1.2.

Energy from the Sun

The technical means for making use of solar energy are older than they might seem, but
it is right now that we need them the most. If we do not begin to implement these means
for taking advantage of the radiation from this inexhaustible star to produce energy for
Earth needs today, we can expect an unpleasant setback in our comfortable existence. The
irradiation
so-called developed world is based on a compulsive consumption of fossil fuels that we
extract from their underground home where they have been developing for millions of
years. We can think of these fuels as bottled sunshine in the Earth’s belly, but a high
price is paid for removing them from their lethargy to produce useful energy: specifically,
the emission of gases into the atmosphere that are toxic for all life forms. That kind of
sources of energy are called non-renewable, i.e. conventional energy sources. Direct use
of the sun’s radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface after traveling 150 million kilome-
ters does not have this disadvantage - nor does it have any other.
Solar radiation is an electromagnetic radiation, including X-rays, ultraviolet and in-
frared radiation, and radio emissions, as well as visible light, emanating from the Sun
(figure 1.2-1). Huge energy emitted by the Sun is received by its surrounding planets and
their satellites mostly in the form of infrared radiation and visible light. The small part
of this energy intercepted by Earth is of enormous importance to life and to the mainte-
nance of natural processes on Earth’s surface. The Sun radiates about 80 megawatts per
square m of its surface.

Insolation is the solar radiation R that reaches the Earth’s surface.

1.2-1 Insolation is measured by the amount of solar energy received per square metre per day
The Sun radiates (kWh/m2/day).

As well as other kind of energy, solar energy is measured in kWh.

1.2-2 Insolation affects temperature. The greater is the insolation, the higher is the temperature.
Irradiation in Europe In any given day, the strongest insolation is received at noon.

Avarage annual sum

in last five years
(kWh/m2)

1900 or more

1700

1500

1300

1100

900

700 or less

12 DL SOLAR-D1
 1
Example 5

As can be seen in figure 1.2-2, the average insolation in the northern Italy is 1450 kWh/m2 for one year.
a) Calculate how much energy can be collected in one year using a solar panel mounted on the top of a building with a
roof area 100 m2 if collector is covering the entire roof surface and its efficiency is 100%?
b) How many kilos of wood can be replaced by this collected energy?

Example 6

The car uses 6 liters of diesel per 100 kilometers. A solar collector with area of 10 m2 is set on its roof. Imagine that
you are driving that car through the south of Spain. How many kilometers can you pass with solar energy collected
throughout a day?

Solar energy: our commitment to the environment 13

 Energy from the Sun can be used for:
• heating water or air in solar collectors,
• producing electric energy:
- indirectly - using solar concentrators,
- directly - using photovoltaic (PV) solar cells.
Solar collectors collect and transform solar thermal energy to hot water
or steam.
The basic idea of solar heating of water is to simply mount a metal tank
filled with water in a sunny place. The heat from the sun would then heat
the metal tank and the water inside.
Commercial flat plate collectors (figures 1.3-1 and 1.3-2) are an extension
of the basic idea to place a collector in an ‘oven’- a box with glass surface
directed to the Sun.
1.3-1
Commercial flat plate collector Most flat plate collectors have two horizontal pipes at the top and bottom,
called headers, and many smaller vertical pipes connecting them, called
raisers. The raisers are welded to thin absorber fins. Water or water/anti-
freeze mix can be used as a heat-transfer fluid. Heat-transfer fluid is pum-
ped from the hot water storage tank. The type of glass used in flat plate
collectors is almost always low-iron, tempered glass. Being tempered,
the glass can withstand significant hail without breaking, which is one of
the reasons that flat-plate collectors are considered the most durable
collector type.
Solar energy can be transformed to electic energy indirectly using solar
concentrators (figure 1.3-3) or directly with photovoltaic solar cells
(figure 1.3-4).
Solar concentrator systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate a lar-
1.3-2 ge area of sunlight, or solar thermal energy, onto a small area. Electri- cal
Section of commercial flat plate collector power is produced when the concentrated light is converted to heat,
which drives a steam turbine connected to an electrical power generator.
Photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of light
directly into electricity by the means of photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic panel is an electrical device constucted from group of pho-
tovoltaic cells.

1.3-3
Solar concentrator system
1.3-4

Photovoltaic solar cells

14 DL SOLAR-D1
 1.3. Electricity directly from the Sun
Photoelectric effect and photovoltaic cells: history and definitions

photoelectric effect Photovoltaic cells convert energy of Sun radiation to electric energy
expoiting the principle of photoelectric effect.

Photoelectric effect is a phenomenon where electrons are emitted from

matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids or gases) as a con-
sequence of their energy absorption from electromagnetic radiation of
very short wavelength, such as visible or ultraviolet light.

Photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. Pheno-

menon of photoelectric effect is also known as the Hertz effect.

How does a photovoltaic cell work?

PV cells work according to a basic physical phenomenon called ‘photo-
electric effect’.

1.3-1
Photovoltaic cell

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857.-1894.) 1.3-3

The photoelectric effect: from photons to electrical current

1. When the energy of photons hitting a semiconductor plate is high eno-

ugh (light has the right colour), it can be absorbed by electrons on the
surface of the semiconductor plate exposed to such radiation.
2. The absorption of additional energy enables the (negatively charged)
electrons to set free from their atoms. The electrons become mobile,
and the space which is left behind is filled by another electron from a
deeper part of the semiconductor.
3. As a consequence, one side of the wafer (thin slice of a semiconductor
material) has a higher concentration of electrons than the other, which
creates a voltage between the two sides. Joining the two sides with an
electrical wire enables the electrons to flow to the other side of the
wafer – which is electrical current.
1.3-2 Photovoltaic moduls built from photovoltaic cells have humble effici-
Calculator with ency actualy aprox. 15%.
photovoltaic cell

Solar energy: our commitment to the environment 15

 1.4. Solar energy received on land surface
Positioning of solar panels

latitude Solar panels are most efficient when they are positioned at the
angle of 90º to the sun rays.
a) In northern hemisphere, solar panel should be oriented
towards the south (S).
b) In southern hemisphere, solar panel should be oriented
towards the north (N).
This orientation is known under name of azimuth.
In an ideal case, on the northern hemisphere an azimuth should
be changed from south-east in the morning to south-west in the
evening tracking the path of the Sun trough the day.
Total orientation includes both, azimuth and angle of incli-
nation, represented by α and angle of latitude φ on the figures
below.

Optimal angle of inclination (α) is equal to latitude.

Total orientation is represented by formula:

α=φ
1.4-1
azimuth = 180°
Solar panel is positioned in point A oriented to the north on
the earth surface under angle of 0°, parallel with the earth
surface. Sun rays target to point on the panel surface under
the angle 120°. This is far away from ideal angle of 90°. How
can we correct this value? Obviously, we have to decrease it,
as shown in figure 1.4-2 below.

1.4-3 1.4-4
Orientation from north (N) Orientation from south (S)
to south (S) in northern to north (N) in southern
hemisphere hemisphere

1.4-2
Angle of inclination in fact is the latitude of a point A where
the solar panel is placed.
1.4-5 1.4-6
Inclination and azimuth of solar Inclination and azimuth of solar
panel in northern hemisphere. panel in southern hemisphere.
16 DL SOLAR-D1
 1

1.4-9
Solar system. The Earth has third position from the Sun.
Notice: all planets rotate around the Sun on the same plane,
named plane of the Ecliptic.

Unfortunatly, the Earth does not rotate around its axis

1.4-7 perpendicular to the plane of the Ecliptic. Its axis is incli-
Oscilation Earth axis around the cone. Summer on the north ned under angle of λ. Average value of this inclination is
hemisphere.
23.5°.

Earth axis is inclined under average angle of 23.5°.

Changing of sezons through the year is due to oscilati-

on of N-S axis around the cone (figure 1.4-7 and 1.4-8).
In figure 1.4-7 the following situation is observed:
Sun rays target the Arctic area (N) under the angle β. At
the same time, the Antarctic area (S) is hiden in the shade.
In figure 1.4-8 the situation is exactly the opposite:
Sun rays target the Antarctic area (S) under the angle β. At
the same time, the Arctic area (N) is hiden in the shade.
This fact complicates the previous explanation of defi-
ning an optimal angle of solar panel.
Fortunately, an answer is very simple. The explanation is
provided on the next page.

In geography, the latitude of a location on the Earth

is the angular distance of that location south or north
1.4-8 of the Equator. The latitude is an angle, and is usually
measured in degrees (marked with °). The equator has
Oscillation Earth axis around the cone. Winter on the north
hemisphere. a latitude of 0°, the North pole has a latitude of 90°
north (written 90° N), and the South pole has a latitude
of 90° south (written 90° S).

Solar energy: our commitment to the environment 17

 1
Compare figures 1.4-10 and 1.4-11.
Firstly, we can notice a simple fact:
Sun rays target equator (B) under same angles,  Bs and
 Bw , during the summer and winter periods. This is the
explanation why we have the same weather in equato-
rial area in all sezons.
Compare angles  s and  w between Earth surface
A A
and sun rays.
 s<  w
A A

1.4-10
Summer on the north hemisphere
This means that the sun rays target point A under angle
closer to ideal 90°in the summer. In the same time, sun
rays target point A in the winter under angle far from
ideal 90°.
Because of that, we have to correct conclusion from
previous page.

Optimal angle of inclination (α) is equal to latitude

corrected with corrective angle.

Corrective angle values are provided in the table 3.

These values depend on latitude and season.
Corrected total orientation is represented by the for-
mula:
α = φ + corrective angle
azimuth = 180°

Corrective angle
Latitude
In Winter In Summer
15° to 25° 0° 0°
25° to 30° +5° –5°
30° to 35° +10° –10°
35° to 40° +15° –15°
1.4-11 40° and more +20° –20°
Winter on the north hemisphere
Table-3
Corrective angles

18 DL SOLAR-D1
 1
Example 7

Your home is placed in area with latitude of aprox. 45°. If you decide to install solar panels on the roof, calculate op-
timal orientation:
a) during the winter season
b) during the sommer season

Interesting facts

Described determination of “ideal” panel

orientation with azimuth 180° strictly to the
south on the northern hemisphere and to the
north on the southern hemisphere is suitable
for the panels installed on the fixed objects,
for example roofs, like in example 7. Twice in
the year we have to adjust angle of latitude
depending on the season using va- lues from
the table 3, corrective angles.
But can we determinate the orientation of
moveble objects? Take a look at the picture
right.
From our own experience we know:
The Sun heats on the best way if we turn
strictly against it. Early in the morrning azi-
muth is less then 180° and panel is oriented
almost to the east against the Sun. In the
noon azimuth is equal 180° and panel is oriented strictly to the south against the Sun. Finally, in the evening, azimuth
is great then 180° and panel is oriented almost to the west against the Sun. Simply, the best orientation of the panel is
against the Sun. We can track the Sun manually target the Sun optically. See explanation in the following chapter.

Solar energy: our commitment to the environment 19

 1
Example 8
Month Rh Ri
[kwh/m2] [kwh/m2] Imagine your home somewhere in Central Europe on the latitude
January 31 54 of 36°.
February 45 65 Calculate the energy received from the Sun in May using a 3 m2
March 94 120 solar panel:
April 134 153 a) positioned horizontally
May 158 160 b) positioned under the best angle
June 166 162 c) what is the difference?
July 172 172
August 145 158
September 111 138
October 66 96
November 34 54
December 23 40
Annual sum 1179 1372

Table-4
Monthly irradiation for the panel positioned
horizontally (Rh) and inclinated (Ri)

1.4-12
Dailly sum of global irradiation per month
Rh - horizontally positioned panel (α = 0°)
Ri - panel positioned optimally under angle of inclination (α = 36°)

20 DL SOLAR-D1
Standard Test Conditions (STC) and its application
An internationally defined standard method is established to assess and compare the performance of PV modules in terms of
power generation. According to this agreement, the power of a PV module is indicated in “Wp” (Watt peak) which defines
the power delivered under Standard Test Conditions (STC) that are:
• Solar radiation 1000 W/m2
• Module temperature 25 ºC
• Solar spectrum AM 1,5
These conditions are optimum and seldom experienced other than for a few hours at midday in very sunny regions, especi-
ally at higher altitudes. Hence it is also called “peak power”.

Sun peak hours is the equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1 kW/m2.

For example, six peak sun hours means that the energy received during total daylight hours equals the energy that would
have been received if the irradiance had been 1 kW/m2 for six hours.

annual
average sun’s
peak hours
1.0 - 1.9

2.0 - 2.9

3.0 - 3.9

4.0 - 4.9

5.0 - 5.9

6.0 - 6.9
1.4-13
Map of sun’s peak hours for the World

hp - peak sun hours [h]

1.4-14
Sun peak hours within a
24-hour day

Solar energy: our commitment to the environment 21

1
Example 9

According to map in figure 1.4-13, calculate the electric energy produced by the 30 m2 large photovoltaic panel per day
in southern Spain. This panel is labelled by manufacturer 5.7 kW peak power. How much energy can we produce using
this panel in one year?

Example 10

How much money will we save per year with installing the same panel from example 9 in southern France? Price of
one kWh in France is 16.79 US cents.

22 DL SOLAR-D1