Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

GIS and rural electricity planning in Uganda

Elizabeth Kaijuka
IT Power (UK) Uganda Office, Plot 7B, Innovations House, Acacia Avenue, PO Box 10631, Kampala, Uganda
Received 6 July 2005; accepted 30 November 2005
Available online 18 May 2006

Abstract

Sustainable development is literally fuelled by the energy sector. In Uganda, the electricity sector has experienced dramatic market liberation
in recent years. This reform was centred around the unbundling of the main government utility, Uganda Electricity Board (UEB), a monopoly
divided into three companies created to introduce competition into the market. Market reform has also led to the creation of a regulatory body
and a rural electrification fund with the aim of subsidising rural electricity investments. Through a multi-sectoral programme financed by the
World Bank and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Ministry of Energy is developing a Rural Electrification Master Plan to provide
a more systematic tool for rural electricity investments. Unlike previous approaches, this plan is demand driven. This paper discusses the use of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the planning process for rural electrification. The aim is to identify patterns of demand and priority
areas for investment. By creating a demand-side scenario, electricity can then be supplied to targeted areas. A cross-sectoral view is taken to
examine the energy demand patterns using physical data and available country statistics, incorporated into a GIS master database. Based on geo-
referenced data of population and existing infrastructure, the initial priority demand-side sectors targeted are education and health. An energy
benefit point system is then applied to each sector based on local conditions and needs assessments. Their aggregated points then provide an
indicator of energy demand distribution for electricity planning at district level. As a result of this preliminary work, specific areas could
then be targeted for investment and optimised supply systems could be designed, which include off-grid renewable energy plants such as
small-scale hydropower schemes.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Uganda; GIS; Electricity planning

1. Introduction
The pace of rural electrification over much of the developing
world is painfully slow, and Uganda is no exception. This comes
as no surprise since rural communities not only have low popu-
lation densities, but they are often the poorest, making private
sector investment unattractive due to the high capital and oper-
ating costs. Attracting investors for rural electrification projects,
especially in politically unstable less developing countries
(LDCs) is therefore the overriding challenge.
Typically, in a LDC like Uganda, before even arriving at
a technological solution, the financial and economic costs first
have to be justified. New innovative technologies come after
cost considerations since the means justify the end, and
E-mail address: elizabeth.kaijuka@itpowergroup.com
experience shows that many projects will only last as long
as their financing does. In the case of Uganda, funds usually
flow, with strings attached, from the donor or lender institution
to the receiving or borrowing government body who, in turn,
will subsidise the utility company and then finally to the con-
sumer who will foot the bill. The whole operation needs to be
financially profitable in the long-term in order to be ultimately
sustainable, and so financial viability is therefore one of the
first priorities for rural electrification projects. Although
necessity is the mother of invention, scarce resources do not
leave any room for unaffordable options, however innovative
they may be. So before any new and renewable energy
technologies can be adopted in rural Uganda, a host of cost-
benefit decisions have to precede the final technology selec-
tion, which must also be the least-cost option.
The planning process first requires a defined ‘Rural Electri-
fication Criteria’, specific to the country’s situation. In Uganda,

0959-6526/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.11.057
204 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217
the proposed ‘Indicative Rural Electrification Master Plan’
can be broadly condensed into three steps:

The case has to be made for grid-based or off-grid
planning.

Plans subject to financial and economic cost/benefit anal-
ysis in order to identify and prioritise possible electrifica-
tion projects.

Technology selection must be made to suit these specific
conditions.
At the district level, planning can then be done by assigning
‘Energy benefit points’ to each establishment that would re-
quire electrification within that administrative boundary,
such that the infrastructure necessary for supply could be de-
signed accordingly to match the relative demand.
Positive political will is crucial to the success of the plan-
ning process, and this has already been addressed in Ugan-
da’s ‘Rural Electrification Strategy and Plan Covering the
Period 2001 to 2010’ by the Ministry of Energy and Miner-
al’s Development. Currently, grid-based electricity access in
rural areas stands at less than 2% of the population, whilst
the overall national level is 5%. The minimum aim for the
Rural Electrification Strategy and Plan is to increase connec-
tions to 10% by 2012, the equivalent of 400,000 new rural
consumers. The primary objective is to reduce inequalities
in access to electricity and associated opportunities for in-
creased social welfare, education, health and income
Box 1.
Theme A: Supply Side
A1) Biomass
biogas
co-generation
gasification
A2) Hydropower
large-hydro & mini-hydro
fuel cell technology
A3) Solar
photovoltaic
A4) Geothermal
A5) Wind
Theme C: Institutional Issue
C1) Energy Policy
C2) Institutional Framework
C3) Critical Success Factors
generation [1]. This aim could be addressed by the use of
GIS which would allow accurate projections to be made in
terms of identifying energy needs, and the quantities required
for any given specific area.
Regarding global impacts, Uganda completed an inventory
of it greenhouse gas emissions and is therefore obliged to
meet its commitments as a signatory to the UN’s Climate
Change Convention (UNCCC). The promotion of renewable
energy is therefore another important element of the Govern-
ment of Uganda’s rural electrification strategy, giving them
the opportunity to benefit from internationally sponsored pro-
jects via organisations like the Global Environmental Facility
(GEF).
2. Approach
A rational and systematic approach is needed for rural
electricity planning in Uganda. GIS can provide a key set
of components needed for planning in the form of geo-
referenced data, using Global Positioning System (GPS)
coordinates. It produces intelligent data that supports analy-
ses and allows displays of tabular and spatial information to
assist decision-makers. The planning process is very com-
plex and multifaceted, and so a simplified approach needs
to be taken. For the purpose of this study, we can divide
the ‘problematique’ into the four inter-related themes shown
in Box 1.
Theme B: Demand Side
B1) Households & Institutions
houses
schools
hospitals
B2) Industry & Commerce
factories
businesses
B3) Transport & Agriculture
commercial farms
Theme D: Energy &
Environment
D1) Global Environmental Facility
D2) Clean Development Mechanism
D3) Millennium Development Goals
 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217 205

This paper presents the demand-side aspect of electricity
planning in Uganda. Taking a country-wide view, the initial
demand-sectors targeted are health centres, schools, house-
holds and local government headquarters. These could then
provide a priority-ranking pattern based on estimated benefit
points allocated to each ‘demand centre’. An example is
given of a specific district whose benefit points have been al-
located, and a priority pattern formed given its existing
infrastructure.
Many other considerations for developing an appropriate
methodology arise out of the four themes during this process,
and it is within this context that the following questions are ap-
plied to rural electricity planning in Uganda:
1. What are the institutional structures set up for Rural
Electrification in Uganda? (Theme C)
2. What are the energy demand patterns in Uganda?
(Theme B)
3. What are the possible off-grid renewable energy options?
(Theme A)
3. Theme C: institutional issues
3.1. Energy policy
Uganda’s Electricity Act of 1999 aims at reforming the
power sector by introducing competition and liberalising the
electricity industry [2]. In order to make electrification afford-
able to the rural population, it is planned that the government
will subsidise electrification projects, although the criteria and
level of subsidisation are still in the process of being deter-
mined. The Rural Electrification Project (REP) in Uganda is
being financed by the World Bank and the Global Environ-
ment Facility (GEF) through a multi-sectoral program called
Energy for Rural Transformation (ERT), with the overall
goal of increasing electricity access in rural areas from 1%
to 10% by 2012 [3].
An autonomous body, the Rural Electrification Agency
(REA) has also been set up, under the Ministry of Energy &
Minerals Development (MEMD), to implement Rural Electri-
fication policies and manage the Rural Electrification Fund

Box 2. Conceptual institutional framework of the Rural Electrification Project in Uganda

ERT
Energy for Rural Transformation
Programme

MOF
Ministry of Finance, Planning &
Economic Development

C
E
MEMD N
Ministry of Energy & Minerals T
Development R
A
REA
L
Rural Electrification Agency
G
O
V
MOE MWLE MOA E
MOH
Ministry of Ministry of Water, Ministry of R
Ministry of Health
Education Lands & Environment Agriculture N
M
E
N
T
MOLG
Ministry of Local Government

LC 5
(District Level)
Local Council 5
LC 3
(Sub-County Level)
Local Council 3
206 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

[4]. The agency is responsible for awarding subsidies to in-
vestments in rural electrification projects in Uganda, whilst
under this ERT program, the role of the Ministry is one of
overall coordination, monitoring and evaluation. The Private
Sector Foundation (PSFU) (http://www.psfuganda.org) will fa-
cilitate and develop business plans, and after the business
plans have been developed, they will then apply to REA for
financial support (subsidy). In this way, the Government of
Uganda is looking to achieve their goal through a public/
private partnership. Priority Rural Electrification Project
(PREP) packages are initially being prepared for bidding to
the private sector in order to test the market before embarking
on countrywide schemes. It is eventually planned that the elec-
tricity tariffs will reflect the cost of production in order to
guarantee the financial viability of rural electrification invest-
ments, subject to regulation by an Electricity Regulatory Au-
thority (ERA) (Box 2).
3.2. Critical success factors
Critical success factors (CSFs) are described by the UK
Government’s Department for International Development
(DfID) as key features of renewable energy programs that
need to be put in place to maximise the possibility that

Fig. 1. The electricity grid/transmission network and some 33 kV distribution lines plus proposed extensions.
 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217 207

a project will succeed. They use their experience and knowl-
edge of various energy projects from around the world to cat-
egorise these CSFs into five key levels (adapted from http://
www.dfid-kar-energy.org.uk/html/r6143.htm):
(i) Universal CSFs are the ones which form essential fea-
tures, including: the use of proven designs or perfor-
mance guarantees; the existence of an acceptable
economic and financial package; thorough market sur-
veys and clear indication of social need. They state
that checks should be put in place to determine project
compatibility with the medium-term energy strategy,
and to ensure that legislative, political and regulatory
frameworks are favourable.
(ii) CSFs for funding bodies state that programmes should be
independent of day-to-day political involvement. They
should avoid conflict with wider development plans and
should allow the market to choose or ‘pull’ the most ap-
propriate technology. They need to ensure that all those
involved in the market chain benefit from the
programme.
(iii) CSFs for managing agencies state that agencies should
encourage independent scrutiny to confirm objectivity
of key programmes. Their responsibility is to encourage

Fig. 2. The electricity grid roughly follows the road network; under full coverage these should ideally match.
208 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

a competitive energy market. Good project monitoring
must be supported by quick responses at early stages to
prevent major contractual differences.
(iv) CSFs for small niche markets, such as the provision of ba-
sic energy services to rural communities, offer particular
potential and problems. CSFs include the ability of the
host community to absorb technology as well as its up-
keep. Also, the impacts on local employment, education,
training and infrastructure development need to be care-
fully considered.
(v) CSFs for individual technologies state that renewable en-
ergy technologies such as solar photovoltaic systems,
mini-hydro, biomass utilisation and energy from waste
all have attributes that need to be taken into account.
3.3. CSFs for small niche markets in Uganda
Some more specific CSFs for small niche markets that can
be applied to Uganda’s case during the rural electricity plan-
ning process are cost recovery and community involvement.
Cost recovery is one of the most decisive and crucial factors
determining long-term effectiveness of rural electrification
programs. Dependence on high initial subsidies in investment
costs might lead to eventual extortionate tariffs for poor rural

Fig. 3. Population distribution: a few pockets of densely populated areas; Kampala is the most densely populated region, Eastern Uganda is the least densely
populated region.
 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217 209

customer in order for the supplier to recover the loss incurred
by the eventual reduction or removal of subsidies.
Cost-saving opportunities, therefore, need to be exploited
from the beginning of the planning process. In order to create
a win-win situation, a two-way approach needs to be taken
such that increased income generating activities would be cre-
ated as a consequence of improved access to electricity. That
way, the rural consumer will be able to afford to pay his/her
electric bills, whilst private operators can in turn afford to pro-
vide a decent service and make a modest profit. Rural commu-
nities in Uganda could be mobilised under their Local
Councils to take advantage of the micro-finance loans on offer,
and to create new income-generating activities that would
arise from electrification based on their natural resources
and workforce.
4. Theme B: demand side
4.1. Energy demand patterns
In Uganda, the ever-growing demand for electricity exceeds
actual consumption, suppressed by the limited supply. The sit-
uation is exasperated further by recurrent load shedding im-
posed almost daily on urban consumers in the capital city,
Kampala, where demand is greatest. The capital’s electric sup-
ply is rationed whilst tariffs are on the increase, thus forcing

Fig. 4. Population density is highest along the electricity grid; still many highly populated areas are out of reach.
210 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

customers to pay more for a lesser service. It would therefore
make practical sense to look at the demand that already exists
in the country, and then design a targeted supply system to
match it.
A cross-sectoral view is taken to examine energy demand
patterns for Uganda using geo-referenced data, and to get
a literal picture of the situation on the ground. A ‘demand
centre’ can be interpreted as any physical structure that
would require electrification. With a goal of kick-starting de-
velopment, the initial focus is on prioritising provision of
electricity to schools and hospitals, powering a few small en-
terprises, mobile telecommunications, as well as providing
domestic electricity. This should stimulate improved services
and social welfare which should attract greater business
opportunities.
This analysis is based on available country statistics from
the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) and physical data in-
corporated into a GIS database to create a base-case demand
scenario. At this stage of the analysis, agricultural productivity
and business activity input would be useful to add but that data
is not yet readily available.
4.2. Data processing for GIS maps
The quality of data acquisition systems used for collecting
and monitoring resources in Uganda is poor, and in many

Fig. 5. Some demand centres: schools and village trading centres.

 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217 211

cases such data may have limited value in the context of com-
mercial decision making. Being a less developed nation,
Uganda faces greater challenges in creating such a database
system. These challenges include: inadequate response from
data collectors, limited appreciation of data, data inconsis-
tencies and inaccuracies. The completeness and accuracy of
the data used in the analysis is crucial since it determines
the accuracy of the results.
The initial challenge therefore, is to assess the best way in
which to convert the information into GIS format and to iden-
tify what form of data is to be used for subsequent analysis to
inform decision-making.
The method of processing the data for creating the
GIS maps in this paper can be summarised by the following
steps:
(i) Existing data: this data was supplied by the Uganda Bu-
reau of Statistics and the relevant Ministries as raw data
that contained various inaccuracies. From this original
data, gaps were identified and noted.
(ii) Data collection: where relevant, more data was collected
by field teams in order to fill in these gaps.
(iii) Data cleaning: as part of quality control, the data was
then verified and final corrections made including

Fig. 6. Health centres.

212 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

Fig. 7. The demand pattern most activity congregates along the electricity grid.

alignment of projections and GPS coordinates as well as
spell checks.
(iv) Data modelling: once the data had been verified, it was
then modelled to create the GIS maps.
Looking at the GIS maps created (Figs. 1e7), the existing
demand pattern for Uganda is already clear: most activity in
the country clusters along the existing electric grid as a lifeline
for power.
Fig. 1 shows the electric transmission network and some
33 kV distribution lines including some of the proposed
extensions for the suggested Priority Rural Electrification
Project (PREP) areas. Fig. 2 shows the existing electricity
grid and the road network combined. We can see that the
power lines roughly follow the road network, and this is par-
ticularly true in the rural parts. Ideally, under full coverage,
these two networks should match. The road network also indi-
cates potential access to bigger markets for the rural busi-
nesses whose main activity is the transportation of
agricultural produce. Fig. 3 shows the population distribution
by sub-county. From this we can see that there are a few iso-
lated pockets of densely populated areas. Kampala, being the
capital city, is the most densely populated region and the semi-
desert North-Eastern region is the least populated. Fig. 4
shows the population distribution along the grid. We can see
that there are still many highly populated areas unconnected
 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217 213

Table 1 Table 2
Benefit points allocation table Sum of Benefit Points for households [BPHH]
Sector Category Comment Suggested Benefit point Sub-county Sum of households ¼
or qualification formula average used sum of benefit
for Uganda points [BPHH]
Households Household or 1 1 Buhesi 6672
population Bukuuku 4294
per sub-county Busoro 5419
Health Health HC II 10 10 Central 5754
centres HC III 30 30 Eastern 3181
HC IV 70 70 Hakibale 8396
Hospital 100 þ 0.6pbeda 160 Karambi 5989
Education Schools Primary 8 þ 0.015 ppa 12 Kibiito N/A
Post primary 9 9 Kichwamba 5408
Secondary 12 þ 0.025 pp 22 Kisomoro 6159
Tertiary 16 þ 0.03 pp 35 Mugusu 4145
Other 11 11 Ruteete 9169
Non-formal 11 11 Rwimi 5351
Local District HQ LC 5 30 30 Southern 3452
government County HQ 20 20 Western 3734
Sub-county LC 3 10 10
HQ
Parish HQ 5 5
benefit point values were agreed upon at the ‘Rural Electrifica-
tion Criteria’ stakeholders’ workshop after comparison with
Source: IT Power Team, Indicative Rural Electrification Master Plan (IREMP)
Project, Uganda.
other studies done in South Africa and Namibia. The benefit
a
pp, per pupil; pbed, per bed. points averages were then allocated to each demand centre
(health centres, schools, local government HQs) throughout
the country.
to the grid. Such areas would therefore be good candidates for
off-grid planning. Fig. 5 shows some energy demand centres 4.4. Applied benefit point system at district level (LC5)
such as schools and village trading centres. Fig. 6 shows the
distribution of health centres (HCs) around the country which 4.4.1. Methodology used
have been aggregated into four levels as defined by the Minis-
try of Health according to capacity levels. At the highest level (1) For any sector (x), the sum of benefit points (BPx) is cal-
are hospitals, which take the highest energy load priority; then culated within each sub-county (LC3) administrative
HC IVs, which would use powered medical equipment; down boundary in that district as a function of that sector:
to HC IIIs and HC IIs which require basic electricity supply.
Fig. 7 shows the distribution of energy demand centres along BPx ¼ Ffxg
the electric grid, including population density, schools and vil-
lage trading centres. Their combined demand pattern shows where x is the sector description.
the congestion along the electric grid. These preliminary
results could then provide the basis for a priority-ranking (2) For each sub-county the overall total sum of benefit points
pattern. Once the demand scenario has been set, estimated for the combination of sectors is calculated:
load profiles or benefit points can then be allocated to each ÿ

BPx þ BPy þ . ¼ BPfx;y.g
‘demand-centre’. These points could then be summed up
within each administrative boundary at either district, county Table 3
or parish level to give a priority pattern. Sum of Benefit Points for health centres [BPHC]
Subcounty No. health Sum of benefit
centres points [BPHC]
4.3. Benefit point allocation
Buheesi 1 30
Bukuku 1 70
The suggested benefit point allocations for Uganda are Busoro 2 20
given in Table 1 based on needs assessment in each sector Eastern 1 30
in terms of social value, willingness to pay for electricity ser- Hakibale 3 70
vices, future electricity consumption and long term sustain- Kibiito 4 160
Kicwamba 1 30
ability of a project. The aim is to reflect the relative
Kisomoro 1 30
importance of infrastructure and other facilities and to make Mugusu 3 50
an attempt to quantify these social benefits. Ruteete 4 60
Using a rural household as the unit reference point, all other Rwiimi 2 40
institutions are allocated benefit points against this reference Southern 3 300
Western 2 20
and their electrification is compared relative to this unit. These
214 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

Table 4 Table 6
Sum of Benefit Points for schools [BPSCH] Overall total sum of benefit points by sub-county in Kabarole district
Subcounty No. schools Sum of benefit Subcounty BPHH BPHC BPSCH BPHQ Total sum
points [BPSCH] BP{HC, SCH, HQ}

Buheesi 16 212 Buhesi 6672 30 212 15 257

Bukuuku 19 303 Bukuuku 4294 70 303 0 373
Busoro 7 104 Busoro 5419 20 104 0 124
East division 1 35 Central 5754 0 35 0 35
Eastern 11 182 Eastern 3181 30 182 0 212
Hakibale 12 187 Hakibale 8396 70 187 0 257
Karambi 10 140 Karambi 5989 0 140 0 140
Kibiito 25 366 Kibiito N/a 160 366 0 526
Kicwamba 17 223 Kichwamba 5408 30 223 0 253
Kisomoro 20 280 Kisomoro 6159 30 280 0 310
Mugusu 8 106 Mugusu 4145 50 106 0 156
Ruteete 21 315 Ruteete 9169 60 315 0 375
Rwiimi 14 198 Rwimi 5351 40 198 0 238
Southern 16 285 Southern 3452 300 285 0 585
Western 7 94 Western 3734 20 94 0 114

(3) Within the district administrative boundary (LC5), the
overall total sum benefit point value is applied to each
sub-county and mapped to give a priority pattern for those
sectors.
(4) The priority pattern is colour-coded such that the areas
with the highest benefit point value are coloured red and
the areas with the lowest benefit point value are coloured
green and those in between are coloured yellow.
4.5. Example: Kabarole district
Kabarole district is located in western Uganda. It contains
15 sub-counties and for each of the following sectors, the
sum of benefit points was calculated within each sub-county
(LC3) boundary:
(i) Households (Table 2): In rural Uganda the household set-
tlement patterns and population distribution are highly
random, so these results have been kept separate but adja-
cent to the benefit point allocations when developing the
overall priority pattern. Households are proportionate to
population and the assumption is made that 1 household
contains 5 people. According to the BP formulae, there-
fore, the estimated number of households is 1/5 of the
sum population within a sub-county which is equal to
the sum of benefit points and this is the base unit: 1 house-
hold ¼ 5 people ¼ 1 benefit point.
(ii) Health centres: In Kabarole District, a total of 28 health
centres were found of which there were: 11 HC IIs, 12
HC IIIs, 2 HC IVs and 3 hospitals. These HCs are distrib-
uted throughout 12 sub-counties and their benefit points
have been summed in Table 3.
Table 5
Sum of Benefit Points for local government headquarters [BPHQ]
Subcounty No. local government Sum of benefit
headquarters points [BPHQ]
Buheesi 2 15
(iii) Schools: A total of 204 schools were found in Kabarole
district distributed throughout all 13 sub-counties. Of
this total there were four categories of school types found
and these were divided as: 154 primary schools, 40 sec-
ondary schools, 8 tertiary schools and 2 others. Their
sum of benefit points was then calculated within each
sub-county (Table 4).
(iv) Local government HQs: The local government headquar-
ters are the seat of district planning, and act as a vital
link to central government. The main town council for
Kabarole district is found in Fort Portal town where the
electricity sub-station is located. The parish HQ and the
sub-county HQ are located in the same sub-county and
their sum of benefit points is given in Table 5.
These results then give the overall total sum of benefit points
within each of the sub-counties of Kabarole district, for the spe-
cific sectors calculated. The results are displayed in Table 6.
Fig. 8 shows the detailed infrastructure of Kabarole district,
including the distribution of schools divided into categories,
health centres divided into different grades, local government
headquarters and the population distribution by sub-county.
The road network under the electric lines indicates where pos-
sible grid extensions could be made to target high benefit areas
and also where off-grid electricity generation could be targeted.
Fig. 9 shows the total sum benefit points (BP{HC,SCH,HQ})
given for each sub-county in Kabarole district based on the
sector activity contained within it (not including population).
A clear priority pattern can already be seen in Kabarole dis-
trict, with the red indicating the sub-counties with the highest
benefit points and therefore the areas with the highest electri-
fication needs, and the green indicating the sub-counties with
the lowest benefit points and therefore areas with relatively
lower electrification needs. This priority pattern is for electri-
fying schools, hospitals and local government headquarters in
Kabarole district at the level of district planning.
This benefit point analysis can be used for any district. It
can also be extended to other sectors and used as a planning
tool for privatisation. The areas with the highest BP could
 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217 215

Fig. 8. Kabarole district detailed infrastructure, including school by type, health centres by grade, local government headquarters and estimated sum population
pattern by sub-county.

be selected as priority rural electrification areas and tested af-
ter selective implementation of specific supply schemes.
5. Theme A: supply side
5.1. The case for off-grid options in rural Uganda
On the ground, the rural terrain and settlement patterns in
Uganda are some of the major obstacles to electricity infrastruc-
ture planning. Typically, a village is identified by its trading
centre where most business activity is centred. These trading
centres are usually found along the main road and are often dis-
tributed sparsely and randomly, many miles apart from village
to village. Beyond the road network and in between the trading
centres, are many rural households located in isolation amongst
farmland, plantations or natural vegetation following no partic-
ular layout plan. The natural terrain can also sometimes be
mountainous and less penetrable. In these remote, hard to reach
areas where grid supplies are impractical, people generally
meet their energy needs for lighting and cooking by using
wood fuel because it is ‘free’ [5].
These areas would almost certainly benefit from small-scale
off-grid renewable energy generation such as mini-hydro. Their
standards of living would be elevated to socially and politically
acceptable levels, and it would also be environmentally benefi-
cial by removing a dependence upon the combustion of woody
216 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217

Fig. 9. Kabarole district benefit point allocation by sub-county: priority pattern for electrifying schools, health centres and local government headquarters; red
indicates greater benefits and higher priority, green indicates lesser benefits and lower priority.

biomass. Specific criteria therefore need to be sought for each
area in order to judge the best technical options for off-grid sup-
ply to rural households. This should be based on the natural re-
sources available in each given area, though due to its relative
advantage compared to other natural resources in Uganda, the
initial focus for the supply-side will be on hydro power.
5.2. Potential small-scale hydro schemes
Uganda is at the heart of the Great Lakes region of East
Africa. Not only does it co-host the world’s largest freshwater
lake, Lake Victoria, it also boasts the source of the mighty
River Nile which starts at the waterfalls in Jinja, and runs all
the way through the country, up to Egypt. In addition, there
are plenty more rivers and lakes that spill over from these
making it a very lush and fertile country. Hydropower is an
abundant natural resource over much of rural Uganda. Conse-
quently, Uganda’s electricity supply system is dominated by
hydropower nearly 100 times greater than any other source.
The total hydropower capacity in Uganda is estimated to be
in excess of 2000 MW, compared with the current installed
generation of less than 250 MW [6]. There are therefore plenty
 E. Kaijuka / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 203e217
of potential sites for small-hydro schemes, which are, as yet,
under-developed.
Small-scale hydro installations in rural areas could then of-
fer considerable financial benefits to the communities served,
particularly where careful planning identifies income-generat-
ing uses for power. Their simplicity means that small-hydro
schemes not only provide renewable energy, but are also
cheaper to maintain, given basic training. The main advantage
of small-hydro schemes is that they do not require a dam or
storage facility to be constructed; it simply diverts water
from the river, channels it into a valley and ‘drops’ it into a tur-
bine via ‘penstock’ (pipeline). This type of hydro generating
would thus avoid the damaging environmental and social ef-
fects that larger hydroelectric systems can cause. It would
seem that for Uganda’s rural population who are materially
poor but have a great wealth of nature at their disposal, this
most basic, self-sustaining and least-cost method of power
generation could prove to be the most appropriate of all.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Dr Albert Rugumayo, Ministry of Energy
and Minerals Development, Uganda for his invaluable
217
guidance and advice. I also wish to thank the IT Power
team, particularly Dr Jonathan Bates, for useful discussions,
and Chris Purcell and Duncan Brewer for the invaluable data
input. Thanks also to Professor Gaddi Ngirane-Katashaya,
Makerere University for his supervision. The views expressed
in these papers are those of the author.
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