D ig i t ali s p urpur ea
Rhiz om e and roots Vero ni ca v irgini ca .

L eav es Verb ascum thapsus

F A MI L Y I 5 . L AB IA T zE O R M IN T FA MIL Y .
~A cosmopolitan family
'

of symp e talous herbs rarely shrubs with quadrangular stems opposite

, , ,

or whorled aromatic lea v es and u s ually thyr s oid or vertic i llate clusters ,

of flower s each with a two lipped corolla didynamous or diandrous

,
—
,

st amen s and a four lobed o v ary A ll of the members of this family

,
—
.

are rich in volatil e Oils .

90 PH A RM A CE U T IC AL B OT AN Y

Pa
rt u se d B ota n i c al na me
L eav es Sa lvia Ofli ci n a li s
D r ied pl ant S cut ell aria lateri fl or a
L eav es and flowering tops M arrub i um vulg ar e
L eav es a nd flowering tops H e d eo m a p ul eg i oi d es

L eav es a nd flow er ing tops M en th a Sp i c a t a

L eav es a nd flo wering tops M enth a p ip eri t a

V olati l e oil f rom l eav es and T hymus v ul g ari s

flo wering tops
O l eum R osm ar ini V ola ti l e oil f rom fr esh Rosm arin us ofli c i na li s
flowering tops
O l eum L a
v end ula
: Flor u m V olatil e oi l f rom f r esh La v en dulaofli ci na li s
flow ering tops

L ea v es an d tops M eli ss a offic i n ali s

H erb Ori g anum m aj or ana

FA MIL Y 1 6 . family of gamopetalous trees or shrubs

ST YRA CE ZE .
—
A
—
the storax f am i ly h av i n g alternate simple lea v es and u sually white
fi

racemed flowers with a corolla of four to eight more or less united

petals It embraces seven genera and 2 3 5 species natives of all parts
.
,

of the world .

Official dru g P art

u sed B otani cal nam e
B enzoi nu m B alsa mi c r esin S tyr a
x Benz oin
FA MIL Y I 7 . largest famil y of plants embracing
COMP OS IT E .
—
T he
8 3 5 genera and over
,
sp ecie s A family of gamopetalous herbs .
,

shrubs and rarely trees found in all parts of the world having their ,

flower s in a head or capitulum on a common receptacle surmounted ,

by an in v olucre with five ( rarely four ) stamens inserted on the carolla

, ,

their anther s syngenesious

, C alyx tub e crowned by a pappus i n the
.

form of bristles teeth or scales etc, C orolla either ligulate or tubular

, . .

In the perfect flowers a two cleft style i s present Fruit an akene

-

.
, .

T h e plants of this family contain i nulin a substance isom eric with ,

starch .

B otani cal nam e

A nth emi s nob ili s
A r ni c a mon t ana
M atri caria C ha momill a
C al en dul a ofli ci nali s
A rcti um l app a .

A nacyclus Pyr ethru m

T a r axacum ofli c i nale
92 P H A RM A CE U T I C A L B OT A N Y

pharmaceutic importance T his the largest group of Gym nosperms

.
, ,

includes the pines firs spruces hemlocks j unipers b alsams cedars

, , , , , , ,

and arbor v it a
e T h e f ollowing Gymnospermous plants yield pro ducts
.

of pharm aceutic and m e dici nal value

FI G .
38 .
—
I n flor esc enc e s th e p ine r T er m i nal twi g ; 2 ovulate co ne ;
of . .
'

.
3 .

stam ina te cone ; 4 two year old cone (F rom Ham aker )
.
- —
. .

B otani cal nam e P roducts

Pinus str o bus Whi t e p ine b ark
‘

Pinus p a lustri s
Pinus gl abr a
Pinus echi nata T u rp entine rosin and t ar
,

Pinus t a e da a nd

oth er sp ecies of Pinus J

A b ies b als a m ea B als am of fir
L ar ix d eci du a Veni ce turp entine
Pi c ea ex c elsa ( A b ies ex c els a) B urgu ndy p i tch
T s uga occi d en tali s V ola til e oi l
J unip erus Oxycedrus Oi l of ca d e
J uniperus commu ni s J unip er b erries and vol atil e oi l
J unip erus Sabina T ops a n d vol a til e oil o f s a
_ v in
Ca lli tri s q u adri v a
lv i s Sand ar ac
Pinus sylv estri s V ola til e oil
 P IN A CE a
s 93

FA MI L Y I . P I N A CE E .
~Old nam e C onifer a
pine family e . T he .

( C one b earing family ) T rees or shrubs with resinous j uice m ost lv

-

.
, ,

awl shaped or needl e shaped leaves and mon oecious or rarely dioecious
- -

flowers in catkin s destitute of calyx or carolla T hree sub fam i lie s

,
.
-

A bi e ti n e m or proper pine family ; C upr essi ne m or cypress fam ily ; and

, ,

T a x i ne ae or yew fam i ly
,
A ll are evergreen excepting the L arches
. .

Part d
u se B otani cal nam e
C o ncr et e Ol eor esin Pinus p a lu stri s and
Resin other sp ecies
D estructi v e di sti ll at e O th er sp ecies
product O th er sp ecies
Ter eb inthi na Canadensi s Liqui d Ol eor e sin A b ies b alsa mea
Sab ina T ops J uni p erus Sabina
Ol eum C adi n u m O ily product J u nip erus Oxyc edr us
Ol eum Ju ni p er i V ol atil e oil J u ni p erus communi s
U noffic ia l
P i x B urg un di c a Resinous
ex uda t e A b ies ex celsa
S andar ac a Resinous ex ud a t e
Resi nous ex uda t e C alli tri s q u adr i v alv i s
D ammar Resinous ex ud a t e A g ath i s lor anthi f oli a

Pi x Canad ensi s T sug a can ad ensi s

S uccinum ( amb er) P ini t es su cci ni f er
T er eb i nthi na Veneta Lar i x e ur op ea
Ju ni p er us J u nip erus co m muni s
 BIB LIO G RA PHY
D escript iv e an d A nalyt ica
'
Le M aout an d Dec ai sne s
_
’
l B otany .

Lehrbuch de r by Stra
sburge r, N oll , Sch enck and Sc hi mp er
‘

'
Ba sti as College B otany
’
.

M a cfarlane's ' Le ctur es On the Comp ara t iv e M o rphology and T ax onom y of

‘

K rame r s ’ 'B otan and P harmac ogno sy

‘

y
-
.

'
St ev en s P lant A natomy
’ -
’
.

'
Ha ma ker s O utline s of Biology
’
.

' '
A T ex t B oo k o f B otany vol I by Coulter Barnes C owles
, .
, , , .

'
E l e ments of B ot any a
'
nd P h arm a cognosy by M ary L C reig hton , . .

Di e N a turli chen Pfla nz enf a mili en v on A E ngl er und K Pra ntl.

_ . .

W a r m ing s '’
Sy st e m a t ic B ot any '
translated by P ott er
, .
96 I N DE X

Balsamum P eruvianum , C actus , 7 9

T ol u t an u m 7 8 ,
C affeina, 8 4 , 8 6
Balsams 9 2 ,
C ala mus , 7 0
Bark 2 8 ,
root cross s e ctio n 9
,
-

, ,
1 1

outer 2 8 ,
C alci um oxal at e 4 ,

mi ddle 2 8 ,
Ca lendula offici n ali s 90 ,

inner 2 8 ,
C all i tri s q u adr i v alv i s 9 2 , , 93
Barosm a b e tu li na 8 3 ,
C alumb a 8 2 ,

Basi di a F ungi 6 2 ,
C alyptr a 6 6 ,

Basidi omycet es 6 2 ,
C alyx 4 1 4 2
, ,

Basi di um 6 2 ,
defini tio n 4 1 4 2 , ,

Bast fib ers 8 ,
p arts 4 1 4 2 , ,

Bayb erry Fa mily 7 4 ,

shap es 4 1 4 2 , ,

Bean Family 7 8 ,
c hl or i sep alo us , 41 ,
B elladonna Folia 8 8 ,
ga mos ep alous , 41 , 42
Ra di x 8 8 ,
C ambog ia 8 1 ,

B e nz oi n u m , 90 Ca mb ium 2 6 ,

Berb eri da ceae 7 9 ,

C a mellia Fam ily 8 4 ,

B erb eri s A quif oli um 7 9 ,

Ca m pa n ul ac e m, 8 8

B erch Family 7 3 ,
C amphor a, 7 4
Berry 53 ,
C anell ac ea e, 8 0

B et a V ulg ari s 7 5 ,
C an ell a alb a 8 0 ,

B etul al en ta 7 3 ,
C anell a C ort ex , 8 0
B etula cea e 73 ,
C annab i s Indi c a, 7 6
Biennial plan t 1 7 ,
s at i v a 7 6 ,

Bindweed Family 8 6 ,
Capi tulum 39 ,

Birch Fam ily 7 3 ,

C apsi cum f a s ti g i atu m 8 8 ,

Bir thwort Family 7 5 ,

C ari c a p ap ay a 8 2 ,

B la ck N ightshade 8 8 ,
Ca rp el 4 6 4 7
, ,

B lu e G r een A lg a
e 56 ,
defini tio n 4 6 4 7 , ,

B og M osse s 6 5 , Pa rts 4 6 4 7 , ,

B oswellia c ar t ern 7 9 ,
dehisc ence 4 6 4 7 , ,

B uck wheat Fam ily 7 4 ,

compou nd 4 6 47 , ,

B uck thorn Fa mily 8 3 , Carpophor e 5 2 ,

B uchu 8 3 ,
Ca rna ub a Wa x 70 ,

B ud 2 0
,
Carum C arv i 8 5 ,

a ccessory 2 0 ,
Ca ryophyllus 8 2 ,

adv enti ti ous 2 0 , C arth a mus tinctor i us 9 1 ,

axillary 2 0 ,
C asc ari ll a 7 6 ,

flower 2 0 , C ash e w Fam ily 7 7 ,

l eaf 2 0 ,
Cass ia a cutif ol ia 7 8 ,

mix e d 2 0 ,
angustif olia 7 8 ,

nake d 2 0 ,
fistul a 7 8 ,

sc aly 2 0 ,
C astanea den ta t a 7 3 ,

B ulb 2 2 ,
C a tkin 39 7 3
, ,

sc aly 2 3 ,
C aul icl e 1 5,

tuni ca te d 2 2 ,
C ed ars 0 2
,

B u n dl e 1 0 , C el astr ac ea e 79 ,

collat e ral clos e d 1 0 ,

C el ery 8 5
,

conc entri c 1 0 , C ell s ap colors 4 ,

B urs er ace m, 7 9 C eph a eli s I p e c a cuanh a 8 6 ,

B urgundy Pi tch , 9 2 acu m ina ta 8 6 ,

B rassi ca nigra 7 9 ,
C entroso m e 4 ,

B rown A lg ae 58 , C er eus g r andifl orus 7 9 ,

B ryal es 6 5 , C h enopodi ac ea e 75 ,

B ryophyt a 6 4 ,
Chenopodiu m an th elm in ti cu m ,

C hi maphil a umb ella ta 8 9 ,

Cactac ea
e, 7 9 C hir a t a 8 7,
 I N DE X 97

C hloripeta lz
e , 7 2, 76 C o nvolvulus S cammonia, 8 6
C hlorophyc ea e , 58 C op aib a, 7 8
Chl orophyll , 56 , 4 C operni ca c eri f er a, 7 0
C hr omopl ast , C opti s tri f olia, 7 8
hro m opla s t, C oriandrum s a tivum , 8 5
Chon dod endr o n tomentosum c ork ) S, 7
C h on drus , 59 C orm , 2 2
C hro m atophore s , 3 C orna c ea e, 8 0
C hrys an th emum ros e u m , 9 1 C ornus fl ori d a, 8 0
ar ne u m 0 1
c , C or n S mut , 6 2
Chry s arobi n u m 7 8 , C or n stalk 2 2
C hytri diale s , 6 0 C oroll a , 4 3 , 4 4
C i chori um in tybus , 9 1 defini tion, 43 , 44
Ci m i c i f ug a r ac e mos a , 78 Parts 43 44
, ,

Cinna moden dro n, 8 0 shap es 43 44, ,

Cinna momum Cassia, 7 4 c hlori p et alou s, 4 3 , 44

.

C amphora , 7 4 g amop etalous , 4 3 , 44

Sa i g oni c u m 7 4
. C orymb 39 ,

Zeyla ni c u m , 7 4 C oto 7 4
,

Cincho na Cali say a, 8 6 C otyl edons I 5 ,

L e dg eri a na ,
86 C r e mocarp 5 2 ,

offi c i n a li s, 8 6 C r eosot u m , 7 3
su cc i r ub r a ,
86 Cri bi f or m , 7
Rubr a, 8 6 tissu e 5,

C i tr ullus C olocynthi s, 9 1 C rocus s ati vus 7 1 ,

Ci trus A ur anti um , 8 3 C roto n elu ter i a 7 6 .

Li mo n um , 8 3 tigli um 7 6 ,

vulgari s , 8 3 C ro wf oot Fami ly 7 7 ,

C l av aria, 6 3 C r u ci f er a, 7 9
Cla va ri a les, 6 3 C ryp togams , 2
av i ceps purp u r ea, 6 0 , 6 2
—
C ub eb a, 7 2
lif e history , 6 0 , 6 2 C ucurb i ta P epo , 9 1
C los e d coll at er al b u ndl e , 1 0 C ucurb i tac ea e, 9 1
C lub M oss es , 6 6 C upul if er a e, 7 3

C oca, 8 5 C ulm , 2 1
C ocos nucif er a, 7 0 C upul es , 5 2 , 6 4
C ocoanut Oil , 7 0 C up Fu ngi , 59, 6 1
C ocos nuci fer a , 7 0 C usso , 7 7
C occul us , Cy an ophyc ea e , 56

C ofl e aar ab i c a, 8 6 Cyca ds , 9 1
C ola acumina ta, 8 4 Cydonia v ulgar i s , 7 7
C olchi cum a utum nal e , 7 1 Cydoni um , 7 7
C olchi ci C ormus , 7 1 Cyme, 39
Sem en, 7 1 Cypr ess , 9 3
C oll enchyme, 5 Cypri p edi um , 7 1
C olocy nthi s, 9 1 pub esc ens 71,

Calyptr og en, 1 5 par v i fl or u m , 7 1

C ommiphora M yrrha 7 9 ,
C yti sus scop ari us , 7 8
C ompos i t e s , 90 Cytopl asm , 3
C o nc entri c bu ndl e, I O
C ond ur ango , 8 7 D am iana, 8 3
C one, 53 D a mmar , 9 3
C oni dia , 6 2 D aph ne M eze r e um , 8 0
C onif er e , 9 1 , 9 3 D atura S tra mo ni um , 8 8
C oni um m a cul atum , 8 5 D elphini um S t a phis agri a 7 8 ,

C onv all aria , 7 1 D erma tog en, 1 5 2 0 ,

m aj ali s , 7 1 D et ermina t e Inflor esc en c e, 3 7 4 0 —

C onv olv ulac e a

-

a,
86 defini ti on, 3 7 4 0 —
 98 I N DE X

D e te rminat e Inflore sc ence, kinds , 3 7 40

—
E ug enol , 8 2
D extr os e, 4 E uonymus a tr op ur pur e us , 7 9
D iagra m of a cell , 3 E up a tori um p erf oliatum , 9 1
Dia toms , 58 E uphorb ia c ea e, 7 6

Di cotyl e dons, 2 , 2 3 E x ocor tex , 2 3

ch aracteristi cs of 7 ,
Ex ogo ni um P urg a, 8 6
Di cotyl st e m 2 5 2 6 , , E x og enous st em , 2 8
ch ar a cteri sti cs 7 2 ,

c ross s e ct i o n of I I
-

,
Fag acea e, 7 3
Di fierences b e tween roots a n d st e ms . 1 6 Fag ar a Clav a H erc uli s, 8 3 -

Digi tali s p ur pur ea 8 9 ,

Fagus f erruginea , 7 3
Dioeci ous 4 2 6 5
, , sylv a ti c a 7 3 ,

D ipt eryx odora t a 7 8 ,

Fami ly 2 ,

D odd er 1 6,
Fe rn stru c tur e 6 7
, ,

D ogb ane Family 8 7 ,

annulus 6 7 ,

D ogwood Family 8 0 ,
anth eri dia 6 7 ,

D or ema a mmoniac um 8 5 , arch egonia 6 7 ,

D ri mys wint eri 7 4 , f ro n d 6 7 ,

D rup e 5 2
,
in dusi um 6 7 ,

D ryopteri s fil i x m as 68 6 9
—

, , la m ina 6 7 ,

m arginali s 6 9 , pinna 6 7 ,

D uboi sia m yOporoi des 88 , p innule 6 7 .

D ucts 8, proth allus 6 7 ,

D ulc am ar a 8 8 ,
protonema 6 7 ,

spor angi a 6 7 ,

tru e 6 9 ,

E cb alliu m E l at eri um , 9 1 w at er 6 9 ,
E gg pl an t , 8 8 Fert il iza ti o n 4 9 ,

E l asti ca 7 6
,
Ferul a f re ti da 8 5 ,

E l a t eri um, 9 1 Fibrov asc ul ar 5 ,

E lder , 8 8 bu ndl e 1 3 6 9 , ,

E lleta ri ar ep ens , 7 2 b icoll ater al 1 3 ,

Elm Fam ily, 7 5 clos e d coll a t eral 1 3 .

E mbr yo, 1 5 co n cen tri c 1 3 1 4 , ,

E n dod erm i s, 5 , 7 , 4 8 op en coll ater al 1 3 ,

E n docort ex, 2 3 r adial 1 4 ,

E ndog enous st em , 2 3 Fi cus c ar i ca 7 6 ,

E n dosp erm , 50 Figwort Family 8 9 ,

E n tomophilous , 4 8 Fili cal es 6 7 ,

E nz yme s , 4 Fil i cinea e 69 ,

E p i d ermal , 5 Fi rs 9 2
,

E p i d er mi s , Fl ax Family 8 0 ,

of o a k l eaf , 7 Flower 4 1 4 , ,
of Iri s l eaf , 7 comple t e 4 1 4 2 , ,

of v i ol e t p e t al , 7 d efini ti o n 4 1 4 2 ,
,

of ep i d erm a l outgrowths , 7 diagr a ms of 4 1 4 2 , ,

E qui s e tum , 6 7 doubl e 4 1 4 2 , ,

E q ui s e t al es , 6 6 i mp erf e ct 4 1 4 2 , ,

E r i c a c eae, 8 8 p arts 4 1 4 2 , ,

E r ig ero n canadens e, 9 1 p er f e ct 4 1 4 2 , ,

E ri odi ctyon calif ornic um , 9 1 p istill at e 4 1 4 2 , ,

E rythroxyl acea e, 8 5 r eg ul ar 4 1 4 2 , ,
E rythroxylo n C oca, 8 5 stam inate 4 1 4 2 , ,

tr ux i llense , 8 5 structure 4 1 4 2 , ,

E tae ri o , 5 2 sy m m e tri c al 4 1 4 2 , ,
E uc alyp tol , 8 2 Foen um G ra e cum 7 8 ,

E ucalyptus , 8 2 Foeni c ulum V ul ar e 8 5 g

,

E ug enia aroma tica, 8 2 Foot 66 6 8

, ,
I 00 I N DE X

In dian T urnip 7 0 ,
L eav es ,exstipula t e 3 1 ,

Indigo 7 8,
imp aripinna te 34 ,

I n digof era tinctoria , 78 lyra te 34 ,

Indusi um 6 7 ,
p arip innate 3 4 ,

I nfl or ese n c es, 3 7 4 0 —
p e ti ola te 3 1 ;

ascen di ng , 3 7 4 0 —
s essile 3 1 ,

c entrif ugal , 3 7 40 —
si mpl e 3 2 ,

c entrip e tal , 3 7 40 —
stipul a te 3 1 ,

cymose, 3 7 4 0 -
Leaf arrang em en t 3 6 ,

de t erminat e , 3 7 4 0 —
alternate 3 6 ,

indet ermina te, 3 7 4 0 —

fasci cl ed 3 6 ,

m ixe d , 3 7 40 —
opposi te 3 6 ,

I n t er f ac i c ul ar c a mb i um , 1 9 , v erticil la te 3 6 ,

Inul a Hel enium , 9 1 ap ex 3 3,

Involucr e, 3 8 acute 33 ,

Inuli n , 4 a cuminate 33 ,

Ip e ca cuanh a 8 6 ,
ar istat e 33 ,

I ri dac eae 7 1
,
cuspi da te 3 3 ,

I ris Family , 7 emargin a te 3 3 ,

fl or en ti na 7 1 , m u cro nate 33 ,

g ermanica , 71 ob cordate 3 3 ,

p alli da 7 1 ,
obtus e 3 3 ,

I soetacea e 66 ,
r e tus e 3 3 ,

trunca te 3 3 ,

Jal ap a 8 6
,
b as e 33,

Jateorhiz a p almata ,
82 auri cula te 33 ,

Jung erm ani ales 6 5 , cordate 3 3 ;

J ugl anda cea

e 73 , h ast ate 3 3 ,

J uglans cinerea 7 3 ,
renif orm 3 3 ,

J uni per Berri es 9 2 , s agi tta t e 33 ,

J unip ers 9 2,
m argin 33 ,

J unip eru s Oxycedrus , cr enat e 3 3 ,

Sab ina 9 2 , cl ef t 3 3
,

communis 9 3 , dentate 3 3 ,

div i ded 3 4 ,

entir e 3 3 ,

incise d 3 3 ,

lob e d 33 ,

Lab ellum , 4 3 , 7 1 p arte d 3 3 ,

L ab ia ta e , 89 r ep an d 33 ,

L actuc a v i rosa, 9 1 ru n cinate 33 ,

L actucari um , 9 1 s erra te 3 3 ,

L ami na , 3 0 outli ne 3 3 ,

Lapp a, 90 a cerose 33 ,

L arch e s , 9 1 a ci cul ar 3 3 ,

Larix de ci du a, 92 cuneat e 3 2 ,

( E urop ea) , 93 deltoi d 3 3 ,

La c ti c if er ou s t i ssu e , 5 elliptical 3 ,

v essels , 7 , 8 fili f or m , 3 2
La ur a ce m, 7 4 oblo ng 3 2
a
,

L av e ndul ofii ci n a li s , 9 0 ov at e 3 2 ,

La urus nob il i s , 7 4 obfiq u e , 32

Leav es , modified f orms , 3 8 orb i cul ar , 33

bracts , 3 8 oblanc e ol a te , 32
br ac teolar , 3 8 p e c ta
i e, 3 2
compl e te 3 0 , sp atula e t , 32
compou n d 3 2 , dur a tio n , 35

de compound 3 4 , c a d ous
uc , 35
 IN D E X 1 01

Leaf duration de ci duous 3 5 , , acrocys ti s, 59

ev ergr een 3 5 , a dder Fam ily 8 8 ,

p ers is tent 3 5 , M agn oliac ee 7 6 ,

i ns erti on 3 6 , M allow Fam ily 8 1 ,
c auline 3 6 , Ma ltu m , 7 0
cl asping 3 6 , M anni tol 4 ,
c o nna t e p er f olia t e 3 6 —
, M alv ac ea z 81 ,
eq ui tan t 3 6 , M allotus phili pi ne nsi s 7 6 ,

p erf oli ate 3 6 , M ani hot utili ss im a 7 6 ,

r adi cal 3 6 , M anna, 8 9
r amal 3 6 , M arch antia, 6 5
sur face 34 , M ar ch a n tial es , 6 5
gl abrous 3 5 , M arrub i um v ulg ar e 9 0 ,
gl aucous 3 5 , M asti ch e, 7 7
h isp i d 3 5 , M a tricaria Chamomi ll a 9 0 ,
pub esc ent 3 5 , M a crocysti s 59 ,

p elluci d puncta te 3 5 —

, M e di ocortex 2 3 ,

rugos e 3 5 , M e dul lary rays 5 9 , ,

scabrous 3 5 , pr ima ry 9 ,

seri c i ous , 35 s e co ndary 9

spinos e 3 5 ,
M ega c eros 6 5 ,
tom en tos e 3 5 , M egas por e 4 9 ,
vill os e 3 5 ,
M egasporophyll 4 6 ,

v er rucos e 3 5 ,
M eli ssa ofli ci nali s 90 ,

t ex tur e 34 ,
M eni sp erm ac ea e 82 ,

c ori ac eo us 3 4 ,
M enisp er mum canaden s e , 82
m embr an ous 34 , M en th a spi ca ta 9 0 ,

sc arious 3 4 , viridi s 90 ,

s u ccul en t 3 4 ,
M e ri carp 5 2 ,

v enatio n 3 1 3 2 M en stem , 5
'

, ,

f urch ate, 3 1 , 3 2 M e thysti cu m 7 2 ,

p ar all el , 3 1 3 2 . M ez ere u m 8 0 ,

pi n ni , 3 1 , 3 2 M i crospore 4 9 ,

p alma t e 3 1 3 2 , ,
M i crosporophyll 44 ,

r e ti cul a t e 3 1 3 2 , ,
M il de ws 6 1 ,

L eptan dra 8 9 ,
M ilkwee d Famil y 8 7 ,

Leguminos a e 78 ,
M ilkwort Family 8 2 ,

L e ucopl as t 4 ,
M int Fam ily 8 9 ,

L ev ulos e 4 ,
M i stl eto e I 6 ,

Li ch ens structur e of 6 3 6 4
, , , M ni um , 6 5
Li gnin 6 ,
onocotyle dons , 2 ,
69
Lil ia c ea
e , 70 chara ct eri st ics of , 6 9
Lily Famil y 7 0 ,
M onoeci o us 6 3 6 5 , ,

Li m oni s C ortex 8 3 ,
M oo ns ee d Fami ly 8 2 ,

S uccus 8 3 ,
M ora c ea e 76 ,

Linac ea e 80
,
M oss lif e hi s tory 6 5
, ,

Linum u si tat iss i mum 8 1 , M oss es 6 5 ,

Li q ui d am b ar orienta l is 8 0 ,
M ucor m u cedo 6 1 ,

Liri od en dr o n 3 I M ul b erry Fa mi ly 7 6
‘

, ,

Li v erworts 6 4 ,
M ucoral es 6 1 ,

L ob elia i nfl a ta 8 8 ,
M usci 6 5 ,

L og ani a cea e 87 ,
M ushrooms 59 6 3 , ,

L umen 6 ,
M yc el i um 59 ,

L up ulin um 7 6 ,
M yri c aa cri s 8 2 ,

Lycoper di a le s, 6 3 M yricac ea e 74 ,

Lyc opodi ac e a, 6 6 M y ri s ti caceae 74 ,

Lycopodia l es 6 6 ,
M yristi c a f ragrans 7 4 ,
1 02 I N DE X

M yrrh a 7 9 ,
O scilla toria, 56
M yr tace m 8 2 ,
Ouroup aria G ambi r , 8 6
M yrtl e Famil y ,
82 Ovul e, d efini ti o n, 4 7
Myx omyc e t es , 56 posi tion 4 7
,

sh ap e 4 7
,

N a tural syst em , 2
structure 4 7 ,

N e cta r , 49
N est Fu ngi , 6 3 P alaqui um gutta, 8 6
N e utr al P ri n c ipl es , 4 Pa lm e a a , 7
0

N i cotiana T abacum, 8 8 P alm Famil y , 7 0

N i d ul ar ial es , 6 3 P ani cl e , 3 9
N ightsh ade Fami ly , 8 8 P ap ain , 8 2
N o n protopl a s mi c c ell con t en ts , 4
-

N ostoc , 56
P ap av er a c ea e, 8 1
N ucl eus , 3
P ap av er somnif erum , 8 1
en dosp erm , 49 P araphys i s , 6 5
g enera tiv e , 49 P ar as i t e , 59
P ola r 4 9 ,
P ar ei ra , 8 2
tub e 4 9 ,
P ar en chym a, 5
N u cle arplasm , 3
N u t, 5 2
cortical , 2 8
P arsley Fa mily , 2 4
N utmeg Fam i ly , 7 4
Pa ssi fl or a cea z, 8 1
N u x V om i ca, 8 7
P assi o n fl ower Fa mi ly , 8 1
-

Pa ssifl or ain c a r nata , 8 2

O le a c ea 8 9 , P a ul linia Cu pa na ,
84
O l e um A ni s i , 7 6 P ea t M oss es , 6 5
C adi ni , 93 Pe di c el , 3 8
Chen opo di i , 7 5 P e du n cl e , 3 8
Cinnamom i , 7 4 P eni ci lli um , 6 1
E ri g er on ti s , 9 1 P epp er Fa mi ly , 7 2
G aulth eria, 8 9 P epo , 53 , 9 I
G ossypi i Se m i n i s , 8 1 P e rennial , 1 7
Ju ni peri , 93 P er ian th , 4 2
La v en d ula e Flor u m , 90 P e r ibl em , 1 5 , 2 1
Oli v a e, 8 9 P er i c am bi u m , 1 8
Ri c ini , 7 6 P er i d erm , 2 9
Rosa e, 7 7 P er igo ne, 4 2
Ros a ma ri ni , 9 0 P eron ospor ale s , 6 1
T he obr om a ti s, 8 4 P e t iol e, 3 0
T hymi , 9 0 Ph aophy c em , 58
T i glii , 7 6 P h anerog amia , 6 9
Oil of Cade , 9 2 P h anero g ams , 2 , 6 9
Ol ib anum , 7 9 P h ellog en , 6 1
Ol i ve Fam ily , 8 9 P hl o em , 2 8 , 8 3
Oospor e , 4 9 P hycocy anin, 56
Oomyc e t es , 6 0 P hycomyc e t e s , 59
'

O p erculum , 6 6 P hyco erythrin , 5 9

Op i um , 8 1 P hysi ologi c al B ot any , 1
Orch i d Fami ly , 7 1 P hysostigma v en e nos u m ,
Orch id ac ea, 7 1 P hytol acc a c ea e, 7 5
Ord e r , 2 P hytolacca d e candra , 7 5
Org an,1 4 P hytophthor a, 6 1
rep roduct iv e 1 4 ,
P i c ea ex c els a , 9 2
v eg e ta tive 1 4 ,
P i cr a sma , exc els a , 8 3
O rg anism I 4 ,
P i l eus , 6 3
O ri ganum maj or ana 90 ,
P iloca rpus Jabor an di , 8 3
Orri s 7 1 ,
mi crophyllus , 8 3
 1 0 4 I N DE X

Rh amnus P ursh iana 8 3 , Sandara c , 9 2

Fr a ng ula ,
83 Sandar aca , 93
ca tharti ca , 8 3 Sanguinaria canadensi s , 8 1
Rhiz oi ds , 6 4 Santalum Rubrum , 7 8
Rh iz om e , 2 2 San to ni ca, 9 1
Rhiz opus ni gri cans , 6 1 Sap ind ac ea e, 8 4

Rh e um ofli ci nale , 7 5 Sa pot a ce m , 8 6

p alma tum 7 5 ,
S ap rol egnial es , 6 0
v a r t angut i cum 7 5
.
,
Saprophy te, 59
Rhodophyc ea e 59 ,
Sars ap arill a, I 7 , 7 1
Rhus v enen a ta 7 7 ,
Sass af ra s, 7 4
glabra 7 7 m e dull a 74 ,

toxicoden dro n 7 7 ,
v a rii f oli u m , 7 4
a roma tica 7 7 ,
Sc am m oni u rn, 8 6
Ri ci n us comm uni s 7 6 ,
S cap e, 38

Ros a da masc ena 7 7 ,

S cil l a 7 1
,

galli ca 7 7 ,
S chiz omyc e t es 56 ,

Rosa cea e 77 ,
S chi z ophyta 56 ,

Rosm arinus ofii ci na li s 9 0 ,

Schl er enc h ym e , 5
Ros in 9 2 S cr oph ul ari a ce m, 8 9
,

Root 1 6 ,
S copol a carni oli c a, 8 8 -

a dv en ti tious ; 1 6 S cop ari us , 7 8

anomalous 6 ,
1 S corp oi d cyme , 39
coni cal 6 ,
1 S couri ng rush es , 6 6
duratio n of 1 6 ,
Scutell arialat e ri fl or a, 9 0.

epi phytic 1 6 ,
Se condary cort ex , 2 6
f us if orm 1 6 ,
m edulla ry r ays , 9
napif orm 1 6 ,
Seed , 53 55 —

pri mary 1 6 ,
albu mi nous , 53 5 5 —

s econdary 1 6 ,
alb umen 53 55 ,
—

tap 1 6 ,
app endag es 53 55 ,
—

Root 1 5 1 6
, ,
co ats 53 55 ,
—

c ap I S ,
exalb uminous 53 ,

h ai rs 5 ,
1 structure 53 55 ,
—

hi sto logy 1 7 ,
Sel aginell ac ea e 66 ,

Rub iace a e 85 ,
Sel agi n ella 6 6 ,

Rubus cunei f oli us 7 7 ,

S en eg a 8 2 ,

ni grob accus 7 7 ,
Se nna 7 8 ,

vill osus ,
Ser en o a s e rrul a t a 7 0 ,

Ru e Family 8 2 ,
Serie s 2 ,

Ru t ace a
z, 8 2 1 e v e, 7
tub es
'

Rumex crispus , 7 5 , 5, 1 3
Rusts , 6 2 Si m ar ub a cea
e, 83
Sinapi s , 7 9
Sab a l, 7 0 alb a 7 9 ,

Sabi na, 9 3 nigra 7 9 ,

Sa ccharos e, 4 Sk unk c abb a ge 7 0

‘

Sacch arum , 7 0 , 7 5 S li m e moulds 56 ,

offici na ru m , 7 0 Smil ax med i c a 7 1 ,

Sacch aromyc et e s , 6 1 or nata 7 1 ,

Sac F u ngi , 6 1 ali s 7 1

o fli c i n ,

Sa f ro n, 7 1 papyr ace ae, 7 1

Sali c ace a z, 7 3 S muts , 6 2

Salix , 7 3 S oapb erry Family 8 4 ,

Salv ia ofli c i n a li s , 9 0 Soli ta ry d e t e rmina te i n flor es c enc e ,

Salvinia, 6 9 in d eterminate inflor esc e nc e , 3 8
Salv i ni ac e ee , 6 9 Solan a c e m, 8 8

Sambucus canadensi s . S olanum Caroli nens e , 8 8

 I N DE X 1 0 5

S ol an um d ul cam ara 88 , St em , und erground bulb , ,

M elo ng ena 8 8 , corm 2 2 ,

ni grum 88 , rhiz ome 2 2 ,

tub erosum 88 , tub e r 2 2 ,

S orgh um 7 0 , siz e 2 0
,
S orosi s 53
, Ste r c uli ac eze , 84
sp a dix 39
, St e ri gma ta , 6 2
Sp a th e 3 8
, S tillingia sylv ati ca , 7 6
Sp ec ie s 2 , Stip e, 6 3
Sp erma tophyta 6 9 , S tipul es , 3 0
Sp er m ogo nia 6 4 , S tolo n, 2 1
Sph ag nal e s 6 5 , S toma, 6
Sp ig elia mari l an dica 8 7 . S tomat a, 6
Spi k e 39
, S to n e c ell s , f rom coEe e, 6
—

Sp i ral trach ea e 9 , f rom clov e st e m , 6

Spi rogyra 2 58 , , f rom t ea, 6
Sporangia 6 7 , f rom st ar anis e, 6
Sporangiu m 6 4 , S tr amo ni um , 8 8
Sporogo ni um 6 4 6 5 , , S trob il e , 39
Sporophyte 6 4 6 5 , , S tr oph anth us h i spi dus , 8 7
Sp ur g e Fam ily 7 6 , Structur al B otany , 1
La urel Fa mily 8 0 ,
S trych nos , I g na tii , 8 7
Spruc e 9 2
, N ux V omi ca, 8 7
S tam ens 4 4 4 5 , , toxi fe ra , 8 7
defini te 45 , Styr a c ea
e , 90
in definite 4 5 , S tyr ax, 8 0
ins erti o n 45 ,
Benz oin 90 ,

n umb er 4 5 , Fa mi ly 9 0 ,

posi tio n 4 5 ,
S ucc inum 93 ,

structure 4 5 , S uff ruti cos e 2 1 ,

St aph i s agria 7 8 , S ugars 4 ,

S t arch 4, S umb ul 8 5 ,

S t ems dir ecti o n of growth

, ,
20 Syconi um 53 ,

abov e groun d 2 1
-

, Symp etala e 85 ,

c ul m 2 1 , Symplocarpus f wti dus , 70

cli mb ing 2 1 , S yst ema ti c B otany 1 ,

f ru ti cos e 2 1 , S wert ia C hi ra yi t a 8 7 ,

scap e 2 1 ,

sufiru ti cose , 2 1 T ab acum 8 8 ,

ten dril 2 1 , T am arindus indi ca ,78

stolo n 2 1 ,
T anace tum v ulgar e , 91

dur a ti o n of 2 0 , T ap i oca 7 6 ,

u ndergrou nd 2 2 , T ar 9 2
,

stem and root 1 6 ,

T araxacum ofii ci na
le, 9 0
S t em acaul es c en t 2 0
, ,
T ax onomy 1 ,

annual di cotyl 2 3 ,
T endri l 2 1 ,

c aul es cen t 2 0 ,
T er eb in thina 93 ,

di re cti o n of grow th 2 0 , C ana d ensi s 93 ,

dur ati o n 2 1 v ene ta 93 ,

er n str oem i a
,

elo ng a ti o n 2 0 ,
c ea 8 4 ,

en dog enous 2 3 ,
T hallophyta 56
,

ex og en ous 2 3 ,
T hall us 56
,

f u nctio ns of 2 0 ,
T hea chi nens i s 8 4
,

hi stology of annual dicotyl ,

T helephor a le s, 6 3
monocotyl 2 9 ,
T he obrom a ca ca o, 8 4
p er ennial 2 5 2 6 , ,
T hor n, 2 1
p erennial di cotyl 2 5 2 6 , , T hy m eleacea e, 8 0
u ndergro un d 2 2 ,
T hymus v ul ga ri s , 9 0
1 0 6 I N DE X

T hyrsus 39 ,
Vegetabl e cytology 1 2 . ,

T issu e 3 4, ,
hi stology 1 ,

arrang ement i n di cotyl st ems , ,

Veni c e T ur p entine 9 2 ,

class ificat i on 1 4 ,
Vera trina 7 1 ,

con ducting 1 4 ,
Veratrum 7 1 ,

f u ncti on of 1 4 ,
A lb um 7 1 ,

f u ndamen t al 1 4 Vi ri de 7 1 ,

m e chani c al 1 4 ,
Verb ascum thapsus 8 9 ,

prote ctiv e 1 4 ,
Vernati on 3 7 ,

g enera tive 1 5 ,
condupli c a te 3 7 ,

produc e d by cork camb i um ,

convolute 3 7 ,

syst ems 5 ,
c i rc ina te 3 7 ,

ep i dermal 5 ,
i rrfl ex ed, 3 7
f un dament al 5 ,
i nvolute, 3 7
fi bro v ascul ar 5 -

, pli c at e, 3 7
T oadstools ,
revolute, 3 7
T oluif era P erei rae 7 ,
Venatio n , 3 1 3 2 —

Balsamum 78 ,
f u r ch a te , 3 1 3 2 —

T a
r ch e z
e, 9 p almat ely v eine d, 3 1 3 2 —

an nul ar 9 ,
p ar all el 3 1 3 2 ,
—

pi tte d 9 pi n ni v eined 3 1 3 2
- —

, ,

r e ti cul ate 9 ,
re t i cul a t e 3 1 3 2 ,
—

spi ral 9 ,
Veroni ca V i rgini ca 8 9 ,
‘

T racheids 8 ,
Verti cillast er 39 ,

T ra cheary tissu e 9 ,
Viburnum Lent ago 8 8 ,

T ragac anth a 7 8 ,
Op ulus 8 8 ,

T ree 2 1
,
prunif oli um 88 ,

T ri ti cum 7 0 ,
Vinum A lb um 8 5 ,

T rif oli um pr at ens e 7 8 , Rubrum 8 5 ,

T rigonell a f oenum graecum -

, 78 Vi t ac ea 8 5 ,

T ri c homes 2 9 ,
Vi ti s v ini f era 8 5 ,

glandul ar 2 9 , V olvox 58 ,

simpl e 2 9 ,
V ou a ca pou aA r arob a 7 8 ,

T ru e Ferns 6 9 ,

T rufil e s, 61 Waln ut Fam ily 7 3 ,

T suga occi den tali s 9 2 , Wat er Fe rns 6 9 ,

T ub er 2 2 , S toma ta 7 6 ,

T ur nerac eae 83 , Wh ite Pine Bark 9 2 ,

T ur ner adi fiu sa 8 3 , Willow Fami ly 7 3 ,

T urp entine 9 , Wi tch H az el Fa mily 8 0 ,

T yp e 2, Woody Fibr es 5 7 8 , , ,

U lm ac ea, 7 5 Xanthoxylum am eri canum ,

83
U lmus f ulv a, 7 6 X yl em 1 2
,

U mb el , 39 elem ents 1 2 1 4 2 6 , , ,

U mb ellif er ae, 84 s e condary 1 9 2 6 , ,

U r edi nal es , 6 2
U rginea mari ti ma , 7 1
U stil aginal es , 6 2
U stil ago Maydi s , 6 2
U v aU rs i , 8 9 Zea, 7
0

M ays 7 0 ,

Valeriana cea e 86 , Zingib e rac ee

a , 72
Val eriana offici nali s , 86 Zingib er , 7 2
Vanilla 7 ,
o fli c i n ali s , 7 2
p lanif oli a 7 1 ,
Zygomyc et es , 6 1
Variety 2 , Zyg ophylla c eze , 83