Clarendon College

Odiong, Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

Rammah G. Galicha May 16, 2021

II-Bcaed_A Mr. Ricky Apostol

Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne)

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The
significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of
instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy
according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The
primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to
facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a
learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

 Gaining attention (reception)

 Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
 Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
 Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
 Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
 Eliciting performance (responding)
 Providing feedback (reinforcement)
 Assessing performance (retrieval)
 Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
Application
While Gagne’s theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the
theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in
all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special
attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of
instructional technology in learning.
Example
 The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine
instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:
 Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles
 Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
 Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles
 Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
 Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
 Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different examples
 Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect
 Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
 Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify
equilaterals

Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.

Principles

1.Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.

3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type
of learning outcome.

4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.

Ausubel theory of learning

David Ausubel is a psychologist who advanced a theory which contrasted meaningful

learning from rote learning. In Ausubel's view, to learn meaningfully, students must relate new
knowledge (concepts and propositions) to what they already know. He proposed the notion of an
advanced organizer as a way to help students link their ideas with new material or concepts.
Ausubel's theory of learning claims that new concepts to be learned can be incorporated into
more inclusive concepts or ideas. These more inclusive concepts or ideas are advance organizers.
Advance organizers can be verbal phrases (the paragraph you are about to read is about Albert
Einstein), or a graphic. In any case, the advance organizer is designed to provide, what cognitive
psychologists call, the "mental scaffolding: to learn new information.

Ausubel's theory suggests that if a learner is to acquire new concepts from verbal
material he must have an existing cognitive structure upon which new concepts can be subsumed
or anchored. If the requisite cognitive structure is not available, it can be provided with an
advance organizer
 Ausubel believed that learning proceeds in a top-down, or deductive manner. Ausubel's
theory consists of three phases, presentation of an advance organizer, presentation of learning
task or material, and strengthening the cognitive organization

Novak and Gowan (1984) have developed a theory of instruction that is based on
Ausubel's meaningful learning principles that incorporates "concept maps" to represent
meaningful relationships between concepts and propositions. A cognitive map is a "kind of
visual road map showing some of the pathways we may take to connect meanings of concepts."
According to Novak and Gowan concept maps should be hierarchical; the more general, more
inclusive concepts should be at the top of the map, and the more specific, less inclusive concepts
at the bottom of the map. An an example of this hierarchical principle of concept maps is shown
in the concept map of the food chain.

The concept map is a tool that science teachers can use to determine the nature of
students' existing ideas The map can be used to make evident the key concepts to be learned
and suggest linkages between the new information to be learned and what the student already
knows. Concept maps can precede instruction, and be used by the teacher to generate a
meaningful discussion of student ideas. Following the initial construction and discussion of
concept maps, instructional activities can be designed to explore alternative frameworks,
resulting in cognitive accommodation.

Bruner - Learning Theory in Education

Bruner (1966) was concerned with how knowledge is represented and organized through
different modes of thinking (or representation).

In his research on the cognitive development of children, Jerome Bruner proposed three modes
of representation

 Enactive representation (action-based)

 Iconic representation (image-based)
 Symbolic representation (language-based)

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to
follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for
adult learners.

Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning
any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs
of Piaget and other stage theorists.
Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

Enactive (0 - 1 year)

The first kind of memory. This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding with
Piaget’s sensorimotor stage). Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by
doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking).

It involves encoding physical action based information and storing it in our memory. For
example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of
shaking a rattle.

This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike.Many adults
can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they
would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.

Iconic (1 - 6 years)

Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind.
For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it.

This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams
or illustrations to accompany the verbal information.

Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch.

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as
language. This mode is acquired around six to seven years-old (corresponding to Piaget’s
concrete operational stage).

In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other
symbol systems, such as music.

Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc. so the user isn’t
constrained by actions or images (which have a fixed relation to that which they represent).
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

Revised Bloom’s taxonomy emphasizes students’ learning outcomes through the use
of refined terms. The revised taxonomy is a refreshed take on Bloom’s Taxonomy from 1956,
which examined cognitive skills and learning behavior. Changes to terminology, structure and
emphasis are a part of the revised approach. Nouns such as evaluation or synthesis are now
replaced with verbs such as creating or evaluating, respectively. With structure, “creating” now
becomes the highest level—the area meant for generating ideas or constructing a new point of
view. Emphasis has also changed, whereby the taxonomy is aimed at wider audiences and
attempts to be more universal beyond grade school.

There are six levels of cognitive learning according to the revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy.
Each level is conceptually different. The six levels are remembering, understanding, applying,
analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

Bloom's Taxonomy comprises three learning domains: the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor,
and assigns to each of these domains a hierarchy that corresponds to different levels of learning.
It's important to note that the different levels of thinking defined within each domain of the
Taxonomy are hierarchical.

The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence or Three Forms of Intelligence,formulated by

psychometrician Robert Sternberg, aims to go against the psychometric approach to intelligence
and take a more cognitive approach, which leaves it to the category of the cognitive-contextual
theories. The three meta components are also called triarchic components.

Sternberg's definition of human intelligence is "(a) mental activity directed toward purposive
adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one's life".Thus,
Sternberg viewed intelligence as how well an individual deals with environmental changes
throughout their lifespan. Sternberg's theory comprises three parts: componential, experiential,
and practical.

Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what
causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain
knowledge.
Motivation doesn't just refer to the factors that activate behaviors; it also involves the factors that
direct and maintain these goal-directed actions (though such motives are rarely directly
observable). As a result, we often have to infer the reasons why people do the things that they do
based on observable behaviors.1

What exactly lies behind the motivations for why we act? Psychologists have proposed different
theories of motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory, and humanistic theory (such as
Maslow's hierarchy of needs). The reality is that there are many different forces that guide and
direct our motivations

Types of Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic:

 Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve
rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
 Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a
complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem.

Understanding motivation can:

 Help improve the efficiency of people as they work toward goals

 Help people take action
 Encourage people to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 Help people avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors such as risk-taking and addiction
 Help people feel more in control of their lives
 Improve overall well-being and happiness

There are three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.

Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of
persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it
requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.

Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.4 For example,
one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly,
participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first
student lacks intensity, while the second pursues their educational goals with greater intensity.