2338 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO.
5, MAY 2012
Power Electronics Enabling Efficient Energy Usage:
Energy Savings Potential and Technological
Challenges
Jelena Popović-Gerber, Member, IEEE, Jesus Angel Oliver, Member, IEEE, Nicolás Cordero, Thomas Harder,
José A. Cobos, Member, IEEE, Michael Hayes, Seán Cian O’Mathuna, Senior Member, IEEE, and Erich Prem
Abstract—Power electronics is a key technology for the efficient
conversion, control, and conditioning of electric energy from the
source to the load. In this paper, the potential of power electron-
ics for energy savings in four major application fields, buildings
and lighting, power supplies, smart electricity grid, and industrial
drives, is investigated. It is shown that by wider adoption of power
electronics in these areas, the current European Union electricity
consumption could be reduced by 25%. The technology challenges
for exploiting this potential for all the four areas are identified in
the paper.
Index Terms—Buildings, electric vehicles (EVs), energy conver-
sion, energy savings, lighting, power electronics, power supplies,
smart grids, variable speed drives (VSD).
I. INTRODUCTION
HE ever-increasing demand for energy, the shortage of
T fossil fuels, and the need for carbon footprint reduction
have resulted in a global awareness of the importance of energy
savings and energy efficiency. This topic is taking high priority
in today’s society, leading to many governmental policies and
measures, industrial programmes, and research, both in Europe
and worldwide. In its Action Plan for Energy Efficiency [1], the
European Commission presented an energy policy, which seeks
to enable the European Union (EU) to reduce greenhouse gases
by at least 20%, to reduce energy consumption by 20%, and
increase to 20% the share of renewable energies in energy con-
sumption by 2020. The American Recovery and Reinvestment
Manuscript received April 19, 2011; revised July 14, 2011; accepted
September 20, 2011. Date of current version February 27, 2012. This work was
supported by the European Commission as project “Electronics Enabling Effi-
cient Energy Usage (E4U)” nr. 224161 in the Information and Communication
Technologies Programme (FP7). Recommended for publication by Associate
Editor L. M. Tolbert.
J. Popović-Gerber is with Delft University of Technology, 2628 Delft, The
Netherlands (e-mail: j.popovic@tudelft.nl).
J. A. Oliver and J. A. Cobos are with the Centro de Electrónica In-
dustrial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28006 Madrid, Spain (e-mail:
jesusangel.oliver@upm.es; ja.cobos@upm.es).
N. Cordero, M. Hayes, and S. C. O’Mathuna are with the Tyndall National
Institute, University College Cork, Lee Maltings, Cork, Ireland (e-mail: nicolas.
cordero@tyndall.ie; michael.hayes@tyndall.ie; cian.omathuna@tyndall.ie).
T. Harder is with the European Centre for Power Electronics, 90443
Nuremberg, Germany (e-mail: thomas.harder@ecpe.org).
E. Prem is with eutema Technology Management, 1070 Vienna,
Austria, and also with the University of Vienna, 1010 Vienna, Austria (e-mail:
prem@eutema.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2011.2171195
0885-8993/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Act included more than $80 billion in the generation of re-
newable energy sources, expanding manufacturing capacity for
clean energy technology, advancing vehicle and fuel technolo-
gies, and building a bigger, better, smarter electric grid [2]. The
U.S. Government committed to reducing greenhouse gas emis-
sions by 28% by 2020, increase energy efficiency, and reduce
fleet petroleum consumption. In 2007, Japan announced an ini-
tiative against global warming called “Cool Earth 50,” including
the proposal for a long-term objective to reduce global green-
house gas emissions by half by 2050 compared to the current
level resulting in a programme called “Cool Earth-Innovative
Energy Technology Program” targeting the development of in-
novative technologies in the field of energy with a prospect to
the year 2050 [3].
Combating the energy and climate problem requires a com-
plex, interdisciplinary approach involving technological solu-
tions such as sustainable energy sources and more efficient
energy use, as well as political measures and general public
commitment [4]–[8]. This is not always well recognized—for
example, two of the three initial targets of the EU goal for 2020,
namely, 20% renewable energy penetration and 20% CO2 reduc-
tion are made mandatory while the third, 20% energy savings, is
only a guideline and there are indicators that this target will not
be met by quite a large margin. Therefore, it is still necessary to
stress the importance of energy efficiency for solving the energy
and climate problem.
The demand for electricity is continuously growing and will
continue to do so at a much faster rate than other energy sources
over the coming decades, twice as fast as the overall energy con-
sumption growth rate [9], [10]. Today, 20% of the final energy
consumption in the EU is electric energy (which translates into
up to 40% of total primary energy) [11], and this is predicted
to grow significantly in the next few decades. Power electron-
ics is the technology associated with the efficient conversion,
control, and conditioning of electric energy from the source to
the load [12]–[15]. Many market segments such as domestic
and office appliances, heating, ventilation, and air condition-
ing, lighting, computers and communication, factory automa-
tion and drives, traction, automotive, and renewable energy can
potentially benefit from the application of power electronics
technology.
The power electronics community is constantly working on
increasing the efficiency of power electronic converters through
the use of faster switching devices, better topologies, advanced
control, etc. However, a power electronic converter is a part of
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
the system and the real energy efficiency benefits are on the
system level. In many cases, the power converter is significantly
more efficient than the rest of the system (motor driven applica-
tions, photovoltaic (PV) systems, etc.). The power electronics
community is generally aware of the large energy savings po-
tential but the quantitative assessment thereof is less known and
published. Furthermore, in many cases, high-level managers are
not fully aware of the potential of power electronics, especially
on the system level. The goal of this paper is to present an
overview of the energy savings potential of power electronics
on the system level by introducing power electronics in systems
and to identify technological challenges to exploit this potential.
The focus is on several key application areas, where the energy
savings potential is the largest. This paper mainly deals with
electric energy savings; however, in some cases, the savings in
other energy sources, such as gas or oil, are mentioned.
In Section II, the application areas with the largest power-
electronics-enabled energy savings potential will be introduced.
For each area, the field energy consumption will be presented,
the main energy savings technologies reviewed, and the energy
savings potential by introducing these technologies estimated.
In Section III, the main challenges and technology gaps related
to exploiting this potential for each area will be identified.
Since most of the work presented in this paper was carried out
as a part of the European project “Electronics Enabling Efficient
Energy Usage (E4U)” [16], some of the data relate to Europe
only; however, an effort was taken to include information from
other parts of the world wherever possible. During the course
of the project, close to one hundred power electronics experts
both from industry and academia have provided their input,
contributing to the content of this paper.
II. ENERGY EFFICIENCY POTENTIAL OF POWER ELECTRONICS
IN KEY APPLICATION FIELDS
Given their share of electricity consumption and large energy
savings potential, the following four power electronics applica-
tion fields were chosen as the main focus areas.
1) Buildings & lighting.
2) Power supplies [with focus on applications in information
and communication technologies (ICTs)].
3) Smart electricity grids (including vehicle to grid).
4) Industrial drives.
A. Buildings and Lighting
1) Field Background and Energy Consumption: Buildings
(commercial, industrial, and residential) account for 40% of the
overall EU energy consumption. In EU-27, tertiary/office build-
ings consume 130 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) per year
or 11% of the total energy consumption, and the residential
buildings consume around 285 Mtoe or around 25% of the total
energy consumption [11]. Households and the commercial sec-
tor are responsible for 38% and 36% of the U.S. total electricity
consumption [17]. In tertiary buildings in developed countries,
60% of the total energy consumed is electric. In these, the cost
of electric energy (lighting, electric heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning (HVAC), lifts, etc.) during the life of the building
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2339
double the construction costs, and account for 40% of the total
lifecycle costs [18].
Lighting consumes around 20% of all electricity generated
in the U.S. and the EU, and even higher in some developing
countries, since lighting is one of the largest uses of electric
power [19]. HVAC accounts for 60% of the energy consumption
of tertiary buildings (one third of which is electric and the rest
mostly fossil fuels). Lifts are responsible for about 10% of the
electricity consumption.
2) Energy Savings Technologies (Lighting): Incandescent
lights that still dominate the residential use are very energy inef-
ficient. In 2008, the European Commission adopted a regulation
on nondirectional household lamps, which would replace inef-
ficient incandescent bulbs by more efficient alternatives [such
as improved incandescent bulbs with halogen technology and
compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)] between 2009 and 2012.
Fluorescent lamps consume 25% to 35% of the energy used
by incandescent lamps to provide the same amount of illumi-
nation (efficacy of 30 to 110 lm/W) and last about 10 times
longer (7000 to 24000 h). New, more efficient, fluorescent lamps
(T5) using electronic ballasts/starters can now provide luminary
efficiencies (including ballasts) above 75 lm/W [20], although
they are not retrofitable with traditional T8/T12 light fixtures.
Improvements in phosphor technology have resulted in fluores-
cent lamps with light quality comparable to incandescent lamps.
CFLs consist of fluorescent lamp tubes with a ballast integrated
into the lamp in contrast to large tubes for which the ballast is a
separate item as for large tubes, which makes them a standalone
retrofit solution to incandescent lamps.
High-intensity discharge (HID) and low-pressure sodium
lamps are suitable for lighting purposes, where high levels of
light over large areas are required. More recently, HID lamps
have been used in small retail and residential environments. The
most common types of HID lamps are mercury vapor, metal
halide, and high-pressure sodium, all of which are much more
efficient than incandescent lamps. Compared with fluorescent
and incandescent lamps, HID lamps have higher luminous ef-
ficacy since a greater proportion of their radiation is in visible
light as opposed to heat.
High-brightness LED has been regarded as the next gener-
ation of “green” light source for its potential qualities of high
efficiency, environmental friendliness, long lifetime, etc. With
the significant improvement in the manufacturing process of
high-brightness LEDs, they can be applied in a wide range of
applications, and may even be considered for common use in
daily lighting application. The projections are that the solid-
state lighting (SSL) will certainly displace all traditional light-
ing technologies in the near future with 2012 being the year
when SSL will surpass traditional fluorescent and HID lighting
in terms of equivalent cost of light [21].
Power electronics is an enabling technology for these new
energy-efficient lighting technologies. Gas discharge lamps such
as fluorescent and HID lamps cannot be operated directly from
the mains because they have negative incremental impedance,
and therefore, must be operated in series with current-controlled
ballast. To improve the efficiency of gas discharge lamps, the
traditional magnetic ballasts can be replaced by high-efficiency
electronic ballasts. The use of HF electronic ballasts results in
 2340
significant ballast volume and weight reduction, and improves
the performance of the discharge lamp. The HF operation also
makes the lamp start easily and reliably, and eliminates audible
noise and flickering effect. In addition, due to the advances in
power electronics, power regulation can be easily incorporated
into the ballast, making intelligence and energy management
feasible. For fluorescent lamps, HF operation at above 20 kHz is
the most attractive approach because the HF operation of fluores-
cent lamps provides higher discharge efficiency. For HID lamp
operation, LF square-wave method is the most used method.
The square-wave frequency is preferably chosen higher than
the line frequency, and low enough to prevent those harmonic
power components that excite acoustical resonances. A com-
mon compromise is 70–400 Hz. If the total power handled by
the converter is higher than 25 W, then the LF harmonic content
of the line current must comply with specific regulations, which
ask for using an active power factor corrector.
LED lamps also need a driver that regulates the current flow-
ing through the LED array during operation and protects it from
voltage fluctuations. Small high-efficiency drivers (>90%) are
essential for LED bulbs suitable for incandescent lamp replace-
ment [22].
HVAC: The application of variable speed drives (VSDs) in
central plant HVAC systems provides the most energy-efficient
means of controlling the flow of air and water. In all the pump
and fan applications of an HVAC system (condenser water
pumps, cooling tower fans, primary chilled water pumps, fan
coil units, etc.), some form of flow control is used. In some
applications, this may be a throttling valve or damper to set
the flow rates to system design point during commissioning and
balancing of the system. However, most existing HVAC systems
are designed for worst-case conditions. They are designed to be
able to provide the necessary cooling load for the hottest, most
humid days of the year. For the majority of time, they have ex-
cess capacity. By using means of active intelligent flow control
such as VSDs, the power consumed by the pumps and fans can
be controlled, thus, matching the capacity of the system to the
actual requirements of the building, considerably lowering en-
ergy consumption and reducing operating costs for the building.
There are other methods of achieving active flow control [23]
(for fans: outlet dampers, inlet guide vanes, variable pitch fans,
eddy current couplings; for pumps: bypass valves and throttling
valves) but these are considerably less energy efficient than
VSDs.
Intelligent control (including sensors): Further improvement
in efficiency can be achieved using continuous intelligent con-
trol. Building environment and energy monitoring systems sig-
nificantly reduce energy consumption [24], [25]. Self-powered
wireless sensors can be placed throughout the building. The
data gathered by the sensors (occupancy/presence, lighting lev-
els, temperature, air quality, etc.) are processed together with
known data (seasonal temperature variations, user behavior,
etc.) to provide continuous intelligent control of the lighting
appliances (dimming) and of the HVAC systems (both electric
and nonelectric). Self-powered sensors (using either long-life
batteries or energy harvesting) provide data for the intelligent
control, and are easy and cheap to install, maintain and replace
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012
(no wiring or expert installers). Furthermore, they are suitable
for both new buildings and the retrofitting of existing buildings.
3) Energy Savings Potential (Lighting): Replacing tradi-
tional fluorescent sources (e.g., T8) by high-efficiency ones us-
ing electronic ballasts (>90% efficiency) (e.g., T5) reduces the
energy consumption by 61% [26]. Furthermore, using intelligent
dimming based on data for occupancy and daylight (collected
by wireless sensors), together with the use of dimmable efficient
sources, gives an overall reduction of 78% on current usage; this
is 16.4% of the total electric energy consumption.
The replacement of incandescent lamps with compact fluo-
rescent or metal halide accent lighting can save up to 80% of
retail, domestic and public lighting electricity consumption.
Furthermore, it is estimated that the adoption of SSL for 50%
applications by 2015 would result in cumulative energy savings
in the residential sector of between 125 and 340 TWh just in the
U.S., or between 8% and 20% annual savings of the residential
lighting consumption in 2007 [17].
Lifts: Replacing hydraulic lifts with electric traction lifts with
speed control and feedback and low-consumption standby mode
(which can represent up to 80% of the annual energy consump-
tion of a lift) can achieve savings of over 50%. The motors of the
lifts can be further improved with speed control and feedback.
These energy efficiency measures reduce energy consumption
by between 50% and 75% [27], [28]. Therefore, a reduction of
at least 5% of the total is possible.
HVAC: Replacing motors and pumps in the HVAC electric
systems by higher efficiency ones, including external contin-
uous control (VSDs) and using intelligent control for HVAC
and the environmental data gathered by wireless sensors, the
energy efficiency of a complete system can be improved by
30%–40%. For electric ventilation and air conditioning, which
consume 45% of electricity, this means a total reduction of at
least 13.5%. Furthermore, implementing intelligent control will
also help to reduce the energy consumption of the nonelectric
heating system (gas, oil, etc.). Therefore, intelligent control will
contribute to a further reduction of at least 30% of the energy
used for nonelectric heating.
B. Power Supplies
1) Field Background and Energy Consumption: Power sup-
plies are usually referred as the front-end ac–dc rectifiers present
in most electronic equipment or power distribution systems.
Nevertheless, power supplies in this section cover not only the
rectifier stage, but also other power electronic converters: source
converters, load converters, and power distribution converters
that control the electric energy flow.
1) Source converters: draw electric energy from the source
in order to meet standards, improve the autonomy, the ef-
ficiency, battery life, etc. Typical examples are: MPPT
in solar panels [29]–[31], battery power management
[32]–[34], etc.
2) Power distribution converters: allow optimizing the power
distribution system in terms of energy efficiency and
power density [35], [36].
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
3) Load converters: can significantly improve the efficiency
of the overall system supplying the load with the appro-
priate voltage or current. A typical example would be
applying dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) to a micropro-
cessor [37].
Although it is possible to obtain improvements in terms of
energy efficiency by improving the efficiency of the power
supplies, higher improvements are possible by designing each
power supply according to its role in the power distribution
architecture, for example, codesigning the microprocessor and
its supply converter so that the supply voltage is adjusted as a
function of the work load.
Since power supplies are present in all electronic equipment,
an analysis of their global impact would be quite difficult to
assess. As a consequence, the evaluation of their impact has
been focused on three main areas: microprocessors, data centers
and telecom, and standby losses reduction.
Electric energy demanded by data centers and servers in Eu-
rope was 56 TWh in 2007 and is forecasted to have an increment
to 104 TWh in 2020 [38] or about 3% of the total predicted elec-
tricity consumption. In a typical data center, less than half of
this power is delivered to the compute load, which includes mi-
croprocessors, memory, and disk drives. The rest of the power
is lost in power conversion, distribution, and cooling.
Estimates indicate that the telecom industry consumed 1% of
the global electricity consumption and 164 TWh in 2007 in the
EU [39], and more than 90% of this is consumed by network
operators [40].
It has been stated in the preparatory study for the Directive
2005/32/EC that standby functionalities and off-mode losses oc-
cur for the majority of electric and electronic household and of-
fice equipment products sold in the European Community, while
the annual electricity consumption related to standby function-
alities and off-mode losses in the Community was estimated to
have been 47 TWh in 2005. Without the introduction of specific
measures, the consumption is predicted to increase to 49 TWh
in 2020 (an amount comparable to the total electricity consump-
tion of Greece or Portugal). An important proportion of these
losses is related to power supplies.
2) Energy Savings Technologies: In this section, the power-
electronics-enabled technologies for improving energy effi-
ciency and energy savings in the field of power supplies for
IT applications are reviewed.
a) Data centers and servers: Although it is possible to
obtain some improvement in the energy efficiency of data cen-
ters by increasing the efficiency of the power supplies, the best
results can be obtained by a proper design of the whole facil-
ity, by adopting new distribution architectures, and establishing
power management as a function of the work load.
Communication with the load: DVS is a clear example of
how the interaction of intelligent power electronics and micro-
processor can significantly improve the efficiency per watt in a
digital system. Since the power consumed by a microprocessor
is proportional to its frequency of operation and the square of
its supply voltage, it is possible to modify the supply voltage
and frequency according to the work load to optimize the per-
formance per watt. While most of the applied DVS techniques
focused on improving the efficiency of the microprocessor, with-
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2341
out considering the power stage, there are other approaches that
aim to achieve higher overall energy reduction, considering the
efficiency of the converter as a function of the load and output
voltage [41]. According to this paper, the efficiency over other
DVS solution can be improved up to 24.8% (depending on the
type of application).
A similar concept can be applied to other digital loads, not
only microprocessors. In the case of digital audio amplifiers,
in which the digital data streams to be played are known, it is
possible to use this information to dynamically adapt the supply
voltage of the amplifier and improve the global efficiency [42].
Additionally, for integrated dc–dc converters, it is possible
to apply more sophisticated techniques like segmented power
stage and/or switching into pulse frequency mode of output volt-
age regulation in order to maximize the instantaneous converter
efficiency on the fly. The use of a segmented power stage allows
the effective power transistor size to be changed on the fly, and
the tradeoff between the gate drive and conduction losses can
be continuously optimized over the full range of operation.
Power Management: Multicore technology of microproces-
sor can improve the performance through parallelism. The in-
tegration of multiple cores on a chip makes the system suitable
for innovative ways of efficiently supplying the energy for each
core, improving the global efficiency of the system [43]. By
applying DVS to each core as a function of its work load and
introducing the concept of voltage islands on a chip can yield
significant improvements on the power consumptions. Never-
theless, it requires a great amount of research in topics like
integrated power systems on chip, new integrated magnetic ma-
terial, HF semiconductors, and intelligent power management.
Light load efficiency: Higher efficiency at light load is not
only required in portable applications, where its impact on the
autonomy is critical, but also in higher power applications like
data servers in which power management techniques that turn
on and off different blade servers as a function of the work load
also require improved light load efficiency to reduce the wasted
energy.
In these systems, the power drawn from the voltage regulator
(VR) varies as a function of the working conditions or appli-
cation request. The variation can range from full load to very
light load [44]. Moreover, as DSPs and the platform become
more power managed (by software or hardware), the percentage
amount of time during which a specific VR or power delivery
operates at lighter loads becomes larger. In order to improve the
efficiency at light load several load adaptive techniques have
been proposed along the last years, which can be divided in two
groups:
1) Adaptive control: Most of them reduce the switching fre-
quency with load, therefore, switching losses are reduced.
2) Autoadjustable dead times: The use of digital control can
provide a solution for adaptive dead-time optimization, in
which according to the operating conditions, the control
adjust the dead time to improve the efficiency. In this
direction, there are some works like the one presented
in [45] in which the authors report a 5% improvement in
efficiency (from 87.3% to 92.4%). In [46], the application
of similar dead-time optimization improves the losses by
a factor from 9% to 14%.
 2342
Adaptive power stage structure: The combination of mul-
tiphase converters and digital controllers can be especially
appealing. The digital circuits’ capacity of integration allows
controlling a big number of phases, while the custom hardware
concurrency allows accurately controlling all the pulsewidth
modulation (PWM) outputs at the same time. A digital controller
in multiphase converters can be used to increase the efficiency at
different loads [46]–[48] changing the number of active phases
during operation. Other techniques, like in [49], use a small en-
ergy storage and power conditioning for light load and turn on
and off the main converter operating in the maximum efficiency
point.
System level power management: As mentioned previously,
data servers are seldom working at full load. Adjusting the
number of active elements or blades as a function of the working
load, and switching them on and off, can yield to a significant
saving of energy and cooling.
These techniques require the establishment of communication
and control with the power converters that supply the different
loads (microprocessors, storage, memories, etc.), and this is the
point where digital control, in the line of power management,
can play a capital role.
Moreover, pushing up the switching frequency of the con-
verters and integrating them with the load can yield additional
benefits apart from high efficiency like better transient response
and enhanced startup that will improve the performance of the
whole system.
DC Power distribution: Power distribution in datacenters is at
400/480 Vac and 48 Vdc in telecommunication buildings. The
use of high-voltage dc power distributed architectures has been
a hot topic of research during the past years [49]–[53] due to the
potential improvement of the efficiency, lower component cost,
and easy integration in distributed renewable generation [54].
Conventional ac-distributed architectures suffer from low ef-
ficiency due to many conversion steps. The efficiency of these
ac architectures with typical components is around 50% [55],
assuming that all the converters are operating at full load, where
the efficiency is maximum. Using high-voltage dc distribution
at 400 V and high-efficiency converters, the overall efficiency
can be increased up to 70%.
b) Telecom: A typical radio base station (RBS) with an
output power of 120 W has a power consumption of more than
10 kW. This translates into a system efficiency of 1.2%. Fig. 1
illustrates the losses in the various subsystems [40].
1) More than 4 kW is consumed by the power amplifier and
an additional 2.2 kW by baseband signal processing, re-
sulting in only 6% combined efficiency.
2) The power supply runs at only 85% efficiency due to the
low efficiency of the rectifiers.
3) The climate equipment is responsible for additional losses
of more than 2.5 kW.
Most of the techniques presented for data centers can be
applied to improve the efficiency of the RBS, both for improv-
ing the overall efficiency of the facility: dc power distribution,
system level power management; or improving the efficiency
of the IT equipment: communication with the load, increasing
light load efficiency, local power management. But analyzing
this particular application, there is a large room for improvement
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012
Fig. 1. Power losses in a typical radio base station.
in the efficiency of the power amplifier transmitter, which has a
multiplicative effect on the overall efficiency.
The efficiency of the power transmitter is barely 6%. The use
of envelope elimination and restoration (EER) techniques can
significantly improve the efficiency of the transmitter since it
can be based on a high-efficiency nonlinear RF amplifier, with
a highly efficient envelope power supply to implement a highly
efficient linear RF amplifier. The use of conventional switched
power converters for the envelope amplifier requires switching
frequencies around five times the bandwidth of the envelope
signal, penalizing the efficiency of the converter. Innovative so-
lutions like the use of multilevel converters and a linear regulator
allow for the use of a switching frequency equal to the bandwidth
of the envelope signal [56]. Compared to an ideal linear ampli-
fier, the efficiency can be increased from 29% to 43.7%, which
means that the total energy required is reduced by 35%. There
are some other power management techniques, like in [57], that
not only adapt the voltage applied to the RF amplifier, but also
the impedance; in this case, the current drawn from the bat-
tery is reduced from 500 to 300 mA for a transmitted power of
25 dBm.
GaN high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) devices are
now being used to demonstrate amplifier efficiencies far in ex-
cess of what can be shown in other technologies. For RF devices,
recent developments in the GaN HEMT have made it possible
to realize highly efficient switch-mode amplifiers at microwave
frequencies. GaN HEMTs allow the use of highly efficient class
E circuit topologies demonstrating high powers >60 W at 2 GHz
with 75% power added efficiency. In broadband WiMax appli-
cations, GaN HEMTs offer very wide bandwidths while meet-
ing IEEE802.16e standard with >25% drain efficiency. GaN
transistors show potential for use in switch-mode applications
but are still a long way from being a reliable and cost-effective
component for commercial applications.
c) Standby consumption: In standby mode or low-activity
mode, the current is usually orders of magnitude below the
maximum current. Most of the power supplies are designed for
good efficiency/performance at full load, but not at light load. In
standby or in low-activity modes of operation, the power losses
in the power supplies are dominated by the switching losses
instead of the conduction losses, as a consequence, it is desirable
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE 2343

to use other modulation schemes different than PWM to increase

the efficiency in this ultra light load conditions to reduce the
switching activity. One possibility is the use of pulse frequency
modulation (PFM) in which the ON time is set constant, and
the duty cycle is controlled decreasing the switching frequency
instead of the ON time. Digital controllers implementing both
PWM and PFM modes are proposed in [57]–[59]. Very low
quiescent current are achieved in both cases for PFM operation:
4 μA in [57] and 3 μA in [59].
Another option is to keep a PWM control but skipping some
pulses when the duty cycle goes below a limit [60]. The final
result is very similar to that obtained using PFM. Apart from
pulse skipping, the compensator law is also adapted depending
on the load. Fig. 2. Power generation 2008 and forecast 2030 [63].
3) Energy Savings Potential:
a) Data centers and servers: The use of advanced power
electronics techniques, like new dc distribution networks, can
lead to a 10% reduction of the required energy. The integration
of ICT technologies and power electronics, improving energy
management, can save an additional 20%, and the implemen-
tation of best practices can lead to a total 50% reduction [61],
which translates into 1% savings of the total electricity con-
sumption.
b) Telecom industry: Almost 30% reduction of electric
energy consumption can be achieved in RBSs by employing
efficient power electronics technologies such as efficient power
amplifiers and techniques for low consumption in standby mode.
If we take an annual electric energy consumption of a 3G RBS
of 20 MWh, and estimate the number of RBS in Europe to be Fig. 3. Primary energy: future energy mix [64].
20 000 per operator and ∼30 large operators and predict the
growth of 3X until 2010, this gives the total savings of 10 TWh
or ∼0.4% of the total electricity consumption. tion toward a future smart grid integrating distributed power
c) Standby consumption: It has been estimated that the generation, fluctuating renewables and a bidirectional power
total annual energy savings potential for standby consumption flow [65]–[67]. One definition of smart grid is “an electric-
in the EU is 35 TWh [62]. Technologies for achieving 10-mW ity network that can intelligently integrate the actions of all
standby power per appliance compared to the typical several users connected to it—generators, consumers, and those that do
watts are already available. both—in order to efficiently deliver sustainable, economic, and
secure electricity supplies [68].” Much more than adding ICT
and smart metering to the existing grids, the concept involves
C. Smart Electricity Grids: Including Vehicle to Grid the future evolution of the entire power network, which includes
1) Field Background and Energy Consumption: The trend of the following.
increasing electrification of society will continue in the future as 1) Both transmission and distribution: Smart grids focus on
the generation and consumption of electric power is generally the integration of renewable generation [69], [70], relia-
more efficient, cleaner, and safer than the direct consumption of bility, and efficiency [71], [72] of the grid.
primary energy. We will see a growing electricity energy demand 2) The demand response [73], [74] and the potential of new
in the next decades with an increase of >70% until 2030. In the technologies such as large-scale integration of electric ve-
next 20 years, fossil fuels will continue to be the backbone of hicles (EVs) [75]–[77].
power generation, while renewable energy sources will steadily 3) Both automation control and communication technologies
be gaining in importance, as shown in Fig. 2 [63]. Between [78]–[81] and controllable power devices [7], [69], [82] in
2030 and 2040, when the finiteness of oil and gas resources has the whole value chain from production to consumption.
dramatically increased the price of these fossil fuels, we can Ever increasing fuel prices, and the global energy and climate
expect a substitution by a mix of renewable energy sources (see situation have triggered worldwide investment in electric and
Fig. 3, [64]). hybrid vehicles and increasing penetration of these vehicles
This increasing share of renewables, the demands for a high into the market. Recent advances in battery technologies, raising
quality and availability power supply, and the need to achieve public interest for greener, energy-efficient electric and plug-in
sustainable growth and minimize environmental impact among hybrid EVs (PHEVs), and policy incentives have resulted in
other factors are pushing an evolution of grid design from the plug-in hybrids and all-EVs being on the threshold of serious
traditional unidirectional grid with centralized power genera- market introduction. The U.S. government has committed to

Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2344
a goal of one million plug-in EVs in the next five years. In
Europe, the German government announced a national platform
on electric mobility to put a million plug-in cars on the roads
by 2020, France intends to have one hundred thousand EVs on
the road by 2012, and The Netherlands is aiming at have one
million electric cars on the roads by 2020 [83], [84].
2) Energy Savings Technologies: The key elements of smart
grids [65] are as follows.
1) Integration of renewables.
2) Efficiency and reliability.
3) Demand response.
4) Integration of electric vehicles.
Power electronics is an enabling technology for all these ele-
ments responsible for increasing controllability in transmission
and distribution grids and adapting new generation and storage
to the grid [85]. Power electronics is essential for integrating
variable-speed wind power generation units to achieve high ef-
ficiency and high performance in power systems [86]. Power
electronic converters are used to match the characteristics of
wind turbines with the requirements of grid connections, in-
cluding frequency, voltage, control of active and reactive power,
harmonics, etc. Furthermore, power electronic converters may
control the turbine rotation speed to get the maximum possible
power by means of a maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
algorithm. Power electronics is also crucial in connecting large
wind farms to the grids performing frequency and voltage con-
trol, regulation of active and reactive power, quick responses
under power system transient, and dynamic situations.
In the case of PV systems, power electronics is necessary for
converting the output dc voltage of the panels to the ac voltage
of the grid and for maximizing energy capture of the panels.
Variety of PV systems configurations exist, from centralized
inverter, string inverter, to distributed configurations with dc/dc
converters or inverters on the panel level. By introducing power
electronic converters with advanced control and MPPT at the
panel level, the energy output of the array (exposed to shade)
can be significantly improved [87], [88] and as much as 50% of
the lost energy can be reclaimed. In fact, due to the way that PV
string panels operate and the fact that the string current has to
be the same for all panels in the string, as little as 10% shade on
an array (e.g., if 50% of one PV panel in a string of five panels
is shaded) can result in as much as 50% lost energy [89], [90].
Looking at reliability and efficiency, power electronics is
crucial here too. Efficient long-distance HVdc transmission
and power quality solutions such as static var compensator
(SVC) and STATCOMs are all power electronics technolo-
gies [91]–[94]. VSDs in hydro stations improve efficiency by
controlling the turbine speed. Use of power electronics, com-
munication, and automation is the key to innovative solutions
for operating modern power systems with improved reliability
and power quality.
Power electronics is an enabling technology for the devel-
opment of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles and their inte-
gration to the grid [95]–[97]. It is a crucial part of the (fast)
battery-charging system and drive train. The move to a more
electric mobility will challenge the electric grids. An infrastruc-
ture is needed to charge the EVs from the grid, which has to
supply the energy for this additional load. The EVs and PHEVs
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012
Fig. 4. Fuel consumption: conventional versus hybrid vehicles [98].
are a large load, which is ready for demand-side management.
They can use surplus electricity during night hours to charge
the battery. In the next step, the batteries in the EVs can be
used as distributed energy storage capacity to stabilize the grid,
enabling a higher share of fluctuating renewable energies in the
grid. ICTs including power electronics is the key technology for
e-mobility, to meet the challenges on the vehicle side as well as
on the grid side, providing a bidirectional flow of energy and
information between the electric car and the grid.
3) Energy Savings Potential: Fig. 4 shows the fuel consump-
tion of a midsize passenger vehicle for highway and city driv-
ing, comparing conventional cars with an internal combustion
engine (diesel and petrol) with the corresponding hybrid vehi-
cles [98]. In the city driving mission profile, a 50% reduction in
fuel consumption can be achieved. Dickerman and Harrison [75]
estimate that a hybrid EV with a 65 km range could eliminate
the need for more than 65% of petrol consumed by a traditional
petrol vehicle.
Fig. 5 shows a benchmark of efficiencies for different sce-
narios of future drive train concepts: conventional ICE vehicle,
PHEV, battery EV, and fuel cell EV [99], [100]. The calcula-
tion of efficiencies of EVs in this comparison starts from the
electricity, and therefore, does not include the efficiencies of the
different power plants for electricity generation. Compared to
the fuel cell option, with an overall efficiency of about 20%,
the concept of e-vehicle using electric energy storage has three
times better efficiency (65%). Comparing the physical efficien-
cies of combustion engines and electric drives is a delicate issue
because the result strongly depends on the energy mix used
for electricity generation. The internal combustion engine has
an efficiency of <35% (under ideal conditions, in city driving
<20%), while an electric drive has an efficiency of >90%. When
comparing fuel consumption or CO2 emissions, one also has to
consider the energy source for electricity generation, whether
it is coal, gas, oil, nuclear power, or renewable energies from
wind, solar, or water energy.
It is clear that, in comparison with the other three application
areas, the main energy savings here is not in electric energy,
but in the reduction of oil consumption. As a matter of fact, a
widespread use of PHEV and battery EVs will increase the total
electricity consumption.
D. Industrial Drives
1) Field Background and Energy Consumption: Electric
motors and drive systems are widely present, their applications
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
Fig. 5. Vehicle efficiency comparison.
ranging from the low power area in home appliances over
medium power in industrial and automotive up to the large
megawatt power in the field of generation. In the EU, motor-
driven systems are among the largest consumers of industrial
electric energy, accounting for around 65% of the total EU in-
dustrial electricity consumption [101]. Given the fact that indus-
try consumes around 41% of total electricity, this translates into
27% of the total electricity consumption. The main applications
of industrial drives are pumps, fans, and compressors. Motor-
driven systems consume 38% of the tertiary sector electricity
consumption in the EU, which translates into more than 10%
of the total electricity consumption [102]. In the U.S., motor
systems in the residential sector use 13.1% of total U.S. elec-
tricity consumption, in the commercial sector 11.3%, and in the
industrial sector around 25%, which adds up to around 50% of
the total electricity consumption [103].
2) Energy Savings Technologies: The majority of motors are
still run at fixed speed regardless of the load. A throttling valve
on a pump, for example, is used to regulate pump output. An
analogy would be operating a car with the accelerator pedal
pushed to the floor and regulating the vehicle speed by applying
the brake. Nowadays, a lot of unintelligent fixed-speed drives
can be substituted economically by electric VSDs due to high
automation and flexibility in production, maintenance-free, self-
adjusting operation, and reduced energy costs during operation.
The energy saving potential of installing VSDs in motor systems
comes from the ability to control the motor speed to match the
output with the system needs. The main part of a VSD is a power
electronic inverter that supplies variable frequency voltage to the
motor, thus, changing its speed. This is particularly beneficial in
fluid and motion applications such as pumps and fans, where the
flow or speed varies over time. For these variable torque loads,
the affinity laws [104] state that the shaft power is proportional
to the flow rate to the power of three. Hence, if a rotodynamic
pump is slowed by 10%, the energy demand will be only around
70% of the energy at full speed, and for the speed reduction of
50%, the energy demand will go down to 12% of the energy
demand at full load [105].
3) Energy Savings Potential: Variable-speed electric drives
account for 15%–20% of all motor drives in Europe (12% in
Germany, 5% worldwide) within the industry field. Due to the
additional cost of VSDs and the type of process, it is not always
feasible to implement them in all motor-driven systems. The
feasibility measure is cost effectiveness, translated into the total
lifecycle cost. As regards the total lifecycle of motor-driven
systems, energy costs during the operation of the drive are often
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2345
TABLE I
ELECTRIC ENERGY SAVINGS POTENTIAL OF POWER ELECTRONICS IN KEY
APPLICATIONS
greater than 90% of the total lifecycle costs. In the case of pump-
driven systems, the lifecycle cost breakdown is: energy 80%,
purchase 8%, and maintenance 12% [27]. It is estimated that it
is feasible to have VSDs installed in 40%–50% of all motor-
driven systems. The total savings potential is then estimated to
be 30%–40% or even up to 70%, depending on the application,
operation, and load cycle. Combining all these figures, the total
electric energy savings potential of VSDs is about 5%–6% of
current consumption.
E. Total Energy Savings Potential
Table I shows the summary of the estimated energy savings
potential that can be achieved by introducing power electronics
into systems in the shown areas. If the savings in the three fields
are added up (the last column in the table), it can be seen that
the total energy savings potential in these application fields only
is enormous: 25% of the current EU electricity consumption.
It should be noted that the table does not include energy
savings potential in the field of e-mobility. The reason for this
is twofold: firstly, the energy savings presented in the table are
electrical energy savings, while in the case of (hybrid) EVs, the
energy savings is primarily in the reduction of oil consumption.
Furthermore, a widespread use of (hybrid) EVs would increase
the electricity consumption.
III. CHALLENGES AND TECHNOLOGY GAPS
A. Buildings and Lighting
There are already available technological solutions that can
provide significant savings in energy consumption in buildings
and lighting. However, there are major barriers to the introduc-
tion and retrofitting of these energy-efficient fixtures and appli-
ances. Although some solutions are already available, further
R&D is required to close technology gaps and further improve
energy savings.
The main challenges that must be addressed to surmount the
barriers to market penetration are as follows.
1) Reduce cost of energy-efficient light sources (especially
CFL and SSL). Lower cost will improve market penetra-
tion, in particular, for domestic applications.
2) Produce SSL sources [LED/organic LED (OLED)] suit-
able for direct replacement of existing ones (incandescent
lamps, fluorescent tubes, CFL bulbs, etc.) without the need
of external cooling.
 2346
3) Reduce energy consumption of HVAC systems are still a
large energy consumer, even when energy-efficient sys-
tems with continuous control are employed.
4) Reduce cost of installation and maintenance of building
energy management systems, both for “greenfield” and
“brownfield” deployment.
To accomplish these challenges, several technologies are
required.
1) Low-cost high-efficiency (>150 lm/W) solid-state light
sources (LED, OLED, plasma, sodium, etc.).
2) High-efficiency (>95%) LED/OLED drivers.
3) Low-cost, self-powered sensors suitable for retrofitting.
4) Low-loss (<2%) electric actuators.
B. Power Supplies
Probably, the main challenge for power supplies for improv-
ing the energy efficiency usage of a given technology is to think
of the power supply as a controlled source that can be adapted
to the supply requirements of the device as a function of its
operation mode (e.g., DVS for microprocessor or EER for RF
amplifiers). The main change is not to try to push the efficiency
of the power supply itself, but to look at the global efficiency
of the system. This change in the power supply requirements
will pose new challenges for their design, especially in those
applications in which the supply voltage has to be adaptively
changed at very high speed.
Although the challenges and associated technology gaps are
dependent on the application, there are some common issues
that provide important benefits for most of the applications.
1) Power supplies on chip: The integration of the power sup-
ply on the same chip as the load opens new doors for the
application of local power management (controlling the
digital parts that are supplied according to the workload)
or different internal supply buses.
2) Reduction of standby losses: This requires the research
on devices and circuits and technologies with low leakage
currents.
3) Reliability: To increase the reliability and utilization of
distributed power systems, research has to be focused on
fault-tolerant architectures and autoreconfigurable power
distribution. Additionally, modeling and simulation tools
are necessary to help in the selection and optimization of
these architectures.
4) Modularity: To improve the scalability and reduce the
development cost, high configurable power modules with
current sharing capabilities are needed.
5) Standardization: The generation of standard interfaces,
packages, and communication protocols shared by man-
ufacturers will help in the reduction of costs and in the
deployment of new architectures.
6) High power density: To improve space utilization, the
research on HF topologies and devices, improved cooling
systems, will allow the reduction of the size of the power
supplies.
7) Power management: To optimize the energy efficiency at
system level, it is necessary to establish communication
protocols for the converters and provide them with the
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012
functionality to be programmed as a function of the oper-
ation conditions.
C. Smart Electricity Grids: Including Vehicle to Grid
The transition from the traditional unidirectional grid with
centralized power generation toward a future smart grid
integrating distributed power generation, fluctuating renewables
and a bidirectional power flow, is not abrupt but an evolution-
ary process. Compared to other power electronics applications,
e.g., in power supplies, automotive, or industrial systems, the
timeline for changes is quite long, in the range of decades. The
reason for this slow movement lies in the energy-related in-
frastructure of power generation, transmission, and distribution
with its gigantic infrastructure costs and lead times for planning,
legal approval, and construction of this infrastructure.
Furthermore, changes are not necessarily market or technol-
ogy driven, but strongly influenced by politics and general trends
in society. Some examples underlining this statement are the
discussions on using or abandoning nuclear energy or the sub-
sidization of wind and solar power via the electricity tariff.
Therefore, engineers have to develop and provide the tech-
nical solutions necessary to enable the evolution of grid design
toward future smart grids, but the implementation process itself
is strongly influenced by social and political factors.
The main technological challenges in the field of smart grids
that are relevant to power electronics are as follows.
1) Increasing share of fluctuating renewables: both on the
transmission and distribution level. The intermittent nature
of wind and solar generation and the lack of correlation
with the variability of the load pose operational challenges
for the transmission grid and require additional measures
to maintain reliability and operational requirements.
2) Distributed power generation (microgrids): including is-
sues such as load sharing, power factor control, and power
quality management.
3) Demand response, balancing load to supply: coordinated
control of a large number of loads and security issues.
4) Integration of EVs: plug-in vehicles will represent a sig-
nificant new load on the existing distribution networks.
On the other hand, they will offer capabilities for shaping
the distribution system load.
5) Efficiency and reliability of the grid and power quality:
increasing grid capacity and stability, managing the in-
fluence of renewable energy sources, demand response,
storage devices, and EVs on grid reliability.
The technology and capability gaps that need to be closed to
meet these challenges are as follows.
1) Low-loss, long-distance HVdc power transmission,
meshed HVdc overlay grids.
2) MVdc grids with high power dc/dc converters.
3) Control of micro- and supergrids (island mode and normal
grid mode).
4) Remote monitoring and control of solar and wind farms.
5) Bidirectional flow of power and information.
6) Power and ICT interface between the grid and the
appliances.
7) EV charging load management.
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
8) Intelligent bidirectional power interface between EV and
grid.
9) High-power semiconductors enabling high voltage (10
kV), high currents, and high temperature based on Si de-
vices or wide bandgap devices (SiC, GaN).
10) Packaging challenges associated with high-power (ther-
mal expansion, insulation clearances etc), thermal man-
agement.
11) Solid-state transformers: advanced (soft switching)
topologies for high efficiency power solid-state transform-
ers for distribution purposes.
12) Next generation of multilevel power conversion to inter-
face with conventional ac power systems.
13) New design environments and real-time digital simulators
for power electronics control.
14) Smart integrated module as a building block for new dis-
tribution system architecture.
D. Industrial Drives
The critical challenges for increasing the market penetration
of VSDs in motor-driven systems are cost (both equipment costs
and running costs) and legislation. The main challenges from
the user side are cost (economic factor), reliability (critical in
existing and emerging applications), and power density (impor-
tant for successful integration of VSDs in systems). Efficiency is
also important, but since VSDs are already very efficient (97%–
98%), more attention has to be paid to the rest of the system
(motor, end load).
The main technology gaps to be closed to meet the challenges
are as follows.
1) New semiconductor materials with broad applications
(SiC, GaN): Due to their properties, these devices al-
low for lower losses and thus higher efficiency. Possibly
even more important, these devices can operate at much
higher operating temperature, which translates into better
semiconductor utilization and less semiconductor mate-
rial, which brings the cost down. If one takes into account
that, for example, ∼50% of the cost in MV drives is power
semiconductors, the benefits are clear.
2) New packaging and interconnection technologies (high-
temperature properties, etc.): This issue goes together
with the high-temperature semiconductors. Furthermore,
interconnection technologies that allow for double-sided
cooling lend themselves to better thermal management
and higher power densities.
3) High-temperature technologies such as high-temperature
passives (power capacitors for high temperatures
>150 ◦ C), high-temperature insulation materials, etc.:
again goes together with higher operating temperature of
the system enabled by high-temperature semiconductors.
4) Cooling technology: Thermal management is a crucial part
of the system since it influences the cost, power density,
and reliability. High-performance cooling technologies al-
low for small volumes and high power densities but are
expensive.
5) 3-D integration: including passive components, necessary
for achieving high-power densities.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2347
6) Sophisticated control platforms and integration of self-
powered sensors with wireless communication: by en-
abling complex control tasks, automated startup, and
extended parameter identification procedures; control,
lifetime monitoring, and prediction of critical components,
enabling plant monitoring and process energy consump-
tion via wireless communication would increase reliabil-
ity, availability, and robustness of VSDs.
7) New converter topologies or configurations: In MV drives,
minimization or avoidance of gears, transformers, and fil-
ters, as well as increase of voltage and power of PWM
converters are among the main challenges for system effi-
ciency and power density.
8) Redundancy concepts (electric machines, converter, con-
trol) and analysis of reliability and robustness includ-
ing design for reliability are critical for the reliability
challenge.
IV. NONTECHNOLOGICAL DRIVERS
In this paper, the energy savings potential of wider adoption
of power electronics in four key application areas is assessed. A
review of energy-saving power electronics technologies is pre-
sented and the main technological gaps in realizing the savings
potential are identified.
However, even when energy-efficient power-electronics-
based technologies exist, it does not automatically mean that
they will be implemented due to the complex interaction among
the four drivers toward a future of sustainable energy: technol-
ogy, economy, policy, and public acceptance. The other three
drivers are necessary for successful market penetration and thus
exploitation of the significant energy efficiency potential. The
legal and regulatory framework is crucial to the adoption and
exploitation of energy-efficient technologies. The importance
of energy efficiency is well recognized within the framework of
a sustainable energy future in energy policies worldwide. Ta-
ble II in the Appendix gives an overview of selected Research
and Technological Development (RTD) and non-RTD policies
and standards that are relevant to power electronics technology
development and market penetration worldwide.
The cost is a dominant issue for both purchase and installa-
tion, especially in the case of retrofitting. In spite of the short
economic payback time of some applications, economic barriers
are still present. These include payback time being considered
too long, lack of awareness, reluctance to change working pro-
cess, split budgets, etc. Further reduction of power electronics
cost through standardization, integration, and automated man-
ufacturing is needed. Furthermore, new business models, often
on the system level (i.e., buildings, factories), are needed.
Public acceptance is a powerful means of advancing technol-
ogy takeup and development. In order for the general public to
accept a technology and business model that radically changes
their understanding and acceptance of a basic service, significant
education must take place. Environmental awareness is already
present, but the potential contribution of power electronics to a
sustainable energy solution is not known to the general public.
For example, PV systems are well known for their green energy
epithet. Few know that the energy payback of power electronics
systems through energy savings is a couple of months, while the
PV systems energy payback is 1–1.5 years.
 2348 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012

APPENDIX
TABLE II
ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICIES AND STANDARDS

Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
TABLE II
Continued
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the many experts and officials
for their input and support during the course of the E4U project.
These include but are not limited to: the experts from the mem-
bers of the European Center for Power Electronics network, the
European Commission, national officials, etc.
REFERENCES
[1] Action plan for energy efficiency: Realising the potential. [On-
line]. pp. 1–25. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/action_plan_energy
_efficiency/doc/com_2006_0545_en.pdf.
[2] Energy & environment. [Online]. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/
issues/energy-and-environment
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2349
[3] Cool Earth—Innovative Energy Technology Program. Ministry of Econ-
omy, Trade and Industry, Tokyo, Japan, Mar. 2008..
[4] M. Z. Jacobson and M. A. Delucchi, “A path to sustainable energy by
2030,” Sci. Amer., pp. 39–45, Nov. 2009.
[5] D. Divan and F. Kreikebaum, “Organic (but not green),” IEEE Spectrum,
pp. 47–49, Nov. 2009.
[6] L. M. Beard, J. B. Cardell, I. Dobson, F. Galvan, D. Hawkins, W. Jewell,
M. Kezunovic, T. J. Overbye, P. K. Sen, and D. J. Tylavsky, “Key technical
challenges for the electric power industry and climate change,” IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 465–473, Jun. 2010.
[7] J. Arai, K. Iba, T. Funabashi, Y. Nakanishi, K. Koyanagi, and R. Yokoyama,
“Power electronics and its applications to renewable energy in Japan,”
IEEE Circuits Syst. Mag., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 52–66, Third Quarter
2008.
[8] M. Matsuura, H. Shiroyama, and T. Suzuki, “Sustainable energy and
environmental policymaking in Japan,” IEEE Technol. Soc. Mag., vol. 29,
no. 3, pp. 45–54, Fall 2010.
[9] International Energy Agency. [Online]. Available: www.iea.org
 2350
[10] International Energy Outlook 2009. [Online]. Available: www.eia
.doe.gov
[11] Eurostat. [Online]. Available: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/
page/ portal/energy/data/main_tables
[12] B. Bose, “Global warming: Energy, environmental pollution, and the im-
pact of power electronics,” IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 1,
pp. 6–17, Mar. 2010.
[13] B. Kroposki, C. Pink, R. DeBlasio, H. Thomas, M. Simões, and P. K. Sen,
“Benefits of power electronic interfaces for distributed energy systems,”
IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 901–908, Sep. 2010.
[14] P. K. Steimer, “Enabled by high power electronics—Energy efficiency,
renewables and smart grids,” in Proc. Int. Power Electron. Conf., Jun.
21–24, 2010, pp. 11–15.
[15] G. Spagnuolo, G. Petrone, S. V. Araujo, C. Cecati, E. Friis-Madsen,
E. Gubia, D. Hissel, M. Jasinski, W. Knapp, M. Liserre, P. Rodriguez,
R. Teodorescu, and P. Zacharias, “Renewable energy operation and con-
version schemes: A summary of discussions during the seminar on renew-
able energy systems,” IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 38–51,
Mar. 2010.
[16] Electronics enabling efficient energy usage. [Online]. Available:
http://www.e4efficiency.eu/
[17] Energy consumption by sector and source. U.S. Energy In-
formation Administration, Washington, DC. [Online]. Available:
http://www.eia.doe.gov
[18] P. Banlombeek, “Maximize efficiency! A critical strategy towards making
buildings green,” presented at the Energy Week Conference, Brussels,
Belgium, Oct. 2008.
[19] I. L. Azevedo, M. G. Morgan, and F. Morgan, “The transition to solid-state
lighting,” in Proc. IEEE, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 481–510, Mar. 2009.
[20] S. Y. Hui, D. Y. Lin, W. M. Ng, and W. Yan, “A ’class-A2’ ultra-low-loss
magnetic ballast for T5 fluorescent lamps—A new trend for sustainable
lighting technology,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 622–
629, Feb. 2011.
[21] J. Y. Tsao, M. E. Coltrin, M. H. Crawford, and J. A. Simmons, “Solid-
state lighting: An integrated human factors, technology, and economic
perspective,” in Proc. IEEE, vol. 98, no. 7, pp. 1162–1179, Jul. 2010.
[22] X. Qu, S. C. Wong, and C. K. Tse, “Resonance-assisted buck converter
for offline driving of power LED replacement lamps,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 532–540, Feb. 2011.
[23] A. Cooper. Variable speed drive applications in HVAC systems. presented
at Conf. Energy Efficiency Renew. Energy 2003 [Online]. Available:
http://www.esprojects.net/attachment/f884d384a217c98c4bfa49875a2f02
d9/bbf17ee776d05116220974e538a1eb2a/Variable+Speed+Drive+Ap-
plications+in+HVAC+Systems.pdf
[24] W. Wang, N. Wang, E. Hafer, M. Hayes, B. O’Flynn, and C. O’Mathuna,
“Autonomous wireless sensor network based building energy and environ-
ment monitoring system design,” in Proc. Environ. Sci. Inf. Appl. Technol.
Conf., 2010, vol. 3, pp. 367–372.
[25] E. Jafer, B. O’Flynn, C. O’Mathuna, and W. Wang, “Design of minia-
turized wireless sensor mote and actuator for building monitoring and
control,” in Proc. 17th IEEE Int. Conf. Telecommun., 2010, pp. 887–892.
[26] B. Smets, “Philips lighting. energy saving potential of intelligent lighting,”
presented at the Monitor Control Energy Efficiency Meeting, Brussels,
Belgium, Oct. 2008.
[27] J. Reinert, “Improving performance and energy consumption of industrial
processes by using variable speed drives,” presented at the ECPE Seminar
Towards Energy Gain Savings—Emerging Drives Generator Syst., Apr.
2008.
[28] A. de Almeida and F. J. T. E. Ferreira. Advanced motors, VSDs,
transmissions and systems design. [Online]. Available: (http://www.
iea.org/Textbase/work/2006/motor/De%20ALMEIDA%20IEA-Motors-
Part-II-15-May-06-Final.pdf)
[29] T. Suntio, J. Leppäaho, J. Huusari, and L. Nousiainen, “Issues on solar-
generator interfacing with current-fed MPP-tracking converters,” IEEE
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 2409–2419, Sep. 2010.
[30] S. L. Brunton, C. W. Rowley, S. R. Kulkarni, and C. Clarkson, “Maximum
power point tracking for photovoltaic optimization using ripple-based
extremum seeking control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 10,
pp. 2531–2540, Oct. 2010.
[31] L. Zhang, W. G. Hurley, and W. H. Wölfle, “A new approach to achieve
maximum power point tracking for PV system with a variable inductor,”
IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 1031–1037, Apr. 2011.
[32] G. Pellegrino, E. Armando, and P. Guglielmi, “An integral battery charger
with power factor correction for electric scooter,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 751–759, Mar. 2010.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012
[33] M. Bragard, N. Soltau, S. Thomas, and R. W. De Doncker, “The balance
of renewable sources and user demands in grids: Power electronics for
modular battery energy storage systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 3049–3056, Dec. 2010.
[34] I. Aharon and A. Kuperman, “Topological overview of powertrains for
battery-powered vehicles with range extenders,” IEEE Trans. Power Elec-
tron., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 868–876, Mar. 2011.
[35] J. Lago and M. L. Heldwein, “Operation and control-oriented modeling
of a power converter for current balancing and stability improvement of
DC active distribution networks,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26,
no. 3, pp. 877–885, Mar. 2011.
[36] R. Miftakhutdinov, “Power distribution architecture for tele- and data com-
munication system based on new generation intermediate bus converter,”
in Proc. Telecommun. Energy Conf. INTELEC, Sep. 14–18, 2008, pp. 1–8.
[37] M. Barai, S. Sengupta, and J. Biswas, “Digital controller for DVS-enabled
DC–DC converter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 557–
573, Mar. 2010.
[38] P. Bertoldi, “European policies for energy efficiency in ICT,” in presented
at the European Commission DG JRC ITU Conference, London, U.K.,
Jun. 17, 2008.
[39] Emerson Network Power. Energy logic for telecom: Reducing energy use.
[Online]. Available: http://emersonnetworkpower.com/en-US/Brands/
EnergySystems/Documents/Telecoms Energy Logic/Energy Logic for
Telecom Presentation.pdf
[40] P. Gildert. Power system efficiency in wireless communications. pre-
sented at Appl. Power Electron. Conf. 2006 [Online]. Available:
http://www.apec-conf.org/2006/APEC_2006_SP2_1.pdf
[41] Y. Choi, N. Chang, and T. Kim, “DC-DC converter-aware power man-
agement for low-power embedded systems,” IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided
Design Integr. Circuits Syst., vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 1367–1381, Aug. 2007.
[42] O. Trescases, G. Wei, A. Prodić, and W. T. Ng, “Predictive efficiency
optimization for DC-DC converters with highly dynamic digital loads,”
IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 1859–1869, Jul. 2008.
[43] G. Qu, “Power management of multicore multiple voltage embedded sys-
tems by task scheduling,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Parallel Processing Work-
shops, Sep. 10–14, 2007, p. 34.
[44] J. A. A. Qahouq, O. Abdel-Rahman, L. Huang, and I. Batarseh, “On load
adaptive control of voltage regulators for power managed loads: Control
schemes to improve converter efficiency and performance,” IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 1806–1819, Sep. 2007.
[45] V. Yousefzadeh, A. Babazadeh, B. Ramachandran, E. Alarcon, L. Pao, and
D. Maksimovic, “Proximate time-optimal digital control for synchronous
buck DC–DC converters,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 4,
pp. 2018–2026, Jul. 2008.
[46] T. Reiter, D. Polenov, H. Probstle, and H-.G. Herzog, “PWM dead time op-
timization method for automotive multiphase DC/DC-Converters,” IEEE
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 1604–1614, Jun. 2010.
[47] Z. Lukic, C. Blake, S. C. Huerta, and A. Prodic, “Universal and fault-
tolerant multiphase digital PWM controller IC for high-frequency DC-DC
converters,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., Feb. 2007,
Anaheim, CA, pp. 42–47.
[48] P. Zumel, C. Fernández, A. de Castro, and O. Garcı́a, “Efficiency im-
provement in multiphase converter by changing dynamically the number
of phases,” in Proc. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., Jun. 2006, Jeju,
South Korea, pp. 2845–2850.
[49] Y. Jang and M. M. Jovanovic, “Light-load efficiency optimization
method,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 67–74, Jan.
2010.
[50] D. Marquet, F. San Miguel, A. Deshayes, and J.-C. Tetart, “New power
supply optimised for new telecom networks and services,” presented
at the IEEE Int. Telecommun. Energy Conf., Copenhagen, Denmark,
1999.
[51] C. L. Belady. In the data center, power and cooling costs more than the
IT equipment it supports. Electron. Cooling [Online]. 13(1). Available:
http://electronics-cooling.com/articles/2007/feb/a3
[52] U. Carlsson, M. Flodin, J. Akerlund, and A. Ericsson, “Powering the
Internet-broadband equipment in all facilities—The need for a 300 V DC
powering and universal current option,” IEEE Int. Telecommun. Energy
Conf., Oct. 2003, pp. 164–169.
[53] P. Gross and K. L. Godrich, “Total DC integrated data centers,” IEEE Int.
Telecommun. Conf., pp. 125–130, Sep. 2005.
[54] W. Allen, D. W. Fletcher, and K. J. Fellhoelter, “Securing critical in-
formation and communication infrastructures through electric power grid
independence,” IEEE Int. Telecommun. Energy Conf., Oct. 2003, pp. 170–
177,.
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
[55] A. Pratt, P. Kumar, and T. V. Aldridge, “Evaluation of 400 V DC distribu-
tion in telco and data centers to improve energy efficiency,” in Proc. 29th
Int. Telecommun. Energy Conf., 2007, pp. 32–39.
[56] M. Vasic, O. Garcia, J. A. Oliver, P. Alou, D. Diaz, and J. A. Cobos,
“Multilevel power supply for high-efficiency RF amplifiers,” IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 1078–1089, Apr. 2010.
[57] R. Paul, L. Sankey, L. Corradini, Z. Popovic, and D. Maksimovic, “Power
management of wideband code division multiple access RF power am-
plifiers with antenna mismatch,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25,
no. 4, pp. 981–991, Apr. 2010.
[58] J. Xiao, A. Peterchev, J. Zhang, and S. Sanders, “An ultra-low-power
digitally-controlled buck converter IC for cellular phone applications,”
in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., Feb., 2004, vol. 1,
pp. 383–391.
[59] K. Wang, N. Rahman, Z. Lukic, and A. Prodic, “All-digital DPWM/DPFM
controller for low-power DC-DC converters,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power
Electron. Conf. Expo., Mar. 2006, Dallas, TX, pp. 719–723.
[60] J. Zhang and S. R. Sanders, “A digital multi-mode multi-phase IC con-
troller for voltage regulator application,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Elec-
tron. Conf. Expo., Feb. 2007, Anaheim, CA, pp. 719–726.
[61] G. Shamshoian, M. Blazek, P. Naughton, R. S. Seese, E. Mills, and W.
Tschudi, “High-tech means high-efficiency: The business case for energy
management in high-tech industries,” Lawrence Berkeley National Labo-
ratory, Berkeley, CA, Dec. 20, 2005.
[62] N. F. Nissen, EuP preparatory study Lot 6 standby and off-mode losses.
Berlin, Germany, Final Report. Fraunhofer IZM. (2007 Oct.). [Online].
Available: http://www.ecostandby.org
[63] M. Weinhold, “Integrated energy systems,” presented at the ECPE Work-
shop Res. Challenges Visions MegaWatt Power Electron. Smart Grids,
Zurich, Switzerland, Mar. 5–6, 2009.
[64] M. Sterner, “100% renewable energy supply for cities and nations—
Technical possibilities and main barriers,” in presented at the Euro-
pean Union Sustainable Energy Week, Brussels, Belgium, Mar. 24,
2010.
[65] A. Sannino, “The role of power electronics in smart grids and renewable
integration,” presented at the ECPE-E4U Workshop, Brussels, Belgium,
Jun. 23, 2009.
[66] E. Santacana, G. Rackliffe, L. Tang, and X. Feng, “Getting smart,” IEEE
Power Energy Mag., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 41–48, Mar./Apr. 2010.
[67] A. Ipakchi and F. Albuyeh, “Grid of the future,” IEEE Power Energy
Mag, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 52–62, Mar./Apr. 2009.
[68] European technology platform smartgrids. [Online]. Available: http:
//www.smartgrids.eu
[69] M. Liserre, T. Sauter, and J. Y. Hung, “Future energy systems: Integrating
renewable energy sources into the smart power grid through industrial
electronics,” IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 18–37, Mar.
2010.
[70] A. Q. Huang, M. L. Crow, G. T. Heydt, J. P. Zheng, and S. J. Dale, “The
future renewable electric energy delivery and management (FREEDM)
system: The energy internet,” in Proc. IEEE, vol. 99, no. 1, pp. 133–148,
Jan. 2011.
[71] K. Moslehi and R. Kumar, “A reliability perspective of the smart grid,”
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 57–64, Jun. 2010.
[72] B. D. Russell and C. L. Benner, “Intelligent systems for improved relia-
bility and failure diagnosis in distribution systems,” IEEE Trans. Smart
Grid, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 48–56, Jun. 2010.
[73] T. J. Lui, W. Stirling, and H. O. Marcy, “Get smart,” IEEE Power Energy
Mag., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 66–78, May/Jun. 2010.
[74] J. Medina, N. Muller, and I. Roytelman, “Demand response and distribu-
tion grid operations: Opportunities and challenges,” IEEE Trans. Smart
Grid, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 193–198, Sep. 2010.
[75] L. Dickerman and J. Harrison, “A new car, a new grid,” IEEE Power
Energy Mag., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 55–61, Mar./Apr. 2010.
[76] A. G. Boulanger, A. C. Chu, S. Maxx, and D. L. Waltz, “Vehicle electrifi-
cation: Status and issues,” in Proc. IEEE, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 1116–1138,
Jun. 2011.
[77] E. Sortomme and M. A. El-Sharkawi, “Optimal charging strategies for
unidirectional vehicle-to-grid,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 2, no. 1,
pp. 131–138, Mar. 2011.
[78] G. W. Arnold, “Challenges and opportunities in smart grid: A position
article,” in Proc. IEEE, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 922–927, Jun. 2011.
[79] S. Massoud Amin and B. F. Wollenberg, “Toward a smart grid: power
delivery for the 21st century,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 3, no. 5,
pp. 34–41, Sep./Oct. 2005.
[80] V. C. Gungor, B. Lu, and G. P. Hancke, “Opportunities and challenges
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2351
of wireless sensor networks in smart grid,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vol. 57, no. 10, pp. 3557–3564, Oct. 2010.
[81] R. Schneiderman, “Smart grid represents a potentially huge market for the
electronics industry,” IEEE Signal Process. Mag., vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 8–15,
Sep. 2010.
[82] J. Wang, A. Huang, W. Sung, Y. Liu, and B. J. Baliga, “Smart grid
technologies,” IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 16–23,
Jun. 2009.
[83] Demand for plug-in electric vehicles: Current state and anticipated de-
velopments. European Commission Directorate-General Joint Research
Centre Set-Plan Information System (SETIS). [Online]. Available:
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/technology/set_plan/doc/setis_transport.pdf
[84] Action plan for electric transport en route to one million electric
cars in 2020! [Online]. Available: http://www.natuurenmilieu.nl/pdf/
090804_action_plan_electric_transport_en_def.pdf
[85] P. K. Steimer, “Power electronics: A key technology for energy effi-
ciency and renewables,” in Proc. IEEE Energy 2030 Conf., Nov. 2008, pp.
1–5.
[86] Z. Chen, J. M. Guerrero, and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of the state of the
art of power electronics for wind turbines,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 1859–1875, Aug. 2009.
[87] Z. Liang, R. Guo, J. Li, and A. Q. Huang, “A high-efficiency PV module-
integrated DC/DC converter for PV energy harvest in FREEDM systems,”
IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 897–909, Mar. 2011.
[88] E. Roman, R. Alonso, P. Ibanez, S. Elorduizapatarietxe, and D. Goitia,
“Intelligent PV module for grid-connected PV systems,” IEEE Trans.
Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1066–1073, Jun. 2006.
[89] SolarMagic reclaims lost energy, boosts power production from normally-
operating array by 22.6%. [Online]. Available: http://www.solarmagic
.com/vcm/SolarMagic_Content/files/en_US/SolarMagic_CaseStudy_Oak
Street.pdf
[90] SolarMagic. [Online]. Available: http://www.solarmagic.com/en/files/
SolarMagic-Spec-Sheet.pdf
[91] C. C. Davidson and G. de Preville, “The future of high power electronics
in transmission and distribution power systems,” in Proc. 13th Eur. Conf.
Power Electron. Appl., 2009, pp. 1–14.
[92] D. Povh, “Use of HVDC and FACTS,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 88, no. 2, pp. 235–
245, Feb. 2000.
[93] N. G. Hingorani, “Power electronics in electric utilities: Role of power
electronics in future power systems,” in Proc. IEEE, vol. 76, no. 4,
pp. 481–482, Apr. 1988.
[94] N. Flourentzou, V. G. Agelidis, and G. D. Demetriades, “VSC-based
HVDC power transmission systems: An overview,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 592–602, Mar. 2009.
[95] A. Emadi, S. S. Williamson, and A. Khaligh, “Power electronics intensive
solutions for advanced electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicular
power systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 567–
577, May 2006.
[96] H. Zhang, L. M. Tolbert, and B. Ozpineci, “Impact of SiC devices on
hybrid electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 912–921, Mar./Apr. 2011.
[97] Z. J. Shen and I. Omura, “Power semiconductor devices for hybrid, elec-
tric, and fuel cell vehicles,” in Proc. IEEE, Apr. 2007, vol. 95, no. 4,
pp. 778–789.
[98] M. Maerz,, “ECPE automotive power electronics roadmap,” presented at
the ECPE-HOPE Symp. Autom. Power Electron., Oct. 2008.
[99] S. Williamson, M. Lukic, and A. Emadi, “Comprehensive drive train
efficiency analysis of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles based on motor-
controller efficiency modeling,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21,
no. 3, pp. 730–740, May 2006.
[100] U. Bossel, “Does a hydrogen economy make sense?” Proc. IEEE, vol. 94,
no. 10, pp. 1826–1837, Oct. 2006.
[101] Position paper on energy efficiency—The role of power electronics, pre-
sented at the Eur. Center Power Electron. Workshop, Brussels, Belgium,
Mar. 2007.
[102] A. Almeida. Definition: What is a motor system? [Online]. Available:
http://www.iea.org/ textbase/ work/ 2006/ motor/ De%20ALMEIDA%20
IEA-Motor-Part-I-15-May-06-Final.pdf
[103] F. Keith and E. West, CRC Handbook on Energy Efficiency. 1st ed. in
Handbook on Energy Efficiency, F. Keith and E. West, Eds., Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press, Dec. 24, 1996.
[104] Pump Handbook, I. J. Karassik, J. P. Messina, P. Cooper, and C. C. Heald
(Eds.), 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
[105] J. A. Rooks and A. K. Wallace, “Energy efficiency of VSDs,” IEEE Ind.
Appl. Mag., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 57–61, May/Jun. 2004.
 2352
Jelena Popović-Gerber (M’03) received the Dipl.
Ing. degree from the Faculty of Electrical Engi-
neering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia,
in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree from the Delft Uni-
versity of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, in
2005.
From 2005 to 2011, she was with the Euro-
pean Center for Power Electronics (ECPE), firstly
as a Technology Transfer Coordinator for one of
the ECPE demonstrator programs “Industrial Drives–
System Integration,” and then working on various
strategic activities related to power-electronics-enabled energy efficiency in-
cluding the setting up of the European Technology and Innovation Platform
“Electronics for Energy Efficiency and Sustainability (EEESy).” Since 2008,
she has been an Assistant Professor in Power Electronics at the Delft Univer-
sity of Technology. Her research interests include packaging and integration in
power electronics, and energy efficiency enabled by power electronics.
Jesús Ángel Oliver (M’00) received the M.S. and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain, in
1996 and 2007, respectively.
In 1996, he was a Visiting Scholar at Center for
Power Electronics Systems, Virginia Tech. In 2000,
he held a summer internship at GE R&D, Schenec-
tady, NY. Since 2001, he has been an Assistant Pro-
fessor of Electrical Engineering at the Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, where he became Associate
Professor in 2007. He has been actively involved in
more than 60 R&D projects for companies in Europe, U.S., and Australia. He
is the author or coauthor of more than over 100 technical papers and holds 3
patents. His research interests include modeling and control of power electron-
ics converters and systems, and high dynamic response power converters for RF
applications and energy-efficient applications.
Nicolás Cordero received the M.Eng.Sc. (Micro-
electronics) degree from the Technical University of
Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain, in 1990.
In 1990, he was a Research Engineer at the
Tyndall National Institute (formerly NMRC), Cork,
Ireland. Since 2000, he has been engaged in research
on thermal management of electronic/photonic de-
vices, components and systems, especially for power
electronic applications, and also worked on modeling
of photovoltaic components and systems. He is cur-
rently Staff Researcher at Tyndall National Institute,
University College Cork.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, MAY 2012
Thomas Harder received the diploma degree in
physics from the University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany.
He has more than 15 years of experience in pack-
aging and interconnection technologies for microsys-
tems and multichip modules. He was a Researcher
in the Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon Technology
(ISIT), Itzehoe, Germany. Since 2003, he has been the
General Manager of European Center for Power Elec-
tronics, an industry-driven research network, Nurem-
berg, Germany.
José A. Cobos (M’94) received the Masters and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Tech-
nical University of Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain, in
1989 and 1994, respectively.
Since 2001, he has been a Professor at UPM. His
contributions are focused in the field of power supply
systems for telecom, aerospace, industrial, automo-
tive, and medical applications. In 2006, he founded
the research center Centro de Electrónica Industrial
(CEI-UPM), leading a strong industrial program in
power electronics, with technology transfer through
more than 50 direct R&D contracts with companies in Europe, USA, Australia,
and China. The CEI-UPM was awarded among the top 5 European univer-
sities by the European Power Supply Manufacturers Association in 2007, and
awarded with the “UPM Technology transfer award” in 2006. He has advised 13
Doctoral dissertations, and is the author or coauthor of more than 200 technical
papers and holds 6 patents. His research interests include energy efficiency in
microprocessors and RF amplifiers, magnetic components, piezoelectric trans-
formers, transcutaneous energy transfer, and dynamic power management.
Dr. Cobos received the UPM Research and Development Award for faculty
less than 35 years of age, and the Richard Bass Outstanding Young Power Elec-
tronics Award of the IEEE (2000). For many years, he has been cooperating
with the IEEE and other professional associations, as a Reviewer, Session Chair,
Topic Chair, and Associate Editor of journals and conferences. He is currently
the Associate Editor of the TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS and Asso-
ciate Editor of the IEEE Power Electronics Society (PELS) letters. From 2001
to 2006, he was an AdCom member of the IEEE as a Chair of the Technical
Committee on DC Power Supply Systems.
Michael Hayes received the B.E. degree in electri-
cal engineering from University College Cork, Cork,
Ireland, in 1987, and the Master’s degree in planar
magnetics from National Microelectronics Research
Centre (now Tyndall), Cork, in 1994.
From 1987 to 2006, he was with Artesyn Tech-
nologies, an electronics company. In 2008, he joined
Tyndall as a Program Manager, where he is engaged
in coordinating activites across several projects on
intelligent sensors for wireless networks applications
in building energy management. He is also engaged
in research on energy harvesting techniques.
 POPOVIĆ-GERBER et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS ENABLING EFFICIENT ENERGY USAGE
Seán Cian O’Mathuna (M’05–SM’11) received the
B.E., M.Eng.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees from the National
University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland, in 1981, 1984,
and 1994, respectively.
From 1982 to 1993, he was the Comanager of
the Interconnection and Packaging Group, National
Microelectronics Research Centre (NMRC), Univer-
sity College Cork, Cork, where he was a Senior Re-
search Scientist. In 1993, he joined PEI Technolo-
gies, NMRC, as the Technical/Commercial Direc-
tor, where he was engaged in power packaging, pla-
nar/integrated magnetics, and product qualification. In 1997, he rejoined NMRC
as a Group Director where he was involved in microsystems. In 1999, he was
appointed as an Assistant Director for NMRC, where he was involved in micro-
electronics integration with research themes in ambient electronics biomedical
microsystems, and energy processing for integrated circuit technology. He is
currently a Director of the Tyndall National Institute, Cork, which incorporates
NMRC and other research groups from University College Cork and Cork In-
stitute of Technology.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on June 30,2020 at 19:15:39 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
2353
Erich Prem received the graduate engineering and
the Ph.D. degrees in computer science from the Tech-
nical University of Vienna, Wien, Austria, and the
Diplomierter Wirtschaftstechniker (DWT) graduate
degree in managerial economics and the MBA de-
gree in general management from Donau University,
Krems, Austria.
He is currently the CEO of eutema Technology
Management, Vienna, Austria. He is also a Lecturer
at the University of Vienna. He was a Researcher at
the Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelli-
gence, and a Guest Researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He
has a scientific background in artificial intelligence and epistemology. For the
last 10 years, he has been involved in research management and policy with a
focus on information and communications technology (ICT) research strategy.
He is the author or coauthor of more than 45 scientific articles.
Dr. Prem is an experienced coordinator of many international projects in ICT
research and technology management.