Course Description

- Presents the fundamentals of asphalt pavement design

- Presents the characteristics of asphalt concrete, followed by a description of the
properties of the asphalt pavements.
- Presents a review of current asphalt concrete mix design methods.
- Discusses the elements of the structural design of asphalt pavements in detail,
include the AASHTO method for determining layer thicknesses.
- Enables pavement engineers, materials engineers, and materials technicians to
gain a better understanding of the fundamentals of the asphalt pavement design
process and analysis.

Introduction to Asphalt Concrete Pavement

Asphalt Concrete
- Is a mixture of aggregates (sand, gravel, crushed rock) and asphalt cement (also
referred to as bituminous binder, asphalt binder, asphalt, or binder), that is heated and
compacted in place into a uniform dense mass.
- Also referred to as hot mix asphalt (HMA), hot mix asphaltic concrete (HMAC)
- Asphalt concrete pavement is used in the construction of all types of roadway
lanes, parking lots, and road shoulders.
- Asphalt pavements adjust to limited amounts of differential settlement, and are
classified as Flexible Pavements.

Flexible Pavements
- A Flexible pavement consist of an asphalt concrete layer on top of several weaker
structural layers.
- A flexible pavement system is design to support the traffic loads, and to distribute
the stresses from the traffic loads out and down through the structural layers.
A typical section of a flexible pavement system is as follows:
[INSERT PICTURE]
Friction Course
- The friction course is the uppermost layer of the pavement.
- The friction course is a layer of asphalt concrete designed to provide a skid
resistant surface for the tire-road interaction.
- Friction courses are non-structural, i.e., they do not contribute any structural
capacity to the pavement.
[Florida friction course?]

Surface (or Structural) Course

- The surface course is a layer of asphalt design to transmit the traffic loads to the
base course.
- The thickness of the surface course is determined through a rigorous analytical
procedure.
- The type of asphalt used is generally prescribed by the regulating agency.
- [Florida surface course?]

Base Course
- The base course supports the surface (structural) course and distributes the traffic
loads to the subbase and/or the subgrade.
- The materials used for the base course must meet the standards and requirements
of the regulating agency.
- The thickness of the base course is determined through a rigorous analytical
procedure.
- In some countries, base course may be comprised of multiple layers of different
materials of different thicknesses, that as a group, provide the required structural
equivalence. These are called Optional Base Groups.
- Materials used in base courses include: Limestone, Limerock, Stablized Limerock,
Coquina rock, Cemented Coquina rock, Graded Aggregates, Asphalt Concrete
Type B-12.5, Sand Clay, and Soil cement.

Subbase
- The subbase supports the base course and transfers the loads from the base to
the subgrade.
- The subbase generally consists of granular materials, well-graded aggregates or
crushed stone.
- Subbases are often omitted if the design calculations show that the pavement
system is structurally competent without it.
Subgrade
- The subgrade is the natural soil material upon which the pavement layers are built.
- Traffic loads on the surface are ultimately transferred to the subgrade.
- The subgrade may also be imported material used to build an embankment upon
which the pavement structure is constructed.
- Subgrades must meet minimum agency standards.
- Materials that may be used to stabilize the subgrade include: Cement, Lime,
Limerock, Shell rock, crushed concrete, Roof tiles, Recycled asphalt coated base
materials, Reclaimed asphalt pavement.
- In the cases where the subgrade is a constructed structural layer, the existing
natural soil is referred to as the roadbed material.
- A flexible pavement will always consist of some combination of the layers shown
in the typical section at various thicknesses, based on the design requirements.

Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement

- A Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement consists of asphalt mixes used to form all layers
above the subgrade.
- Full-depth asphalt pavement has the advantage of reduced susceptibility to
moisture penetration and entrapment, as moisture damage.

Deep Strength Asphalt

- Asphalt concrete is installed in layers called Lifts, by paving machine.
- If the asphalt concrete layer is installed in one lift of depth greater than 4 inches,
or installed in multiple lifts with each lift deeper than 4 inches, the pavement is
referred to as a Deep Strength Asphalt Pavement.

Asphalt Products
- In this course, the focus is on hot mix asphalt (HMA)
- However, other asphalt products are used to construct asphalt concrete
pavements, such as:
- > Cold-mix asphalt concrete- which is used commonly for patching existing
pavements and is made with emulsified asphalt cement.
- Emulsified Asphalt:
- > Consists of asphalt cement droplets suspended in water by an emulsifying agent.
- > Once the emulsion is applied, the water evaporates and the asphalt droplets
coalesce to form the asphalt cement component.
- Cut-back Asphalt:
- Consist of asphalt cement dissolved in a volatile solvent.
- > The volatility of the solvent determines the type of cut-back, namely rapid cure,
medium cure, or a slow cure cut-back.
- > Other asphalt products include slurry seals, fog seals, recycled road materials,
and many others.

Prime and Tack Coats

- Cut-backs and emulsions are also used as prime coats and tack coats.
- A prime coat is a thin, protective, sealing layer applied to the prepared base before
the asphalt concrete pavement is laid on top of it.
- A tack coat is a thin layer applied on top of the prime coat just before the asphalt
concrete paving operation begins.
- The tack coat provides an adhesive bond between the layers and prevents
slippage.
- Tack coats are generally required prior to installing any new layers or lifts or
asphalt.
- Prime coats and tack coats affect the strength and quality of the final pavement
product, and are regulated and closely monitored by transportation agencies.

Common Terminology
- New Construction: refers to the complete development of a new pavement
structure on a new roadway alignment.
- Reconstruction: refers to the removal and replacement of the pavement layers
on an existing pavement.
- Milling: refers to the removal of existing pavement system’s layers by a milling
machine. Milling machines consists of a rotating drum with teeth that removes the
existing material to a desired depth.
- Overlay: refers to the placement of an additional layer of asphalt concrete onto
existing pavement. Overlays are often used to rectify deficiencies of existing
pavements. The act of installing an overlay is referred to as resurfacing.

Asphalt vs Concrete
- Asphalt concrete pavements involve less initial cost than Portland cement
concrete pavements (rigid pavement).
- Asphalt concrete pavements are easier to repair, and may have additional layers
added as necessary when warranted.
- The skid resistance properties of Asphalt concrete pavements remain stable over
time.
 - Asphalt concrete pavements are more prone to water damage than Portland
cement concrete pavements.
- Both should not be used where ground water levels may continually be in contact
with the pavement layers.
- Although they require less initial investment than Portland cement concrete
pavements, in most economies asphalt concrete pavements require significantly
higher maintenance in order to achieve the design life.

(INSERT QUIZ?)
Asphalt Concrete Materials
- Asphalt cement
- Aggregates
- Asphalt Modifiers
Asphalt Cement
- A naturally occurring dark, viscous liquid to semi-solid form of petroleum (crude
oil).
- It is a mixture of various classes of organic compounds such as saturated
hydrocarbons, naphthenic aromatics, polar aromatics, and aphaltenes.
- The overwhelming amount of asphalt used in road construction is obtained as the
residue from the fractional distillation of crude oil.
- Asphalt provides the binding medium or “glue” for the aggregates in an asphalt
concrete mix. (Attach picture, pic 39)
- The properties of asphalt vary significantly.
- Softer grades of asphalt are used in colder climates to prevent expansion and
contraction caused by thermal changes.
- Harder grades of asphalt are used in warmer climates to minimize longitudinal
deformation along the wheel path of vehicles (rutting).
- Asphalt cements are classified based on the Performance Grading (PG) system.
- The PG system uses two numbers to represent the high and low temperatures in
degrees Celsius, that the pavement location will likely be exposed to during its
service life.
- This asphalt grade is applicable for a location whose high and low temperatures
fall between these grading temperatures.
Aggregate
- The mineral aggregate (or aggregate) consists of sand, gravel, and crushed rock.
- The aggregate component is typically 90-95% of the asphalt concrete mix by
weight, and 75-85% by volume.
- Aggregate size grading is done by sieving.
- The results of a sieve test are expressed either as the percent retained on a sieve
or the percent passing through the sieve.
- Coarse aggregate is the material retained on the No. 8 sieve (2.36 mm aperture).
- Fine aggregate is the material that passes through the No. 8 sieve.
- Mineral filler is the fine aggregate material for which at least 70% passes through
the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm aperture).
- The maximum size of the aggregate is determined by the smallest sieve through
which 100% of the aggregate passes through.
- The nominal maximum size is the largest sieve that retains some, but no more
than 10% of the aggregates.
- An asphalt mix is specified by its nominal size and a range of acceptable
percentages passing through specific sieve sizes.

Aggregate Gradation
- For example, consider a mix designation: ¾ in (19.0 mm)
- The nominal size is 19.0 mm
- The Asphalt Institute’s gradation requirements are as follows: (insert picture, pic
46)

Asphalt Pavement Properties

- The desirable properties of an asphalt concrete pavement mixture include:
stability, flexibility, fatigue resistance, skid resistance, impermeability, workability.
Stability
- It is the ability of the asphalt concrete to resist permanent deformation over time
and at high temperatures.
- Stability depends on the internal friction in the mixture, which is determined by the
aggregate surface texture and angularity, the mix density, and the asphalt cement
viscosity.
- Lack of stability results in longitudinal deformations along the wheel paths of
vehicles, called rutting.
- The lack of stability also causes bleeding, as well as difficulty in compacting the
mix.
Durability
- It is the ability to resist disintegration by weathering.
- High binder content, dense aggregate gradation, and high mix density result in
more durable asphalt concrete.
- Lack of durability leads to dislodging and loss of aggregate particles (called
raveling), as well as loss of aggregate particles by moisture action (called
stripping).

Flexibility
- It is the ability to conform to the gradual movement of the asphalt concrete due to
temperature changes and/or settlement of the underlying layers of the flexible
pavement system.
- High asphalt cement content, low viscosity of the asphalt cement, and open
gradation, result in higher flexibility.
- The lack of flexibility results in rectangular shaped cracking patterns in the asphalt
concrete known as block cracking. (Insert picture, pic 53)
Fatigue Resistance
- It is the ability to resist repeated wheel loads.
- Dense aggregate gradations and high asphalt cement content result in higher
fatigue resistance.
- Lack of fatigue resistance results in fatigue cracking (or alligator cracking) which
are a series of small jagged interconnected pattern cracks.

Skid Resistance
- It is the ability to prevent vehicle tires from slipping and skidding.
- Hard and durable aggregates with highly angular particles on the pavement
surface will provide better skid resistance.
- Exposed, smooth, worn and rounded aggregate (called polished aggregate) due
to tire action over time, results in loss of skid resistance.
Impermeability
- It is the resistance to the passage of water and air.
- Dense aggregate gradation, high asphalt cement content, and increased
compaction results in higher impermeability.
- Lack of impermeability (permeability) causes stripping and raveling.

Workability
- Refers to the ease of placing and compacting the asphalt concrete mix.
- Workability is improved by an adequate asphalt cement content, smaller-size
coarse aggregates, as well as the correct mixing and compacting temperatures.
- Low workability results in insufficient compaction, which leads to permeable
asphalt concrete and failure to achieve proper densities.
- Low workability will have a detrimental impact on stability, durability, fatigue
resistance, and impermeability.
Pavement Distresses and Defects
- Asphalt pavements exhibit many types of distresses that can be categorized as:
cracking, patch and potholes, surface deformation, surface defects, miscellaneous
distresses
- Pavement distresses are measured by quantifying the extent of the defect and its
severity level.
- The extent is commonly measured in linear feet, square area, etc., based on the
specific distress type.
- Severity is generally characterized as low, moderate, and high based on numerous
criteria.
- If unchecked, it is common that one type of distress can lead to another, e.g.., any
type of cracking increases susceptibility to moisture penetration which may then
induce settlement or structural failure of the underlying layers.
Cracking
- The following types of cracking are exhibited by asphalt concrete pavements:
- > Alligator cracking, Block cracking, Edge cracking, Longitudinal cracking,
Reflection cracking at joints, Transverse cracking
Alligator Cracking
- Are sharp-edged interconnected cracks that form a series of small blocks that look
like chicken mesh or alligator skin markings.
- Alligator cracks result from “fatigue” of the asphalt concrete upon repeated traffic
loading.
- Other causes include weak or compromised base and subbase layers, as well as
poor drainage. (INSERT PIC 64)
Block Cracking
- It is a series of rectangular shaped cracks that divide the pavement surface into a
pattern of rectangular blocks of size generally ranging from 1 to 100 square feet.
(insert pic 66)
- Block cracking is caused by a lack of flexibility of the asphalt concrete.
- In other words, inability of the asphalt binder to expand and contract with
temperature cycles.
Edge Cracking
- Edge cracks are applicable to pavements that have unpaved shoulders.
- Edge cracks are crescent-shaped or fairly continuous cracks that intersect the
edge of pavement and are located within 2 feet of the pavement edge.
- Edge cracking is associated with soil movement beneath the pavement. (pic 69)
Longitudinal Cracking
- These are longitudinal cracks that run parallel to the centerline.
- They may occur within or outside of the traffic wheel path.
- Longitudinal cracks are reflective of cracking and separation in an underlying layer.
(pic 71)
Transverse Cracking
- Transverse cracks are cracks that run perpendicular to the centerline.
- They may be a result of thermal expansion and contraction.
- They may also be reflective of cracks in underlying layers or reflection cracks at
joints of underlying concrete slabs. (pic 73)
Reflection Cracking at Joints
- These cracks occur in asphalt overlays on concrete pavements.
- The joints in the concrete pavement reflect through and appear as transverse and
longitudinal cracks in the asphalt concrete overlay.
- The dimensions of the concrete slabs underneath the asphalt overlay must be
known to confirm the cracks are reflective. (pic 75)
Patch and Pothole
- Patch is a portion of the pavement surface, generally greater than 1 ft2, where the
original pavement material has been removed and replaced.
- Patching is a common treatment for localized distresses and defects.
- Patches may be full depth or partial depth.
- Patches are considered a distress because they create local non-homogeneous
zones of weakness within the larger structure of the pavement. (pic 78)
Potholes
- A pothole is a bowl-shaped depression in the pavement surface.
- Potholes have sharp edges and vertical sides, and have various plan dimensions,
and penetrate various depths into the flexible pavement structure.
- Generally, a depression of plan dimension greater than 0.5 ft. is considered a
pothole.
- A pothole is the consequence of severe alligator cracking where the
interconnected cracks create chunks of material that are then dislodged and
ejected by vehicle tires, leaving behind the hole.
- Once the pothole is formed, the vehicles’ tires action plus the exposure to water
penetration cause rapid propagation of the damage. (pic 81)
Surface Deformations
- A rut is a longitudinal surface depression in the wheel path.
- Rutting is the result of the permanent deformation of any of the layers of the flexible
pavement system caused by the consolidation or transverse displacement of
material due to traffic loading. (pic 84)
Rutting
- Rutting is a consequence of insufficient compaction during construction, causing
the flexible pavement layers to continue to densify (compact) under traffic loading.
- Rutting is also a result of improper mix design, particularly improper aggregate
gradation, and lack of angular aggregate particles.
Shoving
- Shoving is the longitudinal displacement (pushing) of a localized area caused by
turning wheels, heavy braking or acceleration of vehicles.
- Shoving commonly occurs at intersection, on curves, and on hills. (pic 86)
Slippage Cracks
- The sliding and deformation caused by wheel action plus low surface strength or
poor bonding between layers may cause slippage cracks.
- Slippage cracks are crescent shaped cracks on the pavement surface that point in
the direction of the wheel forces.
Bleeding
- Also known as flushing, bleeding is the formation of a thin shiny glass-like film of
binder that has migrated to the surface of the pavement.
- The thin layer of binder may be tacky to the touch and is not reversible during
colder weather. (pic 89)
- Bleeding results in discoloration of the surface or loss of surface texture.
- Bleeding results in loss of skid resistance during wet weather.
- It is a consequence of incorrect mix design specifically excessive binder content,
and/or insufficient air voids content.
Polishing
- Polishing or polished aggregate is when the surface binder has been worn away
by tire action over time to expose the aggregates.
- The exposed aggregates are then smoothened by the tire action resulting in a loss
of skid resistance.
- Polishing is generally indicative of aging infrastructure. (pic 92)
Raveling
 - It is the progressive wearing away of the surface due to dislodging of aggregate
particles and loss of binder.
- The loss of material can be caused by the loss of bond between the aggregates
and the binder due to oxidation of the binder over time.
- The loss of asphalt-aggregate bond due to moisture intrusion is called stripping.
- Raveling ultimately results in a rough, pitted or pock-marked surface. (pic 95)
Quiz here?

Characteristics of Hot Mix Asphalt (plus pic 99)

Asphalt Plants and Mixers
- A plant mix is an asphalt concrete mix produced in a stationary plant.
- In a drum mixer, graded aggregate is dried and heated by a flame at 2500-2800
degrees Celsius at one end of a rotating drum.
- Asphalt cement and aggregate are then added, along with recycled asphalt
pavement (RAP).

Asphalt Plants and Mixers (pic 102)

- Most specifications allow up to 25-40% RAP.
- In a parallel-flow mixer (also called center-entry mixer), pure aggregate moves in
the same direction as the burner flame.
- The RAP is added further down the drum away from the flame, where the mix
temperature is down to approximately 430 degrees Celsius, and must be heated
by the convection only, so as not to burn off its asphalt cement.
- In a counter flow mixer, graded pure aggregate enters from an opposite end and
moves by rotation and gravity towards the burner flame.
- All asphalt plants in the United States are subject to emissions standards and air
quality regulations.
Paving Machines
- Paving equipment (or paver) consists of a loading hopper, distribution equipment,
and an adjustable screed.
- Hot paving mix is brought from the plant in trucks and loaded directly into the
hopper of the paving machine. (pic 105)
- The screed is used to compact the asphalt mix into place. (pic 106)
- Generally, the mixture arriving at the site must be in the temperature range of 120-
140 degrees Celsius.
- Compaction must be completed before the mix cools to 85 degrees Celsius.
- A tamper bar ahead of the screed also contributes to the compaction effort.
- Modern screeds are equipped with sensors to ensure the asphalt mix is laid at the
correct grade and slope.
- Self-widening pavers have extending screeds that change the width of paving on
the go without the contractor having to stop to add or remove parts.
- Large pavers can place a lift of asphalt concrete of thickness 1-10 inches, over a
width of 6-32 feet at a forward speed of 110 to 70 ft./min.
Rolling Equipment
- Rolling the placed and compacted mix is required even with high density screeds.
- Rolling speeds are generally 1-2.6 mph, and rolling must be completed before the
mix cools below 85 degrees Celsius.
- Rollers used include static rollers, vibratory rollers, and rubber-tire pneumatic
rollers.
- INSERT ROAD ROLLER PICTURE
-