A Brief Introduction to

Classical Field Theory

Archi Banerjee
18PH20003

Classical Mechanics-II
Term Paper

Course Instructor: Tirtha Sankar Ray

November 20, 2020

Abstract
The dynamics of mechanical systems with finite degrees of freedom can be obtained from the Euler
Lagrange equations for each degree of freedom, which give the respective differential equations of motion.
Within the continuum limit, we replace the dynamical variables with fields which satisfy some field
equations that tell us about the dynamics of these fields. In this short article, I review the notion of
a field and the formalism for dealing with such fields classically in a chronological order similar to that
followed in our course for classical dynamical systems with finite degrees of freedom. I finally review the
Lagrangian Formulation of Maxwell’s Electrodynamics and then obtain some of the important results
therein, such as Local Conservation of Charge, and other conservation laws such as those for Energy and
Momentum.
Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

Contents
1 Introduction 3

2 Principle of Extremal Action for Fields 3

3 Conjugate Momenta and the Hamiltonian 4

4 Symmetries and Noether’s Theorem 4

4.1 Translations in Space and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5 Electrodynamics as a Relativistic Classical Field Theory 6

5.1 Symmetries and Conservation Laws in Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

6 Concluding Remarks 7

References 8

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Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

1 Introduction
In the classical mechanics of finite(say, N) number of degrees of freedom, we wrote down the Euler Lagrange
equations for each degree of freedom starting from the Lagrangian of the mechanical system.
d ∂L ∂L
= (1)
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
The set of equations 1 for each index i (degrees of freedom of the system) were then simplified to get the
equations of motions of the system which gave rise to its dynamics. A natural question arises here: what
is the equivalent formalism for dealing with a classical field ? First, let us define what a field is: A field is
a continuous entity - one which has different values for different positions in space and time. A common
example of a field are the Electric and Magnetic fields E ~ and B ~ - and in general such fields are endowed
with two important properties:
• The Notion of Locality: For any given field φ(~x, t) there are infinite degrees of freedom that are specified
by all the possible values of ~x within a certain domain of space-time. Since there is a notion of a distance
in space-time(metric), namely, the invariant space-time interval, there is also a notion of ’continuity’
between the individual degrees of freedom. This gives rise to continuity in the field variable φ and as
a consequence, action at a distance is not possible. This is the notion of locality endowed on a field.
• The Notion of Causality: According to special relativity, the highest possible speed of ’interaction’ is
the invariant speed of light c; which is finite. This ensures that a change in the field variable φ at some
point propagates to another point in some non trivial time 4t. This is the notion of causality endowed
on a field.
The first approach to denote infinite degrees of freedom might be to write down 1 for all possible indices
i starting from 1 to ∞. But such a description does not admit a continuous ’space’ of degrees of freedom
- to fix that, we ’demote’ position from being a dynamical variable to a degree of freedom, replacing the
index i for each generalised coordinate in the Euler-Lagrange Equations (1) for a system with finite degrees
of freedom. Our dynamical variable here is:

φa (~x, t) (2)
Where a denotes the different fields in question, or their different components.

2 Principle of Extremal Action for Fields

In the classical mechanics for mechanical systems with finite degrees of freedom, we had the Action Functional
defined as: Z t2
S[qi (t)] = L(qi , q̇i , t) dt (3)
t1
Where L is the Lagrangian of the system and qi are the generalised coordinates. As mentioned above, the
field variable φa (~x, t) replaces the qi and hence, the generalised coordinates (in this case, position coordi-
nates) now become degrees of freedom, or the indices i. We also define, analogous to the Lagrangian L a
Lagrangian Density L(φa , ∂µ φa , t) where µ represents derivatives of φa with respect to the 4-vector compo-
nents (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x0 = ct).

Thus, replacing the Lagrangian of classical mechanics of particles, our Action Functional now becomes:
Z t2 Z Z
S[φa ] = dt d3 x L(φa , ∂µ φa , t) = d4 x L (4)
t1

where the Lagrangian L of the system is:

Z
L(t) = d3 x L (5)

In equation 4, we consider only the first derivative of φa and not higher derivatives. This is done in analogy
with ordinary classical mechanics, where the highest time derivative of a generalised coordinate is the 1st
derivative. Another comment on equations 4 and 5 is that the integration with respect to position coordi-
nates is over all space (to include every degree of freedom), while integration with respect to t is from initial
and final times t1 and t2 .

In a similar fashion as that followed in the principle of least action in the classical mechanics of particles,
we now turn to the derivation of the Euler Lagrange equations for fields. This principle states that when a
system evolves from one given configuration to another between times t1 and t2 it does so along a path in
the configuration space 1 for which the action is an extremum and hence satisfies δS = 0.
Z
S = d4 x L(φa , ∂µ φa , t) (6)
Z Z  
∂L ∂L
⇒ δS = d4 x δL = d4 x δφa + ∂µ (δφa ) (7)
∂φa ∂(∂µ φa )
1 The configuration space for fields is the collection of φ for the entire 3-space at all times t. We are interested in the
a
extremal values of S with respect to variations in φa , which corresponds to minimising the action integral from t1 to t2 for all
position coordinates - hence the integration is over all of 3-space

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Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

Z    Z  
4 ∂L ∂ ∂L 4 ∂ ∂L
⇒ δS = d x δφa − + d x δφa (8)
∂φa ∂xµ ∂(∂µ φa ) ∂xµ ∂(∂µ φa )
The second term in 21 is a boundary term, and we assume that all physically realisable fields (and hence,
their variations) vanish at the ”sphere at infinity”. Hence at |~x| → ∞ , δφa = 0. Similarly,

δφa (~x, t1 ) = δφa (~x, t2 ) = 0 (9)

As we keep the initial and final points of the trajectory fixed. Now, extremising the action S, we get:

δS = 0 (10)

Which gives the Euler Lagrange Equation for a field:

 
∂ ∂L ∂L
= (11)
∂xµ ∂(∂µ φa ) ∂φa

As usual, Einstein summation convention is used here, where in an expression repeated indices are summed.

3 Conjugate Momenta and the Hamiltonian

As in classical mechanics of particles, we define the conjugate momenta and the Hamiltonian of the system
as:

∂L
pi = (12)
∂ q˙i
H = pi q˙i − L (13)

Analogously, here we define a quantity called the momentum density π a of a field φa as:
∂L
πa = (14)
∂ φ˙a
And the Hamiltonian Density is now:
H = π a φ˙a − L (15)
Where the Hamiltonian of the entire system (here, the field over all its degrees of freedom):
Z
H = d3 x H (16)

Where the Hamiltonian is a function of time and the Hamiltonian density is a function of the field variable
φa (~x, t), momentum density π a (~x, t) and time t.

4 Symmetries and Noether’s Theorem

Symmetries in a mechanical system correspond to invariances in the dynamics of the system when it is subject
to continuous active transformations. In the case of classical mechanics of particles, we make continuous
infinitesimal active transformations of the generalised coordinates of a system, and in the case of fields, we
will be changing the field itself. The variation in the field δφa will be a function of ~x and t as well. Thus,
for a transformation φa 7→ φa + δφa , we want our action to only change by some constant quantity. Thus,
our Lagrangian Density in this case changes like a total derivative of some vector field J µ (~x, t):

δL = ∂µ J µ (17)

It can verified from here, that this change in the Lagrangian Density leaves the Action S invariant:
Z
δS = d4 x δL (18)
V
Z
⇒ δS = d4 x (∂µ J µ ) (19)
ZV
= dSµ J µ (20)
∂V

The term above is a boundary term, and is a constant. Thus, the original action is incremented by a constant
value everywhere which does not affect the variations in the action due to changes in φa .

Now we know, following equation 21 the change in the Lagrangian can also be written as:
    
∂L ∂ ∂L ∂ ∂L
δL = δφa − + δφa (21)
∂φa ∂xµ ∂(∂µ φa ) ∂xµ ∂(∂µ φa )

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Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

But the first piece in the above equation is zero, following equation 11. Therefore:
 
∂ ∂L
δL = ∂µ J µ = δφa (22)
∂xµ ∂(∂µ φa )
 
∂L
⇒ ∂µ J µ = ∂µ δφa − J µ = 0 (23)
∂(∂µ φa )
Thus, we obtain a conserved current J µ corresponding to a continuous symmetry of the system such that
∂µ J µ = 0. This is the statement of Noether’s Theorem for Fields. Examining the structure of the equation
22, we obtain:
1 ∂J 0
+ ∇J~ = 0 (24)
c ∂t

Such a structure, written down in component form, is suggestive: the expression for conservation of charge
context of Electromagnetism too have the same structure. The equation 24 is a local equation - it states
that in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood around a point in space, the rate of change in the amount of
a certain charge density is equal to the amount of conserved charge diverging away from that point. This
local ’conservation’ equation is a consequence of the concept of ’locality’ that was endowed on the field, as
mentioned in the point on locality at the start.
We now define, for some volume V , the conserved charge QV as:
Z
QV = d3 x J 0 (25)
V

Thus we get, for a volume V (Using Gauss’ Theorem):

Z Z
dQV
=− d3 x ∇J~ = − ~ · J~
dS (26)
dt V ∂V

Where ∂V denotes the area bounding V , dS ~ is a shorthand for ~ndS with ~n being the outward pointing
normal unit vector of the boundary ∂V . In physical terms the result means that any charge leaving V must
be accounted for by a flow of the current 3-vector J~ out of the volume.

4.1 Translations in Space and Time

In classical mechanics of particles, space translations led to conservation of momentum and time translations
led to conservation of energy. In this case, we will recover all those conservation laws from one single
conservation equation. First, let us consider a general translation in all the coordinates:
xµ 7→ xµ + µ (27)
This leads to changes in the fields and the Lagrangian Density:
δφa = ν ∂ν φa (28)
ν ν
δL =  ∂ν L = ∂ν ( L) (29)
= ∂µ (δνµ ν L) (30)
Substituting these into the expression for J µ , we obtain:
∂L
J µ = ν Tνµ = ν ∂ν φa − ν δνµ L (31)
∂(∂µ φa )
Where Tνµ is the energy momentum tensor
∂L
Tνµ = ∂ν φa − δνµ L (32)
∂(∂µ φa )
∂µ Tνµ = 0 (33)
The divergence of Tνµ , leads to the conservation equation:
1 ∂Tν0
+ ∂i Tνi = 0 (34)
c ∂t
where i runs from 1 to 3, that is, the spatial coordinates. From this, we can assert that the four conserved
charges here, as obtained from our general discussion on Noether’s Theorem for Fields, are:
Z
P µ = d3 x T 0µ (35)

Where each component of P µ represents energy (for the zeroth component) and the momentum components
of the field. For example, the expression for energy can be obtained as:
Z Z  
∂L ˙
P 0 = d3 x T 00 = d3 x φa − L (36)
∂ φ˙a
The expression inside the second integral is nothing but the Hamiltonian Density H. As the integral in the
equation above is over any arbitrary spatial volume, H is a locally conserved quantity everywhere, and that
is the statement of conservation of energy for fields. The other components of P µ yield the expressions for
the conserved momenta. The interpretation for T µ0 and T µν is that they are the Energy and M omentum
Current Densities respectively, that is, they quantify the flux or transport of Energy and Momentum across
any arbitrary surface in space.

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Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

5 Electrodynamics as a Relativistic Classical Field Theory

In covariant notation, the Maxwell equations are given by:

∂µ F µν = µ0 J ν (37)
µν
∂µ F̃ =0 (38)

Along with the Lorentz force acting on charged particles:

d(muµ )
= qF µν uν (39)
dτ
Where τ is the proper time corresponding to the world line of the charged particle, uµ (τ ) is the 4-velocity
of a moving point charge and J µ is the 4-current vector, and F µν is the Electromagnetic F ield Strength
T ensor. Using the definition Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ , where Aµ (xi ) is the electromagnetic 4-potential, the
equation for the Electromagnetic Dual Field Strength Tensor F̃ µν reduces to an identity. It can be verified
that the action for the Maxwell Equations can then be written as:
Z  
µ i 4 1 µν ν
S[A (x )] = d x − Fµν F − Aν J (40)
4µ0
The motivations for this particular form of the action are:

1. It has manifest Lorentz Covariance

2. It has manifest Gauge Invariance (This point is explored in 5.1)
3. It is time reversal symmetric, that is, invariant under the transformations:
t 7→ −t, ρ 7→ ρ, φ 7→ φ, E 7→ E, J~ 7→ −J,
~ A~ 7→ A,
~ B 7→ −B (41)
Varying the action with respect to the 4-potential and eliminating boundary terms, we get:
Z  
4 1
δS = d x ∂µ F − J δAν
µν ν
(42)
µ0

Which gives, upon extremising the Action S (δS = 0), the Maxwell’s Equation with sources. To obtain the
Lorentz force and the Field equations together from one action principle, we use the action:
Z   Z
µ i 4 1 µν
− dτ mc2 + quν Aν


S[A , r (τ )] = d x − Fµν F (43)
4µ0
ν
Where uν = dr µ
dτ . By varying with respect to A we get the Maxwell equations with sources; and by varying
ν
with respect to r we get the expression for Lorentz Force acting on the charged particle. From equation 42
we get the Lagrangian Density of the field in appropriate units :
1
L[Aµ , ∂ν Aµ ] = − Fµν F µν − µ0 Aν J ν (44)
4

5.1 Symmetries and Conservation Laws in Electrodynamics

It is well established that there is a 0 gauge redundancy 0 in Electrodynamics, which can be expressed as an
invariance of F µν under the transformation of the fields:

Aµ 7→ Aµ + ∂µ χ (45)
µ
Where χ is a scalar. There can be many ’gauge’ choices (restrictions on A ) to fix this redundancy of
description, but the most natural choice for that is the so-called Lorentz Gauge:

∂µ Aµ = 0 (46)

This particular gauge condition is manifestly covariant - hence a transformation between frames does not
change the expression for the Lorentz Gauge above. In particular, if the the Field Strength Tensor is
invariant under a gauge transformation, then the Action Functional too should be invariant. Thus, under a
transformation Aµ 7→ Aµ + ∂µ χ, if δS = 0, we have:
Z  
1
S[Aµ (xi )] 7→ S 0 [Aµ (xi )] = d4 x − Fµν F µν − Aν J ν − (∂µ χ)J µ (47)
4µ0
Z
⇒ δS = − d4 x (∂µ χ)J µ (48)
Z 
⇒ δS = − d4 x ∂µ (χJ µ ) − χ(∂µ J µ ) (49)
Z
⇒ δS =  d4 x χ(∂µ J µ ) (50)

⇒ ∂µ J µ = 0 (51)

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Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

Which is nothing but the covariant expression for charge conservation. Thus, charge conservation is the
consequence of Gauge Symmetry of the Maxwell Equation.

Let us now calculate the Energy-Momentum Tensor for Electrodynamics. From equation 32, and the defini-
tion for the Lagrangian Density of electromagnetic fields, we get:

−1 µν
L= F Fµν (52)
4
∂L
⇒ = −F µα (53)
∂(∂µ Aα )
1
⇒ Tνµ = −F µα ∂ν Aα + δνµ F ij Fij (54)
4
1
⇒ Tµν = −Fµα ∂ν Aα + ηµν F ij Fij (55)
4
Which is the Energy Momentum Tensor for Maxwell’s Theory. We can deduce two important points from the
equation for Tνµ - note that it is not gauge invariant. Also, if we define an Angular − M omentum Density
M αβ γ = T αβ xγ − T αγ xβ , then the conservation of Angular Momentum and Energy and Momentum for
some corresponding field configuration implies:

∂α M αβ γ = 0 (56)
⇒ xγ ∂α T αβ − xβ ∂α T αγ + T γ β − T β γ = 0 ⇒ T γ β − T β γ =0 (57)

Which means, we need to make Tµν symmetric to protect Angular Momentum conservation. This is taken
care of by adding a term: +Fµα ∂ α Aν . We also note that:

∂µ (Fαµ ∂α Aν ) = ∂µ Fαµ (∂α Aν ) + Fαµ ∂µ ∂α Aν = 0 (58)

The first term is zero as we are using the Lagrangian for source free Maxwell equations; and the second term
is zero as it is a contraction of symmetric and anti-symmetric pairs of indices. Thus, we can now write a
modified Energy Momentum Tensor Θµν such that ∂µ Θµν = 0, where Θµν is:
1
Θµν = −Fµα Fνα + ηµν F ij Fij (59)
4
Note that such an modified Energy Momentum Tensor is not only symmetric but also has a manifest Gauge
Invariance due to the presence of only the Field Strength Tensor which is Gauge Invariant by construction.
The components of Tµν in matrix notation are given by (upto a constant multiplicative factor):

1 2 1 2 1 1 1 
2 (0 E + µ0 B ) c2 Sx c2 Sy c2 Sz
 Sx −σxx −σxy −σxz 
  (60)
 Sy −σy x −σy y −σy z 
Sz −σz x −σz y −σz z

Where the (0,0) element is the Energy Density contained in the EM fields, the elements (0,1) to (0,3)
form the vector components of the M omentum Density - the volume integral of these two objects give us
the conserved charges - Energy and Momentum. The elements (1,0) to (3,0) form the components of the
Energy Current Density and rest of the components form the M omentum Current Density (−σij ) or the
M axwell Stress T ensor (σij ).

6 Concluding Remarks
Most theories in physics are based on a variational principle. The advantage of such a principle is that it
naturally leads to conserved quantities in addition to dynamical equations for fields or for particles from
one single expression for the Action. At a more theoretical level, the advantage of such a formulation is
that it makes the mathematical structure of a particular theory more apparent and rigorous than what it
would have been with just the dynamical equations given a priori - which we saw in our discussion on the
Lagrangian Formulation of Electrodynamics. Classical field theory, in particular, has a much broader range
of applications in theoretical physics - such as in General Relativity, where the prescribed action is the
Einstein-Hilbert Action which can be used to obtain the Einstein field equations. Classical Field Theory also
can be generalised to a Quantum analogue - Quantum Field Theory, where the classical field is quantised in
a procedure analogous to the promotion of a classical harmonic oscillator to a quantum harmonic oscillator.
In particular, such a generalisation is necessary as the formulation of Electrodynamics as a Classical Field
Theory has several caveats in the form of self-energies, acausal preaccelerations of a radiating point charge
and the description of Magnetism, which is a quantum phenomenon.

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Archi Banerjee Classical Field Theory

References
1. Landau, L.D. Lifshitz, E.M. : The Classical Theory of Fields, 3rd revised English Edition

2. Soper, Davison E. - Classical Field Theory

3. Torre, Charles G., ”Introduction to Classical Field Theory” (2019). All Complete Monographs. 3.
(https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/lib_mono/3)
4. Conlon, Joseph: Elements of Classical Field Theory (http://www-thphys.physics.ox.ac.uk/courses/
C6/C6_2017/C6Notes/classic.pdf)