Chemistry

Important Concepts of Chemistry

Matter

 Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.

 Matter exists in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.

Different states of matter exhibit the following characteristics:

 Solids havee definite volume and definite shape.
 Liquids have definite volume but not the definite shape. They take the shape of the container in
which they are placed.
 Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape. They completely occupy the cointainer in
which they are placed.
 These three states of matter are inter-convertible
inter convertible by changing the condition of temperature and
pressure.
 Physical Properties of matter are those properties which can be measured or observed without
changing the identity of the substance.
substan Some examples off physical properties are colour
colour, odour,
melting point, boiling point, density, etc.
 The measurement or observation of chemical properties requires a chemical change to occur. The
examples of chemical properties are characteristic reactions
reactions of different substances; these include
acidity or basicity, combustibility, etc.
Boiling point

 The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which it can change its state from a liquid
to a gas throughout the bulk of the liquid.
 Air pressure changes the boiling point. The lower the air pressure, the lower the boiling point.
The higher the air pressure, the higher the boiling point.
 Pressure cookers are able to cook food faster, because they allow food to boil at temperatures
above 212 deg Fahrenheit (or 100 Celsuis) by pressurizing the food as it cooks.
 When impurities are added to the water, it tends to increase the boiling point of the water to
102 degrees celsius and lower the melting point of the water to 2 degree Celsius.
 A liquid may change to a gas at temperatures below the boiling point through the process of
evaporation.
 Any change of state from a liquid to a gas at boiling point is considered as vaporization.

Atom

 An atom is the smallest unit of matter that has the properties of an element. It is composed of a
dense core called the nucleus and a series of outer shells occupied by orbiting electrons. Matter
is made up of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible.
 All atoms of an elements have different weights and different chemical properties.
 Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole numbers to form compounds.
 Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. When a compound decomposes, the atoms are
recovered unchanged.
Molecules

 A molecule is a single unit created by two or more

more atoms that are tightly bonded together.
 Diatomic molecules are molecules which are made of two atoms. Certain elements are diatomic
elements because they do not naturally occur as single atoms, but as a pair of atoms. The
diatomic molecules are (H) Hydrogen,
Hydrogen, (N) Nitrogen, (o) Oxygen, (F) Fluorine, (CL) chlorine, (I)
Iodine and (B) Bromine. Earth’s atmosphere is comprised, almost completely, of diatomic
oxygen and nitrogen.
 Molecules that are found with only one type of element in them, like the diatomic eelements, are
known as homoatomic molecules.
 When a molecule is formed from elements of a different species it is a heteroatomic molecule.
 As an atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element, a
molecule is the smallest
est particle of a compound.

Element

 An element is a substance that is made entirely from one type of atom. For example, the
element hydrogen is made from atoms containing just one proton and one electron.
  Currently, scientists known of 118 different elements. Some, like gold, silver, copper and carbon,
have been known for thousands of years.
 An element cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical
means;
 An element can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).
 The most abundant element in the Earth’s crust is oxygen, making up 46.6% of the Earth’s mass.
Silicon is the second most abundant element (27.7%), followed by aluminum (8.1%), iron (5.0%),
calcium (3.6%), sodium (2.8%), potassium (2.6%). and magnesium (2.1%).
 The most abundant element in the human body is oxygen, making up about 65% of the weight
of each person. Carbon is the second more abundant element, making up 18% of the body.

Mixture

 A mixture consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically

intermingled.
 A mixture can be separated into its components by physical means, and often retains many of
the properties of its components.
 A mixture often retains many of the properties of its components.
 There are three primary types of mixtures- solution, suspension and colloid.

Solution

 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The component that is present
in a larger amount is called the solvent. The component present in a smaller quantity is called
the solute.
Homogeneous Solution

 Homogeneous solution can be defined as that mixture which is formed by the combination of a
solute in solvent, which cannot be seen as separate entities either by naked eye or through
microscope or ultra microscope.

Heterogeneous Solution

 Heterogeneous solution is the one in which the solute and solvent particles are seen either by
naked eye or by microscope and can be separated by the normal filtration or ultra filtration.

Suspensions

 The particles in suspensions are larger than those found un solutions.

 Components of a suspension can be evenly distributed by a mechanical means, like by shaking
the contents, but the components will settle out.
 Example: Oil and water.

Colloids

 A colloid is a solution that has particles ranging between 1 and 1000 nanometers in diameter,
yet are still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the solution.
 These are also known as colloidal dispersion consists of colloids in a dispersing medium.
 Particles intermediate in size between those found in solutions and suspensions can be mixed
such that they remain evenly distributed without settling out.
 A common method of classifying colloids is based on the phase of the dispersed substance and
what phase it is dispersed in. the types of colloids include sol, emulsion, foam, and aerosol.
 Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles in a liquid.
 Emulsion is between two liquids.
  Foam is formed when many gas particles are tapped in a liquid or solid.
 Aerosol contains small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a gas.
 Dust is a colloid. It consists of a solid in a gas, so it is an aerosol.
 Whipped cream is a colloid. It consists of a gas in a liquid, so it is a foam.
 Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles ina liquid.
 The light is reflected off the large particles and spread out.
 It is considered a suspension if the particles are larger than 1000 nanometres in diameter.

Properties of Colloidal Solutions

 Colligative Properties : Osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in freezing

point and elevation in boiling point are the colligative properties exhibited by colloidal solutions.
 The Tyndall Effect describes scattering of light as a light beam passes through a colloid.
  Brownian Motion describes the Zig-zag
Zig movement
vement of colloidal particles in suspension.

 The blue colour of the sky is due to Rayleigh scattering. The light is scattered due to the
presence of dust particles suspended in the air.

 Purification of Colloidal Solutions can be done through Dialysis, Electro-dialysis

dialysis and Ultra
Ultra-
filtration.

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Changes

 The physical change may be defined as the change which occur in size, shape, colour, texture,
state, magnetic or electrical condition but the molecular composition remains
remains totally unaltered,
i.e., no new product is formed as a result of physical change.

Examples of Physical Change:-

  Melting of wax
 Boiling of water
 Freezing of water
 Melting of ice
 Dissolution of sugar in water

Chemical Changes

 A change during which the molecular composition gets totally altered, that is change in which a
new product is always formed is called a chemical change.

Examples of Chemical Change:

 Burning of candle
 Souring of milk
 Burning of camphor
 Burning of wood or paper
 Rancidification of butter
 Digestion of food
 Atomic Structure and Radioactivity

Structure of the Atom

 Dalton states that every substance is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
 Atoms of one element are all alike and have the same atoms.
 Atoms are particles of elements or substance. These cannot be broken further without changing the
chemical nature of the substance.

Rutherford’s and Bohr’s postulations

 Atomic structure of an atom mainly consists of three particles such as electrons, protons and
neutrons.
 These sub-atomic particles have different properties. The centre of the atom has nucleus which
consists of proton and neutrons.
 Protons have positive electric charge and it is much larger and heavier than electrons.
 Neutrons have no electrical charges and it is much heavier and larger like protons.
 Electrons are very small, tiny, and lighter particles and it has negative electric charge.
 Electrons are present at considerable distance from the nucleus in a series of levels called
energy levels.
 Each energy level can hold certain number of electrons only. The first energy level which is very
close to the nucleus can hold only 2 electrons, the second and third level can hold only 8 and 18
electrons respectively.
 The atom can either gain or lose electrons to become negatively or positively charged.
 The atoms which have 1, 2, or 3 electrons present in outermost orbital can lose the electrons
while interaction with atoms which have 5, 6, or 7 electrons present in the outermost orbital.
 The atoms which have 5, 6, or 7 electrons in the outermost orbital can gain the electrons while
interaction with atoms which have 1, 2, or 3 electrons in the outermost orbital.
  The atoms which have 4 electrons in the outermost orbital will tend neither to totally lose nor
totally gain electrons during interactions.

Cathode Rays

 J.J. Thomson is created with discovery of electrons.

 Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles called electrons.
 They originate from cathode and travel through straight line.
 These rays deflect towards the positive plate of an electric field.
 The nature of the cathode rays does not depend on the nature of the gas inside the tube or the
cathode used.
 The ratio of the charge to mass (e/m ratio) of cathode ray particles obtained from different
gases was found to be exactly the same.

Anode Rays

 Goldstein experimentally proved the existence of positive charge in matter.

 These rays consist of positively charged particles to balance the negatively charged electrons.
 They do not originate from anode.
 These rays deflect towards the negative plate of an electric field.
 The charge to mass (e/m) ratio of the particles in anode rays depends upon the nature of the
gas taken in the discharge tube.
 In the case of hydrogen, the e/m ratio is the highest as the positive particles obtained
btained from
hydrogen are the lightest.
 A hydrogen-1 1 atom has only one Proton, one Electron, and no neutrons.
 Isotopes of hydrogen:
  Protium-1 proton, 0 neutrons
 Tritium-1 proton, 2 neutrons
 An atom that has neither a positive nor a negative charge is neutral. That atom is said to have a
neutral charge.
 An atom becomes negatively charged by addition of an extra electron orbiting the nucleus.
 An atom becomes positively charged if an extra proton joins the nucleus.

Atomic Number

 The number of protons present in the atom determines the atomic number of atom.
Atomic number = Number of protons present in nucleus = Number of electrons
Atomic mass = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
 The elements which are having same number of atomic number and varying mass number are
called Isotopes.
 The elements which are having same mass number and varying atomic number are called
isobars.

Mass Number (A)

 The mass number A of an atom is the total number of its nuclear constituents, or nucleons as
the proton and neutrons are collectively called.
Isotopes

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different mass due to differences in the
number of neutrons they contain.
 Because the atomic number of any element is established, sometimes isotopes are represented
simply with the mass number, thus: Ag. They may also be designated with a subscript notation
indicating the number of neutrons.
 Many isotopes are stable, meaning that they are not subject to radioactive decay, but many
more are radioactive.
 The latter, also known as radioisotopes, play a significant role in modern life.
 Carbon-14, for instance, is used for estimating the age of objects within a relatively recent span
of time-up to about 5,000 years-whereas geologist and other scientists use uranium-238 to date
minerals of an age on a scale with the most stable isotopes is easy to remember because its
name is almost the same as its number of stable isotopes: tin, with 10.
Radioactivity

 Natural radioactivity was first observed in 1896 by A.H. Becquerel but the term radioactivity
was coined by Madam Curie.
 Radioactive decay is the spontaneous radioactive disintegration of an atomic nucleus resulting
in the release of energy in the form of particles.
 Radioactive decay is one process through which unstable atoms can become more stable.
 The emissions from an unstable atom’s nucleus, as it decays, can be in the form of alpha, beta
or gamma radiation.

Alpha Particles

 In alpha decay, a positively-charged particle is emitted from the nucleus of an atom.

 Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. This means that they have a charge of +2,
and a mass of 4.
 Alpha particles are relatively slow and heavy.
 They have a low penetrating power you can stop them with just a sheet of paper.
 Because they have a large charge, alpha particles ionize other atoms strongly.

Beta Particles

 In beta decay, a particle is emitted from the nucleus of an atom.

 Beta particles have a charge of minus 1, and a mass of about 1/2000th of a proton.
  This means that beta particles are the same as an electron.
 They are fast, and light.
 Beta particles have a medium penetrating power-they are stopped by a sheet of aluminium or
plastics such as Perspex.
 Beta particles ionize atoms that they pass, but not as strongly as alpha particles do.

Gamma Rays

 Gamma decay occurs because the nucleus of an atom is at too high as energy state.
 Gamma rays are waves, not particles. This means that they have no mass and no charge. So we
sometimes write.
 Gamma rays have a high penetrating power-it takes a thick sheet of metal such as lead, or
concrete to stop them significantly.
 Gamma rays do not directly ionize other atoms, although they may cause atoms to emit other
particles which will then cause ionization.
 We don’t find pure gamma sources – gamma rays are emitted alongside alpha or beta particles.

Nuclear Fission

 An atom’s nucleus can be split apart. When this is done, a tremendous amount of energy is
released in the form of both heat and light.
 Inside a nuclear reactor, uranium atoms are split apart in a controlled chain reaction.
 In a chain reaction, neutrons released by splitting of the atom off and strike other uranium
atoms, splitting those and releasing another lot of neutrons to continue striking more uranium
atoms. In nuclear reactors, design features and control roads are used to regulate the splitting
so it does not go too fast.
  If the reaction is not controlled and the fuel is almost pure uranium-235 or plutonium, you could
have an atomic bomb. These conditions are not present in a nuclear reactor.

Nuclear Reactor

 It is a device that can initiate and control a self-sustaining series of nuclear-fission reactions.
 Nuclear reactor is a complex device in which fissionable elements such as uranium, thorium, or
plutonium are made to undergo a sustainable nuclear chain reaction.
 This chain reaction release energy in the form of radiation that (a) sustains the chain reaction;
(b) transmutes (i.e., alters the nuclear characteristics of nearby atoms, including the nuclear fuel
itself) and (c) may be harvested as heat.
 The control rods such as cadmium or boron are lowered into nuclear material to absorb the
neutrons thus slowing the reaction or raised to allow more reaction.
 Materials used as moderators include heavy water, graphite, beryllium and certain organic
compounds.
 A thermal nuclear reactor is the one where the majority of fissions are caused by slow neutrons.
 A fast nuclear reactor is the one where the majority of fissions are caused by fast neutrons.
 The breeder reactor is a special type used to produce more fissionable atoms than it consumes.
Nuclear Fusion

 Fusion: it involves joining of smaller nuclei together

together to make a large nucleus. The Sun is powered
by nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms. This gives off heat, light and other
radiations.
 Scientists have been working on controlling nuclear fusion for a long time, trying to make a
fusion reactor to produce electricity.

Radioisotopes

 Radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of an element.

 Different isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei
but different numbers of neutrons.
 They can also be defined as atoms that contain an unstable combination of neutrons and
protons. (nucleus)
 Chemical Bonding and Chemical Reactions

Electrovalent/Ionic Bonding

 Electrovalent bond is the attractive force between the oppositely charged ions, which comes
into existencee by the complete transfer of electrons.
 Electrovalent compounds are compounds formed by complete transfer of electrons from a
metallic atom to a non-metallic
metallic atom resulting in the formation of cation and anion.
 The metal has the low ionization energy.
 The non-metal
metal has a high electron affinity (electron gain energy).
 The metal forms large ions of low charge.
 The non-metal
metal forms small ions of low charge.

Covalent Bonding

 When the combining atoms have 4, 5, 6, or 7 electrons in the outermost or valence shell shell, they
cannot donate electrons.
 Instead, they mutually share electrons in order to complete their octet in the outermost orbit or
shell.
 Such a type of valency is referred to as covalency and the bond created between such atoms is
called a covalent bond.
 Covalent
ovalent compounds are mostly gases and liquids.
 Most of the covalent substances do not conduct electricity because of the nonnon-availability of
free electrons or charged ions to carry the current.
 Covalent substances are insoluble in polar solvents like water.
wate
 A very interesting property of covalent crystals is the apparent lack of sensitivity of their physical
properties of their bonding types.
Van der Waals Forces

The melting and boiling points are usually low as compared to those of ionic crystals. This is because the
covalent bond is not so strong as ionic bond and also because the atoms are less powerfully attracted
towards each other, the force that attracts them towards each other is called Van der Waals forces
which is quite weaker.

Chemical Reactions

 Chemical reaction is the process that leads to transformation of one set of chemical substance
to another.

Exothermic Chemical Reaction

 These are reactions that transfer energy to the surroundings.

 The energy is usually transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture
ure and its
surroundings to becomeme hotter.
  The energy content of the products is more than the reactants.
 The temperature increases can be detected using a thermometer. Some examples of exothermic
reactions are:
 Burning
 Neutralization reactions
ctions between acids and alkalis
 The reaction between water and calcium oxide.

Endothermic Reactions

 These are reactions that take in energy from the surroundings.

 The energy is usually transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings
undings to get colder.
 The energy content of the reactants is fewer than the products.
 The temperature decreases can also be detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
endothermic reactions are:
 Electrolysis
 The reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium
sodiu carbonate
 The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in a blast furnace
Catalysis

 Catalysis is an acceleration or retardation of the rate of a chemical reaction, brought about by

the addition of a substance (the catalyst) to the reaction medium.
 The catalyst, usually present in small amounts, is not consumed in the reaction.
 Homogeneous catalysis refer to catalytic reactions in which the catalyst is in the same phase as
the reactant. Ozone in the stratosphere, for example, is converted into oxygen via the catalytic
action of chlorine atoms formed as a result of the photochemical destruction of
chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants.

Heterogeneous catalysis describes reactions in which the catalyst and the reactants are in different
phases. In these reactions, the catalyst is most often an insoluble solid and the reactants are in the
gaseous or liquid/ solution phase. A key feature of this type of catalyst is that the reactants must adsorb
to the catalyst’s surface. Large catalyst surface, then, ensure that the desired reaction occurs rapidly.

Oxidation

 Oxidation:: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic

non element or removal of hydrogen or metallic
elements from a compound is known as oxidation.
 Elements or compounds in which oxygen or non-metallic
non element is added or hydrogen or
metallic element is removed are called to be oxidised.
 Oxidizing agent: Compounds which can add oxygen or a non-metallic
non metallic compound or remove
hydrogen or metallic element are known as oxidizing agents.
Reduction

 Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non-metallic

element from a compound is called reduction. The compound or element which goes under
reduction is called to be reduced.
 Reducing agent: Compounds or elements which can cause reduction are called reducing agents.

Redox Reactions

 In a chemical reaction, oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously and such
reactions are also known as Redox Reactions.
 In the word Redox, ‘Red’ stands for reduction and ‘Ox’ stands for oxidation.

Significance of Oxidation Reduction in Every Life

 Respiration is oxidation reaction in which food is oxidized to produce energy.

 Iron gets oxidized to form rust; which leads to corrosion of iron in the long run.
 Most of the metals react with atmospheric oxygen and it leads to formation of a layer on the
metal article. The metal gets corroded in the long run.
 Rusting of iron can be prevented by painting the iron article. This can also be prevented by
applying a layer of zinc over iron article. This process is known as galvanization.
 Fried food gets oxidized when exposed to air. This spoils the taste of the food and the food
becomes unfit for consumption. The spoiling of fired food because of oxidation is called
rancidity. Fried food is often packed in airtight packets to prevent rancidity.
 We are able to utilise various types of fuel because of oxidation. Oxidation of fuel because of
oxidation. Oxidation of fuel helps in producing energy.
 Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids

 An acid is a substance that gives H+ ions when dissolved in water.

 Acids are usually compounds of non-metals with hydrogen and sometimes oxygen.
 Sour taste is the most common characteristic of acid. Acid turns blue litmus paper red. There are
many substances which contain acid and hence taste sour, such as curd, tamarind, lemon, etc.
 Types of Acids : Acids are divided into two types on the basis of their occurrence – Natural acids
and Mineral acids.
 If concentrated, they can be corrosive.

Base

 A Base is a substance that gives OH- ions when dissolved in water.

 Bases are usually metal hydroxides (MOH).
 Base is bitter in taste and feels soapy on touch. A base turns ted litmus paper blue.
 Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate (washing soda), lime
(Calcium oxide), potassium hydroxide (caustic potash), etc. are examples of base.
 Types of base: Base can be divided into two types- Water soluble and water insoluble.
  The ionic salt of alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. These are also known as
alkali. For example – sodium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc. Alkali is
considered as strong base.

Common in Acid and Base

 Acids give hydrogen gas when they react with metal.

 This shows that all acids contain hydrogen.

For example: Hydrochloric acid (HCL), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), etc.

 When an acid is dissolved in water, it dissociates into hydrogenions.

 The dissociation of hydrogen ion in aqueous solution is the common property of all acids.
 Because of dissociation of hydrogen ion in aqueous solution, an acid shows acidic behavior.

pH

 Acidity is measured on a scale called pH. The value of pH determines how much acidic or basic a
solution is A pH of 14 is a strong alkali. A neutral solution (or pure water) has a pH of 7.
 There are chemicals that change colour at different pH values. These are called indicators. One
of the most famous is Litmus paper. This substance turns red when the pH is less than 7 (acidic)
and turns blue when the pH is greater than 7 (basic).

Salts

 A Salt results when an acid reacts with a base. Both are neutralized.
 The H+ and OH- ions combine to form water.
 The non-metallic ions of the acid and the metal ions of the base form the salt.

Oxides

 Oxides are compounds containing Oxygen combined with a single element.

 Oxides can be Acidic, Basic or Neutral.
 Acidic Oxides react with water to form an acid.
 Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) reacts with water to form Sulphuric Acid.
 Basic Oxides react with water to form an alkali. Sodium Oxide is a good example.
  Neutral Oxides are either insoluble in water or do not form acids or alkalis when dissolved.
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxide (N2O) and Water are neutral.

Indigestion: Hydrochloric acid in our stomach helps break down food. However, too much acid leads to
indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment, we need to neutralize the acid with base such as, sodium
hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), or an indigestion tablet.

Insect Stings: A bee sting contains acid. In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the string we need
to neutralize the acid. By rubbing on calamine lotion (zinc carbonate) or baking soda the acid can be
neutralized.

Waste from Factories: Waste from many factories are often acidic. If this acidic solution is not treated
and enters rivers it can kill fish. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is often used to neutralize such acid.

Soil Treatment-Framing: The majority of plants grow best at pH 7. If the soil is acidic or alkaline the
plant may grow badly. Therefore, chemicals can be added to the soil to change its pH.

Washing Soda

 Washing soda is a sodium salt made of carbonic acid.

 The chemical formula for washing soda is.it is a mixture of salt and carbon molecules.
 Sodium carbonate is domestically well known for its everyday use as a water softener.
 The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate.
 Sodium carbonate is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for
the action of the majority of photographic film developing agents.
 It is often used as an electrolyte. This is because electrolytes are usually salt-based, and sodium
carbonate acts as a very good conductor in the process of electrolysis.

Baking Soda

 Baking soda is scientifically known as “sodium bicarbonates”.

 By mixing of edible oil, usually tartaric acid, baking soda is converted into baking powder. Other
mild edible noil is also used instead of tartaric acid.
  When backing soda is combined with moisture and an acidic ingredient (e.g., yogurt, chocolate,
buttermilk, honey), the resulting chemical reaction produces bubbles of carbon dioxide that
expands under oven temperatures, causing baked goods to rie.
 Sodium bicarbonate reduces stomach acid. It is used as an antacid to treat heart-burn,
indigestion and upset stomach.

Baking Powder

 Baking powder contains sodium bicarbonates, but it includes the acidifying agent (cream of
tartar), and also a drying agent (usually starch).

Uses:

 Baking
 Cooking

Bleaching Powder

 Bleaching powder is also called calcium chlorohypochlorite because it is considered as a mixed

salt of hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.

It is represented as:

 Uses of Bleaching Powder

It is used

 As a disinfectant and germicide especially in the sterilization of drinking water.

 For manufacture of chloroform.
 For making wool unshrinkable.
 As an oxidizing agent in industry.
 Mainly as leaching agent for cotton, linen and wood pulp.

Plaster of Paris

 Calcium sulphate with half a molecule of water per molecule of water per molecule of the salt
(hemi-hydrate) is called “plaster of paris”.
 Plaster of Paris is prepared by heating gypsum at 120 c in rotary kilns, where it gets partially
dehydrated.
 Its Uses are :
 In surgery for setting broken or fractured bones
 For making casts for statues, in density, for surgical instruments, and toys, etc.
 In making blackboard chalks, and statues
 In construction industry.
Copper sulphate

 Copper sulphate, also known as ‘blue stone’ or ‘blue vitriol’ is a compound composed of copper
and sulphate.
 The basic chemical formula of copper sulphate is ‘CuSo4’, but the salt exists as a series of
different compounds, depending on the degree of hydration.
 It is used in purification of gases by removal of hydrogen chloride and hydrogen sulfide.
 It is a salt and is used to eliminate parasites affecting aquarium fish.
 Copper sulphate serves as a colouring agent for glass, cement and ceramics.
 It is generally used as insecticide in agriculture and wood industry.

Potassium Nitrate

Potassium nitrate (KNO3) is a naturally occurring mineral that contains three basic chemical elements.

 It contains potassium (a soft, light and silver metal), nitrogen (a colourless and odorless gas) and
oxygen.
 The combination of these elements forms potassium nitrate also known as saltpeter or nitre.
 The most widely used application of this compound is in the form of fertilizers. It contains all the
macronutrients needed for growth of plants.
 Metals, Non-metals and Metallurgy

Metals

 Metals are the elements that lose electrons and form cations.
 75% of all the elements in the periodic table are metals. The metals are subdivided into separate
groups, such as basic metals, transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, rare earth,
lanthanides and actinides.
 Alkali metals, such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and rubidium, are so reactive that they will
ignite and even explode if placed in water.
 At room temperature, all metals are solids except mercury, which is a liquid.
 Noble metals, such as silver, gold, and platinum, resist oxidation and corrosion in moist air.
 Tungsten is the only metal with the highest melting point. Only carbon, a nonmetal, has a higher
melting point of all the elements.
 Many metals are heavy or dense, although some metals, such as lithium, are light enough to
float on water.
 The most common metal found in the Earth’s crust is aluminum.
 Even through aluminium is abundant in the crust, the most abundant element in the entire
earth is iron, which makes up a large part of the earth’s core.

Non-Metals

 Non-Metals are the elements that accept electrons and from anions.
 Metals and non-metals are separated through electrolysis.

Helium

 Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant element in the
observable universe, being present at about 24% of the total elemental mass.
 Because helium is lighter than air, it is commonly used to fill airships, blimps and balloons.

Argon

 Argon is a colourless and odourless gas present to a very small extent in the atmosphere.
 It is an inert gas. It is not known to form true chemical compounds.
 Argon is used in light bulbs, welding, and vacuum tubes.

Metalloids

 Metalloid, an element with properties intermediate between those of metals and non-metals.
 Usually considered under this classification are the chemical elements boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium.
 Most of these elements are important industrial material. It is used to make transistors and
other semiconductor device, ceramics, solar batteries and certain polymers.
Metallurgy

 Metallurgy is the general term used in science to describe all the processes and procedures used
in extracting metals from their ores, filtering and alloying metals. It is also the study of metals
and their properties.

Corrosion

 Corrosion is a process through which metals in manufactured states return to their natural
oxidation states.
 This process is a reduction-oxidation reaction in which the metal is being oxidized by its
surroundings, by reacting with damp and oxygen in air.
 An acid is then formed by dirt and dust mixing with the chemical reaction caused by dampness
and this acid eats away the steel and iron, thus creating rust.
 This reaction is both spontaneous and electrochemically favoured.
 Corrosion is essentially the creation of voltaic, or galvanic, cells where the metal in question acts
as an anode and generally deteriorates or loses functional stability.
 The most common example of corrosion is, of course, rust. The reddish-brown compound
referred to as rust is actually iron oxide, a result of reactions between oxygen and iron.
 Corrosion can be prevented through using multiple products and techniques including painting,
sacrificial anode, cathodic protection (electroplating), and natural products of corrosion itself.

Alloys

 An alloy is a mixture or solid solution composed of a metal and another elements.

 Alloys are used in some applications, where their properties are superior to those of the pure
component elements for a given application.
 Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, phosphor bronze and an amalgam.
Aqua Regia

 Aqua Regia, mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid usually one part of the
former to three parts of the latter by volume. Aqua regia and other mixtures similar to it are
used in analytical procedures for the solution of certain iron ores, phosphate rocks, slags, nickel-
chromium alloys, antimony, selenium, and some of the less soluble sulfides, such as those of
mercury, arsenic, cobalt, and lead.
 Natural Resources

 Resource is a material from which benefit is produced.

 Resources can be mainly classified on the basis of renewability, origin, utility.

Renewable Resources

 A renewable resource is a natural resource with the ability to reproduce through biological or
natural processes and replenished with the passages of time. Renewable resources are part of
our ecosystem.
 Renewable resources have a higher rate of decomposition than their rate of consumption.
 Examples of infinite, renewable resources are: wind, sunlight, tides, biomass, etc.

Non-Renewable Resources

 A non-renewable resource is a natural resource which cannot be reproduced, grown, generated,

or used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate, once depleted there is no more
available for future needs.
 Non-renewable resources are consumed much faster than nature can create them.
 Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas), nuclear power (uranium) and certain
aquifers are examples.
 Metal ores are prime examples of non-renewable resources.

Coal

 Coal is a natural black mineral which is a mixture of free carbon and compounds of carbon
containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
 Peat is the first stage of coal. It is the most inferior which contains 10-15% of carbon.
 Lignite is brown in colour. It contains 25-35% of carbon.
 Bituminous coal is also called soft coal. It contains 45-86 % of carbon. It is used as a common
household fuel.
 Anthracite – It contains 87 to 97 % carbon. It is one of the most superior varities.

Charcoal

 Charcoal is a light black residue consisting of carbon, and any remaining ash, obtained by
removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances.
 Charcoal us usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the
absence of oxygen.
 Atomic number 6, carbon, C, an abundant non-metallic tetravalent element occurring in 5
allotropic forms: amorphous carbon, graphite, diamond; buckminister fullerene and grapheme
occurs in all organic compounds.
Lamp Black or carbon Black

 Carbon black (subtypes are acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black and
thermal black) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum
products such as FCC tar, and a small amount from vegetable oil.
 Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms.
 Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in types and other rubber products. In plastics,
paints, and links carbon black is used as a colour pigment.
 Carbon black enchance formulations and deliver broad flexibility in meeting specific colour
requirements.

Petroleum

 Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations

beneath the Earth’s surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. It consists of
hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds.
 Petroleum is a mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene,
lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc.
 The process of separation of the various constitutents of fractions of petroleum by fractional
distillation in fractionating columns is known as refining of petroleum.
 Petroleum gas comes out at the top of the column as its molecules have the lowest boiling
point and lubricating oils come out last because their molecules have higher boiling points.
 On destructives distillation, 1000 kg of coal gives
 700 kg of coke
 100 liters of ammonia
 50 liters of coal tar
 400 m of coal gas
 Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas.
 These are termed as Petrochemicals.
 These are used in the manufacture of detergent, fibers, and other manmade plastics like
polythene.
 Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilizers. Due to its great
commercial importance, petroleum is also called as ‘black gold’.

Natural Gas

 Natural gas is formed whenever vegetation decomposes in marshy areas and waste sewages.
 It also occurs in coal mines and petroleum wells. It mainly contains 90% methane.

CNG and LNG

 CNG (Compresses Natural Gas)

 LNG (Liquified Natural gas)
 CNG is stored at high pressure whereas LNG is in ultra cold liquid form. CNG can be produced at
lower cost.
 Manufactured Gases

Fuels and Flame

 Fuels are the substance that store potential energy for various uses in future.

Flame

 A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultra-
violet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the burning material and intermediate
reaction products.
 The nature of the flame depends on the tar content of wood.
 The length of the flame also depends on the tar content.
 Colour tells us about the temperature of a candle flame. The inner core of the candle flame is light
blue, with a temperature of around 1670 K (1400 C).that is the hottest part of the flame. The colour
inside the flame becomes yellow, orange, and finally red. The further you reach from the centre of
the flame, the lower the temperature will be. The red portion is around 1070 K (800 C).
 Zone 1 (Non-Luminous Zone) – Fuel on the wick evaporates. There is insufficient oxygen for fuel to
burn. Temperature is about 600 C near the wick.
 Zone 2 (Blue Zone) – There is a surplus of oxygen and the flame burns clean and blue. Temperature
is around 800 C. In a candle the heat from this zone melts nearby wax to allow for wicking.
 Zone 3 (Dark Zone) – Pyrolysis (cracking) of the fuel begins due to the shortage of oxygen creating
minute carbon particles. The temperature is about 1,000 C.
 Zone 4 (Veil) – There is oxygen surplus in this non-luminious zone and carbon particles burn faster
and more completely at the boundary between Zone 4 and Zone 5. The temperature is around
1,400 C

Safety Matches

 Safety matches are made ‘safe’ because all the various elements required to ignite them are
kept separate and only brought together when the match is struck against the safety strip.
 The striking surface consists of powdered glass or silica (sand), red phosphorus, binder, and filer.
 Normally, a match head is made of sulphur (sometimes antimony III sulfide), an oxidizing
element and phosphours.
 When the match is struck against a surface, the friction creates enough heat to set off a
chemical reaction that ignites and combusts the head.

Battery

 A battery is a galvanic cell in which some of the free energy change associated with a
spontaneous electron-transfer reaction is captured in the form of electrical energy.
 Primary cell cannot be recharged with any efficiency, so the amount of energy it can deliver is
limited to that obtainable from the reactants that were placed in it at the time of manufacture.
 The most well-known primary battery has long been the common “dry cell” that is widely used
to power flashlight and similar devices.
 A secondary or storage battery is one in which the electron-transfer reaction can be reversed by
applying a charging current from an external source.
 The most well-known storage cell is the lead-acid cell, which was invented by Gaston Plante in
1859.
 A fuel cell is a special type of battery in which the reactants are supplied from an external source
as a power is produced.
 All batteries use three ingredients: two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) and an electrolyte
in between.
 Carbon and its Compounds

The Carbon

 Group 14 (IVA) consists of carbon, silicon, germanium, tin and lead. Carbon is a non-metal, silicon
and germanium are metalloids tin and lead are metals.
 Carbon is a very important element. It is due to 3 reasons:-
 Carbon is a tetravalent atom. It may form four covalent bonds in different directions tetrahedrally.
 Carbon has several allotropes, three of which are common.
i) Amorphous carbon is coal and soot. The carbon molecules are covalenty bonded but there is no
order of arrangement.
ii) Graphite occurs when carbon forms flat covalent networks. These flat “sheets” are not bonded
to each other, making them free to slide past each other. Graphite composes the “lead” in
pencils. Since graphite contains free electrons, it is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Graphite is used as a lubricant in fast-moving machinery since graphite is soft and slippery.
iii) Diamond occurs when carbon forms a three-dimensional covalent network. Diamonds are
different from graphite and amorphous carbon. They are transparent, brilliant-looking and
incredibly hard. Diamond only forms at heat and intense pressure. It is a bad conductor of heat
and electricity, as there are no free electrons present in it.
 Buckminsterfullerence : Buckministerfullerence is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60
carbon atoms joined together to form spherical molecules. There are twenty hexagons and twelve
of buckminsterfullerence. Buckminsterfullerence is a dark solid at room temperature.
 Catenation: Carbon atoms can link with one another by means of covalent bonds to form long
chains (or rings) of carbon atoms. This property of carbon compound is known as catenation or self-
linking.
Graphene is a thin layer of pure carbon. It is also an allotrope of carbon. It behaves like semi-metal
and semi-conductor. An emerging material that could change the way electronic components are
made and help computing performance continue to grow. It has great application in the field of
nanotechnology as well.
 Carbon compounds are two types: inorganic and organic.

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 The compounds that have a mineral origin fall under the category of inorganic compounds.
 The compounds having plant or animal origin, are classified as organic compounds.
 In spite of the fact that organic compounds were originally derived from living sources. Today,
most of these compounds can be synthesized.
 Organic compounds are known to contain mainly hydrogen and carbon.
 Application of Organic Compounds in Daily Life:
 Ethylene: This gas is produced naturally by most fruits, and it promotes ripening.
 Alkenes: They are used in hydrocarbon fuels (petrol, diesel, propane, butane, kerosene etc.)
 Alkenes: They occur in facts (unsaturated fats have C=C bonds in)
  Polymers: These long chain molecules feature in proteins, plastics, rubber and many other
synthetic materials.
 Alcohols: To make alcoholic drinks (the obvious case with ethanol), to act as general solvents
(methanol is in methylated spirit, isopropyl alcohol is in a lot of cleaning agents),
 Carboxylic acid: Fatty acids (a type of carboxylic acid) are used to make soaps and detergents;
acetic acid is in vinegar.

Man-made Materials

Soaps

 Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids (are organic acids that have more than
16 carbon atoms in their molecules) like stearic, palmitic and oleic acids.
 The sodium soaps are called hard soaps and the potassium soaps are known as soft soaps.

Detergents

 A detergent can be defined as ‘the sodium of potassium salt of a long chain alkyl benzene
sulphate that have cleansing properties in water’.
 A detergent is a non-soapy cleaning agent that uses a surface-active agent for cleaning a
substance in solution.
 Synthetic detergents are described as soapless soaps. Unlike soaps they are effective even in
hard or salt water, as they form no scum.
 Modern synthetic detergents are alkyl or aryl sulphonates produced from petroleum (or coal)
and sulphuric acid.
 Like soaps, detergents contain one large non-polar hydrocarbon group and one short ionic or
highly polar group at each end, which allow for the cleansing action of dirt in water.
 From the environment point of view, the eco-friendly detergent is the need of the hour in order
to have clean environment and green environment.

Fertilizers

 Fertilizers make crops grow faster and bigger so that crop yields are increased. They’re minerals,
which must first dissolve in water so that plants can absorb them through their roots.
 Fertilizers provide plants with the essential chemical elements needed for growth particularly
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The proportions of these elements in a fertilizer are often
shown as N: P: K = 15: 30: 15.
 The name or formula of a compound often suggests which elements are provided by a particular
fertilizer.
 By looking the harmful consequences of indiscriminate use of fertilizers, it has become our
primary duty to go for green agriculture or organic agriculture by using biopesticide, herbal
weedicide, green manure to preserve ecological imbalance by keeping intact the food chain so
that food production be assured
  Soda-lime glass is composed of about 75% silicon dioxide, sodium oxide from sodium carbonate,
lime, and several minor additives. It is used for making windowpanes, tableware, bottles and
bulbs.
 Silicate glass generally has the property of being transparent.
 Laminated glass: It can also be called bulletproof glass. Several layers of safety glass are bound
together with a transparent adhesive.

Glass

 Glass is an amorphous solid (non-crystalline) material that exhibits a glass transition, which is
the reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline
materials) from a hard and relatively brittle state into a molten or rubber-like state.
 Glasses are typically brittle and can be optically transparent.

Portland Cement

 Portland cement is composed of four major oxides: lime, silica, alumina and iron.
 Also Portland Cement contains small amount of magnesia, alkalies and sulphuric anhydrite.

Polymers

 Polymers are high molecular mass compounds and their structure is composed of a large
number of simple repeating units.
 The repeating units are usually obtained from low molecular mass compounds called
monomers.
 Polymers have very vast spectrum of properties and that is why they are very important for
different applications.

Examples of Plastics

 Polyethylene terephthalate – PET or PETE

 High-density polyethylene-HDPE
 Polyvinyl chloride-PVC
 Polypropylene-PP
 Polystyrene – PS
 Low-density polyethylene-LDPE

Fibers

 A fiber is a continuous polymer which, when spun into thread, makes fabric.
 The polymer stands line up close one another, forming strong bonds between standards.
 If a fiber is pulled, it tightness the bonds, often making the fiber stronger and harder to break.
 Natural fibers, such as cotton or wool, come from plants and animals.
 Synthetic fibers, such as nylon and polyester, are chemically constructed from petroleum-based
substances by drawing softened plastic through small holes in a machine called a spinneret.
These filaments are extremely fine and pliable threads, even when they harden.
 Monofilaments are fibers made from molecules that have the same length as the fiber.
Rubber (Natural Rubber)

 We get rubber from “Hevea brasiliensis” a tree.

 The product of this tree is latex. “Latex” is natural rubber.
 A natural polymer which possesses elastic properties and also termed as elastomer
 Manufactured from rubber latex
 A linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene)

Vulcanization of rubber

 Natural rubber becomes soft at high temperature (> 335 K) and brittle at low temperatures
(<283 K); shows high water-ab-sorption capacity.
 It is soluble in non-polar solvents; is non-resistant to attack by oxidising agents.
 Raw rubber is heated with a mixture of sulphur and an appropriate additive, at a temperature
range of 373 K to 415 K.
 On vulcanization, sulphur forms cross-links at the reactive sites of the double bonds, and thus,
rubber gets stiffened.
 For example, in the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulphur is used as a cross-linking agent.
 Trans-1,4 polyisoprene is the dominant isomer in gutta-percha and balata, two materials that,
like natural rubber, are derived from the milky exudates of certain trees. Depending on its
molecular structure, polyisoprene can be a resilient, elastic polymer (elastomer), as in the case
of natural rubber and isoprene rubber, or a tough, leathery resin, as in the case of natural and
synthetic balata or gutta-percha.

Chemical Explosions

 Chemical explosions may be either decomposition or combination reactions. In either case, the
reaction is exothermic and the energy released by the reaction is partially converted to work.
 Decomposition Reactions occur in materials such as trinitrotoluene (TNT) and nitroglycerine.
Even some hydrocarbons that have no oxygen in their molecules, such as acetylene, can
decompose explosively.
 Combination Reactions occur when two or more compounds combine. “Gunpowder”, which is
the combination of potassium nitrate, carbon and sulphur, is an example of a combination
reaction.