Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy

ISSN: 0968-7637 (Print) 1465-3370 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/idep20

Awareness of, and participation with, digital

alcohol marketing, and the association with
frequency of high episodic drinking among young
adults

Nathan Critchlow, Crawford Moodie, Linda Bauld, Adrian Bonner & Gerard
Hastings

To cite this article: Nathan Critchlow, Crawford Moodie, Linda Bauld, Adrian Bonner & Gerard
Hastings (2016): Awareness of, and participation with, digital alcohol marketing, and the
association with frequency of high episodic drinking among young adults, Drugs: Education,
Prevention and Policy, DOI: 10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247

Published online: 28 Jan 2016.

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ISSN: 0968-7637 (print), 1465-3370 (electronic)

Drugs Educ Prev Pol, Early Online: 1–9

! 2015 Taylor & Francis. DOI: 10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247

Awareness of, and participation with, digital alcohol marketing,

and the association with frequency of high episodic drinking among
young adults
Nathan Critchlow1, Crawford Moodie1, Linda Bauld1, Adrian Bonner2, and Gerard Hastings1
1
Institute for Social Marketing, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK and 2School of Applied Social Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK

Abstract Keywords
Aim: To explore the association between awareness of traditional and digital marketing, Alcohol marketing, alcohol, binge drinking,
participation with digital marketing and young adults’ frequency of high episodic drinking digital alcohol marketing, high episodic
(HED). Methods: An online cross-sectional survey of 18–25 year olds (n ¼ 405) measured drinking, marketing, quantitative research,
awareness of nine traditional marketing channels, and awareness of, and participation with, 11 traditional alcohol marketing, young adults
digital marketing channels. HED was measured using the final item from the Alcohol Use
Disorders Identification Test – Consumption (AUDIT-C). Findings: Respondents, on average, History
were aware of alcohol being marketed through 4.30 traditional and 6.23 digital marketing
Received 5 September 2015
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy

channels, and had participated with marketing through 2.34 digital channels. Respondents who
reported HED on at least a weekly basis reported the most awareness of, and participation with, Revised 30 October 2015
alcohol marketing. Those who reported never engaging in HED, or doing so less than monthly, Accepted 9 November 2015
reported the lowest. Significant associations were found between awareness of, and Published online 21 December 2015
participation with, traditional and digital alcohol marketing and increased frequency of HED.
Conclusions: That digital marketing was more successful than traditional in reaching young
adults, and had a stronger association with increased frequency of HED, highlights the dynamic
nature of marketing communications and the need for further research to fully understand
young people’s experience with digital marketing.

Introduction
Globally, the prevalence of high episodic drinking (HED) is
highest among young people. It is particularly high in Europe,
where the proportion of 15–19 year olds who report HED
(31.2%) is almost double that of the rest of the adult
population (16.5%) (World Health Organisation, 2014). This
is problematic as excessive alcohol consumption is linked
with increased mortality (Rehm & Sheild, 2013), morbidity
(Shield, Parry, & Rehm, 2013) and a range of social harms
(World Health Organisation, 2014), with the economic burden
substantial. In England, the accumulated social and economic
costs of alcohol are estimated to be £21 billion (Public Health
England, 2014), a figure which rises to E125 billion in the
European Union (Anderson & Baumberg, 2006) and $233
billion in the United States (Bouchery, Harwood, Sacks,
Simon, & Brewer, 2011).
Reviews of research exploring the impact of alcohol
marketing suggest a causal relationship between young
peoples’ exposure to alcohol marketing and alcohol use
(Anderson, de Bruijn, Angus, Gordon, & Hastings, 2009;
Gordon, Hastings, & Moodie, 2010a; Smith & Foxcroft,
2009). However, further research is required given the
alcohol industry’s ability to innovate marketing practice
Correspondence: Nathan Critchlow, Institute for Social Marketing,
University of Stirling, RG Bomont Building, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK.
E-mail: nathan.critchlow@stir.ac.uk
(Jernigan, 2009), for instance via digital media. Since the turn
of the century, there has been increased commercial interest
in how the internet can be used to reach consumers. Indeed, in
the last six years alone commercial expenditure on digital
advertising in the UK has increased from £3.6 billion to an
estimated £7.2 billion in 2014, a figure which represents 39%
of all advertising expenditure (OFCOM, 2015a). Econometric
data, however, does not account for additional below-the-line
forms of digital marketing with limited costs, such as branded
social media accounts (Brooks, 2010), or how user-generated
content further contributes to marketing initiatives (Arnhold,
2010). As such advertising expenditure provides only a
snapshot of online marketing activity. Understanding how
digital marketing affects young adults’ health is important
given that the proportion of 16–24 year olds that use the
internet is higher than any other age group in the adult
population (Office for National Statistics, 2015a). Frequency
of internet use and amount of time spent online is also
negatively correlated with age (Office for National Statistics,
2015a), and unsurprisingly it is young people who have the
highest rates of participation in activities such as social
networking, watching on-demand television, gaming, sharing
media, shopping and downloading smartphone applications
(OFCOM, 2014, 2015b).
The alcohol industry has embraced digital marketing
(Baker, 2013; Barnett, 2012; MacLeod, 2013a), evidenced
 2 N. Critchlow et al.
by the continued redistribution of marketing expenditure to
digital channels (Mullman, 2009; Schultz, 2014, 2015). The
industry also seems to be reaping the rewards of such
investment, with Diageo reporting that sales had increased by
20% as a result of a strategic partnership with Facebook
(Diageo PLC, 2011). It has been suggested, however, that the
alcohol industry is capitalising on digital marketing to reach
young people and influence online and drinking behaviour
(Alcohol Concern, 2013; Atkinson, Ross, Begley, & Sumnall,
2014; Barry et al., 2015a; Brooks, 2010; Carah, Brodmerkel,
& Shaul, 2015; Gordon, 2011; Griffiths & Casswell, 2010;
Purves, Stead, & Eadie, 2014; Siegel et al., 2015; Winpenny,
Marteau, & Nolte, 2013). In particular, the ability to publish
and relate marketing to real-time events (Carah, Brodmerkel,
& Hernandez, 2014; Nicholls, 2012), interactive ‘‘advergam-
ing’’ (Chester, Montgomery, & Dorfman, 2010), viral cam-
paigns (Dobson, 2012), blending marketing seamlessly with
user-created content (Brodmerkel & Carah, 2013), and the
ability to submerge marketing below explicit levels of
awareness (Lyons et al., 2014), have all served to make
digital marketing more powerful and less controllable than
traditional marketing (Hastings & Sheron, 2013). This creates
unique challenges for researchers and regulators alike
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy
(Brodmerkel & Carah, 2013; Brooks, 2010; Carah et al.,
2015; Carroll & Donovan, 2002; Chester et al., 2010;
European Centre for Monitoring Alcohol Marketing, 2009;
Jernigan & Rushman, 2014; McCreanor et al., 2013; Nicholls,
2012).
Self-report research has found awareness of digital alcohol
marketing in young people to range from 5% for e-mail
marketing (Gordon, Harris, Mackintosh, & Moodie, 2011) to
66% for display advertisements on websites (de Bruijn, 2013).
Evidence further suggests young people are willing to
participate, with the proportion doing so ranging from 4%
for accessing websites (Gordon et al., 2011) to 32% interact-
ing with marketing on social networking sites (de Bruijn,
2013). Young people’s exposure also appears to be increasing.
For instance, a longitudinal study in Scotland reported the
proportion of adolescents who were aware of, and participat-
ing with, marketing on social networking sites had doubled by
two-year follow-up (Gordon, Mackintosh, & Moodie, 2010b).
Evidence further suggests exposure to digital marketing has
an association with alcohol use and HED (de Bruijn, 2013;
Gordon et al., 2011; Jones & Magee, 2011; Lin et al., 2012), a
relationship reported as causal by two longitudinal studies (de
Bruijn, Tanghe, & Beccaria, 2012; Gordon et al., 2010b). It
has also been suggested that participation with digital alcohol
marketing has a stronger association with alcohol use, despite
greater awareness and participation with traditional alcohol
marketing (Gordon et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012).
In this study, we build upon past research by exploring the
association between digital alcohol marketing and frequency
of HED among young adults (18–25 years old). This age
group represent a potentially vulnerable population given they
report some of the highest rates of internet use and HED
drinking in the UK (Office for National Statistics, 2015a,
2015b). They also represent a key target market for the
alcohol industry (Hastings et al., 2010) and have been
overlooked in past research. We also consider both awareness
of, and participation with, a wider range of digital marketing
Drugs Educ Prev Pol, Early Online: 1–9
channels than has been used in past research, and also
awareness of alcohol marketing in traditional (non-digital)
channels to provide comparison.
Methods
Design and sample
An online, cross-sectional survey was conducted with 18–25
years old in the UK (n ¼ 405). Responses were collected in
two six-month waves, November 2013–April 2014 and
February 2015–July 2015. A convenience sample was
recruited through adverts posted in three online contexts.
First, adverts were posted on the ‘‘Surveys and Research’’
section of www.thestudentroom.co.uk, a large UK-based
community website for school and university students. Use
of internet forums for recruitment in addiction and substance
use literature is increasing (Norman, Grace, & Lloyd, 2014;
Pontes, Szabo, & Griffiths, 2015), with the website used in
this study having been used in previous research (Corazza,
Simonato, Cokery, Trincas, & Schifano, 2014; Furnell,
Bryant, & Phippen, 2007). Second, an advert was placed on
an internal university website, which allowed first- and
second-year undergraduate psychology students to partake in
the study in exchange for academic credits which were
required for a research methods module. Eligible students had
not covered content related to the aims of the study, or
marketing in general, as part of their undergraduate degree
course. Third, an advert was posted on social networking site
Facebook, a method of convenience sampling previously used
in alcohol marketing research (Jones & Magee, 2011).
Measures
Demographics
Age, gender, ethnicity and religious denomination were
measured.
Internet use
To measure frequency of internet use respondents were asked
‘‘How often do you use the internet?’’ Responses were given
on a nine-point scale (1 ¼ never; 9 ¼ everyday). To measure
duration of internet use respondents were asked ‘‘On average,
how long do you spend on the internet per day?’’ Responses
were given on a nine-point scale (1 ¼ I don’t use the internet;
9 ¼ nine or more hours).
Awareness of traditional (offline) alcohol marketing
Respondents were asked ‘‘Think about ways you have seen
alcohol marketed in the last 30 days. How was it marketed?’’
They were presented with a list of nine traditional (offline)
marketing channels used in previous exposure research
(Gordon et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012); (i) event sponsorship,
(ii) magazines, (iii) television, including programme spon-
sorship, (iv) sports sponsorship, (v) in-store posters,
(vi) billboards and posters, (vii) newspapers, (viii) packaging,
and (ix) price promotions. Respondents indicated all those
they had seen alcohol marketed through by clicking a ‘‘Yes’’
response icon next to each channel. Responses were summed
to create a total awareness score (0–9).
 DOI: 10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247 Digital alcohol marketing and high episodic drinking in young adults
Awareness of, and participation with, digital
marketing
Awareness of, and participation with, digital marketing was
assessed for 11 channels; (i) downloadable content for mobile
phones and computers (e.g. screensavers), (ii) adverts on on-
demand television, (iii) games, (iv) online shops selling
alcohol or branded merchandise, (v) websites, (vi) marketing
on social media (Facebook and Twitter), (vii) viral videos or
adverts, (viii) smartphone applications, (ix) display adver-
tisements, (x) e-mails, and (xi) competitions. For each,
respondents were shown a visual example and asked to
indicate if they had seen alcohol marketed through that
channel (Yes/No), and whether they had participated with
marketing though that channel (Yes/No). The phrasing of each
question was specific to the channel and the keywords
emphasised in bold to ensure clarity over what constituted
awareness and participation, as this differed across channels
(Figure 1). For each question respondents were reminded that
the visual was only an example and to consider others they
recalled. Responses were summed to create a total score for
both awareness and participation (0–11).
Frequency of high episodic drinking
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy
Frequency of HED was measured using the final item from
the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test – Consumption
(AUDIT-C), a three-item screening instrument recently
validated as an appropriate alcohol screening tool in the UK
(Foxcroft, Smith, Thomas, & Howcutt, 2015), used in
research with young adults (Barry, Chaney, Stellefson, &
Dodd, 2015b; Davoren, Shiely, Byrne, & Perry, 2015) and
considered an appropriate brief screening tool by the National
Health Service (National Institute for Health and Care
Excellence, 2010). Respondents were asked ‘‘How often
have you had six or more units if female, or eight or more
units if male, on a single occasion in the last year?’’
Responses were given on a five-item scale: 0, never; 1, less
than monthly; 2, monthly; 3, weekly; and 4, daily or almost
daily. A diagram depicting the unit content of various
common alcoholic drinks, such as a 175 ml glass of wine or
pint of regular beer/lager/cider, was included to assist in
Figure 1. Example of grid for measuring
awareness of, and participation with, digital
alcohol marketing.
Image credit (Diageo PLC, 2012).
3
estimating the units consumed on previous drinking
occasions.
Procedure
The self-report questionnaire was designed and hosted on
Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com), a full-featured, web-based
tool for creating and conducting online surveys.
Advertisements highlighting the aims and methods of the
study were placed on the ‘‘Surveys and Research’’ section of
www.thestudentroom.co.uk. The adverts remained there
throughout the two recruitment periods and were refreshed
once a fortnight. An advert was also uploaded to the internal
student recruitment website and posted on social networking
site, Facebook, by the lead investigator. Those who met the
inclusion criteria (18–25 years old and living in the UK) were
invited to click on a hyperlink at the bottom of the advert,
which directed their web-browser to the online questionnaire.
Prior to survey onset respondents were informed of the study
aims, incentive, the anonymity of data, and the voluntary
nature of the study and ability to withdraw at any point. At the
bottom of the first page respondents were asked to confirm
they met the age criteria and they consented to take part (Yes/
No). The average completion time for the questionnaire was
20 minutes. After the questionnaire had been completed, a
debriefing page was displayed that asked respondents whether
they would like to enter themselves into the ballot to win one-
of-five £10 vouchers for an e-retailer (Yes/No) as a thank you
for participating in the research. Those who wished to enter
were redirected to a separate online questionnaire to provide
an e-mail address which registered their place. Those who did
not were directed to final page that confirmed the question-
naire was finished. Ethical approval was obtained from the
University of Roehampton’s ethics board (PSYC 13/097) and
the Salvation Army’s Territorial Health Ethics Advisory
Committee (4 October 2013).
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using SPSS version 21 (SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, IL). Cases in which (i) no age was specified, (ii) the
respondent was not aged 18–25 years old, and (iii) the IP
 4 N. Critchlow et al. Drugs Educ Prev Pol, Early Online: 1–9

address of the respondent was outside the UK, were removed.
All responses were screened for contradictory answers using
cross-tabulation tables. Responses in which participation with
digital marketing was indicated, yet awareness of the same
channel was not, were removed. This left a sample of 405.
Frequency tables were produced to explore awareness of each
traditional and digital marketing channel, and participation
with each digital channel. A paired samples t-test was
conducted to examine the differences between cumulative
awareness of, and participation with, digital marketing. Three
one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs), each with 10
polynomial linear planned contrasts, were conducted to
explore whether awareness of traditional and digital market-
ing, and participation with digital marketing, differed across
the five frequency categories of HED; (i) never, (ii) less than
monthly, (iii) monthly, (iv) weekly, (v) daily or almost daily.
A hierarchical linear regression, based on 2000 boot-
strapped samples, was conducted with awareness of, and
participation with, alcohol marketing as the independent
variables and frequency of HED across the sample the
dependent variable (0 ¼ never, 4 ¼ daily or almost daily).
Demographic variables of age, gender, religious beliefs and
ethnicity were entered at step one. Three of these demo-
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy
reported HED weekly also reported the most awareness,
whilst those who reported never having engaged in HED
reported the least (Table 3). A one-way ANOVA indicated
awareness of traditional marketing differed significantly
across the five HED categories, Welch’s F(4, 51.92) ¼ 3.15,
p50.05, 2 ¼ 0.02. Post-hoc planned contrasts, in which
equal variances were not assumed, revealed those who
reported never engaging in HED reported significantly
lower awareness of traditional marketing than those who
reported HED monthly, t(202.96) ¼ 2.73, p50.01, d ¼ 0.38;
or weekly, t(91.66) ¼ 3.24, p50.005, d ¼ 0.68. Those who
reported HED weekly also reported significantly more
awareness than those who reported HED monthly,
t(81.61) ¼ 2.05, p50.05, d ¼ 0.45. The remaining post-
hoc contrasts were non-significant.
Awareness of digital alcohol marketing
Respondents, on average, reported awareness of 6.23
(SD ¼ 2.52) of the 11 digital marketing channels, with a
range of 29–88% (Table 2). Those who reported HED weekly
reported the most awareness, whilst those who reported never
engaging in HED reported the least (Table 3). A one-way

graphic variables were categorical. Male was used as the

baseline for gender. Ethnicity was coded into binary Table 1. Awareness of alcohol marketing through traditional (offline)
channels.
categories, ‘‘White British’’ and ‘‘Other’’, and the latter
was used as the baseline. Religion was also coded into binary Channel % n
categories based on whether respondent was religious (Yes/
No). ‘‘No’’ was used as the baseline. Cumulative awareness of Television (including programme sponsorship) 80 323
Price promotion 65 262
traditional marketing was entered at step two, cumulative In-store posters 54 217
awareness of digital marketing was entered at step three, and Billboards/posters 54 219
cumulative participation with digital marketing at step four. Magazines 42 168
Packaging 35 143
The marketing variables were entered in this order to; (i)
Event sponsorship 35 143
compare the association awareness of traditional marketing Newspapers 35 141
had with increased frequency of HED to the association that Sports sponsorship 32 127
awareness of digital marketing had with increased frequency Average (%) 48 193
Cumulative mean (SD) 4.30 (2.29)
of HED, and (ii) to compare both forms of awareness against
the association that participation with digital marketing had
with increased frequency of HED. All variables were entered
using a forced entry method.
Table 2. Awareness of, and participation with, digital alcohol marketing.
Results
Awareness Participation Change
Sample characteristics
Channel % n % n %
The sample (n ¼ 405) had an average age of 21 (SD ¼ 2.22).
On-demand TV ads 88 355 49 199 39
There were 113 males (28%) and 292 females (72%). Most Videos 84 340 54 220 30
respondents identified as White British (66%), with the rest Display advertisements 76 309 12 49 64
11% Asian, 5% European, 4% Caribbean, 3% African, 3% Social media 65 262 20 81 45
from other ethnicities, 3% Middle Eastern, 2% mixed Online shop 62 249 15 61 47
Competitions 57 229 16 66 41
ethnicity, 2% who did not wish to state ethnicity, 41% Websites 50 202 28 114 22
North American and 41% South American/Hispanic. The Smartphone applications 46 186 20 79 26
majority (62%) of the sample indicated they were not Games 35 141 10 39 25
E-mail 33 133 6 26 27
religious. Almost the entire sample used the internet everyday
Downloadable content 29 116 3 11 26
(99%), spending an average of three–four hours online. Average (%) 57 229 21 86 36
Cumulative mean (SD)* 6.23 (2.52) 2.34 (1.96) 3.89
Awareness of traditional marketing
Cumulative mean refers to the average number of the 11 digital
Respondents, on average, reported awareness of alcohol being marketing channels, each participant was aware of, and participating
with.
marketed through 4.30 (SD ¼ 2.29) of the nine traditional *Paired samples t-test: awareness versus participation, t(404) ¼ 39.22,
channels, with a range of 32–80% (Table 1). Those who p50.001.
 DOI: 10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247
ANOVA indicated awareness of digital marketing differed
significantly across the five HED categories, F(4,
400) ¼ 4.18, p50.005, 2 ¼ 0.04. Post-hoc planned contrasts,
in which equal variances were assumed, indicated those who
reported never engaging in HED reported significantly lower
awareness of digital marketing than those who reported
HED less than monthly, t(400) ¼ 1.93, p50.05, d ¼ 0.19;
monthly, t(400) ¼ 3.61, p50.001, d ¼ 0.36; or weekly,
t(400) ¼ 3.01, p50.005, d ¼ 0.30. Similarly those who
reported HED less than monthly reported less awareness
than those who reported HED monthly, t(400) ¼ 2.01,
p50.05, d ¼ 0.20.
Participation with digital alcohol marketing
Digital alcohol marketing and high episodic drinking in young adults 5
F(1, 399) ¼ 7.62, p50.01, and increased the variance of
HED explained to 10% (DR2 ¼ 0.017). This indicated the
more traditional marketing channels a respondent was
aware of the more likely they were to engage in HED more
frequently.
The third step of the model examined the association
between frequency of HED and awareness of digital market-
ing. This step was also statistically significant,
F(1, 398) ¼ 4.66, p50.05, and increased the total variance
of HED explained to 11% (DR2 ¼ 0.010). This indicated the
more digital marketing channels a respondent was aware
of the more likely they were to report HED more frequently.
In step three, awareness of traditional marketing ceased to
be a significant predictor when adjusting for awareness of
Respondents, on average, reported participation with 2.34
(SD ¼ 1.96) of the 11 digital marketing channels, with a range
of 3–54% (Table 2). A one-way ANOVA indicated partici-
pation with digital marketing differed significantly across the
five HED groups, Welch’s F(4, 50.61) ¼ 12.45, p50.001,
2 ¼ 0.10. There was also a significant linear trend, F(1,
400) ¼ 16.47, p50.001, indicating as frequency of HED
increased, participation also increased (Table 3). Post-hoc
planned contrasts, in which equal variances were not assumed,
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy
revealed those who reported never engaging in HED reported
significantly less participation than those who reported HED
less than monthly, t(241.51) ¼ 5.05, p50.001, d ¼ 0.65;
digital marketing ( ¼ 0.09, p ¼ 0.09). This indicated the
association between increased awareness of digital marketing
and increased frequency of HED was stronger than the
association between increased awareness of traditional
marketing.
The fourth step of the regression model examined the
association between frequency of HED and participation
with digital marketing. This step was also significant,
F(1, 397) ¼ 13.43, p50.001, and increased the variance of
HED explained to 14% (DR2 ¼ 0.029). This indicated the
more digital marketing channels a respondent was participat-
ing with the more likely they were to report HED more
frequently. In step four, awareness of both traditional
monthly, t(193.185)  5.63, p50.001, d ¼ 0.81; weekly,
t(53.22) ¼ 4.59, p50.001, d ¼ 1.26; and daily or almost
daily, t(8.33) ¼ 2.40, p50.05, d ¼ 1.66.
Association with frequency of high episodic drinking
Twenty-four per cent (n ¼ 97) of the sample had never
engaged in HED, 37% (n ¼ 151) did so less than monthly,
27% (n ¼ 108) did so monthly, 10% (n ¼ 40) did so weekly
and 2% (n ¼ 9) did so daily or almost daily. The first step of
the linear regression model examined the association between
frequency of HED and the demographic variables (Table 4).
This step was statistically significant, F(4, 400) ¼ 8.65,
p50.001, and accounted for 8% of the variance in frequency
of HED. Within this step being male, of older age, and being
of White British ethnicity (as opposed to from other) was
associated with more frequent HED. Religion had no
significant association with frequency of HED.
The second step of the model examined the association
between frequency of HED and awareness of traditional
marketing. This step was statistically significant,
( ¼ 0.08, p ¼ 0.10) and digital marketing ( ¼ 0.02,
p ¼ 0.73) ceased to be significant predictors when adjusting
for participating with digital marketing. This indicated the
association between increased participation with digital
marketing and increased frequency of HED was stronger
than increased awareness of either digital or traditional
marketing.
Discussion
The results are consistent with past research, by demonstrat-
ing a significant association between awareness of, and
participation with, alcohol marketing and increased frequency
of HED. The results extend knowledge given that research
exploring digital marketing has only considered limited
channels (de Bruijn, 2013; de Bruijn et al., 2012; Gordon
et al., 2010b, 2011; Jones & Magee, 2011; Lin et al., 2012).
Young adults are increasingly using the internet for recre-
ational activities such as, gaming, sharing media, shopping
and downloading smartphone applications (OFCOM, 2015b).

Table 3. One-way analysis of variance, awareness and participation with alcohol marketing by frequency of high episodic drinking.

Frequency of high episodic drinking

Never Less than Monthly Weekly Daily or almost
(n ¼ 97) monthly (n ¼ 151) (n ¼ 108) (n ¼ 40) daily (n ¼ 9)
Form of exposure M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD F p
a
Awareness traditional marketing 3.77 2.17 4.23 2.32 4.64 2.38 4.90 1.71 4.67 3.00 2.98 50.05
Awareness digital marketing 5.49 2.48 6.11 2.51 6.75 2.47 6.90 2.25 6.67 3.12 4.18 50.005
Participation digital marketing 1.36 1.40 2.42 1.91 2.69 1.97 3.05 2.15 3.78 2.99 12.36a 50.001
a
Homogeneity of variances not assumed and Welch’s F value reported. All post-hoc planned contrasts for ANOVAs based on equal variances not
assumed.
 6 N. Critchlow et al. Drugs Educ Prev Pol, Early Online: 1–9

Table 4. Association between awareness of, and participation with, alcohol marketing and frequency of high episodic
drinking.

Standardised
Unstandardised coefficients coefficients
Variables b SE  t p DR2
Step one 0.08
Age 0.05 0.02 0.10 2.08 50.05
Gender (1 ¼ male, 2 ¼ female) 0.35 0.11 0.16 3.26 50.005
Ethnicity (0 ¼ Other, 1 ¼ White British) 0.39 0.11 0.18 3.69 50.005
Religion (0 ¼ No, 1 ¼ Yes) 0.13 0.11 0.06 1.24 n.s
Step two 0.02
Awareness of traditional marketing (0–9) 0.06 0.02 0.13 2.76 50.005
Step three 0.01
Awareness of traditional marketing 0.04 0.02 0.09 1.71 n.s
Awareness of digital marketing (0–11) 0.05 0.02 0.12 2.16 50.05
Step four 0.03
Awareness of traditional marketing 0.04 0.02 0.08 1.63 n.s
Awareness of digital marketing 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.35 n.s
Participation with digital marketing (0–11) 0.12 0.03 0.23 3.67 50.001

Sample (n ¼ 405); Durbin Watson: 1.78.

n.s: non-significant.
Step two, three and four controlled for all four demographic variables from stage one.
Dependent variable (DV): how often do you have six or more units if female, or eight or more if male, on a single occasion
in the last year? (0 ¼ never; 4 ¼ daily or almost daily).
Unstandardised coefficients, standard errors and p values of significance based on 2000 bootstrapped pairwise
comparisons.
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy

By exploring these channels in the context of alcohol
marketing the findings suggest that the alcohol industry is
reactive to changes in how young adults use the internet and
have developed digital marketing strategies that appear
successful in reaching them and encouraging them to
participate.
Compared to previous research, the findings show that
average awareness of digital marketing was 16% higher than
reported by de Bruijn (2013) and at least 50% higher than
reported by Lin et al. (2012) and Gordon et al. (2011). This
increase was also true for participation, with the average
estimate reported at least 15% higher than adolescents in
Scotland or New Zealand (Gordon et al., 2011; Lin et al.,
2012). Average awareness of alcohol marketing was also
higher for digital than traditional marketing channels. This
contrasts with past research in Scotland (Gordon et al., 2011)
and New Zealand (Lin et al., 2012) where the average
awareness of traditional marketing, which was close to the
estimate found in this study, was higher than digital market-
ing. Therefore the findings suggest that although awareness of
traditional marketing has remained stable in recent years,
digital marketing has become increasingly successful in
reaching young people. It is important to note that as previous
research has only focused on adolescents, the findings may
simply reflect the greater amount of online marketing young
adults are exposed to. It may also be that the inclusion of a
visual example for each digital marketing channel stimulated
cue-reactivity, which is known facilitate better recall
(McCracken & Macklin, 1998). Alternatively, the increase
in exposure may simply reflect the greater expenditure on
digital marketing (OFCOM, 2015a) or increased internet use
by young adults (Office for National Statistics, 2015a).
However, regardless of the reason, the increased exposure
reported does help to explain the alcohol industry’s shift in
promotional expenditure towards new media.
The findings are consistent with reviews of research
exploring traditional alcohol marketing, which suggest an
association between exposure and alcohol use (Anderson
et al., 2009; Gordon et al., 2010a; Smith & Foxcroft, 2009),
and also support formative research which has suggested this
link is also true for digital marketing (de Bruijn et al., 2012;
de Bruijn, 2013; Gordon et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012; Jones &
Magee, 2011). Our findings are also consistent with sugges-
tions that digital marketing has resulted in a more powerful
association with consumption compared to traditional mar-
keting (Hastings & Sheron, 2013), and that participation has a
stronger association than awareness (Gordon et al., 2011; Lin
et al., 2012). Evidence suggests that the alcohol industry is
also aware of this and is encouraging consumers to engage
with digital marketing (Atkinson et al., 2014; Nicholls, 2012),
even by adding quick response barcodes and augmented
reality features to offline marketing such as product
packaging (Purves et al., 2014), beer mats (Spencer, 2014)
and pint glasses (Nudd, 2012). Nonetheless, participation with
digital marketing was lower than awareness of both traditional
and digital marketing. It therefore remains plausible some
young adults who may not participate may still be aware of
digital and traditional marketing, which the findings suggest
is also associated with increased frequency of HED, albeit not
as strongly as participation. Past research suggests the
association between marketing and consumption is best
understood as cumulative across all marketing channels
(Gordon et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012) and our findings
further support that all three forms of exposure should be
considered in the relationship between exposure and alcohol
use in young adults.
This study has a number of limitations. First, the findings
are cross-sectional and do not provide evidence that market-
ing increased the frequency HED over time. The suggestion
that marketing does have a causal relationship with
 DOI: 10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247 Digital alcohol marketing and high episodic drinking in young adults
consumption is supported by longitudinal research on trad-
itional (Anderson et al., 2009; Smith & Foxcroft, 2009) and
digital marketing (de Bruijn et al., 2012), especially studies
which have controlled for multiple confounding variables
(Gordon et al., 2010b). A causal hypothesis is also supported
by message interpretation research, which suggests exposure
to alcohol marketing increases cognitions which in turn
influence alcohol use. Examples from research include;
expectancies, desirability, drinker identity and brand alle-
giance (Austin, Chen, & Grube, 2006; Austin & Knaus, 2000;
Chen, Grube, Bersamin, Waiters, & Keefe, 2005; Fleming,
Thorson, & Aitken, 2004; Grube & Waiters, 2005; McClure,
Stoolmiller, Tanski, Engels, & Sargent, 2013). However, only
de Bruijn et al. (2012) have provided evidence that these
social-cognitive pathways explain the impact of digital
marketing on consumption. Further research is required
before we can accept, with confidence, that the effect is not
attributable to reverse causality or residual confounding
factors.
Second, the small and self-selected sample means the
findings are not representative of all young people in the
UK, and considerably more females chose to participate in
the study than males. Indeed, the different modes of
Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy
recruitment may have also skewed the findings. For
instance, that some young adults were recruited via a digital
forum and others from a social networking site, and
therefore may be more actively engaged in digital activities,
provides an alternative hypothesis to explain why awareness
of, and participation, with digital marketing was greater than
previous research. Indeed, the opt-in process for those in the
digital forum and social networking site may also mean that
only those with a greater interest in alcohol marketing chose
to participate. Furthermore, as remaining participants were
recruited from an undergraduate psychology course the
possibility of response bias cannot be rejected. This could be
the result of familiarity with research methods, or token
participation to receive the module credits. Furthermore, as
all responses were anonymous it was not possible to
compare between the different modes of recruitment.
Further research exploring different demographics groups,
in particular those under the legal age of consumption,
would be welcomed.
Another limitation is the results may underestimate
awareness of, and participation with, alcohol marketing and
the subsequent association with alcohol use. First, the
channels we assessed are not exhaustive and did not consider,
for instance, marketing on music streaming services
(MacLeod, 2013b). Second, online platforms, in particular
social media, enable marketing to be submerged below
conscious awareness. This can make it difficult to recognise
marketing, which may lead to under-estimations in reported
exposure (Lyons et al., 2014). Measurement of awareness and
participation only had dichotomous responses. It is possible a
‘‘do not know’’ option may have helped identify when a
respondent could not be sure they had been exposed to a
marketing channel, but did not feel confident rejecting that
they had not. Fourth, it was decided that also measuring
participation with traditional marketing may have increased
response fatigue and drop-out from the study. We acknow-
ledge, however, there would have been investigative benefit in
7
exploring participation with both traditional and digital
marketing.
Finally, this study did not explore awareness of, and
participation with, the user-created content which co-exists
with marketing online. This includes user-generated branding,
in which users promote their own sense of brand meaning
(Arnhold, 2010; Griffiths & Casswell, 2010; Nicholls, 2012),
and also user-created alcohol content, in which individuals
promote alcohol consumption independent of brand influence
(Moreno, Christakis, Egan, Brockman, & Becker, 2012;
Morgan, Snelson, & Elison-Bowers, 2010; Ridout,
Campbell, & Ellis, 2012).
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study extends understanding by demon-
strating young adults are aware of, and participating with,
alcohol marketing through new media channels, which have
not been considered in previous research. By demonstrating a
significant association between awareness of, and participa-
tion with, alcohol marketing and increased frequency of HED,
the findings contribute to a growing body of evidence which
suggests marketing is associated with alcohol use in young
people. It is notable the findings demonstrate this association
in young adults, as they are under-researched, report some of
the highest estimates of internet use and HED in the UK, and
represent a key target market for the alcohol industry. There
are limitations which should inform how the findings are
interpreted, in particular the high gender skew, cross-sectional
design and self-selected sample. Finally, as this study only
provides a snapshot of awareness and participation with
online media, further studies on explicit and implicit forms of
digital marketing and user-created content are still needed to
enhance the evidence base.
Acknowledgements
The authors pay thanks to ALOVE! This group represent The
Salvation Army (TSA) for the new generation and are
responsible for the implementing the national youth work
strategy by delivering worship, discipleship, mission and
social action. The authors also thank TSA’s Scottish Alcohol
and Drug Strategy Group and the Centre for Applied Research
and Assessment in Adolescent and Child Wellbeing at the
University of Roehampton, particularly Dr. Catherine
Gilvarry and Prof. Cecilia Essau for their input in early
stages of project development.
Declaration of interest
This project was supported by a grant supplied by The
Salvation Army in the United Kingdom and Republic of
Ireland. The authors report no conflict of interest.
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